Properties and performance of roof coverings

Paroli, R.M.; Dutt, O.M.; Frégeau, C.

NRCC-40627-7

Building Better Roofs: IRC Technical Seminar, 11 Cities Across Canada,

September 1996-February 1997, pp. 1-30

http://irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ircpubs
 PROPERTIES AND PERFORMANCE OF ROOF COVERlNGS
R.M. Paroli, 0. Dutt, C . Frkgeau

Roofs used to be simple. The structure had to be sufficiently sloped to allow water to run
off. The material couId have included asphalt but it generally contained natural fibres
which had some binder mixed in to hold it all together. There were few materials and
mixtures. Putting a roof together was labour intensive but labour was inexpensive.
Today, millions of square meters of residential and non-residential roofs are covered with
water shedding or weatherproofing assemblies. The 1495 North American roofing market
was approximately $22 billion Canadian ($18 billion in the US [I] and $4 billion in
Canada). A roof assembly contains a roof system over a roof deck. The roof system is
defined as having the elements which cover, protect and insulate the roof surface of a
structure against the external environment. Roof systems vary from the traditional types
(e.g., shingles for sloping roofs and built-up roofing (BUR)for flat roofs) to the non-
traditional roofing materials (e.g., polymer-based single-ply or modified bitumen). They
also vary in the method by which the covering has been put down. The conventional
method is to have the covering (e.g., membrane) above the insulation and exposed to the
environment. Alternatively, in a protected system, the covering is directly above the deck
and be covered with the insulation.
Trrespective of the system, new materials have been introduced as alternatives to the older
ones (see Table I). For exampIe, some shingles are made of modified bitumen instead of
blown bitumen. Asphalt-saturated orgmic felt is increasingly being replaced by asphalt-
impregnated glass fibre mat in the manufacture of shingles and as felt plies in BUR. In
the new systems, more factory prefabrication and less work atop the roof is involved than
in the traditional roofs.
According to the 1994 Canadian Roofing Contractors' Association (CRCA) Project
P i t ~ p ~ i survey,
rz~ the three main roof membrane systems (for flat roofs) in Canada (and
their market shares) were as follows: BUR (54.7%), polymer-modified bitumen (33.4%)
and polymer-based single-ply (10%). In the USA, the 1995 National Roofing Contractors
Association (NRCA) Market survey showed a different trend. The asphalt-based systems
(BUR and polymer-modified bitumen) and the polymer-based systems were almost as
popular. The market share for new cornmerciaI construction was as follows: BUR
(23.5%), modified bitumen (16.9%),single-ply (40.5%) and metal (6%). The reroofing
market was BUR (26.8%), modified bitumen (23.2%), single-ply (32.7%)and metal
(4.1%).
Some find this choice overwhelming and confusing. People have had many years of
experience using BUR but not many years experience with the newer materials. As a
result, the knowledge acquired in the past was of little use for explaining the problems
being experienced with the new generation of rwf systerns. Some of the questions k i n g
asked are how do the various systems differ, how do the newer systems behave, is there a
perfect system?

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Properlies arld Perfumto~~ce
of Rooj Coveri~tgs

Table I List of Various Roof Covering Materials

The objectives of this paper are to: introduce the different types of roof coverings (BUR,
polymer-based single-pIy membranes, liquid elastorneric membranes, polyurethane foam
m f s and metal); discuss the factors concerning the performance of membranes; and,
how they are related to standards. In this paper, a roof cover is considered to be a
membrane or metal sheet.

Roof Coverings
Asphalt has been used for thousands of year as a waterproofing material. In North
America, asphalt has been used for approximately 150 years as a roofing material. More
specifically, BUR has been used for over 100 years. It is still the single biggest type of
roofing system installed. The new materials introduced as alternatives to BUR are
products of different chemical formulations. AIthough no panacea, they do provide a
wide range of options that meet required performance characteristics. The first generation
of these materials suffered some set-backs due to lack of design and performance criteria
and lack of experience. However, improvements in their compositions, reinforcing, and
lap joint techniques have resulted in a second generation of products with better and
progressively improved performance characteristics. The development and promotion of
new materials were prompted by the following factors:
The energy crisis of the early 1970's resulted in an increase in the cost of petrolenm-
based products. The unpredictability of the sources of oil supplies meant that the
quality of asphalt was not consistent. This, in turn, affected the quality of roofing
materials.
Energy-induced inflation raised the cost of labour-intensive BUR, thus making the
alternatives economically more viabIe.
Advances in polymer chemistry and technology resulted in the development of many
polymer-based synthetic materials that could be used for mof coverings.
During the 1960's new structuraI design principles gave rise to lightweight structures
that caused pmbIems for conventional roofing assemblies owing to their increased
structural movement.

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Highly insulated roofs and decks with unusual archiiectucaI configurations allowed
innovative designs of roof systems that only the new materials could meet.
The aesthetics of roofs in terms of color and pattern presented the architect with
attractive alternatives that would complement the architecture of other elements like
flooring and carpeting in a building as well as other exterior elements of the building.
Better corrosion-resistant metals.
As s consequence, literally hundreds of new roofing materials have appeared on the
market. Most of them ace polymeric in nature. They are reinforced with a variety of
woven and non-woven fabrics of synthetic and glass fibres.

Polymers
Polymers are large molecules containing many smaller building blocks, A polymer or a
macromolecule is made up of many ( p l y ) molecules (mars) or monomers linked together
like wagons in a train, for example poly(viny1 chIoride), polyethylene, etc. Figure 1
shows the polymerization of vinyl chloride (VC) which represents some 500 to 2000
molecules of VC linked together to make a giant molecule of commerciaI PVC.
Monomers may have the same or different chemical compositions.
Elastomers are a group of polymers that stretch under low stress to at 1e;tst twice their
original length and recover after the removal of the stress. The formation of elastomers
depends on the system. For example, EPDM is formed by adding sulfur to the mixture of
ethylene, propylene and dime monomer. The sulfur forms linkages between the poIymer
molecules. This process is known as vulcanization.
Similarly, esters constitute a family of chemicals whose macromolecules are known as
polyesters that are used in synthetic fibres, filaments, threads, fabrics, etc. (Their use in
reinforcing roofing sheets and membranes is discussed later). Polyurethanes include
rigid, semi-rigid, flexible and integral skin foams used in interiors of automobiles and
many everyday products.

What are the cover fypes?

In addition to BUR there are many different types of roof covers. Most are prefabricated
sheets or liquid applied materials which upon curing form waterproof sheets or closed
cell foams. They are made from a wide variety of synthetic materials (polymers) with
various chemical compositions and additives. In some cases, natural materials such as
bitumen, organic fibres, etc. are compounded with them.
A brief generic list of roofing membranes is given in Table I. In each type there is a Iong
and growing list of products. No two products are identical even if they consist of the
same predominant polymer. A manufacturer may have a number of different products:
unreinforced or reinforced with different fabrics, for protected or exposed application,
with different seaming techniques and different attachment methods, different colours,
etc.
The terms sheet and membrane tend to be interchangeable. A membrane refers to the
finished built-up waterproofing layer comprising one or more prefabricated sheets. As

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such, a sheet becomes a membrane in a single-ply application while a modified

bituminous membrane may have two sheets, base and cap. Most of these membranes are
composed of mastic, which is the waterproofing component and reinforcing fabrics,
which give the membranes the desired physical properties.

What are reinforcemenfs ?

Conventional roofing felts are made of asphalt impregnated organic fibres. They act as.
binders and as reinforcement in the waterproofing component for BUR. In recent years
non-woven fabrics have made significant inroads in roofing, in addition to many other
fields, such as geotextile and medical fields.
Most of the reinforcements used in roofing are woven fabrics or mats and scrims of non-
woven glass fibres and synthetic fibres. They are placed within the body of the
membrane. In some cases, a light weight reinforcing mesh is incorporated to act as a
carrier during manufacture. Some exposed modified bituminous membranes without
granule surfacing have a light g h s mat embedded in the top surface to make it crack
resist-ant. The main requirements for the reinforcing fabrics include tensile strength, high
initial, elastic modulus, tear strength, puncture resistance, flexural stiffness, absorption
and fatigue resistance. These and other properties such as dimensional stability are
required during the manufacture of the membrane as well as during the performance in
the field. The tensile strength and elongation properties can be varied for the desired
design requirements. A number of reinforced single-ply sheets were tested for load and
elongation at break. The results show variations. Similarly, samples of modified
bituminous membranes were tensile tested. Figure 2 shows the differences in their load-
elongation pattern. The reinforcements play a very importnot role in the performance of
membranes.

Performance cansiderations of roofing membranes

Performance means the actual functioning of a building system or dement in service.
Performance or durability is generally related to the fulfillment of the usw's requirements
and the desired attributes of materials. Obviously, it is considered the most important
factor. Every roof cover, irrespective of the material or the manufacturer, must be capable
of doing the following:
Remain waterproof.
Withstand all weather factors (such as wind, rain, snow, hail, solar radiation,
temperature extremes, and thermal shocks) during its intended service life.
Resist various stresses from internal or external eauseZs during manufacture,
application and service.
It may be appropriate to define some of the terms related to the performance of building
materials or components in general.
Performance requirement is a quditative statement describing what the system or
element is to accomplish.

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Performance criterion is a quantitative aspect of the acceptable or adequate
performance level.
Characrenzutiun method means a method for evaluating the compliance with
performance criteria.
It should be noted that requirement and criterion are interchangeable and, to some it
implies both, i-e., the qualitative aspect is implicit in the statement of the quantitative
aspects. The selection of a roof cover, like any other building component, must be based
on its ability to meet the performance requirements for proper functioning throughout its
life.

Performance requirements
The performance of roofs, as mentioned above, is related to numerous variables
concerning weather factors and stresses. Other variables are the chemical composition of
materials, the quality control of the constituent materids and products during
manufacture, storage, transportation, instal1ation and, of course, maintenance. Most of
these conditions vary from one situation to another, so that a large number of
performance requirements and criteria are identifiable.
In this paper, only the roof covers are discussed, although other components within the
roofing system, e.g., the structural deck or board insulation, have an important influence
on the overall perfomance.
One way to predict the performance of a membrane is to identify the physical, chemical
and mechanical properties essential for its performance and to quantify them either
arbitrarily on the basis of experience or by testing many products in the same generic
class. These values constitute the performance criteria for the specific class of product
tests. These criteria may be projected with or without modifications to other generic types
of membranes. Similar requirements can be developed for a specific product if desired.
Quantification of the requirements can be accomplished by comparison or experience
with other products.
Table 11 lists the requirements for roofing membranes subjected to various stresses and
strains in different stages of their life. Some of the requirements and common tests that
are relevant to field performance are discussed here.
Tensile strerrgth, edongalion and strain energy and initial modulus. These pmpenies
determine the ability of membranes to repeatedly withstand stresses imposed on them
at joints and other places of concentrated movement as well as from shrinkage due to
low temperature or membrane creep. The minimum strength requirement also applies
to the weakest direction since some membranes exhibit anisotropic behaviour. Since
strength and elongation properties vary inversely, i.e. high strength membranes have.
low elongation and vice versa, the strain energy provides a better rneasure of the
combined properties. Where cyclic loads are involved, as in the case of wind uplift
pressure on mechanically fastened roofs, the modulus helps in the design of a
fastening system for the load within elastic limits. Some tensile test results are given
in Table I11 that show variations in different products. In general, the elongation

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varies between 20 and 500% while the strength varies from 10 to SO? kNlm. Note
that unreinforced membranes have very low initial modulus.

h p joint integrity. As prefabricated membranes have to be joined on site, the lap

joint becomes the weakest link because there is no continuity of the reinforcing
medium. The lap joint strength is solely dependent on the cohesivity of the joining
matrix. In addition, any voids left in the joint tend to blister and weaken the joint in
its adhesive strength. Joint integrity is assessed by the puII, peel, shear-peel or
adhesion slrength of the joint. Even if the strength is adequate, closely scattered voids
can still promote water leakage, The lap joint test method needs review in this aspect.
Crack bridging abiliry. Many shrinkage cracks are present in the concrete roof decks.
These cracks, which may be up to 3 m m wide, open and close cyclically with
structural movements and thermaI variations. A roofing membrane adhered to the
substrate at those Iocations must be capable of bridging the gap. It is difficult for a
very well-adhered membrane to provide this capability because the percentage of
elongation is very high. The crack-bridging test is applicable to both sheet and liquid-
applied materials. For liquid-applied materials, this test is crucial; the results are
related to the materials' adhesion property.
Tear resisiance. Initiation and propagation of a tear exists where an "oblique"stress
occurs along the edges of the membrane, producing a torsional effect. This effect
occurs due to an oblique pull at the rollers during manufacture and construction. It
also occurs at the points of stress concentration along the edges due to structural
movements and to pulls on the sheet during application. This property is important
during installation with mechanical fasteners and in being able ta support regular
traffic which could lead to mechanical damage.
Heat aging. Research and practical experience with the degradation of roofing
membranes over a number of years have shown that heat from the sun is one of the
most potent factors that affects durability. The heat aging test simulates the
accelerated effect of solar heat that changes many properties. The results are
compared with those of unexposed material to establish potential durabiIity.
Granule embedment. The exposure of bituminous sudaces to weather elements such
as air, moisture, heat and ultravioIet (UV) radiation causes degradation of the
bitumens that leads to the loss of adhesion of the protective granules or gravel. The
embedment property is thus vital to the durability of the bituminous materials.
Static puncture resistance. The puncture resistance test assesses the ability of a
roofing membrane to resist any job-site damage caused by a rough or irregular
substrate, traffic during construction or service, or a single human foot on a heated
membrane during installation. High puncture resistance is needed for plaza decks.
Dynamicpuncture resis~ance.This is tested with a falling load with an Indentor tip to
determine if the membrane is damaged to such an extent as to lose waterproofness. It
simulates impact from falling objects (e-g., a workman's tool, hail, foot traffic).
Dimensional stability. This important property estimates the dimensional change due
to exposure to elevated temperatures, relaxation, loss of volatile components and

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incompatibility of materials. Dirnensio~~all

y unstable materials can cause so much
shrinkage as to pull the membrane off the flashing or to cause expansion resulting in
wrinkles and subsequent failure due to cracking..
Per~neability.This property is related to the water vapour transmission (WVT) or
permeation. When the substrate is wet the membrane lets the water vapour pass
through to dry out the underneath. The rate of WVT is related to vapour barrier in the
system and affects the roof assembly design.
In general, the service life of a product is difficult to assess and measure. However, the
above requirements or properties must be quantified to establish performance criteria
thus allowing the user to evaluate a product. This leads to the development of test
methods for evaIuating materials that must meet the established criteria and satisfy
certain requirements. These results indicate how the material should perform 0x1the roof.
In some products, there may be more than one grade. Since the criteria are generally
more stringent for the higher grade, a longer service life may be expected.
Regarding the testing methods for these properties, each standard writing organization of
each country develops standard requirements which will meet the environmental
conditions and the preferred materials. Once the study of a material has come to this
stage, the information can be used to develop a standard for the generic type of material.

-
Thermal Analysis A New Way of Evaluating Roof Membranes
As mentioned above, the choice of roofing materials is quite varied, ranging from
asphait-based or modi fied-asphalt (APP and SBS) to polymer-based materials such as
TPO, PVC and EPDM. This variety motivated the international roofing industq to shift
towards using both engineering and chemical principles in solving roofing problems. In
1988, a joint CIBPRILEM international roofing committee was established to investigate
the applications of thermal analysis in the characterization of roofing membranes. These
techniques, in conjunction with, the traditiond engineering techniques, provide insight
into the performance of roofing membranes.
Thermal analysis, until recently, was not widely used in the roofing industry. It is now
starting to gain popularity.2-21Thermoanalyhcal techniques can be used to monitor a wide
array of material characteristics. Some of the applications include enthalpy, weight-loss,
thermal stability, coefficient of thermal expmsion(CTE) and the glass transition
temperature (Tg). Thus, these techniques can play a role in the decision process for
selecting roofing materials. For example, the Tgis an important characteristic that should
be considered fur the cold temperature performance of roofing membranes Below T , the
material will be rigid and hard. Yet, above T, the material will be flexible. Generally, the
strength of polymeric materials above the glass transition temperature is Iower then the
22-26
strength below Tg. Other properties that vary with Tgare the CTE and heat capacity.
There are four main thermoanalytical techniques that are commonly used to determine
and monitor the changes in a roofing membrane. They are thermogravimetry (TG),
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermomechanical analysis (TMA) and dynamic
mechanical analysis (DMA).

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 TG. Thermogravimetry measures the change in mass of a materia1 as a function of
time at a determined temperature (i.e., isothermal mode) or over a Lemperature range
using a predetermined heating rate. Essentially, a TG consists of a microbalance
surrounded by a furnace. A computer records any mass gains or losses. This
technique is very useful in monitoring heat stability and Ioss of components (e-g.,
oils, plasticizers or polymers).
DSC is widely used in providing valuable information on chemical and p11ysical
properties of materials. (This technique is similar to another technique Differential
Thermal Analysis or DTA.) The DSC technique measures the amount of energy (or
heat) absorbed or released as the material is heated, cooied or held at an isothermal
temperature. A DSC thermal curve shows the amount of heat evolved or absorbed as
a function of temperature or time- This technique yields thermodynamic data such as
enthalpy and specific heat.
The shape and appearance of DSC curves can give a clue as to the type of transition
taking place. Generally, first-order transitions (e.g., melting) give distinct peaks.
These peaks can be integrated and a value for enthaIpy (AH) can be determined.
Second order transitions (such as the glass transition) give rise to a step-wise increase
in heat capacity which yields a step change in baseline slope. In the case of heavily
pIasticized materials (e.g., roofing samples) a broad transition is obtained and the
step change is difficult to detect.
The glass-transition temperature, T,, may be determined by taking the middle of the
change in baseline (half-height method). This is facilitated by using the first
derivative of the heat-flow signal. T, values obtained by DSC are generally different
from chose obtained by dynamic techniques such as DMA since DSC is a static
technique.
DMA.~'"~ The DMA technique measures the stress-strain relationship for a
viscoelastic material. The storage modulus, E', is a measure of stiffness. The loss
modulus, E", is associated with Ioss of energy as heat due to the deformation of the
material. The ratio E"/E'yields the loss tangent or damping factor {tan&)which is the
ratio of energy lost per cycle to the maximum energy stored and therefore recovered,
per cycle.
A typical dynamic mechanical analysis curve shows either E', E or tan6 plotted as a
function of time or temperature. In general, the most intense peak observed for either
El' or tan6 in conjunction with a relatively pronounced drop in E' corresponds to the
glass transition.
Care should be taken when reporting the glass-transition temperature obtained by
DMA. The transition temperature determined by DMA is heating-rate and frequency
dependent. Thus, heating rate, frequency and the mechanicaVrheologicaI property (E',
E" or t a d ) used to determine the T, must be specified. It has been found that the El'
peak maximum at 1 Hz corresponded closely with the T, obtained from volume-
temperature rneas~rernents.~~

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T M A . ~TMA,
~ - ~ ~as defined by ASTM E473-85, is a method for measuring the
deformation of a materia1 under a constant load as a function of temperature while the
materia1 is under a contcolIed temperature program. The measuring system consists of
a linear voltage differential transformer (LVDT) connected to the appropriate probe.
Measurements can be done in compression, expansion, penetration, flexure- or in
tension mode. It is this variety of probes which allows for the measurement on
samples of different configurations. The dimensional change of a sample with an
applied force is measured as a function of time or temperature. The plot of expansion
(or contraction) vs. temperature (or time) can be used to obtain T,, the coefficient af
thermal expansion (CTE), softening temperature and Young's modulus. The slope of
the curve of length vs. temperature divided by the length yields the coefficient of
Iinear thermal expansion.
Figures 1 and 2 contain the derivative weight loss (DTG) as a function of temperature of
two EPDM roofing membranes. These EPDM membranes had been heat-aged at 100 OC
for up to 28 days. It is quite apparent from these curves that one sample (Fig. 1) is more
stable then the other (Fig. 2). The observed weight loss (Fig. 2) between 200 "C and
400 "C is due to loss of oils. This loss, significantly affected the in-service performance
of this membrane, e.g., severe shrinkage was observed. It is interesting to note that this
membrane is no longer available on the market.
A similar experiment was carried out on some PVC membranes. The results are shown in
Figures 3 and 4. As can be seen the differences between the two are more subtle than in
the case of the EPDM membranes. The, sample shown in Figure 4 has actual1y 10s t of 4%
of its original weight while the one in Figure 3 has not lost any weight.
The results obtained by oscillating DSC on some single-ply membranes are shown in
Figures 5-8. It has been found that it is generally difficult to measure the T, using
conventional DSC. However, this was not the case using oscillating DSC. The
deconvoluted curves are very similar to what would be obtained by conventional DSC.
The Cp curve dlows for an easy separation of the T, component fkom the rest of the
curve. Thus, one can more easily determine if the changes in the baseline can be
attributed to the T,.
DMA curves showing En results are shown in Figures 9 to 12, Once again, one can
clearly discern between a thermalIy stable membrane and an unstable one. In the case of
the EPDM, it is obvious that the peak maximum shown in figure 9 is not significantty
changing, even after being exposed for 28 days at 100 OC. This is definitely not the case
for the EPDM sampie shown in Figure 10, This sample has a T, which shifts from
approximately -70 "C in the as received mode to -40 "C after 28 days at I00 "C. Similar
observations are recorded for PVC sampIes. Figure 11 contains the E" curve for o PVC
sample exposed to 100 "C for up to 28 days. As can be seen, the T, (approximately
-35 "C) does not appear to change. The data for another PVC sample is shown in Figure
12. There it is quite obvious that the Tghas shifted significantly. Changes in T, can be
attributed to various factors (loss of oils or plasticizers, crosslinking, etc.). Since below
the T, the membrane is stiff, DMA allows the membrane rnmufacturerluser to determine
some low-temperature behaviour of these materials.

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A typical TMA curve for an EPDM membrane is shown in Figure 13. From such a curve,
one can obtain the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and determine the glass-
transition temperature. A plot of CTE vs. heat-aging days (Fig. 14) clearly demonstrates
how stable one membrane is vs. the other.

CTE
10A6PC)

EPDM-A EPDM-B

PAs received 7 days Irm 28 days

I
Performance and materials standards
The word standard is synonymous with quality. By definition a standard i s something
that is established by an authority, custom or general consent as a model to be followed.
It also means a definite Ievel or degree of quality that is proper and adequate for a
specific purpose. Standards are desirable for product acceptance in the market. They
assure buyers of quality and protect producers and distributors from poor quality product
competition.
In today's industry, which includes manufacturing, sales, construction and maintenance,
standardization is most essential. It is estimated that close to one million standards exist
in the world and that some 50,000 standards are used each day in various activities
around the world. In the construction industry they are used for the procurement of
materials, design verifications, installation procedures, manufacturing, quality control,
etc. When many firms are involved in a construction activity, standards become
paramount even for communication.
The development of a standard involves the representation of aII of users, producers and
general interest members. As Canadian and other standards are generally voluntary and
based on consensus, all opposing views on the contents can be expressed during
development. However, the prmess starts only after the need for a standard has been
established through investigations of its feasibility, practicality and desirability.
Appropriate test methods to evaluate the various physical, chemical and mechanical

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properties are deveIoped. An interlaboratory testing program is then designed to evaluate

the material and proposed test methods. The final step is the writing and balloting of the
standard. It is only after close examination of every statement in the standard that it is
considered an acceptable document.
In Canada, roofing standards are the responsibility of the Canadian Standard Association
(CSA) and the Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB). Bath organizations are pact
of the National Standards System, as shown in Figure 4. CSA is concerned with
bituminous roofing materials (e-g., shingles, roofing felt, roll roofing, etc.) and tiles.
CGSB deals with modified bitumens, tars, cutbacks, emuIsions and polymeric roofing
materials, etc.
Unless referenced in regulations, Canadian standards are considered voluntary. These
standards are referenced by the National Master Specification and utilized by government
departments such as Public Works and Government Services Canada and the Department
of National Defence when specifying materials for contracts. Other groups, such as the
Canadian Construction Materials Centre (CCMC), utilize these standards to evaluate
products for equivalency to roofing requirements in the National Building Code of
Canada.
AIthough there are no standards for BUR as such, there are standards for different felts,
bitumens and surfacing mate~ials.Trade organizations like the Canadian Roofing
Contractors Association (CRCA) publish specifications detailing construction methods,
which they update regularly.
Standard requirements for three prefabicated membranes are given in Table IV and for
two of the liquid-applied membranes in Table V. The third one, SPF (Tabre V), is
basically an insulating material, but can also be used for waterproof. These requirements
are representative of the variety of criteria, some of which are perfomnce-oriented
while others are consided material properties.
There are always questions as to the quantities related to the requirements and test
methods. For example, a material having 10 MPa strength does not imply that it will last
twice as long as a 5 MPa materid. In the PVC standard, the requirements for a reinforced
sheet is different from that of an unreinforced one. The reinforcement provides strength
to the matrix and should cracking occur, the damage would be more localized. It is for
this mason, that the elongation at break for unreinforced PVC membranes is 250%while
for a reinforced membrane it i s set at 15%.
The test method for the watertightness test is such that any material would pass unless
there happens to be a pinhole or other defect at the test spot. In the case of rubberized
asphalt, the toughness ratio may be useful as an ad hoc test for comparison with similar
products, but it does not have scientific reIevance to the field performance.

Accredited Standards Writing Bureau de NormaIization du QuEbec (BNQ)

Organizations (SWO) Canadian Gas Association (CGA)
Canadian General Standards B o d
(CGSB)*
Canadian Standards Association (CSA)*

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Underwriters Laboratoriesof Canada

(ULC)*
Accredited Certification Canadian Gas Association (CGA)
Organizations Council of Forest Industries, B.C. (COFI)
Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
Underwriters Laboratoriesof Canada(ULC)
Warnock Hersey Professional Services
(WHPS)
Accredited Tesiing Over 50 in many different areas.
Organizations Those testing roofing materials:
Technical Service Laboratories, Div. Of
Burgener
Technical Enterprises Lid., Mississauga,
ON
Quality Assurance Product Test. Lab.,
Fiberglas Canada Inc., Sarnia, ON
Techmat (1983) Inc., Jonquiere, QC
Warnock Hersey Professional Services
Ltd., Mississauga, ON
Associate Committees For the National Building Code (ACNBC)
(Organizations in Liaison) For the National Fire Code (ACNFC)
* Deal with roofing standards.
Figure 4 N a t b n d Stapldardr S y s t m of Can&
Some application standards are unclear in many aspects. They should emphasize and caudon
field workers of the problem areas.

Mernbrane characteristics

Bituminous built-up roafing (BUR)

All of us are familiar with conventional buiIt-up roofing membranes, which have been
used successfully since time immemorial (they were even used in the Hanging Gardens
of Babylon). At one time, built-up roofing membranes were almost the onIy membranes
used. They still account for a Iarge part of the roofing market. A BUR membrane is
traditiondIy made by using sevmd layers of roofing felts banded together with hat
bitumen and then covered with a waterproof pour coat, Bituminous materials used in
BUR include (a) asphalt, obtained in p m l e u m processing, and (b) a product extracted
from coal known as cod-tar pitch (CTP) [also referred to as tar or pitch]. In Canada, C P
is generally not available unless imported. Asphalt used for saturating organic felts is
commonly called No. 15 because the earlier types weighed 15 lb/100 ft2. It is important
to note that these two materials are not compatible, Tar is not soluble in paint thinner,
whereas asphalt is, imparting an amber d o u r to the liquid. This and asphalt-impregnated
glass fibre felts are used as plies in the construction sf BUR. Heated asphalt is mopped
on each felt layer b bind them together into the finished multi-ply membrane.

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P r u p e W and Per-omance of Roof Coverings page 13

BUR membranes are resistant to wear and puncturing, mainly because of their thickness,
But the individual components are generally not very strong (the plies may be paper-
based) and of poor quality (the. tar or asphalt may contain oil-refining residues). The
combination of these materials, however, provides the desired strength.
Since this type of membrane is manufactured on site, quality control must take place
while the membrane is being installed. This can only be achieved by continual
inspeetion. The inspector needs a thermometer or other similar device, such as a heat gun
to check the temperature of the tar or asphalt as it is being laid down. The inspector must
also have a contact hygrometer to test the moisture content of the felt plies. The resulting
membrane is thick (kl cm) and relatively sturdy, but not very flexible at low
temperatures. BUR membranes are often covered with crushed gravel, which acts as
ballast, protects against UV radiation, and provides resistance to the effects of sudden
temperature changes. BUR membranes are genedly assembled with five (5) plies ro
obtain the guarantee of the Canadian Roofing Contractors' Association (CRCA) or some
provincial associations such as the Association des m a k s couvreurs du Qutbec
IAMcQ).
Three types (CSA 123.4.M) of asphalt are availabIe in Canada. (i) Type I - softening
point: 60 'C, for slightly pitched roofs; (ii) Type II - softening point: 75 "C, for
moderately pitched roofs; and, (iii) Type IU - softening point: 83 OC, for steep pitched
roofs (Type III is c u m t l y difficult, if not impossibIc, to obtain). Using the right type is
crucial if one desires to reduce the occurrence of problerns such as slippage. In practice,
however, slippage is not uncommon, even when the right type of asphalt is used.
Many problems in BUR, like blistering, are related to moisture and air voids in the
membrane. The organic felts absorb moisture from improper storage and the lack of
protection from rain during jnstdlation and as a result lose strength due to wetness.
Sometimes moisture is trapped where there are skippings in the mapping of asphalt under
the felt. Also, synthetic fibre from rags sometimes get included in the felts during
manufacture, resulting in poor asphalt saturation.
BUR membranes, whether made with asphalt or tar, cannot withstand contact with oils,
greases or solvents. Eventually, the felt Iayers will deteriorate, leading to membrane
failure. The composition of a traditional BUR membrane can be improved by replacing
No. 15 organic felt, which is subject to decay, with the more inert No. 15 glass fibre felt
which binds the plies to each other much more effectively. However, glass fibre felts are
quite porous and provide good adhesion. Their use in flashing is not recommended.
During installation, walking over felt on hot asphalt causes the asphalt to squeeze out,
which could result in a void and lack of adhesion in the membrane, a potential source of
moisture problems.
A very common source of problems is overheating asphalt. This apparentIy makes the
mopping easy. Overheating the asphalt may lower its softening point. Overheating
asphalt has two opposite effects. It hardens the asphalt as it volatilizes the oi1. Yet, its
equiviscosity tends to decrease to that af an inferior grade (reduces both its softening
point and coefficient of linear thermal expansion). The surface causes shrinkage cracks
and alligatoring.

Roofing Activity
Properlies a ~ t d of Roof Coverif~gs
Perfor~~aalrce page 14

Some other problems in BUR include shrinkage of the membrane that pulls flashings
away, caused by a lack of adhesion of the roofing system to the deck. Membrane slippage
occurs if the softening point of the asphalt is too low with respect to the roof slope, or the
amount of interply asphalt is excessive.
Some manufacturers improve the physical properties of BUR membranes by substituting
modified bitumen for one or more layers of ordinary oxidized bitumen (asphalt).
Builders have begun to improve this system by using modified bitumen for flashing. The
materials are compati bIe, provided the polymer additive is SBS- (styrene-butadiene-
styrene) based. This solution sometimes represents a necessary evil, but it is an effective
way of improving waterproofing at weak points.

Modified bituminous (MB) sheets

This class of sheets is made from bitumens and modifying polymers (synthetic rubbers or
plastic materials), together with fillers and special-property additives. Since the process is
basically mixing components, the amount of modifier can be varied according to the
required characteristics. The physical properties and softening points of the resulting
modified bitumens are far sup.erior to those of the traditional oxidized bitumens. The
engineers and chemists who designed these membranes did so with the specific problems
of roofing in mind: sudden cooling, resistance to UV rays, dimensional stability,
elasticity, permeability and resistance to moisture, puncture, and ozone.
The two most widely used birumen modifiers we SBS (styrene-butadiene-styrene) and
APP (atactic polypropylene). The average SBS content in the formulation is 12-15%.
Generally, more SBS means greater Iow temperature flexibility and fatigue resistance as
well as a higher softening point and wider temperature use. There are about a dozen
different SBS grades that accentuate one or the other property required for processing
and performance of the membranes. APP is a by-product of the manufacture of IPP
(isotactic-polypropylene). It comprises 25-35% of the rnodified compound, its primary
function being to improve the mechanical properties of the finished membrane. The APP-
modified product has higher strength and lower elongation compared to the SBS-
modified type. A small quantity of filler provides rigidity to the compound but Iarge
quantities reduce flexibility and adhesion. Consequently, the best products have the least
filler.
SBS-modified sheets are used mainly for roofing, because they are flexible at low
temperatures. In Canada, APP-modified sheets are used mainly to waterproof
foundations, tunnels, as well as in protected membrane roofs.
Table Typical composition of a modified bitumen membrane

Tngredients % Wei~ht
A sphaIt 50
APP or SBS 25-35
Filler 10-20
Oil 5

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 e s~crfonHa,lceojRooJCoven't~gs
~ r F ~ i and page 15

Proper modification of bitumen results in a product whose performance characteristics

are far superior to those of normal bitumen. Various types of reinforcements, particularly
glass and polyester composites incorporated in the membrane, provide improved
properties. Same have a substrate consisting of a plastic sheet, film or mat. Modified
bitumen does not withstand harsh weather much better than unmodified bitumen. For this
reason, granules protect the surface from the degrading effect of UV. I n sorne membranes
a light glass mat laminated to the surface protects the surface from cracking and acts as a
replacement for granules. The number of reinforcing fabrics and their positioning
depends on the design of the product. The sheets are up to about 5 m m thick.
In addition to providing membranes whose characteristics and properties have already
beell determined through testing, this in-plant prefabrication process means that only the
installation itself needs to be monitored at the site. Quality control of the materials has
already been done at the plant. Overheating or applying the wrong thickness of asphalt is
no longer a major concern. If the various rolls of membrane are applied and sealed
properly then the specified degree of watertightness will be achieved.
Most modified bitumen membranes are designed to be installed as a two-ply system. The
bottom sheet has no special ~urfaceand is often thinner and lighter than the top sheet.
The top sheet has a specid promtive surface made of mineral granules or a thin layer of
metal. Some manufacturers make the bottom sheet thicker. Since these sheets use
thermoplastic bitumen materials, they can be applied in a variety of ways. These
membranes are frequently applied by torching (open-flame melting) the underside as the
sheet is being unrolled. Othep have self-adhesive backing or may be adhered with a
mopped-on adhesive. The: @&ing and self-adhesive backing methods offer a
considerabIe advantage in areas where transporting the equipment needed to heat and
apply bitumen poses problemd. However, using torches on a roof creates greater safety
hazards and requires appropriate precautions. As a result, sorne manufacturers have
introduced an electric heat-welding process.
Heat application requires great care because if the temperature is not kept within a certain
range, the joints may be defective. The heat method is used to apply modified bitumen
sheets mainly when the modifier is atactic polypropylene. If SBS sheets are sanded first,
they can be installed with a torch. The strips of plastic tape must be removed before this
is done. Overheating modified bitumen degrades the mastic and leads to poor adhesion
and weak lap joints.
Modified bitumen membranes are usually applied to the substrate, but they can also be
applied as an independent sy~temor as a protected membrane system, The adhesive side
of the sheets is very sticky and will stick to itself or to the substrate if workers do not take
proper precautions after they remove the paper backing that prevents the paper from
sticking to itself while it is still rolled up. These sheets will not adhere to surfaces that are
dirty, wet, or icy. so it is very important to make sure the substrate is properly prepared.
A torch can always be used to do the flashing.

Liquid membranes
There are many different categories of liquid membranes. The two main ones are hot-
applied rubberized asphalt and cold-applied chemical compounds. Both use bitumen

~ T f i Activity
n ~
Properlies and Performtrice of Roof Coverings page 16

(asphalt or tar) for waterproofing rhe systems and organic fibres in rags, cloth or
celluIosic feIt saturated with bitumen for reinforcing. Mineral materials such as granules
and gravel are applied on surfaces to protect bitumens from ultraviolet (UV)radiation.

Hot-appliedrubben'red asphalt
Hot-applied rubberized asphalts consist of proprietary blends of asphalt, mineral fillers,
elastomers (natural, synthetic, or a blend of both), virgin or reclaimed oil and a
thermoplastic resin. The compound is melted in a double boiler, then applied hot on the
concrete surface using a rubber scraper. The reinforcing material generally consists of a
thin ply of fibregtass or polyester, with butyl-rubber strips appIied at the angles. 11 is
applied hot in such a manner as to form an impermeable monolithic membrane over the
surface to be waterproofed, which may be concrete, gypsum board or wood. Improved
versions of this type of system consist of two coats of rubberized asphalt with a polyester
mat in between, called the fully reinforced or two-ply system.
Hot-applied liquid membranes are used for protected membrane roof systems, as well as
to coat foundations and underground structures such as parking garages. These
membranes are horizontally reinforced with polyester and with heat-welded strips of
butyl rubber or modified bitumen (SBS-based modified bitumen is generally compatible
with rubberized asphalt). Unfortunately, adhesion between the rubberized asphalt and the
butyl rubber is not excellent under tension, and problems occur at the points where these
two materials are joined.
Table Typical composition of a rubberized asphalt
Ingredient % Weight
Asphalt 40
Rubber 18
Filler 37
Oil 5

Cold-applied liquid membranes are typically made up of two components, one of which
is a catalyst. This category of material comprises a number of different products in the
market. They consist of emulsions and solutions of (a) various resins or elastomers such
as polyurethanes, silicones, acrylics, etc., and (b) bitumens and modified bitumens. The
material left after the evaporation of volatiles (water or organic solvents) forms the
waterproofing Iayer. Their surface coatings may contain white pigment or aluminum
flakes or they may be vinyl films for protection from solar radiation- They are spread or
sprayed on surfaces that have been pre-coated with polyurethane foam, or directly on
untreated concrete or plywood surfaces. The emuIsions cure slowly at Iow temperatures
and they cannot be applied below water's freezing temperature. The solution forms a film
much faster under these conditions.
Coid-applied liquid membranes can be applied effectively to steeply pitched surfaces and
concrete substrates. They can be applied on top of a Iayer of high-density polyurethane
foam insulation or of other material. When this kind of membrane is applied on top of

NRClIRC Roofing Activity

Properiies and Perfarrttattce of Roof Coveri~zgs page 17

polyurethane foam, the membrane itself must be carefully maintained to protect the foam
underneath. It also requires reguIar recovering and constant maintenance when water has
begun to penetrate under the membrane.
Also, the cutbacks (solutions) and emulsions (water dispersions) of asphalt and coal tar
pitch are used in various types of cold applications of BUR. Polyester mats are used as
alternatives to conventional felts for pIies. The market share of cold-applied BUR'S is
small. From the point of view of economy and availability, asphalt is more commonly
used in this type of roofing product.

Polymeric Sheets
Since World War I1 there has been a gradual increase in the use of single-ply membranes,
made of a variety of polymeric materials. Single-ply polymer roofing membranes have
been availabIe in North America since the 1950's. Many new products were introduced
to the market such as polychloroprene (CR), chIorosulphonated polyethylene (CSPE),
EPDM and PVC. Unfortunately, since these products were different then the traditional
asphalt, new installation techniques had to be developed. Many companies were unaware
of the criticaI role that insta]Iation technique would play and as a result, many failures
occurred. Today, there are much fewer companies involved in the manufacturing of
single-ply membranes.
The advantages of such systeh;s include speed of installation and no need for open flames
or heated asphalt. However, they must be installed by properly-trained and manufacturer-
approved installers. Most single-ply manufacturers claim that their products have a
service-life of at least 15 years. The membranes are formulated to resist UV, heat,
bacterial attack, etc.
The nomenclature used in the industry for these single-ply systems is based on the main
chernicaI ingredient. (e.g., PVC, EPDM, etc.). This is convenient for discussion purposes
but it must be remembered that all of these membranes contain additives which are
required to impart the desired properties such as flexibility and weatherability. In general,
there are two categories of polymeric sheets: eIastorneric and thermoplastic.
One advantage of single-ply membranes is their smooth finish, which makes it harder for
ice to adhere to them. Membranes with rougher surfaces may fail in winter because the
ice clinging to their surface is shattered by a sudden drop in temperature. Moreover,
single-ply membranes have a high vapour permeance (as much as 50 times greater than
some asphaIt roofing materials) and can therefore be used to build roofing systems that
are not subject to condensation in winter. Single-ply membranes are also easy to repair.
Tests have shown that when new singIe-ply material was used to patch a previously
installed membrane, the resulting strength was just as great as that or the original
material. As regards fire resistance, single-ply membranes can be formulated so as to
meet both Factory Mutual and Underwriters Laboratories test standards for Class A and
Class I roofs.
The following list i s not exhaustive. There are many other types of single-ply
membranes, generally composed of uncured, vulcanized or unvulcanized, thermoplastic
rubber and generally containing high proportions of PVC. The newer single-ply

Rooting Activity
Pmpedies arrd Pe$ormance of Roof&ve&gs page 18

assemblies could eventually eliminate the need for asphalt on the roof (although this is
not expected to happen in the near future). This reduces the logistical problem of raising
hot bitumen and grave1 to the roofs of high buildings and reduces the weight of the
assembly. Single-ply membranes, including any required adhesives or mechanical
fasteners, weigh between 2.5 and 7 kg/m2. However, ballasted singIe-ply assemblies do
not benefit from any weight advantage as the required ballast adds significant weight,
sometimes up to 40 kg/m2.

EIasfomeric sheets
There are many types of elastomers or synthetic rubbers used in roofing, including
EPDM (which is naturally flexible), neoprene, CSPE (also known as Hypdonm), butyl,
nitrile, etc. They are compounded with polymers and ingredients such as fillers, anti-
degradants, processing oils and processing aids, to impart the required properties.
Polymers provide the muscle and fillers provide bones to the Stabilizers (e.g.,
anti-degradants) improve weathering praprties of the membranes. The most commonly-
used elastomer in roofing is EPDM. TRe compound contains 30-50% p l p r (ethylene-
propylene-diene monomer), 20-3.0% carbon black and 30-508 extender oil, sulfur,
accelerator and antioxidant. Sheets are produced by laminating two plies with or without
reinforcing.
Vulcanization is the prmss of converting a raw rubber to a crosslinked network. This is
generally, an irreversible pmc&a. The most common method of vulcanization is with ihe
addition of sulphur (and metal oxides) although other crass-linking agents can be used,
Chemically, the sulphur forms bridges (or bonds) between the rubber molecules. The end
result is increased stiffness, reduced sensitivity to soIvent swell as well as other enhanced
physical properties.
The non-vulcanized or uncured rubber sheets that are self-curing are gradually cured on
the roof by heat from the sun. Once they are cured, their behaviour is similar to that of
cured elastomers. If they are not self-curing, they remain uncured and exhibit properties
similar to thermoplastics dufing their service life. In generd, elastomeric sheets have
good tensile and other mechanical properties and excellent resistance to UV, ozone,
many oils, and solvents.
Field seaming of some vulcanized sheets, known to cause some problems, is
progressively being improved. Doing the maximum possible seaming in the factory
reduces the amount of field seaming and the probability ofproblems. Some aspects have
been discussed above in the section on lap joint integrity. Proper choice of adhesives,
care in the preparation of the seam area, skillfhl application, and adequate curing time
could result in a durable joint. It should be noted that work is currently underway at the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to study the use of tapes instead
of liquid adhesives for seaming.

Butyl rubber

One of the oldest types of singIe-ply membranes, butyl rubber is produced by

copolymerization of isobutyIene and isoprene, followed by vulcanization. (Isobutylene
and polyisobuty~enecannot be vulcanized in their pure f o m ) Butyl rubber membranes

NRCAlZC Roofmg Activity

 Properties and Pcrfomnce of Roof Coverings page 19

are the forerunner of modern EPDM membranes. At one time, butyl rubber sheets were
commonly used to create watertight membranes. This is no longer the case because the
joints do not have good long-term performance. Buql rubber sheets are still used in built-
up roofing systems for expansion and control joints and sometimes for base flashing.
EPDM

According to CGSE 37-GP-52M, EPDM is composed of ethylene, propylene, and diene

monomer, forming a synthetic rubber whose properties are actuaIIy similar to those of
natural rubber.
EPDM was introduced .to the market in 1960 as the successor to butyl rubber. Like butyl
rubber, EPDM is extremely resistant to ozone. The first attempts to use it in roofing
membranes failed, for several reasons. After installation, the material could shrink by as
much as 2% (i.e., 2 cm per 100 cm). The glued joints did not stand up we11 and some
manufacturers used oil which was too volatile. But further research yielded superior
formulae and production of EPDM and adhesives, resdting in better performance.
The first EPDM roof in Canada was installed on the Sheraton Hotel in Toronto in 1961.
By 1970, the oil crisis had made EPDM membranes an attractive alternative to asphalt
roofing. (Asphalt, being an oil~refiningby-product, was affected when the cost of oil rose
from $3 to $30 a barrel. The market price of asphaIt went up and its quality went down.)
Today, the market for this type of membrane is experiencing vigorous growth. It is
widely used in the United States In all large industrial roofing systems. The reason for
this is the very low cost of this synthetic rubber.
EPDM membranes are produced by lamination or lapping. In the latter case, pinholes
may appear, and two sheets are seamed together to avoid having two pinholes on top of
each ocher. Preferably, joints should be made in the factory, but they can also be made in
the field, using self-curing, self-adhesive strips or contact cement, EPDM has yet another
desirable property: it remains high1.yelastic at temperatures as Iow as -40°C.
EPDM is highly resistant to ozone and ultraviolet rays. It requires some care during
installation, because of the self-curing strips or in-seam sealants used to make the joints,
and also requires some ongoing maintenance. Its natural colour is black, but it can be
painted with latex paint. ~ i v (e5 ) to fifteen (1 5 ) year warranties are available.
Table Typical composition of a generic EPDM roofing membrane.

Percent
Ingredient Composition Function
Polymer 25% - 35% Imparts elastomeric properties
Carbon Black (far black EPDM) 25% - 40% Reinforces properties, absorbs
or Titanium Dioxide (for white EPDM) _ UV and acts as filler

NRClIRC Roofing Acivity

 Propehes and Pefiri~zasce01Roof Coveriligs page 20

Extender Oil, Accelerator, Sulfur and 20% - 25% Aid processing and reduce
Anti-oxidant, Processing aids, etc. cost, promotes proper cure,
assist in resisting
environmenta1 factors,
promotes anti-sticking, and
provides smooth surface in
calendering

Polychloroprene (CR)

CR, better known under the trade name Neoprene, consists of hydrocarbon molecules and
chlorine atoms. It is the product of the polymerization of chloroprene, or of the
copoIymerization of chloroprene with various monomers. This membrane is composed of
chloroprene which gives the material amazing flexibility. The joints are made using
rubber or contact cement.
In its incompletely cured form, CR is used as the main polymer in manufacturing contact:
cement and sheets used for flashing. Curing is completed after installation, under the
effect of heat. Waterproof sheets of fully vulcanized neoprene are also avaiIable.
Neoprene is one of the synthetic rubbers that displays the best resistance to petroleum
products, solvents, and various ageing agents. Some manufacturers recommend applying
a coating of coloured CSPE to CR sheets, both to protect them from UV and for aesthetic
reasons. CR sheets usually come in thicknesses of 0.75 to 3 mm; the ones used in roofing
are generally 1.5 mm thick.

As the name implies, thermoplastic poIymers soften when heated and thus can be easily
extruded or molded. They are distinguished from thermosets by the fact that there is no
cross-linkage or vulcanization of the molecules. Welding together using heat or a solvent
is easy and creates new molecular linkages during service life.

Poly(viny1 chloride) is one ,ofthe most versatile thermopIastics in use today. It is

produced by polymerization of vinyl chloride monomer, a gas produced by the reaction
of ethylene with oxygen and,hydrochloric acid. This reaction produces a chemical, bond
that is saturated and hence highly inert and almost indestructible. In its basic form, PVC
resin is a rigid substance to which plasticizers, stabilizers, and other components must be
added to provide the desired properties for the PVC's intended use. PVC is used for a
wide variety of products, ranging from automobile seat covers to electrical cable
insulation to home siding. All of these products are made of PVC, but they differ in the
grade of PVC used and the stabilizers, plasticizers, fungicides, and other substances that
are added to it. The basic formula for PVC is now well known throughout the indushy.
Its use in roof covering started in the sixties. In a PVC sheet, the compounded plastic is
the key element that determines the final characteristic of the product and acts as a binder
for the system. The plasticizers impart flexibihty to the sheet and improve processing.

NRCflRC Roofing Activity

 and Perfhnanw of Roof Coverings
Proper~I-es page 2 1

Fillers and extendm (such as calcium carbonate) are used primarily to Iower the raw
material cast of the compound. They also improve processing and affect other
mechanical properties, such as the hardness and dimensional stability of the finished
product. Stabilizers protecl: PVC against heat during processing and against ultraviolet
radiation during service. Pigments are added to color the plastic material.
Table Typical composition of a generic unreinhrced PVC roofing membrane.

Ingredients % by Function
Weight
PVC resin 50 - 55 Basic material (powder or granular)
Plasticizers 25 - 30
Increase dimensional stability, and
5 - 10 reduce cost
Pigmenis 0.5 - 1.0 Provide color and UV stability to the
PVC compound
Processing 0.5 - 1.0 Improve pmcessing and resistance to
oils and biological attack
bi ocides
Provide resistance to heat and light
Stabilizers 2-3 during mapufacture and installation
Note: Based onq'te;hnical notes and some related patent
specifications
PVC sheets are produmd by three basic merhods, calendering, extruding and coating.
There are three types of sheets: unreinforced, lightly reinforced with fibres or fabrics that
act as carriers, and reinforced sheets that contain glass and/or polyester fibres or fabrics.
Reinforcements may be composed of unwoven polyester or woven or unwoven glass
fibres with characteristics similar to those of modified bitumen membranes. Polyester
reinforcement is used to increase the membrane's resistance to tearing in the wind.
Polyester reinforcement is used mainly for sheets that are going to be fastened
mechanically, while fibreglass ~einforcementsare used for independent installations.
Fibreglass reinforcements are used mainly to prevent residual shrinkage. The carrier
facilitates manufacturing and adds to the dimensional stabiIity of the sheet.
Reinforcement provides tensile and other properties. Generally, unreinforced sheets are
produced by calendering or extrusion. Reinforced sheets can be produced by laminating
two plies of unreinforced sheet with a layer of reinforcement between them.
The main advarxtage of PVC sheets is that the entire roof membrane can be joined by
welding the joints with solvent or with air heated to 425 "C. This membrane can then be
welded to metal flashing that has been factory-coated with PVC.The result is a uniform,
watertight roofing assernbIy. PVC sheets remain elastic ac temperatures as low as -40 "C.
They are ideal for roof repairs, because of their very high permmce.
Loss of plasticizers was once a major concern, as it caused embrittlement in the PVC
sheets. This is now considerably improved by using high molecular weight plasticizers
that,have less of a tendency to volatilize or migrate out of PVC resin.

NRCllRC Roofmg Activity

Propedies arrd Perfanttunce of Roof Coverittgs page 22

Membranes of this type must meet CANlCGSB 37.54-95. PVC sheets have good
resistance EO industrial poIlutants, bacterial growth and extreme weather conditions.
Minor damage to the sheet during installation or in service can be easily repaired by
patching the hole using heat or solvent. PVC is incompatible with bituminous materials.
Installation by conventional roofers is therefore risky, because care: must be taken to
avoid using equipment that has been in contact with asphalt. Moreover, some PVC sheets
are incompatible with phenol-based insulation, certain wood fibres, and polystyrene
insulation.

Copolymer alloy (CPA) membranes

The abbreviation CPA includes copolymer alloys and modified neoprenes (chloroprenes),
In CPA membranes currently available on the market, PVC accounts for a high
proportion (less than 50%) of the alloy. CPA sheets are generally white, reinforced and
fairly thin. They can be sealed with hot air either at the plant or in the field. CPA
membranes are incompatible with cellular glass insulation and with contaminants from
asphalt, tar, oils, and other petroleum products.

Ethylene interpolymer (EIP) and Acrylonitrile butadiene (NBP)

The abbreviation EIP is used to ethylene interpolymer alloys. The abbreviation NBP
refers to acrylonitrile-butadiene copolymers which are fusible membranes. PVC accounts
for a high proportion (less than 50%)in the membranes cumently available on the market.
The EIP sheets are generally a sandy, pale brown colour. They are reinforced, come in
very thin plies, and can be sealed with heat- Incompatibilities are generally the same as
for PVC,but it is best to check with the manufacturer.
Thermoplastic oligumer (TPO) and heat-weldable synthetic rubber (EP)

TPO membranes are flexible and heat-weldable, but unlike PVC membranes, they do not
lose their plasticizers over time. TPO membranes are thus very likely to become the
single-ply membrane of choice over the next few years. The abbreviation EP covers both
ethylene-propylene copolymers and thermoplastic olefins (TPO). Contrary to EPDM
membranes, EP membranes are relatively stiff at low temperatures but they have the
advantages of being inexpensive and heat-weldable.
Generally, EP sheets come in light colours and are reinforced. The plies are usually chin
and can be sealed with heat. Most often the sheets are white or black, with a blue
underside but many other colours are available. There are almost no materials with which
EP membranes are incompatible (in case of doubt, check with the manufacturer). EP
membrane is used in many environmental applications (for example, to Iine landfills and
the inside of holding tanks for waste ail and animal fats).

Polyisobutylene (PIB) membranes

PIB, a thermoplastic copolymer of isoprene and isobuty lene, contains carbon black and
anti-ageing agents. P B is typically more soluble and more rubber-like than polyethylene
or polypropylene. It is also generally more resistant to extreme weather conditions and
remains more flexible at lower temperatures. PIB is subject to creep if it is not: mixed

NRCnRC Roofidg Activity

P r o p e k s and Performance vj Roof Co~crhgs page 23

with other polymers or reinforcement. It is generally manufactured in sheets about 1.5

mm thick, with an unwoven polyester lining about 1 mrn thick, which acts both as a
reinforcement and as protection against any sharp edges in the deck surface. The joints
are sealed with adhesive tape or sealed with solvent. PIE sheets can be used either for
ballasted roofs or for roofs adhered with heated asphalt or with cold-applied bitumen
coatings.
PIB sheets consist of a single layer of polyisabutylene plastic. They are simiIar to PVC
sheets in their main properties but they are compatible with bitumen. PIB also remains
flexible at temperatures as low as -70°C. It is resistant to UV rays and is only avaiIable in
black.

Chlorosutphonated Polyethylene (CSPE)

CSPE is better known by the trade name Hypalon. These membranes consist of a single
layer of cblorosulphonated polyethylene plastic reinforced with woven poIyester. This
kind of membrane does not react with acid and alkaIis and is most often used in dairy
operations and marine environments. Its main properties are similar to those of PVC and
Hypalon sheets can be sealed using soIvent or a hot iron. Hypalon retains its elasticity at
temperatures of -45 "C.It is highly resistant to ultravioIet rays. The standard colours are
white, black, and blue, but ather coIours are available on request.

Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE)

The abbreviation CPE refers mainly to the chlorinated polyethylene family. CPE sheets
are generally white, reinforced, relatively thin and can be heat-sealed. They are used
mainly to line tanks that will hold corrosive materials or animal waste, The joints can be
sealed either at: the factory or in the field. CPE membranes are .generally incompatible
with perlite, with certain wood fibres, with cellular glass insulation, with hydrocarbon
contaminants and with oxidizing elements (those to the right on the periodic table).

Polyurethane foam (Sf F)

Sprayed polyurethane rigid foams (SPF also known as PUF) were first developed in the
late thirties and used during the war to strengthen aircraft wings. Commercial use in
different industries started only in the late fifties. The sprayed-in-pIaceroofing system
was introduced in the early 1960's.
This system is made up of three components: PUF, a protective cover and a vapour
barrier. PUF forms a closed cell waterproofing barrier and provides insulation. The foam
is made from the combination of two materials, a resin (containing polyol, catalyst,
blowing agent, surfactant, etc.) and a polyisocyanate component. Their combination
during application from a two-head spray gun produces a polymeric structure and a
vapour that forms of bubbles before the foam becomes rigid. During the chemical
reaction it expands 20 to 30 times its original volume within seconds. Minimum
thickness of the foam layer is 25 mm.
The use of SPF in roofing faced many problems in early years, that were related to the
ambient temperature. On hot days the foam reacted tot, rapidly leaving a rough texture,

NRCmrC Roofing Activity

Propedies artti Perfimla~tceojRoof Coverings page 24

while on very cold days it did not react leaving the material in a liquid form.
Accordingly, attention lo environmental conditions (temperature, wind, moisture on
deck) is necessary. PUF, once considered only as a reroofing alternative to BUR, is now
being used in a wide range of new construction projects.
Since urethane foam is very sensitive to UV radiation, it must be protected in some
manner. Various elastomeric coatings and latex paints have been used for this purpose. In
some cases, mineral roofing granules are sprinkled into the coating when wet. They
improve abrasion resistance, weathering characteristics and fire resistance. Coatings must
have high tensile strength, elongation, and water transmission resistance, since water is
foam's prime enemy.
A report detailing observations on the performance of sprayed polyurethane foam roofs
was recently published. The inspection of roofs was random and the oldest roof was 26
years old. In general, the author of that report indicated no major problems with the
system. In 1995, the National Roofing Foundation (a nonprofit corporation separate from
National Roofing Contractors Assoc.) designed a field research program to assess the
performance of aged SPF systems. The study is carrJed out jointly between the NRCA
and the Structural Research Inc. Some results will be available in the near future.

Metal Roofs
The market share of metal roofs has been increasing over the last few years.

Performance problems
Performance of a roof system can be affected by design features, material selection,
installation procedures and maintenance programs. These aspects can be improved by
continued technical training of roofing designers and installers, and the marketing of
tested materiais, along with the dissemination of knowledge of field practices.
The pe$ormance of "older" generic singde-ply systems such as SBS, APP, EPDM and
PVC is well known. Bur in recent years, a multirude of new plasiics has literally invaded
[he herefofore somewhad conservative roofing indusfry. Some of these plastics are new
m I e c u I e s created by chemical reaction. Others are simply new mixtures that rnodifi the
physical properties of their components, sonzewhat like metai alloys. These new plastics
open endless opportunities to create materials that are tough, strong, rut-resistant,
water-repellenr, and easy to install with pemzanent joints.
Effective sealing ofjoints is critical to the success of singbe-ply membranes. Failure ro do
so, for even a few uzillimetres ofjoint, con result in a roof Leak There i s no second line of
defence against water entry, as there is with the multi-ply BUR. Quality control of
jointing is easier in the facrory rhan in the field. For this reason, and to speed up field
application, suppEiers may make large membranes (15 m by 45 m) comprising a number
ofnarrower strips of membrane joined or the fucloty.
In 1974, pracrically no one had eval heard of EPDM membranes. By 1985, single-ply
membranes made of PVC, Hypalon, FIB, EPDM, and other such muterials accountedfor
40% of [he rota1 U.S. roofing market. By 1986. single-ply membranes harl taken over
51.7% of the total roofing market. EPDM alone accounted far 54% of all single-ply

Roofing Activity
PropeHies and Perfor~na~lce
aJ Roof Coverir~gs page 25

menzbrailes, or 28% of the iaial market for roof membranes. Parl of the reason, cf
course, was rlzar by rills time the cost of this material had dropped as lorv as $CAN 3.50
pel- square Inerre {$US 0.25 per square fool). It1 Canada, a sitnilar sh$t in the market is
expected nrly rinte. As itn the United States, sirzgie-ply tner~lbra~zes
will gradually replace
conve~lriortalbituniiaolcs membranes.
Single-ply nrembrunes generally lasf loltger with no apparenr degradation when exposed
lo ultraviole~miiiatio~r.TIzcy have a vely low expallsiott coeficienr, close to rlzat of wood
o~rdconcrele, and are ofren ilrstolled on rvaod ur cut~crefedecks. Eveu lvhett rlrese
nlc~nbrnesare installed on Jut roofs arld exposed to severe water build-up, they do tzot
rot or*degrade. Single-ply nte~nbrunesarc often used to seal rvater tanks artd swimitring
pools. In most cases, neirher rite membrane, nor tlze reinforcenie~tts,not- fhe joints are
aflecbfedby tlre w a e r irt luzy way.
For any improvement to take place in a component or system it is imperative to know of
problem area, the observed deficiency, and its probable cause. Any component that does
not fulfill its function can impair the overaI1 system's performance. Any failure needs
thorough investigation of the site conditions and laboratory testing of samples for proper
assessment.
Some of the failure mechanisms in membranes experienced by the indusfry are given
below. It must, however, be emphasized that these conditions may not be generalized or
considered as widely prevalent phenomena. The probability of occurrence is like any
other accident that is the culmination of a host of circumstances.
Pinhole in a cured neoprene sheet when received at the construction site that had gone
unnoticed during quality control.
Swelling of a synthetic rubber sheet due to exposure to oil and plastic roofing cement.
Punctures caused by foot traffic on a roof.
Stains showed on a sheet membrane (a case of bituminous fractions diffusing through
the sheet and affected by UV radiation). No leakage reported.
Fish-mouthed lap joint in an EPDM sheet (a case of excessive solvent wash or
adhesive sweIling the sheets).
Lapjointpulledapartoreasilyopenedbyhanddue to manyvoidsinanEPDM sheet.
Brittle, shrunk and pulled free edge flashing in a PVC membrane (a case of loss of
plasticizer).
Impactfractureowing toahardenedPVCmernbrane.
An end lap joinr of a modified bituminous membrane, pulled back (a case of
negligence: factory wrapping Iabel stuck on the sheet prevented bonding of the
mopped joint).
Lap joints of a modified bituminous (MB)membrane contained air pockets (because
the sheet due to its thickness did not flex to allow full embedment in asphalt).
Degradation of MB due to overheating by torching during application-

NRClIRC Roofing Activity

 01Roof Coverir~gs
Properlies attd Per-rma~lce paze 26

Delamination of MB membranes due to insufficient heat causing blistering.

Misalignment of rolls causing wrinkles which contain unadhered areas that obstruct
water flow and damage the membrane where there is pedestrian traffic.
Loss of thermoplasticity owing to overheating of rubberized asphaf t (RA) during site
application.
PinhoIing and blistering due to foaming of hot RA on a wetln~oistdeck.
Loss of adhesion due to moisture and surface contaminants on the deck in Iiquid-
applied membranes.
Cracking of membrane with cracks in concrete deck due to excessive adhesion and
low elongation of liquid elastomer.
Impact damage of polyurethane foam.
Delamination of foam layers, i.e. between passes.
Spalling of weathered elastorneric coating on PUF.

Conclusions
It may be appropriate to repeat the often-stated caution for the manufacturer, designer,
contractor and workers. They should each have adequate knowledge and training and
should employ great- care in conducting their part of the job to make the roof perform
well.
Thermal analysis shows much promise in providing quick and reliable data regarding the
stability of polymeric roofing membranes. It has been shown how the relative stability of
PVC and EPDM membranes can be determined by TG, oscillating-DSC, DMA and
TMA. Each technique provides information which is complimentary to the other.
Furthermore, this data can be of assistance when trying to understand why a membrane is
exhibiting peculiar behaviour.
In the future, one wouId hope that these techniques be incorporated in to the relevant
membrane standards. In Canada, the next version of the PVC standard will be addressing
this issue. Another aspect to be considered is the use of these techniques in service-life
prediction. Using a kinetic approach it may be possible to determine the approximate
service-life of some of these materials. Work in this area, has recendy been initiated at
NRC and data wiIl hopefully be forthcoming in the near future.
This paper dealt with the membranes and the standards requirements for their
perfurmance. The total roof involves many other aspects that are equaIly important and
have been dealt with in this seminar.

I. Kane, K.,Professional Roofing, "How was 1995?",March, pp. 16-20, (1996).

2. "Performance Testing of Roofing Membrane Materials", Recommendations of the

Consetl Inter~latiorzaldu Batiment pour la Recherche I'Etude et la Docurneatation

Roofing Activity
Pmperfies arrd Perfonricrtrce of Roof Co veti~tgs page 27

(CIB) W.83 and Rkunioa Internnfiunale des Laboruloires d'Essai et de Rech~rchesur

les Mare'n'aux el les Consrrilaiot~s(RILEM) 75-SLRJoilil Con~rnitteeon Ehronreric,
Thert?toplastic and Modified Bitualen Rnofitg, RILEM, Paris, France, November
1988.

3- Rossiter, W.; Paroli, R.M.; Flueler, P.; Beech, J.; Cullen, W.;Lobo, 0.;
Oba, K.;
Purerman, M.; Saunders, G.; Tanaka, K.; Vandewynckel, J.; Burn, S. "Therwzal
A~ialysisTestirrg of Roofilzg Menrbrm~eMaicrials : Fit~alRepart of the Tlzenlzal
Analysis Tusk Group" RILEM 120-MRS/CIB W.83 Joint Conlrlzitlee 011 M e / n b ~ - a ~ ~ e
Ruofizg Systefns, 1995. 68 pp.
4. Kashiwagi, D.T, "Performance Issues of Sprayed Polyurethane Foam Roof
Systems", Professional Roofing, January, pp. 18-22, (1 996).
5. Dupuis, R.M., SPF Roof Systems: Field Survey and Performance Review",
Professional Roofing, March ,pp. 32-36, (1996).
Booth, R.J., "Evaluation, Testing and Standards for Modified Bitumen",
Proceedings of the Eighth Conference on Roofing Technology, Gaithersburg,
MI, April 1987. Published by National Roofing Contractors Association,
Rosemont, IL, pp. 9 1-98.
CRCA, Roofing Specifications,Canadian Roofing Contractors Association, Ottawa.
Dutt, 0."Strain Energy: A Performance Attribute of Modified Bituminous
Membranes," Presented at the Roofs and Roofing Conference, Bournemouth,
U.K.,April 1988. Proceedings published by ellis Honvood Ltd, Chichester,
U.K.
Fricklas, Richard L., "Utilization of Synthetic Fiber Non-woven Materials in the
Roofing Industry", Presented at the 13th Annual Technical Symposium of
INDA Association of the Non-woven Fabrics Industry.
Hodges, Christopher P., "Roofing Failures: What Went Wrong?", Roofing, Siding,
InsuIation (RSI) Magazine, March, 1989, pp. 40-46.
Kneeland, A. Godfcey Jr., "Roof Membranes: New Systems, New Problems", Civil
Engineering, ASCE, March 1986, pp 76-79.
NRCA, "Roofing Materials Guide", Volume 12, February 1988, National Roofing
Contractors Association, Rosemont, IL.
RILEM Committee 3 1-PCM, "Performance Criteria for Building Materials", Final
Report, December 1986.
Sands, Seymour, "New BUR Technology Using Spunbonded Polyester Reinforcing
Fabrics", Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Roofing Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD, ApriI 1983.
Wallace, Richard J., "Field Experiences with Single-Ply Roofing Systems",
Proceedings of the Seventh Conference on Roofing Technology, Gaithersburg,
MD, April 1983.

NRWRC Roofing Activity

Properties atrd Perfortttarlce of Roof Coverilrgs page 28

References

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NRCARC Roofing Activity

Properlies and Perfori~~ance
of Roof Coveri~lgs page 29

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 cc of Roof Coveririgs
Properlies nrrd Perfun~~aw page 30

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NRCKIRC Roofing Activity