Analog and Digital OTT TEC sheen att A J. S. Chitode a Technical Publications Pune™Analog and Digital Communication Engineering First Edition ; March 2007 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No part of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. ISBN 81 - 8451-188 -5 Printer: . . ‘Alert DTPrinters Published by : Seno. 1013,Sinhagad Road, Technical Publications Pune Pune 411 041 #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India, Head office #14, Amit Residency, 412, Shanivar Poth, Pune - 411030, Ingia ‘+91 (020) 26495496, Tele/Fax : +91 (020) 24495497 Email :technicsi@vtubeoks com Branches Bangalore (tarmausa) 1 1076-14, Wain Roa, Prakash Noga. 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(ous) 2676108 Noble: WOAO2 TREEPreface World has come very close due to rapid advancements in communication technology, High speed computers and microprocessors, broadband communication channels, satellites, fibre optic cables have made communication very effective in wide range of applications. This book mainly describes basic principles of analog and digital communication. Contents and Organization First chapter presents basic aspects of communication. It also presents amplitude modulation, AM transmitters and receivers are also given in detail. Angle modulation is given in second chapter. Its transmission and reception is also discussed in detail. This chapter also presents noise and its effect in AM and FM systems. Third chapter is based on pulse modulation and waveform coding techniques. It presents sampling of signals, sampling theorem and various types of pulse modulation methods. This chapter also presents waveform coding techniques such as PCM, DM, ADM and DPCM. Digital modulation techniques are presented in fourth chapter. Transmitters, receivers, bandwidth requirements of ASK, PSK and FSK is given in detail. Last chapter is based on time division multiplexing and information theory. Information, entropy, information rate, channel capacity ete. are discussed in detail. Large number of solved examples are given in each chapter. Useful appendix are included at the end. There can be some typing or organizational errors. Any suggestions or criticism will be highly appreciated. 4 CREE AE RAR RR eAAcknowledgement lam thankful to Mr. Avinash Wani, Mr. Ravindra Wani and staff of Technical Publications to publish this book. Author J. S. Chitode1.4.4 Elements of Communication Systems... 0. sess sessver cesses senses Oe 1.2 Modulation Process oo. sessssst 1.2.1 Continuaus Wave (CW) Modulation . "| 1.2.3 Muttiglexing Techniques. 7 1.3 Electromagnetic Waves : The Carriers of ‘electc Signals... 1.4 Analog Communication ..... 1.5 Digital Communication ... 1.5.3 Digital Modulators and Demodulators . 1.5.4 Analog Versus Digital Communication . t ‘hannels... 1.6.1 Primary Communication Resources . 1.6.2 Types of Communication Channels... ..... 4.6.2.1 Telephone Channel. vw ws ee 1.8 Amplitude Modulation .. 1.8.1 AM Envelope and Equation of AM Wave . 11.8.2 Modulation Index and Percent Modulation. 1-25 118.3 Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth . 1-26 1.84 AM Power Distribution ........+« 1-281.8.5 AM Current Calculations. . 1.86 Amplitude Modulaton by Muticle Sine Waves ae _ 1.8.7 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC).......................... 1-37 1.10.1 High Level Transmitter... L10-2LowLevel Transmitter 1.40.3 AM Broadcast Transmitter using Partially Modulated Driver Stage ............... 1-42 1.11 Single Sideband Transmission .... 1.11.1 Suppression of the Carrier. a AMAA Balanced Modulator using Odes. 1.44.4.2 Balanced Modulator using FETs - 1.11.2 Suppression of Unwanted Sideband . 1.12.2 Magnitude Response of VSB Filter . . 112.3, rations and Advantages of VSB. 1.13.4 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver .......2. 1.0 1.13.2 Superheterodyne Receiver... . 1-60 113.3 Performance Parameters of Receivers 4-61 1.13.3.1 Selectivity eee ee. tt 143.3.2Sensitvity. 0 _. 1-62 11333 Fidelity. 1.13.42 Negative Peak Clioging in Diode Detector 1.13.43 Diagonal Ciipping in Diode Detector. 1.14 Comparison of Various AM System: Copyrighted material1.15 Frequency Division and Time Division Multiplexing ... 1.45.4 Frequency Division Multiplexing . 1.15.2 Time Division Multiplexing 1.16 Solved Examples from University Question ‘Papers 2 University Questions Ghapter=2'Anate Modulatlo 2.1 Angle Modulation 4.1 Definition 2.1.2 Relationship / Difference between FMandPM...............0... i 202 2.1.4 Phase Deviation, Modulation Index and Frequency Deviation . 2.1.5 Frequency Spectrum of Angle Modulated Waves 2.1.6 Bandwidth Requirement ......... 2.1.7. Average Power in FM and PM Modulators ee 248 Narrowband hE 24.9 Wideband EM 2.4.10 Mutiple Frequency Modulation... 01. 2.4.11 Square Wave Modulation... 2... 2.1.13 Comparison between AM and Angle Modulation vee B19 2.1.14 Comparison between FM and PM... . 2.3.4 Automatic Frequency Correction (AFC) 2.3.2 Direct FM Transmitters... 2821 Crosby Drest FM Trarsmer (roadcast Band Transit). 2.3.22 PLL Direct FM Transmitter... . . 2.3.3 Indirect FM Transmitter - Armstrong Method 2.4 FM Receiver. leg Ee2.5 FM Demodulators .. 1 2.5.1 Round-Travis Detector or Balanced Slope Detector . . eee 223 2.6 FM Noise Suppression... 2.7 Noise L1 External Noise . 2.7.1.1 Atmospheric Noise. . 221265 “a! Wei 7 2.7.1.3 Industial Noise. 2.7.2.4 Low Frequency or Flicker Noise... ss 2.1.2.5 High Frequency or Transit Time Noise 2.8 Noise due to Several Amplifiers in Cascade... 2.9 Noise Factor . 2.9.4 Noise Figure 2.9.2 Caleulation of Noise Figure ............ 2.9.3 Experimental Determination of Noise Figure... 2.9.4 Noise Figure in Cascaded Stages (Friis's Formula) 2.10 Noise Temperature ... 2.11 Noise Calculations in Communication System: 2.13 Noise in DSB-SC Receiver ..... 2.13.1 Output Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), . 2.13.2 Channel Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR). 2.13.3 Figure of Merit... 2.2.2.2... . 2.14 Noise in AM Receiver for Envelope Detection ... 2.14.1 Channel SNR for AM Signal... . . 2.44.2 Qutput SNR for Envelope Detection. 2.14.3 Figure of Merit for Envelope Detection. . .2.14.4 Threshold Effect. oo... cect seteeee rete ete enter ee ener ener et ewe ries 2.15 Noise in Angle Modulated Systems .... 2.46.3 Output Signal Power. . 2-80 2.15.4 Output Noise Power. 2-60 2.15.5 Output Signal to Noise Ratio 2-82 2.15.8 Channel Signal fo Noise Ratio 2-82 2.15.7 Figure of Merit 2.15.8 Capture Effect, 2.18.9 FM Threshold Effect... . 2.15.10 FM Threshold Reduction . . . . 2.16 Solved Examples from University Question Papers University Questions Chapier- 3.1 Sampling Process 4.1.4 Representation of CT Signals by its Samples . 3.1.2 Sampling Theorem for Low Pass (LP) Signals. 3.1.3 Effects of Undersampling (Aliasing) . 9.1.4 Nyquist Rate and Nyquist Interval... 4.1.5 Reconstruction Filter (Interpolation Filter) 3.1.7 Sampling Theorem in Frequency Domain . 3.1.8 Sampling of Bandpass Signals ..... 3.2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)... 9.2.1 Ideal Sampling or Instantaneous Sampling or Impulse Sampling . 3.2.2 Natural Sampling or Chopper Sampling................ 3.2. Flat Top Sampling or Rectangular Pulse Sampling ............. 323.1ApetueEfect 3.2.4 Comparison of Various Sampling Techniques 4.2.5 Transmission Bandwidth of PAM Signal. cote tees3.3.2 Transmission Bandwidth of PPM and PDM . «2.0... cee cee cee 3.3.3 Comparison between Various Pulse Modulation Methods... 3-42 3.4 Pulse Code Modulation... 3-44 3.4.1 PCM Generator Rodd 3.4.2 Transmission Bandwidth in PCM 3.45 34.3 PCM Receiver _ 3-46 3.4.4 Uniform Quantization (Linear Quantization)... eevee eee wi 947 3.4.4.2 Migriser Quantzer 2 9.4.4.3 Biased Quantizer wa 3.4.5 Quantization Noise and Signal to Noise Ratio in PCM. peeves sees eeeeees ss 9°52 3.4.5.1 Derivation of Quantization Error Noise or Noise Powe or Uniform (Lina) vanzaton 3-52 3.4.5.2 Derivation of Maximum Sonate Qvantza In Noise Ratio for Linear Quantization. . 3-55 3.4.6 Nonuniform Quantization . cect eteveeeteereterseesceees 3869 4.6.1 Nocossiy of Nonunifrm Quanzaion _ a 3-0 3.4.6.2 Necessity of Nonuniform Quantization for Speach Signal... _. 3-74 3.46.3 Compending inPCM. _ we 3-72 34.64 -Law Companding for Speech Signals . +. 3-73 3.46.5 ALaw for Companding a 3.14 3468 Sign to Noise Rao of Conperded POM. . 3.14 3.47 Virtues, Limitations and Modifications of PCM. . 3.5 Delta Modulation ...... 3.5.1 Operating Principle of DM 3-79 35.2 DM Transmitter .... 3-80 3.53 DM Receiver 3-81 354 Advantages of Dea Modulaion .........00... 3-82 3.55 Disadvantages of Delta Modulation... 2... ees. 3-82 1 Slope Overload Distoréon (Startup Error)... « 3-82 2 Granular Noise (Hunting) oe . 3.82 3.6 Adaptive Delta Modulation 3.6-1 Operating Principle 3.6.2 Transmitter and Receiver 3.6.3 Advantages of Adaptive Delta Modulation 3.7 Differential Pulse Code Modulati 3.7.1 Redundant Information in PCM ....... 3.7.2 Principle of DPCM 3.7.3 DPCM Transmitter3.7.4 Reconstruction of DPCM Signal 3.8 Comparison of Digital Pulse Modulation Methods .. aerial ua aehaes 4.4 Introduction A. 4.1.1 Types of Passband Modulation... 4.1.2 Types of Reception for Passband Transmission ... 4.4.9 Requirements of Passband Transmission Scheme : 4.1.4 Advantages of Passband Transmission over Baseband Transmission. 4.2 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) .. 4.2.1 Principle of BPSK - 4.2.2 Graphical Representation of BPSK Signal 4.2.3 Generation and Reception of BPSK Signal ....... wetness bese 4.2.3.1 Generation of BPSK Signal 4.2.3.2 Reception of BPSK Signal. 4.2.4 Spectrum of BPSK Signals. 4.2.5 Geometrical Representation of | BPSK Sina. 4.2.6 Bandwidth of BPSK Signal - 4.27 Drawbacks of BPSK ; Ambiguity in Output Signal . 4.3 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) . 4.3.1 DPSK Transmitter and Receiver . uote a 4-14 4.3.1.4 Transmitter / Generator of DPSK Signal. sw. ee 4-44 4312 0PSK Receiver 4.3.2 Bandwidth of DPSK Signal. . wee 4.3.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of DSK. doneeereceesesenseesecererenesseees 4.4 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) wien.. 4.4.1.4 Cartier Synchronization in QPSK. a 4-28 4.4.2 Signal Space Representation of QPSK Signals... . peepee 429 4.4.3 Spectrum of QPSK Signal . wu 4081 4.4.4 Bandwidth of QPSK Signa. . = _— wu 4-92 4.45 Advantages Of QPSK oo... ee OOD4.5 Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK) .. 4.5.1 BFSK Transmitter 4.5.2 Spectrum and Bandwidth of BESK 4 nt BESK Receiver 4.5.4 Noncoherent BESK Receiver 4-42 4.5.5 Geometrical Representation of Orthogonal BFSK or Signal Space Representation of Orthogonal BFSK 4-43 4.5.6 Geometrical Representation ‘of Non-Orthagonal BFSK signals. 4.5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of BFSK aes 4.6 Amplitude Shift Keying {ASK) or ON-OFF Keying (OOK). 4.6.4 Signal Space Diagram of ASK 4.6.2 Generator and Detector of ASK... 4.6.2.1 ASK Generator 2. edd 4.6.2.3 Noncoherent ASK Reception 4.7 Comparison of Digital Modulation Techni es 5.1 Time Division Multiplexing (PAM/TDM System)... 5.1.1 Block Diagram of PAM / TDM 5.1.2 Synchronization in TDM System 5.1.3 Crosstalk and Guard Times. 5.2 Digital Multiplexers ... 5.2.1 Types of Digital Multiplexers . 5.2.2 Multiplexing Hierarchies. . 5.2.3 PCM TDM System . . ceeeee 5.2.3. Mukiplexing Hierarchy. . tee 5.23.2 Mulipi Chanel Frame lgment x TDM POM (T, System) cee Set 5.3 Synchronization Techniques... 5.3.1 Carrier Synchronization (Cartier Recovery) 5.3.1.1 Canier Synchronization using M” Power Loop 5.3.1.2 Costas Loop for Carrier Synehronization 5.3.2 Bit and Symbol Synchronization (Clock Recavery) 5.3.2.1 Closed Loop Bit Synchronization 5.3.2.2 Early Late Synchronizer 5.3.3 Frame Synchronization........5.4 Introduction to Information Theory... SAA Uncertainty... cee eee eens ds 5.5 Definition of Information (Measure of Information). 5.5.1 Properties of Information . 5.5.2 Physical Interpretation af Ament of ifomaton 5.6 Entropy (Average Information)... 5.6.1 Properties of Entropy. 5.7 Information Rate 5.8 Channel Capacity 5.8.1 Channel Coding Theorem (Shannon's Second Theorem) . se 5.8.2 Shannon Hartley Theorem for Gaussian Channel (Continuous Channel)... . 5.8.3 Tradeoff between Bandwidth and Signal to Noise Ratio 5.8.4 Rate/Bandwidth and Signal to Noise Ral 5 Trade fo atieeen dares serine 8888 A 5.9 Source Coding Theorem... 5.9.1 Code Redundancy. 5.9.2 Code Variance. 5.9.3 Shannon-Fano Algorithm. 5.9.4 Huffman Codi Appendix- A Mathematical Relationship (A+ 1) to (A +8) Appendix-B Fourier Transform Relations (B- 1) to(B +2) Appendix-C Error Function (C- 1) to (C - 2) Appendix-D_ Functions é (0-1)Amplitude Modulation 1.1 Communication Process We are going to start the study of Communication Systems. Before that, we will revise some of the important concepts of communicatior What is Communication ? Communication is the process of establishing connection (or link) belzveen tzvo points for information exchange. In our day to day life we come across many ways of communication. For communication to take place, three essential things must be present i.e., 1) Sender or Transmitter ; It sends information. For example TV transmitting station or radio transmitting stations are ‘senders’, since they transmit information 2) Receiver : It receives information. For example all TV sets and radios are receivers. They get information from transmitter. ‘Communication channel Sender or Transmitter Transmitter Fig. 4.1.4 An example of communication system (1-4)Analog & Digital Communication 1-2 Amplitude Modulation Engineering 3) Communication Channel : This is the path through which the signal propagates from transmitter to receiver. Fig. 1.1.1 shows an example of communication system. (Gee Fig. 1.1.1 on previous page) Now let us consider different examples of communication that we use in our day to day life. 1) Telephone ; All of us use telephones now a days. We know that we talk and listen through a telephone. The telephone set is connected to telephone exchange through wires. The other telephones are connected in the same way. B Transmitter / Receiver or Talker / Listener Transmitter / Receiver or Tatker / Listener Telephone ovcrame Wires connecting the telephone Communication channel is the wire | telephone subscribers through exchange telophone evenange Fig. 1.1.2 Communication on telephones; Line communication through wire As shown in Fig. 1.1.2 the transmission is bidirectional. Every telephone subscriber can talk as well as listen, Talking is equivalent to transmission of data (voice) and listening is equivalent to receiving of data. The data (ie. voice signal) is passed through wires. Thus the communication channel contains wires which are routed through telephone exchange. 2) Mobile phones (Cellular phones) : As we know, the mobile phones are becoming very much popular now a days. In the mobile phones also we can talk and listen, Thus mobile subscribers are essentially talkers (i.e. transmitters) and listeners, (ie. receivers). As shown in the Fig. 1.1.3, the mobile phone subscribers communicate to the base stations in their cell. Therefore two mobile subscribers communicate with each other through the base stations. Base station is similar to telephone exchange which work in particular area, But there are no wires joining the mobile phone subseribers and base stations. Thus the voice signals pass through air. Air acts as the conducting medium. This is also called wireless communication. The communication channel is the air (i.e. wireless).Analog & Digital Communication 1-3 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Signats , propagate £ through air Talker / listener transmitter / receiver Talker/ listener transmitter receiver Ps Mobite phone Base station subscriber Mobile phone i subseriber Sane Halln antenna two mobile subscribers. 88 communication, ‘Communication channel does not contain any connection But the signals propagate through air. This is also called wi Fig. 1.1.3 Mobile communication. An example of wireless communication 1.1.1 Elements of Communication Systems From the examples of communication discussed so far, now we can prepare the model of basic communication system. We know that for any communication to take place, three things are essential. They are, 1) Transmitter (Talker) 2) Receiver (listener) and 3) Channel or transmission medium The above three things are present in any communication system. Whenever two people are talking with each other, it becomes a communication system. In that case the voice signal is exchanged and the transmission medium is air, Fig, 1.1.4 shows the block diagram of basic communication system. Noise, interference ‘and distortion Fig. 1.1.4 Block diagram of basic communication systemAnalog & Digital Communication 1-4 Amplitude Modulation Engineering ‘As shown in the figure, the source generates the message to be transmitted. The transmitter or talker sends that message over the transmission channel. The transmission channel can be the medium such as electrie conductors, air or light (in case of optical fibre). The receiver or listener receives the message from transmission channel. It is then given to the destination by the receiver. During the transmission over the channel, the message is distorted and it becomes noisy. ‘There are two basic modes of communication : (i) Broadcasting Mode : In this mode, the information bearing signals flow only in one direction ingle high power transmitter sends information to large number of receivers. Such type of communication is used for TV and radio transmission. (i) Point to Point Communication = In this mode, the information bearing signals flow in both the directions. There are transmitter and receiver at both ends of the link. For example telephones are point to point communication. What is the necessity of transmitter and receiver? Why source does not speak to destination directly? ‘This question is obvious. Source cannot speak to destination directly. For example consider a very simple example of Television System. The programs are generated by shooting the objects through camera and they are stored on the video tape. Thus the program to be broadcasted is stored on the video tape initially. This means the source ‘of information is “Video tape’. The people watch this program on television. This means the destination of the program is the ‘people’, But the people (Destination) cannot watch the program recorded on the video tape (Source) directly. The tape is broadcasted on some TV channel by the TV broadcasting station or satellite. The ‘Television set then receives this channel and people can watch the program on their TV set. Thus for the signal to be transmitted over long distance, the TV broadcasting station is essential. And to receive the signals which are present in the air, TV set is essential. In this communication system, the TV broaddasting station is the transmitter and TV set is the receiver. Thus we can say that, : The transmitter is required to make the signal suitable for conduction over the channel. And the receiver is required to convert the signal from transmission channel and make suitable for destination, Theory Questions 1. What is communication ? Explamn with the help of examples What the function of conumunication channel ? Explain basic commnenication system with the help of block diagram. sw Why transmitters and receivers are reqttred for commumication ?Analog & Digital Communication 41-5 Amplitude Modulation Engineering 1.2 Modulation Process Before discussing about modulation process directly, we will consider an interesting example first. Let us consider that you want to send some “parcel” from Pune to Nasik. It is obvious that the parcel cannot move from Pune to Nasik on its own. What all you need to do is, to contact some courier company. The courier company will send the parcel by some Pune-Nasik “Bus”. The courier agent at Nasik will recognize the ‘Bus’ and receive the parcel. He will then deliver the parcel to the concerned person. This example basically represents the communication system. The parcel becomes an information to be transmitted. The courier agency office at Pune is the transmitter and its office at Nasik is the receiver. The parcel is sent through the “Bus‘, This ‘Bus’ is the carrier which carries the parcel (i.e. message). Fig. 1.2.1 shows this illustration in diagram form. Cartier of the Source or parcel ie. us End user or ‘Sender Transmitter ‘destination Courier — | agency} —- —- —- —-| agency}! office at Pune| Communication channel ‘from Pune to Nasik Le. "Road" Fig. 1.2.1 An example representing communication system As shown in Fig. 1.2.1, the parcel rides over the bus and is transmitted from source to the destination. Similarly in electrical communication, the message signal is converted to an electrical signal and given to the transmitter. The transmitter allows the signal to ride over some electrical carrier. At the receiver, the information signal is separated from the carrier. The information signal is then converted to the required format, We will now introduce modulation and demodulation. Modulation : Whenever the message > information signal rides over the carrier, it is called modulation. Consider for example a sinusoidal carrier signal. Then message signal can ride over this carrier (sine wave) in three ways - 1) It can ride over the amplitude of the carrier, 2) It can ride over the phase of the carrier. orAnalog & Digital Communication 1-6 Amplitude Modulation Engineering 3) It can ride over the frequency of the carrier, In electrical sense, the operation of riding over the amplitude of carrier means to alter (or modulate) the amplitude of carrier, This is called Amplitude Modulation of the carrier. Thus the message signal becomes the modulating signal and it is transmitted by variations in the amplitude of the carrier. Similarly when message (or modulating) signal rides over the phase of the carrier it is called Phase Modulation. And in case frequency Modulation, the frequency of the carrier is altered by message signal Fig. 1.2.2 shows an example of Amplitude modulation. ees i Frequency of the cartier is higher =} than thatof = | message signat Amplitude! f=-> modulated + signal) Fig, 1.2.2a) The message signal to be sent to destination lb) The carrier signal generated by the transmitter c) Message signal rides over the amplitude of carrier signal. That is the carrier is amplitude modulated by the messageAnalog & Digital Communication 1-7 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Modulation is the process of placing the message signal over some carrier to make it suitable for transmission over long distance. The carrier signal is basically of higher frequency than that of message. And it has the ability to travel over long distance. We will come back to the discussion of ,. modulation later on. Now we will first see what is demodulation. Demodulation : The modulated carrier signal is transmitted by the transmitter. The receiver receives this carrier. It separates the message signal from the modulated cartier. This process is exactly opposite to that of modulation at the transmitter. Demodulation is the process of separating message signal from the modulated carrier signal. 1.2.1 Continuous Wave (CW) Modulation The sinusoidal carrier modulation discussed above is called Continuous Wave or ‘CW modulation. The CW modulation is used by most long distance communication. The CW modulation produces frequency translation. We will not go into much details of this concept here. For example consider the case of Amplitude modulation, The message signal is of frequency 10 kHz and the carrier is of frequency 50 kHz. Then mathematically we can prove that the amplitude modulated signal will have carrier of 50 kHz, and two sidebands of (50 - 10) = 40 kHz and (50 + 10) = 60 kHz. These two side bands carry the message signal actually. But at the same time their frequency is much higher than that of message. This is nothing but translation of message frequency to high frequency side. There are two types pf CW modulation, (i) Amplitude modulation and (ii) Angle modulation. The angle modulation can be further subdivided into frequency modulation and phase modulation. In these techniques the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier is changed as per modulating signal amplitude. 1.2.2 Pulse Modulation ‘The periodic sequence of rectangular pulses becomes carrier signal. These pulses are sufficiently high frequency and amplitude levels. The amplitude width or position of the pulse is changed as per variations in modulating signal amplitude. Hence there are pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), pulse width modulation (PWM or PDM) and pulse position modulation (PPM). Pulse code modulation is one of the promissing digital pulse modulation techniques. It is used commonly because of (i) Robustness (ji) Flexibility, (iii) Integration of diverse sources of information and (iv) security of information.Analog & Digital Communication 1-8 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Many number of information signals can be transmitted simultaneously of the common channel with the help of multiplexing. The signals are modulated on various carriers to have multiplexing. 1.2.3 Multiplexing Techniques Multiplexing techniques allow many users to share a common communication channel simultaneously. There are two major types of multiplexing techniques. They are - a) Frequency Division Multiplexing = This technique allots a fixed frequency band to every user in the complete channel bandwidth. Such frequency slot is allotted continuously to that user. For example consider that the channel bandwidth is 1 MHz. Let there be ten users, each requiring upto 100kHz bandwidth. Then the complete channel bandwidth of 1 MHz can be divided into ten frequency bands; each of 100 kHz and every user can be allotted one independent frequency band. This technique is frequency division multiplexing, (FDM). It is mainly used for modulated signals. This is because modulated signal can be placed in any frequency band by just changing the carrier frequency. At the receiver, these frequency multiplexed signals can be separated by the use of tuned filters (bandpass filters) of their respective frequency band. And for every band, there are independent tuned filters and demodulators. b) Time Division Multiplexing : In case of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), the complete channel bandwidth is allotted to one user for fixed time slot. For example, if there are ten users, then every user can be given the time slot of one second. Thus complete channel can be used by each user for one second time in every ten seconds. This technique is suitable for digital signals. Because digital signals are transmitted intermittently and the time spacing between two successive digilal codewords can be utilized by other signals. There is possibility of crosstalk in FDM where as Intersymbol Interference is possible in TDM. These problems can be overcome by some special cares. Theory Questions 1. What is the use of modulation and demodulation ? 2. What are muttiptexing tecliniques ? Explain them briefly. 1.3 Electromagnetic Waves : The Carriers of Electric Signals We know that electromagnetic waves have two fields. One field is electric field and other is magnetic at 90% The direction of propagation of those waves is perpendicular to both electric and magnetic fields. The electromagnetic waves travel atAnaiog & Digital Communication 1-9 Amplitude Modulation Engineering the speed of light (3 «10% 1 / sec). They can travel on electric conductors, in air, in light or in vacuum. Therefore high frequency electromagnetic waves are used as carriers for electric signals. (Actually speaking, electric signals and light are also electromagnetic waves). The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from very very low frequencies to very very high frequencies. Fig. 1.3.1 shows the electromagnetic spectrum and its applications. Frequency band Use Ustraviclot 10% He Experimenta 6 Wideband data 10m 4 “ 10 He Mitimeter waves para Experimental 100 GHz | Navigation tom Satelite to satelite ‘Super high frequency Microwave relay (SHF) Earth-satelle Ghe 4 Radar om Uttra high frequency Mobile radio S (UHF) ‘GHz & im UHF TV aid mobile radio 2 2 wee VHF TV and FM broadcast toomHz 2 Mobile radio 10m 7 usiness High oa Amateur radio 40 MHz, International radio 100m |S Citizen's band Medium frequency (MF) MRE an Aeronautica! tow frequency Navigation 400 nee (ry Radio teletype 40 km Very tow frequency (iF) tokMe 100 km Telephone Telegraph KHZ Fig. 1.3.¢ Electromagnetic spectrumAnalog & Digital Communication 1-10 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Fiber optic communication : As shown in Fig 1.3.2 as carrier frequency goes on increasing, the transmission medium, propagation mode and applications changes. Communication through optical fibers takes place at Ultraviolet, Infrared and Visible light frequenies. This is called ‘optical communication and it is used for wide band data. Normally the transmitter or modulator in fibre optic communication system is the light source such as light emitting diode (LED) or Laser beam. The intensity of the light beam is modulated by the message signal. At the receiver, the photodiode (i.e. detector) detects the varying light intensity and generates the message signal. The fiber optic communication has advantages such as wide bandwidth, low signal attenuation and reduced noise interference. Wireline communication : The telephone network which we are using presently is an example of wireline communication. Normally wire pairs or coaxial cables are used for this purpose. The signals in audio, very low and low frequency range are carried on wire pair. The bandwidth of wire pairs is limited upto 300 kHz. The coaxial cables give comparatively larger bandwidth ic. upto 14 Hz. The cable television which we see today is on the coaxial cable only, and they use TV channels in the UHF and VHF range. Fig, 1.3.2 illustrates the frequency ranges of wireline, wireless and fiber optic communications. (See Fig. 1.3.2 on next page) Wireless communication : As the name indicates, there is no wire or any such medium for conduction of electromagnetic waves. Wireless communication takes place through air or vacuum. The frequencies right from 10 kHz upto 100 GHz are transmitted using wireless communication. Electromagnetic waves can be transmitted either by ground wave propagation, sky wave propagation or line of sight propagation depending upon the frequency. Fig. 1.3.2 shows different frequency ranges and their modes of propagation. All the radio, TV and satellite broadcasting is wireless communication. In. wireless communication, the electromagnetic waves are transmitted and received with the help ‘of radiators or antennas. The size of such radiations or antennas depend upon the frequency being transmitted/received. Normally for efficient radiation of the electromagnetic energy, the length of the antenna must be at least Yo of the wavelength of frequency being transmitted. For example consider the case of AM radio station transmitting 1 MHz frequency. The wavelength of this frequency is, velocity of light (c) 3 <108 1 x 108 wavelength A =Analog & Digital Communication 1-14 Amplitude Modulation Engineering 15 10" He -6 10° m ‘a 10" He 100 mm 100 GHz tom 10GHz Won Lino of sight Propagation! 4 GHz e im 3 é towne = 8 5 om Coaxial cable | Sky wave 5 channels propagation! 19 jy. 400m 1 Miz tkm Ground wave] Propagation F100 kHz 10km | Twisted-paie ‘wireline 1OkHz 100 kim channels 1 kHz Fig. 1.3.2 Electromagnetic spectrum : Propagation modes and transmission media = 300m 1 — xh 10 30 m at least. The size of the antenna will reduce if the frequency of transmission is increased. Because of this reason, wireless communication is not used for low frequencies. The advantages of wireless communications are cost effectiveness, possible long distance Length of the transmitting antenna 0Analog & Digital Communication 1-12 Amplitude Modulation Engineering communication and simp! But the drawbacks are noise interference, environmental effects and attenuation af the signal. Wireline communication and wireless communication can both be used for some frequency range. The choice is made upon the required distance and coverage area. Theory Questions 1. What is wireless and aireline communication ? in which range of electromagnetic woes it is used ? Explain howe mevtulation ticlps in reducing antenna size in wireless commemication with the help of exampte, 1.4 Analog Communication With the ation systems in previous sections, we will now turn towards the cla n of analog and digital communication. In case of analog communication, the message signal to be transmitted is analog. This analog message can be obtained from sources such as speech, video shooting ete. The analog signal varies smoothly and continuously with time. The message signal is then modulated on some carrier frequency by the modulator, The amplifier then gives this signal to the transmitting antenna. Fig. 1.4.1 shows the basic, block diagram of analog communication system. ntroductory discussion of basic communi fica Trarsmitie Receiver Analog message Comune Demodulator Destination signal Carrier Noise Fig. 1.4.4 Basic analog communication system Presently all the AM, FM radio transmission and TV transmission is analog, communication. The analog communication needs lower bandwidth compared to digital communication as we will see. But the effect of noise interference is more in case of analog, communication 1.5 Digital Communication Fig. 1.5.1 shows the basic elements of a digital communication system. The source and the destination are the two physically separate points. When the signal travels in the communication channel, noise interferes with it. Because of this interference, the smeared or disturbed version of the input signal is received at the receiver. ThereforeAnalog & Digital Communication 4-43 Amplitude Modulation Engineering the signal received may not be correct. That is errors are introduced in the received signal. Thus the effects of disturbance and noise due to the communication channel limit the rate at which signal can be transmitted. The probability of error in the received signal and transmission rate are normally used as performance measures of the digital communication system. Discrete information| source Fig. 1.5.1 Basic digital communication system The information source generates the message signal to be transmitted. In case of analog communication, the information source is analog. In case of digital communication, the information source produces a message signal which is not continuously varying with time. Rather the message signal is intermittent with respect to time. The examples of discrete information sources are data from computers, teletype etc. Even the message containing text is also discrete. The analog signal can be transmitted to discrete signal by sampling and quantization. In sampling, the analog signal is chopped off at regular time intervals. Those chopped samples form a discrete signal, The discrete information sources have following important parameters : a) Source alphabet : These are the letters, from the information source. or special characters available b) Symbol rate : It is the rate at which the information source generates source alphabets. It is normally represented in symbols/sec unit. c) Source alphabet probabilities : Each source alphabet from the source has independent occurance rate in the sequence. For examplejetters A, E, I ete. occur frequently in the sequence. Thus probability of the occurrence of each source alphabet can become one of the important property which is useful in digital communication. a) Probabilistic dependence of symbols in a sequence : The information carrying capacity of each source alphabet is different in a particular sequence. This parameter defines average information content of the symbols. The entropy of a source, refers to the average information content per symbol in longAnalog & Digital Communication 1-44 Amplitude Modulation Engineering messages. Entropy is defined in terms of bits per symbol. Bit is the abbreviation for binary digit. The source information rate is thus the product of symbol rate and source entropy. ie. Information rate = Symbol rate x Source entropy (Bits/sec) (Symbols/sec) (Bits/symbol) ‘The information rate represents minimum average data rate required to transmit information from source to the destination. 1.5.1 Source Encoder and Decoder The symbols produced by the information source are given to the source encoder. These symbols cannot be transmitted directly. They are first converted in to digital form (ie. Binary sequence of 1’s and 0's) by the source encoder. Every binary “1’ or °0’ is called a bit. The group of bits is called a codeword. The source encoder assigns codewords to the symbols. For every distinct symbol there is unique codeword. The codeword can be of 4, 8, 16 or 32 bits length, As the number of bits are increased in each codeword. The symbols that can be represented are increased. For example, § bits will have 28 = 256 distinct codewords. Therefore § bits can be used to represent 256 symbols. 16 bits can represent 2! = 65536 symbols and so on. In both of the above examples the bits in every codeword are same throughout. That is 8 in first case and 16 in next case respectively. This is cailed fixed length coding. Fixed length coding is efficient only if all the symbols occur with equal probabilities in a statistically independent sequence. In the practical situations, the symbols in the sequence are statistically dependent and they have unequal probabilities of occurance. For example, let us assume that the symbol sequence represents the percentage marks of the students. The 02%, 08%, 20%, 98%, 99% ete symbols will have minimum. probability of occurrence. But 60%, 55%, 70%, 75% will have more probability. For such symbols normally variable length codewords are assigned. More bits (More length) are assigned to frequently occuring symbols and less bits are assigned to rarely occuring symbols. Typical source encoders are pulse code modulators, Delta modulators, vector quantizers etc. We will come across these codewords in detail in the subsequent chapters. Source encoders have following important parameters. a) Block size : This gives the maximum number of distinct codewords that can be represented by the source encoder. It depends upon number of bits in the codeword. For example, the block size of 8 bits source encoder will be 2°=256 codewords. b) Codeword length : This is the number of bits used to represent each codeword. For example, if 8 bits are assigned to every codeword, then codeword length is 8 bits.Analog & Digital Communication 1-45 Amplitude Modulation Engineering c) Average data rate ; It is the output bits per second from the source encoder. The source encoder assigns multiple number of bits to every input symbol. Therefore the data rate is normally higher than the symbol rate. For example Let us consider that then symbols are given to the source encoder and the length of codeword is 8 bits. Then the output data rate from the source encoder will be, Data rate = Symbol rate x Codeword length 10 x 8 = 80 bits/sec Information rate is the minimum number of bits per secund needed to convey information from source to destination as stated earlier. Therefore optimum data rate is equal to information rate. But because of practical limitations, designing such source encoder is difficult. Hence average data rate is higher than information rate and hence symbol rate also. d) Efficiency of the encoder : This is the ratio of minimum source information rate to the actual output data rate of the source encoder. At the receiver, some decoder is used to perform the reverse operation to that of source encoder. It converts the binary output of the channel decoder into a symbol sequence. Both variable length and fixed length decoders are possible. Some decoders use memory to store codewords. The decoders and encoders can be synchronous or asynchronous. 1.5.2 Channel Encoder and Decoder At this stage we know that the message or information signal is converted in the form of binary sequence (i.e. 1’s and 0's), The communication channel adds noise and interference to the signal being transmitted Therefore errors are introduced in the binary sequence received at the receiver. Hence errors are also introduced in the symbols generated from these binary codewords, To avoid these errors, channel coding is done. The channel encoder adds some redundant binary bits to the input sequence. These redundant bits are added with some properly defined logic. For example consider that the codeword from the source encoder is of 3-bits in length and the channel encoder adds one bit to the codeword to make it 4-bit long. This 4!" bit is added (either 1 or 0} such that number of 1's in the encoded word remain even (also called even parity). Following table gives output of source enceder, the 4!" bit depending upon the parity, and output of channel encoder.Analog & Digital Communication 1-16 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Gutput of source encoder| Bit to be added by | Output of channel channel encoder for ‘encoder even parity bs bp bo 3 bp byl 1 4 00 0 1 100 0 o 41 0 1 o 1 0 4 o o o 0 0 0 0 oO 1 0404 1 14044 Table 1.5.1 Even parity coding Observe in the above table that every codeword at the output of channel encoder contains “even’’ number of 1's. At the receiver, if odd number of 1’s are detected, then receiver comes to know that there is an error in the received used. The channel decoder at the receiver is thus able to reconstruct error force accurate bit sequence, and reduce the effects of channel noise and distortion. the channel encoder and decoder thus serve to increase the reliability of the received signal. The extra bits which are added by the channel encoders carry no information, rather, they are used by the channel decoder to detect and correct errors if any. These error correcting bits may be added recurrently after the block of few symbols or added in every symbol as shown in Table 1.5.1. The example of parity coding given above is just illustrative. There are many advanced and efficient coding techniques available. ‘The coding and decoding operation at encoder and decoder needs the memory (storage) and processing of binary data. Because of microcontrollers and computers, the complexity of encoders and decoders is reduced. The important parameters for channel encoder are - a) The method of coding used. b) Coding rate, which depends upon the redundant bits added by the channel encoder. ¢) Coding efficiency, which is the ratio of data rate at the input to the data rate at the output of encoder. d) Error control capabilities, e) Feasibility or complexity of the encoder and decoder. The time delay involved in the decoding is also an important parameter for channel decoder.Analog & Digital Communication 1-47 Amplitude Modulation Engineering 1.5.3 Digital Modulators and Demodulators In the previous sections we studied why modulators and demodulators are required. Whenever the modulating signal is discrete (ie. binary codewords), then digital modulation techniques are used. The carrier signal used by digital modulators is always continuous sinusoidal wave of high frequency. The digital modulator maps the input binary sequence of 1’s and 0's to analog signal waveforms. If one bit al a lime is transmitted, then digital modulator signal is $(8) to transmit binary “0’ and s2(f) to transmit binary *1’, For example consider the output of digital modulator shown in Fig. 1.5.2. jeter» fs fo fs fo jo | sett) salt) si(t) soft) 310 si) Fig. 1.5.2 Frequency modulated output of a digital modulator The signal si!) has low frequency compared to signal s2(l). It is frequency modulation (FM) in two steps corresponding to binary symbols °0’ and “I’. Thus even though the modulated signal appears to be continuous, the modulation is discrete (or in steps). Single carrier is converted into two waveforms s;(t) and s2(!) because of digital modulation, If the codeword contains two bits and they are to be transmitted at a time, then there will be M =2? =4 distinct symbols (or codewords). These four codewords will require four distinct waveforms for transmission. Such modulators are called M-ary modulators. Frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), Amplitude shift keying (ASK), Differential phase shift keying (DPSK), Minimum shift keying (MSK) are the examples of various digital modulators. Since these modulators use continuous carrier wave, they are also called digital CW modulators. In the receiver, the digital demodulator converts the input modulated signal to the sequence of binary bits, The most important parameter for the demodulator is the method of demodulation. The other parameters for the selection of digital modulation method are, a) Probability of symbol or bit error. b) Bandwidth needed to transmit the signal.Analog & Digital Communication 1-18 Amplitude Modulation Engineering <) Synchronous or asynchronous method of detection and d) Complexity of implementation. 1.5.4 Analog Versus Digital Communication Advantages of Digital Communication 1. Because of the advances in digital IC technologies and high speed computers, digital communication systems are simpler and cheaper compared to analog systems. xn . Using data encryption, only permitted receivers can be allowed to detect the transmitted data. This is very useful in military applications. 2 . Wide dynamic range is possible since the data is converted to the di S |. Using multiplexing, the speech, video and other data can be merged and transmitted over commen channel. 5. Since the transmission is digital and channel encoding is used, the noise does not accumulate from repeater to repeater in long distance communication. e ». Since the transmitted signal is digital, a large amount of noise interference can be tolerated. 7. Since channel coding is used, the errors can be detected and corrected in the receivers. @ Digital communication is adaptive to other advanced branches of data Processing such as digital signal processing, image processing, data compression etc. Disadvantages Eventhough digital communication offer many advantages as given above, it has some drawbacks also. But the advantages of digital communication outweigh disadvantages. They are as follows - 1. Because of analog to digital conversion, the data rate becomes high. Hence more transmission bandwidth is required for digital communication. 2. Digital communication needs synchronization in case of synchronous modulation. Theory Questions 1, What is Digital Communication ? Explain with the help of block diagram, 2. Compare Anaiog and Digital Communication 3. What ave the adonitages anid disadnntages of Digital Communication 2Analog & Digital Communication 4-19 Amplitude Modulation Engineering 1.6 Communication Channels As we have seen in the preceding sections, the connection between transmitter and receiver is established through communication channel. We have seen that the communication can take place through witelines, wireless ot fibre optic channels. The other media such as optical disks, magnetic tapes and disks etc, can also be called as communication channel, because they can also carry data through them. Every communication channel has got some problems. Following are the common problems associated with the channels : a) Additive noise interference : This noise is generated due to internal solid state devices and resistors ote. used to inyplement the communication system. b) Signal attenuation + It occurs due to internal resistance of the channel and fading of the signal. ¢) Amplitude and phase distortion : The signal is distorted in amplitude and phase because of nonlinear characteristics of the channel. d) Multipath distortion : This distortion occurs mostly in wireless communication channels. Signals comming from different paths tend to interfere with each other. 1.6.1 Primary Communication Resources ‘There are two main resources available with the communication channels. These two resources are - a) Channel bandwidth : This is the maximum possible range of frequencies that can be used for transmission. For example, the bandwidth offered by wireline channels is less compared to fibre optic channels. b) Power in the transmitted signal : This is the power that can be put in the signal being transmitted. The effect of noise can be minimized by increasing the power. But this cannot be increased to very high value because of the equipment and other constraints, For example, the power in the wireline channel is limited because of the cables. The power and bandwidth limit the data rate of the communication channel. As we know, the fiber optic channel transports light signals from one place to another just like a metallic wire carriers an electric signal. There is no current or metallic conductor in optical fiber. The optical fibre has following advantages : a) Very large bandwidths are possible. b) Transmission losses are very small. ) Electromagnetic interference is absent. d) They have small size and weight.Analog & Digital Communication 1-20 Amplitude Modulation Engineering e) Th f) Optical fibres are low cost and cheap. y offer ruggedness and flexibility. Satellites essentially perform wireless communication. Mainly satellites are repeaters. Broad area coverage is the main advantage of satellites. The power requirement is also less, since solar energy is used by satellites, Global communication is very easily possible due to satellite channels. The interference on satellite channels is present but it is minimum. 1.6.2 Types of Communication Channels 1.6.2.1 Telephone Channel This is the oldest channel being used for voice communication, It uses the transmission media such as open wires, cables, optical fibers microwave radio and satellites. Therefore telephone channel is used for data communication over long distances. We know that internet mainly uses telephone channel. Normally the telephone channels are not linear. For voice applications nonlinearity of phase is not detected by ear. But data and image transmission is affected due to nonlinearity. Hence equalizers are necessary in such applications. Table 1.6.1 lists important characteristics of telephone channels. Sr. No. Parameter I Value/comments i Frequency range {8W) 300 to 3400 Hz 2 Signal to noise ratio 30 48 3 Maximum transmission rate i 16.8 kbps Table 1.6.1 Characteristics of telephone channel 1.6.2.2 Co-axial Cable Co-axial cables have central conductor surrounded by outer shield. This. shield reduces the effects of external interference. Co-axial cables have wide bandwidth characteristics. But they need closely spaced repeaters. The maximum distance between two repeaters should not exceed 1 kilometer. Following table lists important characteristics of co-axial cable. Sr. No. Parameter Value/Comments | 1 Frequency range upto 400 MHz 2 Maximum transmission rate 274 Mbps 3 Maximum repeater spacing 4 km Table 4.6.2 Characteristics of co-axial cableAnalog & Digital Communication 1-21 Amplitude Modulation Engineering 4.6.2.3 Optical Fiber Channel Optical fiber uses light to represent the signals, The light travels through a glass core made of silica glass. Optical fiber channels are free from external electric interference. They have wide bandwidths and longer distances between repeaters. Therefore optical fibers are very attractive now a days for data communication. Following table lists important characteristics of optical fibers. Parameter Value/Comments. Frequency range 10" to 10°? Hz Maximum repeater spacing 2 km Effect of extemal noise Minimum Table 1.6.3 Characteristics of optical fibers 1.6.2.4 Microwave Radio Channel The microwave radio channel is normally used for short distance wireless transmission. It is line-of-sight communication. The transmitter and receiver antennas are mounted on the towers of sufficient height to cover the maximum distance. Direct path exists between transmitter and receiver. But due to change in meterological ‘conditions, multipath fading takes place. It degrades the performance of the channel. In multipath fading, the propagation takes place through serveral paths. Due to the phase shifts among these paths, the received signal strength is increased or reduced. This is called fading. It is the main problem associated with microwave radio links. Following table lists the characterstics of microwave radio channel. Sr. No. Parameter Value/Comments i Frequency range 4 to 30 GHz ‘Maximum distance covered ‘Maximum transmission rate Table 1.6.4 Characteristics of microwave radio channel 1.6.2.5 Satellite Channel Satellites are used in many applications including data transmission. Wide coverage and long distance transmission is possible using satellites. Direct line-of-sight link exists between the satellite and the transmitting/receiving stations. The earth station transmits te satellite on uplink frequency. The satellite receives the signal, amplifies earth station on downlink frequency. Thus the satellite acts as a repeater. Following table lists. the characteristics. Of satellite channel.Analog & Digital Communication 1-22 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Parameter Value/Gomments. 1 Frequency range 0.25 to 64 GHz 2 Maximum distance covered Jj pant of the earth 3. Maximum transmission rate 2500 Mbps Table 1.6.5 Characteristics of satellite channel All the channels discussed here, use various transmission media. These channels are used for digital communication based on the application requirement. Theory Questions 1. Compare various channels for digital communication 2. What is fiber optic communication ? What are ils adoantages over other methods of commaunication? 3. What are the problems assaciated witht communication channel ? 4. What are the resources of conimumiestion: channels ? 4.7 Baseband and Passband Transmission ‘The message signal generated from the information source is also called Baseband Signal. The baseband signal can be a combination of two or more message signals. If the baseband signal is transmitted directly, then it is called baseband transmission. Thus baseband transmission does not use modulators and demodulators.. The baseband signal can be both analog as well as digital. The analog baseband signal varies continuously with time and has continuous amplitude. The digital baseband signal is discrete in both time and amplitude. The baseband transmission is preferred at low frequencies and for short distances. Intersymbol Interference (ISI) is the major problem associated with baseband transmission. If modulated signal is transmitted over the channel, it is called bandpass (or passband) transmission. Whenever the modulating signal is impressed upon a carrier, the modulated signal is generated. This modulated signal has fixed band of frequencies around carrier frequency. The nature of such a signal is bandpass type. Hence modulated signals are called passband (or bandpass) signals. For example if 1kHz modulating signal is impressed upon 100 kHz carrier by using amplitude modulation, then two side bands will be generated. Lower sideband will be at (100 - 1) = 99 kHz and upper sideband will be at (100 + 1) = 101 kHz. Thus the Amplitude modulated signal will have frequencies from 99 to 101 kHz. These frequencies are bandpass type. Hence modulated signals are also passband (or bandpass) type.Analog & Digital Communication 4-23 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Bandpass transmission is normally used at high frequencies and for long distances. All television and satellite transmission is passband type. The passband transmission can be both analog and digital. if the digital signal modulates the cartier, then it is called digital passband transmission, We will see baseband and passband (or bandpass) transmission in forth-coming chapters. Theory Question 1. What are besetunud and passband signals ? How Meir transmission differs frown each other ? 1.8 Amplitude Modulation * It is often necessary to transmit the signals from one place to another. These signals are normally transmitted over a transmission lines or open space. But many signals are to be transmitted simultaneously. + TF these signals lie in the same frequency band, then they will interfere each other. For example if multiple speakers are talking on same telephone line, then their voice will mix up. Similarly if multiple television stations are transmitting in the same frequency band, then their signals will interfere each other. * Itis therefore necessary to translate the frequency band of every source, such that they occupy distinct band of frequencies. Sometimes the signals are transmitted in short time slots. Each source occupies fixed time slot. * Frequency translation is possible with frequency division multiplexing. Time division multiplexing offers fixed time slot to each source. Modulation techniques also perform frequency translation. * The modulating signal modulates amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier according to its variations in amplitude. This results in amplitude, frequency or phase modulation. The frequency and phase modulation is also called angle modulation. 1.8.1 AM Envelope and Equation of AM Wave In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied according to variations in the amplitude of modulating signal. Fig. 1.8.1 shows the modulating signal. Fig. 18.1 (a) Fig. 1.8.1 (b) shows high frequency carrier and Fig. 1.8.1 (c) shows amplitude modulated signal.Analog & Digital Communication 1-24 Amplitude Modulation Engineering In Fig. 1.8.1 (c), observe that the carrier frequency remains same, but its amplitude varies according to amplitude variations of the modulating signal. Modulating signal Carrier signal E, 0 — Time Ete, Amplitude modulated wave Vn H EZ yy “UH | —- time Fig. 1.8.1 (a) Sinusoidal modulating signal (b) Sinusoidal high frequency carrier (c) Amplitude modulated signal Let us represent the modulating signal by em and it is given as, em = Em sittcomt (1.8.1) and carrier signal can be represented by e¢ as, fe = Eg sitteagt (18.2) Here Ey is maximum amplitude of modulating signal E. is maximum amplitude of carrier signal ©m is frequency of modulating signal and og is frequency of carrier signal.Analog & Digital Communication 1-25 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Using the above mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals, we can create a new mathematical expression for the complete modulated wave. It is given as, EaM = Ec tem = Ez +Fm sitet — by putting ¢m fom equation (1.8.1) The instantaneous value of the amplitude modulated wave can be given as, eam = Eam sind = Eam sin oct ¢AM = (Ec + Em stttenn ty sin met ow (1.8.3) This is an equation of AM wave. 1.8.2 Modulation Index and Percent Modulation The ratio of maximum amplitude of modulating signal to maximum amplitude of cartier signal is catled modulation index. i.e, Modulation index, ze _. (18.4) Value of E» must be less than value of Fe to avoid any distortion in the modulated signal. Hence maximum value of modulation index will be equal to 1 when Ey, =E;. Minimum value will be zero. If modulation index is higher than 1, then it is called over modulation, Data is lost in such case. When modulation index is expressed in percentage, it is also called percentage modulation. Calculation of modulation index fram AM waveform : Fig. 182 shows the AM waveform. TI of AM signal. is is also called time domain representation Fig. 1.8.2 AM waveAnalog & Digital Communication 1-26 Amplitude Modulation Engineering It is clear from the above signal that the modulating signal rides upon the cartier signal. From above figure we can write, Emax ~ (1.8.5) and w» (1.8.6) by putting for Fy from equation (1.8.5) w= (1.8.7) 7 Bogus FEmin (188) This equation gives the technique of calculating modulation index from AM wave. 1.8.3 Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth The modulated carrier has new signals at different frequencies, called side frequencies ot sidebands. They occur above and below the carrier frequency. Le. fuss = fe + fn fisa = fom fn Here fe is carrier frequency and fn is modulating signal frequency fisp is lower sideband frequency and fuse is upper sideband frequency. Consider the expression of AM wave given by equation (1.8.3), ie, AM = (Ec +En sitt@nit) sitwet = (1.8.9) We know that ma from equation (1.8.4). Hence we have Ey, =m E,. Putting this € value of Em in above equation we get, cam = (Ext mE¢ sitt ont) sin act = Ec (1+ msin ont) sin wet = Eg simul + mEg sin ot sin eact v= (1.8.10)Analog & Digital Communication 1-27 Amplitude Modutation Engineering We know that sim(A) sin(B) = Lcas(A ~B) -4 cos(A +B). Applying this result to last term in above equation we get, eam = Ec sinae t+ EE cos -on)t _mE, 2 In the above equation, the first term represents unmodulated carrier, the second term represents lower sideband and last term represents upper sideband. Note that Ge = 2x fe and Gm =2n fry. Hence above equation can also be written as, eam = Ee sin an fot + MEE cos 2n(fe - fn) 603 (0 +4m) t ww 1.8.11) m ~ OE cos On fe + fin)! -- (1.8.12) = Ec sin 2nfet +E 00s 2nfisp t+ ae cos 2n fuse t - (1.8.13) From this equation we can prepare the frequency spectram of AM wave as shown below in Fig. 1.83. mE, mE, 2 frequency {isa fuss Fig. 1.8.3 Frequency domain representation of AM wave This contains full carrier and both the sidebands, hence it is also called Double Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC) system. We will be discussing this system, its modulation circuits and transmitters next, in this section. We know that bandwidth of the signal can be obtained by taking the difference between highest and lowest frequencies. From above figure we can oblain bandwidth of AM wave as, BW = fuse —fise = (fe *fn)— (fe — fn) BW = 2fm ves (18.14)Analog & Digital Communication 1-28 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Thus bandwidth of AM signal is twice of the maximum frequency of modulating signal. ‘mp Example 1.8.1 :Calculate the modulation index and percentage modulation if instantaneous voltages of modulating signal and carrier are 40:sirtCm tard 50sin ie |, respectively. Solution : From the given instantaneous equation we have, En = 40 and E,=50 Hence modulation index will be, = fn 0. m= aay 08 or — % modulation = mx 100 = 08100 =80% im Example 1.8.2 :The tuned circuit of the oscillator in a simple AM transmitter employs a 40pH coil and 12 nF capacitor. If the oscillator output is modulated by audio frequency of SkHz, what are the lower and upper sideband frequencées and the boncividth required to transmit this AM wave ? Solution : The frequency of the LC oscillator is given as, kel zVEC 1 © Baa 10 121 = 230 kHz The modulating frequency is fi =5 kHz : fuss = fe + fm =230+5 =235 kHz and fiss = fe-fu=230-5=225 kHz We know that bandwidth of AM wave is, BW = 2fy = 2%5kH2 = 10 kHz 1.8.4 AM Power Distribution We know that AM signal has three components : Unmodulated carrier, lower sideband and upper sideband. Hence total power of AM wave is the sum of carrier power P, and powers in the two sidebands Pusp and Psp. ie, Prout = Pe +Puse + PspAnalog & Digital Communication 1-29 Amplitude Modulation Engineering 2 BBB = Fer , Fisy , Fis RR TR Here all the three voltages are rms values and R is characteristic impedence of antenna in which the power is dissipated. The carrier power is, .. (1.8.15) 2 p. = Er (Fe / 52) « R - z (1.8.16) The power of upper and lower sidebands is same. ie., Piss = Puse Here Esp is rms voltage of sidebands. From equation (1.8.13) we know that the peak amplitude of both the sidebands is mEe Se, Hence, eg = MEL? 2 2 E/2P 4 ha = none ML) od 262 = “ ee (18.17) Hence the total power (equation 1.8.15) becomes, m2 ER m? E2 Prout = FE MEE MERE (1.8.18) (1.8.19) Protal 1 4m? BF 1 > wn (1.8.20) This equation relates total power of AM wave to carrier power. Maximum value of modulation index, m=1 to avoid distortion. At this value of modulation index, Praa! =1. 5 Pc. From above equation we have,Analog & Digital Communication 4-30 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Prowl _ 4 Pe ms of Pau -1) ww (1.8.21) ” web Example 1.8.3 :An audio frequency signal 10sin 2n%500¢ i used to amplitude modulate a carrier of 50 sin 2nx 105 . Caiculate (i) Modulation index (ii) Sideband frequencies (iii) Amplitude of ench sideband frequencies (iv) Bandwidth required (0) Total power delivered to the toad of 600 Solution : (i) The given modulating signal is em =10 sin 2nx500t. Hence, Ey =10. The given carrier signal is e, = 50 sin 2nx 10° t, hence, E, =50. Therefore modulation index will be, m= B-B-a2 or 20% (i) From the given equations, my = 2nx500, Hence fn = 500 Hz And we = 2nx 10, Hence fe =105 Hz or 100 kHz We know that fuss = fe + fm =100 kHz +500 Hz =100. 5 kHz and Pisp = fe ~ fm =100 kHz -500 Hz =99. 5 kHs. (ii) From equation (1.8.13) we know that the amplitudes of upper and lower sidebands is given as, mE: _02x50_, Amplitude of upper and lower sidebands = “5 = 52. -5V (iv) Bandwidth of AM wave is given by equation (1.8.10) as, BW of AM = 2fm =2x500 Hz =1kHz (v) Total power delivered to the load is given by equation (1.8.18) as tas = {att 2R' 2) 2% 600 2 = 2.125 watts m= Example 1.8.4 3A 400 W carrier is modulated to a depth of 80% calculate the total power in the modulated wave, Solution : Here carrier power P, =400W and m=08.Analog & Digital Communication 1-31 Amplitude Modulation Engineering From equation (1.8.19) total power is, 2) 08)? Pont = (16 }soo{ 9") = 528W mm Example 1.8.5 :A broadcast transmitter radiates 20 kW when the modulation percentage is 75. Calculate carrier power and power of each sideband. Solution; Here total power Prorat = 20,000 W and m= 0.75 2 From equation (1.8.19) we have Pata) = Pr (1 +) J 2 zoo = r,(1+028%) \ Pe = 156kW 2 2 We know that Potal = Pe (1 } =P. +Pe > The second term in above equation represents total sideband power. Hence power of one sideband will be, m2 1 Psp = (rE) . (075)? 1 = 86x Fx 5 2.2kW Pes =2.2kW Thus Puss 1.8.5 AM Current Calculations The power and current in the antenna are related by P=[R v= (1.8.22) Here P is antenna power, I is antenna current and R is characteristic resistance of antenna. For total power and total current in antenna is related as, Pott = 12,4, R o- (1.8.23) Similarly the carrier current and carrier power will be related as, P, = 12R a (1.8.24) From equation (1.8.19) we know that P; and Pita are related as, Prorat = Pe (1 =)Analog & Digital Communication 1-32 Amplitude Modulation Engineering m? yy R= are Ba = 1 w= (18.25) Troat = be -» (1.8.26) This equation relates total current, carrier current and modulation index. From equation (1.8.25) we can write, m= = (1.8.27) This equation gives modulation index in terms of currents. im Example 1.8.6 :Tte fotal antenna current of an AM transmitter is 5 A. If modulation index is 0.6, calculate the carrier current in antenna. Solution : Here Jris) = 5A andm =06. From equation (1.8.26) we have, 2 Hoyt = de y+ (06)? fe yee ‘ I, = 464 5 sm Example 1.8.7 :The rms antenna current of AM signal increases by 15% over its unmodulated value, when sinusoidal modulation by 1 kHz signal is applied. Determine the modulation index. Solution : From equation (1.8.27), modulation index is given as, 12 mm = [| tate 1| I? } Since total current increases by 15%, [taal =115 1. Then above equation will be,Analog & Digital Communication 1-33 Amplitude Modulation Engineering z ” aE Sle) 1 \ = 08 1.8.6 Amplitude Modulation by Multiple Sine Waves In practice, modulation takes place due to multiple modulating wave. Here let us consider what will happen if two or more sine waves modulate the carrier simultaneously. Let the two modulating sine waves be represented as, em = Eni sitteomy t and Cm? Em SIN Wm? Then the total modulating signal will be, em = Cm end = Ei siteomt t+ Em sit one t ‘On the basis of equation (1.8.3) we can write equation for AM signal as follows : Fam = Ec +E sin on t+ Enz sin on t 7 CaM = (Eo + Em sinemy t+ Epa Sit m2 t) site b = Fe (1+ Eth sin ona (+22 sin ome sino t ES Ee Fon and my ,, then above equation becomes, eam = Ec (140 sit ony fe mg sin Oma A) sinwe t = Ec sine t4 mp Ee Simp t sin we t tmz Ee sinoy? ¢ sitoe Here let us use sin A sin B= 3, cos(A ~B)~4 cos(A +B) Then above equation becomes, mt Ee ia Ee €88 (¢ ~ Wm )E- —Z . aE os (oe ~ ga) t= MEE This equation has unmodulated carrier in the first term. Second and third terms represent two sidebands (0; ~Gm1)and(@, +@m1) due to omy. Last two terms represent two sidebands (ne ~ nz) and (ae +@m2) due to onz. Fig. 1.84 shows the frequency spectrum of AM wave having two modulating frequencies om andn2 with @y1' M2. cam = Eg stn E+ €03 (@¢ +@nr1)t €05 (ime +On12)t (1.8.28)Analog & Digital Communication 4-34 Amplitude Modulation Engineering mE, mE. z 2 Geigy Oe em, oe Oem, ny Fig. 1.8.4 Frequency spectrum of AM wave having two modulating frequencies. The total power in the AM wave having two modulating sine waves will be written as, Poot = Pe + Pusa1 + Puse2 + Piso + Pisp2 We can write the above equation on the basis of equation (1.8.17) as follows : (Ec /ND2 PER mBEZ m2 EP mE BP —— an Photat ER m? = OK aera 2 n2 = Ht .. (1.8.29) . _ # wo aul Since Pe = 5k, above equation will be, m2 md Point = Pep 14h 2 = (1.8.30) } Compare this equation with similar relation given by equation (1.8.19) for one sine wave. ie, 2 Protat = a (1%) v- (1.8.31) Thus we can generalize equation (1.8.30) for many sine waves as, 2m Plo = Pe) Lt tage s+ (1.8.32) 2 2 mz m3Analog & Digital Communication 1-35 Amplitude Modulation Engineering m2 Prod = Pe] 14m we (1.8.33) This equation is similar to equation (1.8.31). Now from equation (1.8.32) we can obtain total modulation index mm as, = fm+me mp = [mz + mz + im Example 1.8.8 :Culculate the tatal modulation index if the carrier zoave is aniplitiede modulated by three modulating signals with modulation indices of 0.6, 0.3 and O4 respectively. vw (1.8.34) Solution: Let 1m =06, my =0.3andm3 =04, Consider equation (1.8.34) for total modulation index, = Jmtam2sme mye = fmt + mz + me = 0.781 (a6? =03? +042 jump Example 1.8.9 :A certain AM transmitter radiates 10 kW with the carrier modulated, and TLS kW when the carrier i sinusoidally modulated. Caleulate the modulation index. If another sine wave, corresponding to 30% modulation, is transmitted sinuultancausly, determine the total radiated power. Solution: Here P. = 10 kW, Protal = 11.8 kW Modulation index, m = = 06 This is first signal. Hence m)=06. The another signal modulates 30%. Hence m2 =03 Hence combined total modulation index due to two signals is, iy = fm +m (06? +03? = 0.67 u 2) mi Total power is, Pita! = nr" by equation (1.8.33) = nor?) = 12.24kWAnalog & Digital Communication 4-36 Amplitude Modulation Engineering wimp Example 1.8.40 ; The output voltage of a fransmitter is given by 500 (1 + 0.4 sin 3140 t) sin 6.28 «107 t. This voltage is fed to a load of 600.0. Determine - i) Carrier frequency ii) Modulating frequency iii) Carrier power iv) Meart power output Solution : The equation of the amplitude modulated signal is given as, CaM = E-(1+msinwa!)sin oct Comparing above equation with the given equation, we get E, = 500V, m= 04 Om = 3140 rad/sec W. = 6.28% 107 rad/sec i) Carrier Frequency = fe = 36 it = 628x107 - an = 10 MHz i) Modulating frequency = fn = = 3140 2 500 Hz #e 2K (600)? 2x 600 ER an? (! =) By equation 1.8.18 4 Carrier power = Pp = By equation (1.8.16) = 208.33 W iv) Mean power output = 7 2 208.33 fh +02" = 225 W 2Analog & Digital Communication 1-37 Amplitude Modulation Engineering 1.8.7 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) We have seen that there are two sidebands and carrier in the spectrum of AM wave. The carrier does not contain any power. At 100% modulation, the amplitude of 2 carrier is double of the sidebands. The power of the carrier is P = = Carrier does not convey any information. Hence most of the power is transmitted in the carrier, that is not used for carrying information. Hence carrier is suppressed and only sidebands are transmitted. Such modulation is called double sideband suppressed carrier (DSBSC), Balanced modulator is discussed in next section. It is used to supress the carrier. Fig. 1.8.5 Fig. 1.8.5 Spectrum of DSBSC signal shows the spectrum = for DSBSC modulated signal. Advantages of DSBSC i) DSBSC is more efficient in transmitted power as compared to DSBEC. ii) DSBSC has better signal to noise ratio as compared to single sideband (SSB) transmission. Disadvantage Even though the carrier is suppressed the bandwidth of DSBSC remains same as DSBFC. me Example 4.8.14: A carrier wave is represented by equation ec(t) = 12 sin cf, Draw the waecforms of an AM zoove for depth of modulation of (i) 1 (ii) 0.5 (iil) 3/2 (io) 213. Solution: (i) For m = 1 And 12 =Analog & Digital Communication «1-38 = Amplitudde ModulationAnalog & Digital Communication 1-39 Amplitude Modulation Engineering : Emax = Ee +Em = 12 + 18 = 30 Emin = Emax ~2En = 30-2 x 16=-6V Fig. 1.8.7 (a) shows an AM envelope for this ‘m’, Fig. 1.8.7 (a) Envelope of AM wave for m = 3/2 Here observe that the overmodulation takes place, since m > 1 (ie. 1.5). 1.9 AM Modulator Circuits Depending upon the location of modulator in transmitter circuit, there are two types of modulators : (i) Low level modulator and (ji) Medium power modulator. 1.9.1 Low Level AM Modulator When modulator is placed before the output element of final stage of the transmitter, it is called level modulator. Circuit diagram and waveforms {a) Circuit diagram of low level AM modulator (b) Waveforms. Fig. 1.9.1Analog & Digital Communication 1-40 ‘Amplitude Modulation Engineering Operation © Carrier signal is given to the base of the amplifier and modulating signal is given to emitter. In absence of modulating signal, the circuit simply operates as linear class A amplifier. * When modulating signal is applied to an emitter, the gain of the amplifier varies accoding to voltage of modulating signal. + Depending upon the gain variations, carrier signal is amplified, Thus amplitude of carrier signal is modulated by modulating signal. Voltage gain of emitter modulator is given as, Ap = Agll+msin(2afint)] wheye Ay is voltage gain with modul: Ag is quiescent voltage gain. Advantages of low level modulation i) Less modulating signal power is required to obtain high percentage modulation. ii) Modulator circuit is to be designed at low power. Disadvantages of low level modulation Amplifiers following modulator stage must be linear. At high operating powers linear amplifiers ace very inefficient. 1.9.2 Medium Power AM Modulator In such modulator, the modulation takes place in the final state of the transmitter. The output of the modulating stage is directly connected to an antenna. Collector modutator ‘The modulated output can be obtained by making the voltage an output electrode to vary according to input modulating signal. Fig. 1.9.2 shows the collector modulator. The transistor is biased well beyond cutoff so that it operates in class C mode. The dass C mode is used because of its high efficiency. The RF drive is a carrier signal used! for AM. This cari part of its cycle, It is applied to the base of transistor, The modulating signal is passed through the power amplifier and applied to the collector through a low frequency transformer. This voltage is shown as Dm: (f) in figure. This modulating voltage is in series with the supply voltage Vcc. Hence the collector voltage becomes Voc = Vcc + Pn (). The tuned LC circuit associated tuned transformer on the collector receives the AM signal. Because of modulating voltage, the net supply voltage of transistor changes according to slow variations in Um (t). Hence the RF carrier signal amplitude is such that it drives transistor in conduction overAnalog & Digital Communication 1-41 ‘Amplitude Modulation Engineering amplitude is also varied according to variations in vy (f). Thus AM signal is produced across the LC circuit at the collector. Modulating Voc signal Power amplifier RF bypass capacitor BG Modulated RF cutput Fig. 4.9.2 BUT collector modulator (class C amplifier) Advantages of high level modulators i) There is no constraint of linear operation on amplifiers preceding modulator stage. ii) Power efficiency is good. Disadvantages of high level modulators i) High modulating power is required to achieve higher percentage modulation. ii) Final modulating signal amplifier has to supply all the sideband power, which is around 33% of total transmitted power. 1.10 AM Transmitters 1.10.1 High Level Transmitter Fig. 1.10.1 shows the block diagram of AM transmitter. The crystal oscillator generates carrier frequency. The buffer amplifiers and driver amplifiers amplify the power level of the carrier to required value, The amplified carrier is given to class CAnalog & Digital Communication 4-42 Amplitude Modulation Engineering modulator amplifier. The modulating signal is audio signal and given to audio amplifier. It is further amplified by audio power amplifier at a level suitable for modulation. The class C modulator amplifier modulates the carrier input according to modulating audio signal. The output of the class C modulating amplifier is AM and it is given to antenna through some antenna matching network. The antenna matching network is generally tuned LC circuit in collector circuit of modulator amplifier. In this AM transmitter, the modulator amplifier operates at high power levels and delivers power directly to the antenna. This is called High level modulated AM transmitter. Antenna Modulator Ae power amplifier Audio g input Crystal Buffer Driver Fig. 1.10.1 High level AM transmitter block diagram 4.10.2 Low Level Transmitter Fig. 1.10.2 shows Low level modulated AM transmitter block diagram, In this block diagram, observe that a linear class B power amplifier is used after class C modulator amplifier. The linear class B power amplifier performs the major power amplification and feeds the amplified AM signal to antenna. In this block diagram, the modulator amplifier performs modulation at relatively low power levels. Hence this is called low level modulated AM transmitter, The modulated AM signal is amplified by class B power amplifier to avoid distortion in the output. sor = Modulator amplifier (class C) Fig. 1.10.2 Low level modulated AM transmitter block diagram 1.10.3 AM Broadcast Transmitter using Partially Modulated Driver Stage Fig. 1.10.3 shows the block diagram of AM broadcast transmitter. The crystal oscillator generates carrier signal. The buffer amplifier raises the power level of this carrier. The driver stage is class C modulator amplifier. It is partially modulated. ThisAnalog & Digital Communication 1-43 Amplitude Modulation Engineering signal is further modulated at high power levels by dass C modulated power amplifier. This type of modulation has two advantages - i) If one or more tubes in main amplifier fails, the driver stage still provides modulated output which can be transmitted. This avoids total shut down of transmitter. ii) The total power is distributed in driver and main amplifier. Antenna Class © Butfer modulated Matching amplifier Stabilized crystal oscillator power amplifier Audio input Aucio amplifier Fig. 1.10.3 AM broadcast transmitter using partially modulated driver stage The audio modulating signal is amplified and fed to modulator driver amplifier. This modulating signal is coupled to class C driver and modulator through transformer coupling. The part of transmitted signal is demodulated by the linear detector and given as feedback to audio amplifier. This negative feedback linearizes the modulation characteristic. iam) Example 4.10.1 : The carrier amplitude after amplitude modulation varies between 4V and 1V, Calewlate depth of modulation, Solution: Here Ena = 4V and Emin =1V Modulation index m = Eres ~Emin max + Emin - 4-13 “ #5155 = 06Analog & Digital Communication 1-44 Amplitude Modulation Engineering mm Example 1.10.2 :A conpler modulating waveform consisting of a sine wave of amplitude 3 V and frequency 1 KHz plus a cosine wave of amplitude 5 V and frequency 3 kHz amplittude modulates a 500 KHz and 10 V peak carrier voltage. Plot the spectrum of modulated wave and determine the average power when the modulated wave is fed into 50 © Toad. Solution : The modulating signal is given as, én = sin (2rx 1000) +5 eas (2% 3000) and ec = 1 sin(2nx 500% 103)F -.Modulation indices due to two waves can be obtained as, = 3. i my = jg7 03 and mz = 75 =05 Total modulation index, m = fin? + m3 = (03)? +(0.5)? = 0.58 Since this is DSBFC system, the frequency spectrum will have carrier at amplitude E¢ and each modulating signal will have two sidebands of amplitude ae and 2.Es each. Carrier = Je = 500 kHz and amplitude = Ee = 10V Sidebands due to fut : fe fin = 500 kHz - kHz = 499 kHs and amplitude = mre =23x10 2 Se + fury = 500 KH: + 1kHe my 501 kHz and amplitude = Similarly sidebands due to fx2 will be, fe -fn2 = 500 KHz -3kHz = 497 kis and amplitude = make 0510 _o5v fe + fing = 500KH2 +3kH2 mz Ec 503. kHz and amplitude = "2"! =2.5vAnalog & Digital Communication 1-45 Amplitude Modulation Engineering ‘The spectrum is shown below in Fig. 1.10.4. 10V Frequent 497 kHz 499kKHz SOOkKHZ S01 kHz 503 kHz, requency Fig. 1.10.4 Spectrum of AM signal of example 1.10.2 The carrier power In 50.2 load will be, E210? Peo SR 3x50 =1W From equation 1.8.19, total power is given as, 2 Pout = Pe ( “Fy 2 Here m; =0.58 and P, =1W, hence above equation will be, 2 Patt = i(rs au } = 1168W ‘> Example 1.40.3 : Calculate the percentage power saving when a carrier and one of the sidebands are suppressed in AM wave modulated to the depth of (i) 100% and (ii) 50%. Solution : (i) The power required for DSBFC is given as, m2 runt \ Ppspre PB 0 +4) since m=1 for 100% modulation. = LSP For SSB (only one sideband), power is given as, m2 Psa = Pet 1 PogAnalog & Digital Communication 1-46 Amplitude Modulation Engineering = 025P. Hence percentage power saving will be, Possre — Psse Posprc ~100 Prroing = 83.33% (ii) For 50% modulation, m= 0.5. Hence power in DSBFC will be, 2 Posere = P.(1 =) \ 2 (0.5)? =-% (a +! 2 ) = 1125 And power in single sideband is given as, m? a Pose = 0.0625 P, Hence percentage power saving will be, Posare — Pssp Pang = “PSE PSE 100 _ 1125 P, - 000625 P; 1125 P- = 945% Thus power saving increases as depth of modulation is reduced. dum) Example 1.10.4 : The carrier wave is represented by equation, E, =10 sine t Draw the waveform for AM wave if () m = 1 and (ii) m = 0.75. Solution : (i) For m=1 = Em mee = in == l= ie Em = Ee =10Analog & Digital Communication 1-47 Amplitude Modulation Engineering En andé, represent the peak amplitudes of modulating and cai Fig. 1.10.5 shows the AM wave. waves, Fig. 1.10.5 AM wave for m = 1 Emax ~ Ennis We know that Ey, = “tet =n w= (1.10.1) and Ec = Emax = Em Thus we have Emax = Ee+En 10+10=20V 20 - Emin ‘ And 10 = S—=MA from equation 1.10.1 above 20 = 20~Emin o Emin ov (ii) m = 0.75 Let us determine Eqax and Emin for m=0.75 m= = Em 075 = Em = 75 Emax = Ee + Em =10+7.5 Wsv Emax 17.5 -Emin 75 = 5Analog & Digital Communication 1-48 Amplitude Modulation Engineering Fig. 1.10.6 shows the AM wave. Fig. 1.10.6 AM wave for m = 0.75 Theory Questions 1. Show tat the DSBEC signal consists of one carrier and two sidebonds of equal amplitudes matitemaatically, Explain the function of collector modulator with the help of circuit diagram. 3. Define high level modulation and tow level modulation. Hence draw the Block dingram of AM transmitter twhiele rises High Feoe! modulation avad explain its function. 4. Why the driver stage of AM broadeast transmitter is also partially medulated ? Unsolved Examples 1. A 360 W eaurier is simuttaureonsly modulated by tivo audio wavs witht mofulation percentages of 50 and 60 respectively. What is tolal power radiated in sidebars ? TAns. : 109.512 kWI 2. The output current of 60% modulated AM generator is 1.5 A. To what value will this current rise if the generator is modulated additionally by another audio reste, whose modulation index is 0.7? What ‘will be the percentage power saving if the carrier and one of the sidebanis are now suppressed ? Tans. : (i) 1.647 A, (i) 85%) 3. An AM broadcast station has modutation index which is 0.75 on the average. What would be its average power saving if it could go to single sideband suppressed carrier trensmission, white having to maintain the same signal strengtie in its reception area 2 Tans, : 89%] 4, A400 W carrier is modulated on a depth of 75%, Calculate the total power in the modtudaded wave in following forms of AM. (i) DSBFC, tii) DSBSC, ( Be (Ans. : 4512.5 W, Gi) 112.5 W, (ili) 56.25 WI