1

Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Background of the Study

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) has become one of the

most fast spreading and serious health problems in the world (Centers for

Disease Conrol and Prevention, 2016). With the infection rate of three people per

minute, 263 people per hour and 6,300 people per day, human immune

deficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) causes one

of the most serious contemporary health challenges (UNAIDS, 2013).

Approximately, 69 million to 89 million people have been infected by HIV/AIDS,

and an estimation of 30 million to 42 million have died because of this virus,

which is a 43% to 47% mortality rate (UNAIDS Global Fact Sheet, 2013). Further,

of those people living with the disease, about 40% are between the ages of 15

and 24 (Ezeonyido, 2015).

Human immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/ Acquired Immunodeficiency

Syndrome (AIDS) remain unabated. The World Health Organization (WHO) is

persistent in warning the people of the devastating effect of acquiring HIV/AIDS

but despite cautions from health agencies and media, cases of HIV/AIDS

continue to rise.

Moreover, in the Global Report of the Joint United Nations Programme

(2012) on HIV/AIDS, or UNAIDS, new incidents of HIV infections across 25 low-

and middle-income countries dropped by more than 50% in a decade from 2001

to 2011 but it is very opposite with the Philippines. Out of 186 reporting countries,
 2

the Philippines is one of the nine countries with highest increase in HIV reported

cases amongst adults 15-49 years old from 2001 – 2011. It increases by 25 %

among with Bangladesh, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Indonesia, Sri

Lanka, Republic of Moldova, Guinea-Bissau. From 1985 till 1990s, HIV cases

were predominantly women. However, there has been a shift from female new

cases to male new HIV cases (Casauay,2012)

The Philippines is witnessing the steadily increasing HIV outbreak and

between 2010 and 2017, HIV incidence was up 174%. In August 2018 alone,

there were 1047 new cases. Although the National HIV Prevalence only exceeds

0·1%, 84% of new infections are caused by men having sex with men.

Not only that, is also highlighted in the UNAIDS reports that only 67% of

individuals with HIV are aware of their disease, 55% have a CD4 count of less

than 200 cells/μL at the time of diagnosis, 32 percent have ART and 82 percent

have ART for 12 months after initiation of therapy (Gangcuangco,2019).

Furthermore, according to Regional Director Francisco V. Mateo of DOH

XII on his interview last May 11, 2017 that in March 2017, around 73% (32

cases) of HIV/AIDS were recorded in South Cotabato which includes Koronadal

and General Santos City.   Of the total number of cases, General Santos City has

the highest case of 27.27% (12 cases) and closely followed by Koronadal City at

22.72% (10 cases).  During the 1st quarter of 2017, the region has recorded a

total of 68 HIV/AIDS cases and 64.70% (44 cases) were recorded in March 2017.

With this worrying increased cases of HIV in General Santos City, the

researchers, as future health practitioners in the future, feel obligated to help stop
 3

the spread of this virus. Aside from this, there were reports received by the

spread of mouth that in the chosen locale there were claimed that PUV drivers

providing extra service. When PUV Drivers in the target area are not fully

knowledgeable about HIV/AIDS, more and more of them will be vulnerable in

contracting HIV which leads to AIDS.

From the above premise, the knowledge level on HIV-AIDS among PUV

Drivers should be determined so that appropriate intervention or program can be

provided. Thus, the investigators decided to conduct a study to assess the level

of knowledge among PUV Driver regarding HIV-AIDS.

Review of Related Literature

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). HIV disease continues to be a

serious health issue for parts of the world (Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention , 2016).The world is now nearing the end of the third decade of the

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) epidemic. Unfortunately, although

massive progress in prolonging and improving the quality of life of those infected

with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) have been made, the world still has

no cure nor a vaccine to prevent this disease. Perhaps most importantly, it has

become increasingly clear that preventing the transmission and the acquisition of

HIV must focus upon behavior and behavioral changes to put stop on the spread

of this epidemic (Nigatu Regassa and Seman Kedir, 2011).

HIV is a virus that attacks cells that help the body fight infection, making a

person more vulnerable to other infections and diseases. It is spread by contact

 4

with certain bodily fluids of a person with HIV. Most commonly during

unprotected sex (sex without a condom or HIV medicine to prevent or treat HIV),

or through sharing injection drug equipment. If left untreated. HIV can lead to the

disease AIDS (NA,2019).

According to the Department of Health (DOH), an average of one case of

HIV infection per day were documented in 2008 which increased to 7 cases in

2011, 16 cases in 2014, 32 cases in 2018, and 36 cases in 2019. As of April

2016, there are 33,419 cases registered in the country. Seven-hundred seventy-

two (772) new cases were reported in just a span of one month from March 2016

to April 2016. This increase is the highest compared to other monthly reports in

the past years and only on September 2019, 1,038 new cases of HIV

seropositive individuals were recorded (DOH, 2016).

A lack of socioeconomic resources is linked to the practice of riskier

health behaviors, which can lead to the contraction of HIV. These behaviors

include earlier initiation of sexual activity and less frequent use of condoms as

zeroed in by American Psychological Association (2016).

Likewise, in the Philippines, the first case of HIV infection was reported in

1984. From January 1984 to September 2015, there have been 28,428 HIV Ab

sero-positive cases reported to the HARP. Ninety-two % (26,015) of the total

reported cases were asymptomatic at the time of reporting or having no

symptoms of infection. Most of the reported cases were male with 26,066 or

92%. The median age was 28 years old (age range: 1 year- 82 years) (National

Aids Council, 2015).

 5

On the other hand, in the early years of the epidemic (1984-1990), 62%

(133 of 216 cases) were female while starting on 1991, more males were

reported to be infected with HIV in the Philippines. Males comprised 95%

(22,835) of the reported 24,004 cases from 2010 to 2015. While the age group

with the biggest proportion of cases has become younger: from 2000 to 2004, it

was 30-39 years to 20-29 years starting 2010 to 2015. Notably, the proportion of

people living with HIV in the 15-24 year age group increased from 20% in 2005-

2009 to 28% in 2010-2015.

When it comes to the geographical distribution of the reported HIV cases

from January 1984 to September 2015, the regions with the most number of

reported cases were NCR with 12,404 (44%) cases, Region 4A with 3,829 (13%)

cases , and Region 11 with 1,664 (6%) cases, Region 7 with 2,539 (9%) cases

and Region 3 with 2,334 (8%) cases. Sixteen % (4,512) of the cases came from

the rest of the country (ROTC) while 1,146 (4%) had no data on region.

Moreover, the regions with the most number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW)

reported to the HARP were NCR with 1,393 cases, Region 4A with 628 cases,

Region 3 with 387 cases, and Region 6 with 197 cases (DOH 2015).

Misconceptions on the Spread of HIV/AIDS

When it comes to HIV knowledge, one of the highlighted culprit of the

spread of virus is lack of knowledge and misconception. In fact, Mondal, Hoque,

Chowdhury and Hossain (2014) specified that the misconceptions regarding HIV

are more prevalent all over the world of which findings were supported by a good
 6

number of recent studies. For example, the study conducted in Thailand among

tuberculosis (TB) patients with HIV surprisingly highlighted that a large number of

patients incorrectly thought that mosquito bites and sharing food with the person

who has AIDS could transmit HIV. In an extensive study across four countries,

namely Ethiopia, Zambia, Vietnam and Tanzania, there was a common fear that

HIV could be transmitted through eating food prepared by an HIV-positive

person, breathing infected air and using objects, such as clothing, bedding or

eating utensils that have been touched by HIV-positive patients. The World

Health Organization identified that the young people do not have proper

knowledge to protect themselves from HIV infection.

The tendency for information, including false information, to spread among

young people is increasingly enabled by technological advancements and access

to social media (Wong, 2014). Many adolescents in Nigeria lack comprehensive

knowledge about HIV/AIDS; and are thus susceptible to misinformation and

misconceptions about modes of transmission and methods of prevention of HIV

(UNAIDS, 2013).

According to Zulueta (2018) one of the reason why the Philippines is one

of the fastest-growing HIV cases in the world is that people know very little about

HIV. And what they know is typically founded on misconceptions. The author

address the prevalent misconceptions about HIV and includes the facts that

show that these misconceptions are wrong. The succeeding paragraph presents

the different misconceptions about HIV/AIDS based on the study of Zulueta

(2018).
 7

The first misconception on her list is “Straight people can’t get HIV”. The

probability of sexually active homosexuals could be higher risk in developing the

disease but straight people are not exempted from HIV. If you're straight or

homosexual, a male or a woman, HIV remains a reality for everybody. Ignoring

this leads to riskier behaviour, like straight couples, thinking that they don't need

condoms.

Second misconception is “you can catch HIV the same way you catch the

common flu or other viruses”. Only the contaminated body fluid can spread HIV.

It won't infect you if you bind, share such items as pebbles, or even in the vicinity

of an HIV positive human. These theories caused too many people to become

ostracized.

Third misconception is “HIV is an infection to eliminate homosexuals”.

There is no conspiracy theory to eradicate the homosexuals in this world. This

conviction further raises stigma, not only with respect to HIV-positive persons but

in general with regard to homosexuals. It introduces the idea that there is

something so intrinsically wrong about them that they must be "cleaned."

Fourth misconception is “HIV is a death sentence”. The first step is to

realize that HIV is still only a virus. Treatments and protocols are in order to hold

things in line, such as swallowing a certain pill every day. Indulging in this

defeatist argument is the death penalty itself. It can lead to reluctance to seek

help, or the illusion that all is lost.

 8

Fifth misconception is “Children aren’t an option if you’re HIV-positive”.

There are so many steps that a pregnant, HIV-positive woman should take to

ensure the wellbeing of her unborn child. Strong cooperation with physicians,

medication and opting for a C-section are just a few choices. A HIV-positive

person may also receive special medicines.

Sixth misconception is “You don’t need a condom if you both have HIV”.

There are various strains of HIV. This means that an individual's infection may

not be the same as the infection of his or her partner. The chance, therefore is to

contract and compound another strain of HIV. This misconception needs to be

altered as individuals appear to be risky to work under it.

Seventh misconception is “An HIV negative person can’t be in a

relationship with someone who is HIV positive”. There are a variety of preventive

strategies available for couples with different HIV status. One is essentially HIV

care, which lowers the risk of infection by 1% or less after reaching an

undetectable viral load. Clearly, safe sex is another choice, too. Keeping in

contact with someone who has a particular HIV status is not dumb or risky.

These people just need to be responsible enough to warn about the damage.

Eighth misconception is “HIV can be cured”. Although many HIV therapies

exist and are overwhelmingly successful, these treatments are mainly for the

control of the infection. HIV-positive people do have the potential to live long and

stable lives, but there is no ultimate remedy. Antiretroviral therapy should not

actually give patients a free pass or go signal to indulge in dangerous actions.

 9

Ninth misconception is “You only contract HIV if you do drugs or are

promiscuous”. There are a variety of common ways to get infected with HIV. Yes,

exchanging needles and becoming promiscuous are certain ways to become

sick, but there are blood transfusions or casual sex with your spouse. Further to

this narrative, all HIV-positive people are branded while at the same time

needlessly criticizing promiscuity and opioid abuse. It's just a troublesome picture

of all the lens.

Lastly, the tenth misconception in her list is “HIV = AIDS”. HIV is a virus

that continually destroys the immune system. When untreated, the immune

system is impaired. This is what makes it possible to cause AIDS because it is an

immune system disorder. A propensity to believe the worse and panic means

that most people do not obtain or accept the proper care they deserve. This

makes what should have been a manageable situation dire.

These stereotypes are negative in a variety of ways. It causes people to

take chances, disregard suggestions, or even give up. There are ideas that we

need to alter, and fast.

Clinical Manifestation

Early symptoms of HIV. The first few weeks after someone contracts HIV

is called the acute infection stage. During this time, the virus reproduces rapidly.

The person’s immune system responds by producing HIV antibodies. These are

proteins that fight infection. During this stage, some people have no symptoms at

first. However, many people experience symptoms in the first month or two after
 10

contracting the virus, but often don’t realize they’re caused by HIV. This is

because symptoms of the acute stage can be very similar to those of the flu or

other seasonal viruses. They may be mild to severe, they may come and go, and

they may last anywhere from a few days to several weeks.

Early symptoms of HIV can include fever, chills, swollen lymph nodes,

general aches and pains, skin rash, sore throat, headache, nausea and upset

stomach. Because these symptoms are similar to common illnesses like the flu,

the person with them might not think they need to see a healthcare provider. And

even if they do, their healthcare provider might suspect

the flu or mononucleosis and might not even consider HIV.

Whether a person has symptoms or not, during this period their viral

load is very high. The viral load is the amount of HIV found in the bloodstream. A

high viral load means that HIV can be easily transmitted to someone else during

this time. Initial HIV symptoms usually resolve within a few months as the person

enters the chronic, or clinical latency, stage of HIV. This stage can last many

years or even decades with treatment.

HIV symptoms can vary from person to person.  Symptoms of HIV. After

the first month or so, HIV enters the clinical latency stage. This stage can last

from a few years to a few decades. Some people don’t have any symptoms

during this time, while others may have minimal or nonspecific symptoms. A

nonspecific symptom is a symptom that doesn’t pertain to one specific disease or

condition.
 11

These nonspecific symptoms may include headaches and other aches

and pains, swollen lymph nodes, recurrent fevers, night sweats, fatigue, nausea,

vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, skin rashes, recurrent oral or vaginal yeast

infections, pneumonia and shingles. As with the early stage, HIV is still infectious

during this time even without symptoms and can be transmitted to another

person. However, a person won’t know they have HIV unless they get tested. If

someone has these symptoms and thinks they may have been exposed to HIV,

it’s important that they get tested.

HIV symptoms at this stage may come and go, or they may progress

rapidly. This progression can be slowed substantially with treatment. With the

consistent use of this antiretroviral therapy, chronic HIV can last for decades and

will likely not develop into AIDS, if treatment was started early enough.

Symptoms of AIDS. AIDS refers to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. With

this condition, the immune system is weakened due to HIV that’s typically gone

untreated for many years. If HIV is found and treated early with antiretroviral

therapy, a person will usually not develop AIDS.

Based from the study of Lucila (2017) respondents from various gender

groups knew that that persons can get infected by HIV/AIDS through anal (3.0)

and vaginal (3.0) sex but were not sure if it is transmitted via felattio (2.35).

According to Carter (2012), studies had shown very little transmission through

oral sex or saliva but its occurrence is not zero. If there are cuts or abrasions in

the oral cavity, HIV/AIDS is most likely. Transmission through saliva is not

common. In fact, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2016)
 12

categorically maintained that HIV/AIDS is not transmitted through saliva. This

was corroborated by Baron, Poast and Cloyd (2012) in their study which found

that saliva or viremic individuals usually contain non-infectious components

indicating a virus breakdown. In addition, all the respondents knew that HIV/AIDS

are transmitted vial anal sex.

According to Pebody (2010), the chance of HIV/AIDS transmission via

anal sex is 18 times greater than vaginal sex. Moreover, all of the respondents

knew that HIV/AIDS is transmitted through vaginal sex. Maron (2015) stated that

unprotected vaginal intercourse is next to anal sex as the main mode of

transmission of HIV/AIDS. Respondents were, however, not sure if HIV/AIDS is

transmitted through blood transfusion (2.38) and intravenous drug use (2.41).

Data revealed less than half of the respondents not knowing injected drug use

also transfer HIV. This has to be emphasized in campaign against HIV infection.

However, while almost all respondents knew that sex is the usual route of

transmission of HIV, there are still some who thought using kitchen utensils and

personal belongings of persons with HIV are ways of its transmission.

On the positive side, this misconception will make the respondents more

conscious about hygiene and sanitation but information-dissemination efforts

must be exhausted to prevent people from alienating themselves from HIV/AIDS

patients thinking they will get infected.

According to Odimegwu, Adedini and Ononokpono (2013), stigma is a

hindrance to public health treatment and prevention. Patients will most likely hide
 13

their condition for fear of judgement and rejection from other people, especially

their loved ones.

Medical Management

Among the most promising interventions to address drug dependence,

associated HIV risk behaviors, and injection-related HIV transmission are

counseling to decrease the number of injections by treating the underlying drug

dependence (Shoptaw et al., 2005) and antiretroviral treatment (ART) to reduce

viral load and diminish the likelihood of HIV transmission in the face of exposure

for those who are HIV infected (Wood et al., 2003). There is ample evidence

suggesting that HIV-infected person with internal disease are less likely to

access HIV treatment and that once treatment is initiated, they are less likely to

be adherent than former and nondrug users (Pelepu et al. & Vlaov et al., 2006). 

Sources of Information

Most of the respondents had a good knowledge about prevention and

transmission of (Sexually Transmitted Infection) STIs; however, not many were

aware of the clinical features and complications of STIs. Only around 40% of

students knew about the symptoms of STIs. It also shows a similar finding in

many studies conducted at different geographic locations (Sekirime, 2001,

Upchurch 2004, Anwar 2010, Andersson-Ellström 2002)

 14

Radio. It is believed as a strong channel of communication to reach out to

members of the public. The benefit of the radio over any other medium is that it

required no full knowledge on how to read and write before accessing or

receiving it is contents. Abia et al 2012 has listed radio as a strong channel of

mass communication. It reaches the widest audience with a single signal. It

carries the persuasive force to modify a person’s behavior because of it

acceptability and coverage.

Social Media and Printed Media. Most of the participants in the study of

Subbarao, Nagesh, and Akhilesh (2017) had known about infections caused by

HIV-AIDS through teachers, internet, and newspaper/magazines. Information

provided in internet and newspaper/magazines might not be complete and also

mislead the student as not all content on internet is scrutinized by qualified health

professional. Although many students knew about the STIs, they did not have in-

depth knowledge about the diseases and their presentations. A similar finding

has been published by Amu and Adegun (2015) in their study among secondary

school adolescents.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of this study is presented in Figure 1 next

page. It direction of the study is to determine the knowledge level on HIV/AIDS

among PUV Drivers in General Santos City and where did they get the

information.
 15

In present study, the PUV drivers are assessed according to their

knowledge regarding HIV-AIDS in terms of Clinical Manifestations, Diagnostic

Evaluation, Medical Management and Complications.

The end point of this study is to make an intervention to support HIV/AIDS

information dissemination practices and activities on PUV Drivers to help stop the

spread of HIV.

KNOWLEDGE LEVEL ON HIV/AIDS AMONG PUV DRIVERS

KNOWLEDGE LEVEL
ON HIV-AIDS OF SOURCE OF
PUV DRIVERS INFORMATION

FORMULATION OF HIV/AIDS KNOWLEDGE

DISSEMINATION PROGRAM
 16

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of this study enhances the theory of Albert

Bandura theory which is the Social Cognitive Theory.

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) has its foundation in psychology and it

branched from social learning theory, which focuses on psychosocial elements of

health behaviours and tools for promoting behaviour change. The theory

describe the psychosomatic through the lens of what people think based on their

perceptions and its effect on their behaviour (Perry, Baranowski, and parcel,

1990). This theory is based on the idea that we learn from our interactions with

others in a social context. Separately, by observing the behaviours of others,

people develop similar behaviours.

Statement of the Problem

 17

This study aims to determine the level of knowledge of PUV drivers about

HIV-AIDS in General Santos City.

Specifically, it answers the following question.

1. What is the knowledge level on HIV-Aids of PUV drivers in terms of:

1.1 Clinical Manifestation;

1.2 Diagnostic Evaluation;

1.3 Medical Management; and

1.4 Complications?

2. What among the following is the source of information of the respondents?

2.1 Radio;

2.2 Television;

2.3 Printed Media

2.5 Social Media

2.6 Health Care Professionals and

2.7 Significant Others

3. Based on the result, what program for intervention can be made?

Significance of the Study

This study hopes to contribute improvement on the spread of information

to stop the spread of HIV/AIDS. It is hoped that the study findings will be useful to

the health institutions, policy makers, educational institutions, and the community
 18

at large. It is the hope of the researchers that this study will be of help to the

following:

PUV DRIVERS. This study will give the PUV drivers information, idea,

and awareness in regards to their knowledge level on HIV aids.

STUDENT NURSES. This will help student nurses determine or identify

the knowledge level on HIV-AIDS among PUV Drivers in terms of clinical

manifestation, diagnostic evaluations, medical management and complications of

HIV-AIDS.

COMMUNITY. This study will give idea or information to the community

about the knowledge level on HIV aids among PUV drivers in terms of clinical

manifestation diagnostic evaluation, medical management and complications of

HIV-AIDS.

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. This study will give information to the

department of health and inform the health sector globally and nationally about

the knowledge level on HIV-AIDS among PUV Drivers in General Santos City.

INVESTIGATOR. This study will provide them a deeper understanding on

the knowledge level on HIV-AIDS among PUV Drivers in General Santos City.

FUTURE INVESTIGATOR. This study will aid future researchers for they

may utilize the findings of this study as basis for future researches. This study will

also provide an avenue for them to modify variables which will be beneficial for

the enhancement of the research.

 19

Scope and Limitation

This study will explore and describe the HIV/AIDS knowledge level of PUV

drivers and determine where they get the information. It will not deal on the

issues relating to high risk behaviour or put discrimination to the participants.

Definition of Terms

In order to have clearer understanding of the study, the investigators

have defined the following terms conceptually and operationally.

AIDS. A representation of a chronic, potentially life-threatening condition

caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Conceptually. By

damaging your immune system, HIV interferes with your body's ability to fight

infection and disease.

PUV DRIVERS. Conceptually, it refers to a person who has a job as a

tricycle driver attaining a certain matrimonial.

CLINICAL MANIFESTATION. A representation of either objective when

observed by a physician, or subjective when perceived by the patient.

Conceptually. Refers to a disease mean people who are often determined by

History (talking to the patient) and Examination (observing the patient,

including with some simple sort of tools.

DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION. Conceptually. Is the term use to describe

the process of getting to know the clients this process includes questions about
 20

the person's mood and behaviour to better understand what symptoms might

be most difficult for that Person,

MEDICAL MANAGEMENT. A term that encompasses the use of IT for

health, disease, care and case management functions. Conceptually. It refers

to a strategies that designed to modify consumer and provider behaviour to

improve the quality and outcome of healthcare delivery.

COMPLICATION. A representation of act or process of complicating. A

situation, event, or condition that complicates or frustrates her coming was a

serious complication. Conceptually. Refers to a disease or disorder arising as

a consequence of another disease.

Limitation of the Study

The study focuses on the knowledge level on HIV-AIDS among PUV

Drivers in General Santos City. The main respondents of the study was limited

only to PUV Drivers in General Santos City. This study involved the knowledge of

the respondent regarding clinical manifestation, diagnostic evaluation, medical

management and complications on HIV-AIDS. Each of the respondent is given

the same questionnaire to answer.

 21

Chapter II

Methodology

This chapter presents the methods of research and procedures that will be

used in conducting the study. This includes the research design, research locale,

respondents of the study, research instrument, data gathering procedure, data

analysis and statistical tool.

Research Design

A descriptive research design will be utilized for this study. It involves

gathering the data that describes events, organizing, tabulating, depicting, and

describing the data that will be collected. It is aimed at finding out "what is," that

is why observational and survey methods are frequently used to collect

descriptive data (Glass & Hopkins, 1984). The researchers believe that making
 22

use of the survey technique is suitable for the study because it is non-

experimental research.

The researchers aim to describe the respondent level of knowledge in

terms of clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluations, medical management,

and complications

Setting

The study about knowledge level on HIV/AIDS among PUV drivers will

conducted in the City of General Santos, specifically in areas of Lagao Public

Market, KCC Terminal, and Bulaong Terminal. These areas were chosen

because of the volume of passengers and PUV drivers stopping in the area. The

researchers believe that the three places have the appropriate number of PUV

Drivers to support the study.

Participants

The respondents of this study will be PUV drivers which is composed of

Jeepney Drivers, Van Drivers, Tricycle Drivers, Habal-habal drivers, and Bus

drivers. The number of drivers to be included in the study will be 10% of the total

population. This can be determined by checking the number of registered

vehicles per station. But those “culurom” vehicles will not be included in the

study, only those with franchise.

 23

Sampling Technique

The researcher will utilize purposive sampling technique in collecting data

on the level of knowledge on HIV-AIDS among PUV Drivers.

Research Instrument

Data collection will be done through an instrument strategically structured

to meet all the goals of this research. The questionnaire is structured in such a

way that respondents will be able to answer it easily. The researchers made a

Close-Ended Questions where the respondents are given a list of predetermined

responses from which to choose their answer. The tool is divided into two parts,

the first sections contains the level of knowledge of the respondent in terms in

the clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluations, medical management and

complication regarding HIV-AIDS. The second part contains the source of the

information by the respondent.

The researchers will adapt the research instrument used by Leif E. Aarø,

Kyrre Breivik, Knut-Inge Klepp, Sylvia Kaaya, Hans E. Onya, Annegreet Wubs, Arnfinn

Helleve, Alan J. Flisher in his study about An HIV/AIDS knowledge scale for

adolescents: item response theory analyses based on data from a study in South

Africa and Tanzania but the researchers will just modify it to fit to its study. The

scale for measurement of HIV-related knowledge consisted of 30 items. For each

statement, the respondents could choose between three response categories:

‘yes’, ‘no’ and ‘don't know’.

 24

Research Procedure

Generally, the methods that will be employed in this study will be

descriptive validations. It will include data gathering of data through the surveys.

These methods will validate the data from many sources.

Considering the uniqueness of the study, the researchers will secure a

letter of invitation to the respondents asking their consent to be part of the study

through survey. It will be clearly stipulated in the letter that the survey will be

conducted at the respondents’ most convenient time which will last for 20 to 30

minutes only. This is done to avoid conflicts with the respondents other task or

activities.

The researcher will indicate in the letter that the participants can withdraw

anytime from the interview for whatever reason they may have. When the

consent will be granted to the investigator, the gathering of data will eventually

commence.

In addition, since survey cannot suffice to capture everything, it will be

supported with interview. During the conduct of the survey, short interviews may

be used by the researcher to validate or clarify the responses of the respondents.

Statistical Tool

In order to describe the relevant features of the data, the researcher will

use the following statistical tools:

 25

To answer the sub-problem 1, the researcher will utilize frequency and

percentage to determine the level of knowledge on HIV-AIDS among PUV

Drivers in General Santos City.

To answer the sub-problem 2, the researcher will frequency and

percentage to determine the source of information in the said respondent.

Statistical treatment of data is essential in order to make use of the data in

the right form. Raw data collection is only one aspect of any experiment; the

organization of data is equally important so that appropriate conclusions can be

drawn. This is what statistical treatment of data is all about.

REFERENCES

Abia RP, Nwagbara NE, Nkpoyen F, Anake MU (2012). Channel and Source of
Information about HIV/AIDS in Two Urban and Rural Communities of
Cross River and Akwa Ibom States, Nigeria. Int. J. Hum. Soc. Sci.
2(22):214-219.

Agha S. The impact of a mass media campaign on personal risk perception,

perceived self-efficacy and on other behavioral predictors. AIDS
Care. 2003;15(6):749–762.

Amu EO, Adegun PT. Awareness and knowledge of sexually transmitted

infections among secondary school adolescents in Ado Ekiti, South
Western Nigeria. J Sex Transm Dis. 2015;2015:260126.

Andersson-Ellström A, Milsom I. Knowledge about the prevention of sexually

transmitted diseases: A longitudinal study of young women from 16-23
years of age. Sex Transm Infect. 2002;78:339–41. 

Anwar M, Sulaiman SA, Ahmadi K, Khan TM. Awareness of school students on

sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and their sexual behavior: A cross-
 26

sectional study conducted in Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. BMC Public

Health. 2010;10:47. 

Arinola AA, Adekunjo AA (2012). Analysis of HIV/AIDS Information

Awareness and Effectiveness Among Artisans in Ogbomosho, Oyo State,
Nigeria. Library Philosophy and Practice. ISSN 1522-0222. Available at:
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1770&conte
xt=libphilprac

Babalola FD, Babalola OA (2013). Health Issues within Informal Sector:

Perception of Market Women on HIV/AIDS in Ibadan, Nigeria. J. Sustain.
Dev. Afr. 15(7):1520:5509.

Baron, S., Poast, J. and Cloyd, M. (2012). Why Is HIV Rarely Transmitted by
Oral Secretions?: Saliva Ca Disrupt Orally Shed, Infected Leukocytes.
Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net.

Bertrand JT, O'Reilly K, Denison J, Anhang R, Sweat M. Systematic review of the

effectiveness of mass communication programs to change HIV/AIDS-
related behaviors in developing countries. Health Education
Research. 2006; 21(4):567–597

Carter, Michael (2012). Fact Sheet -Oral Sex. Retrieved from

http://www.aidsmap.com/Oral-sex/page/1044877/.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2016). HIV Transmission. Retrieved
from http://www.cdc.gov/actagainstaids/basics/transmission.html

Davis, D., Barrington, T., Phoenix, U., Gilliam, A., Collins, C., Cotton, D., et al.
(2000). Evaluation and technical assistance for successful HIV program
delivery. AIDS Education and Prevention, 12(2), 115–125.
Department of Health (2016). Newly Diagnosed HIV Cases in the Philippines.
http://www.doh.gov.ph/sites/default/files/statistics/EB_HIV_Mar-
AIDSreg2016.pdf

Fonner, V. A., Armstrong, K. S., Kennedy, C. E., O’Reilly, K. R., and Sweat, M.
D. (2014). School based sex education and hiv prevention in low-and
middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Gollub, E. L. (2008). A neglected population: Drug-using women and women’s

methods of HIV/STI prevention. AIDS Education and Prevention, 20(2),
107–120.

Herrin, A. N. (2007). Development of the Philippines’ family planning program:

The early years, 1967–80. In Robinson, W. C. and Ross, J. A., editors,
 27

The global family planning revolution: Three decades of population

policies and programs, pages 277–298. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Ilo PI, Adeyemi A (2010). HIV/AIDS Information Awareness among Market

Women: A Study of Olofimuyin Market, Sango-Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Library Philosophy and Practice ISSN 1522-0222. Available at:
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/340/

Keating J, Meekers D, Adewuyi A. Assessing effects of a media campaign on

HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention in Nigeria: results from the VISION
Project. BMC Public Health. 2006;6(123) doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-6-123.

Kirby, D. B. (2008). The impact of abstinence and comprehensive sex and

STD/HIV education programs on adolescent sexual behavior. Sexuality
Research & Social Policy, 5(3):18–27

Lal SS, Vasan RS, Sarma PS, Thankappan KR. Knowledge and attitude of
college students in Kerala towards HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted
diseases and sexuality. Natl Med J India. 2000;13:231–

Mantell, J. E., Stein, Z. A., & Susser, I. (2008). Women in the time of AIDS:
Barriers, bargains, and benefits. AIDS Education and Prevention, 20(2),
91–106.

Maron, E. (2015). HIV risk levels for the insertive and receptive partner in
different types of sexual intercourse. http://www.aidsmap.com.
http://www.christianpost.com.

McKee N, Bertrand JT, Becker-Benton A. (2004). Strategic Communication in the

HIV/AIDS Epidemic. New Delhi: SAGE Publications; 2004.

Mooko N, Aina LO (2007). Information environment of artisans in Botswana. Libri

57:27-33.

Morisky, D. E., Ang, A., Coly, A., and Tiglao, T. V. (2004). A model HIV/AIDS risk
reduction programme in the Philippines: a comprehensive community-
based approach through participatory action research. Health Promotion
International, 19(1):69–76.

Morisky, D. E., Chiao, C., Stein, J. A., and Malow, R. (2005). Impact of social and
structural influence interventions on condom use and sexually transmitted
infections among establishment-based female bar workers in the
Philippines. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 17(1-2):45–63.

Morisky, D. E., Stein, J. A., Chiao, C., Ksobiech, K., and Malow, R. (2006).
Impact of a social influence intervention on condom use and sexually
 28

transmitted infections among establishment-based female sex workers in

the Philippines: A multilevel analysis. Health Psychology, 25(5):595.

Myhre SL, Flora JA. HIV/AIDS communication campaigns: progress and

prospects. Journal of Health Communication. 2000;5(Suppl):29–45.

Odimegwu, C. Adedini, S. and Ononokpono,D. (2013). HIV/AIDS stigma and

utilization of voluntary counselling and testing in Nigeria. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3662628. Perceptions
about sexual abstinence and knowledge of HIV/AIDS prevention among
in-school adolescents in a western Nigerian city.
http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com.

Onyeonoro UU, Emelumadu OF, Chuku A, Kanu OO, Ebenebe UE, Onwukwe N,
Uwakeme C, Ndukwe E (2014). Knowledge and utilization of HIV
counseling and testing services among students of a tertiary institution in
Abia State, South East Nigeria. J. HIV Hum. Reprod. 2(1):8-14.

Organization (2016). HIV-AIDS Data and Statistics.

http://www.who.int/hiv/data/en.

Palepu A, Tyndall MW, Joy R, Kerr T, Wood E, Press N, et al. Antiretroviral

adherence and HIV treatment outcomes among HIV/HCV co-infected
injection drug users: the role of methadone maintenance therapy. Drug
Alcohol Depend 2006 Sep 15;84(2):188-194.

Parkhurst, J. O. (2008). ‘‘What worked?’’: The evidence challenges in

determining the causes of HIV prevalence decline. AIDS Education and
Prevention, 20(3), 275–283.

Pebody, Roger (2010). HIV transmission risk during anal sex 18 times higher
than during vaginal sex. http://www.aidsmap.com.

Sekirime WK, Tamale J, Lule JC, Wabwire-Mangen F. Knowledge, attitude and

practice about sexually transmitted diseases among university students in
Kampala. Afr Health Sci. 2001;1:16–22. 

Shoptaw S, Reback CJ, Peck JA, Yang X, Rotheram-Fuller E, Larkins S, et al.

Behavioral treatment approaches for methamphetamine dependence and
HIV-related sexual risk behaviors among urban gay and bisexual men.
Drug Alcohol Depend 2005 May 9;78(2):125-134.

Sood S, Nambiar D. Comparative cost-effectiveness of the components of a

behavior change communication campaign on HIV/AIDS in North
India. Journal of Health Communication. 2006;11:143–162.
 29

Subbarao, Nagesh Tumkur, and A Akhilesh. “Knowledge and attitude about

sexually transmitted infections other than HIV among college
students.” Indian journal of sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS vol.
38,1 (2017): 10-14. doi:10.4103/0253-7184.196888

Tremblay, C. H. and Ling, D. C. (2005). AIDS education, condom demand, and

the sexual activity of American youth. Health Economics, 14(8):851–867.

UNAIDS Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic (2010). Retrieved from

http://www.unaids.org/globalreport/Global_report.htm.

United Nations Children’s Fund (2016). HIV and AIDS. Retrieved from
https://www.unicef.org/philippines/hivaids.html#.WJHFnRt97IU

Upchurch DM, Mason WM, Kusunoki Y, Kriechbaum MJ. Social and behavioral
determinants of self-reported STD among adolescents. Perspect Sex
Reprod Health. 2004;36:276–87. 

Uwakwe C. Systematized HIV/AIDS education for student nurses at the

University of Ibadan, Nigeria: impact on knowledge, attitudes and
compliance with universal precautions. Journal of Advanced
Nursing. 2000;32(2):416–424.

Vlaov D, Celentano DD. Access to highly active antiretroviral therapy for injection
drug users: adherence, resistance, and death. Cad Saude Publica 2006
Apr;22(4):705-718

Wood E, Montaner JSG, Yip B, Tyndall MW, Schechter MT, O'Shaughnessy MV,
et al. Adherence and plasma HIV RNA responses to highly active
antiretroviral therapy among HIV-1 infected injection drug users. CMAJ
2003 Sep 30;169(7):656-661

World Fact book (2014). HIV-AIDS Adult Prevalence.

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- world-
factbook/fields/2155.html

World Health organization (2015). HIV/AIDS. http://www.who.int/gho/hiv/en.

World Health

Zizlsperger L, Sauvigny T, Haarmeier T (2012) Selective Attention Increases

Choice Certainty in Human Decision Making. PLoS ONE 7(7):e41136.

Zulueta, M. (2018). Let’s break the stigma: 10 misconceptions about HIV and
why they’re wrong. https://www.wheninmanila.com/lets-break-the-stigma-
10-misconceptions-about-hiv-and-why-theyre-wrong/