Characteristics of Different Power Systems Neutral

Grounding Techniques: Fact & Fiction

By
David Shipp Cutler-Hammer
Frank Angelini Cutler-Hammer

Originally presented at the IEEE 1988 Industry Applications Society

Technical Conference in
Pittsburgh, PA

The authors, are currently employed by Cutler-Hammer, a Division of Eaton Corporation

David Shipp is located in Warrendale, Pennsylvania USA
Frank Angelini is located in Philadelphia, PA USA
 Characteristics of Different Power Systems Neutral
Grounding Techniques: Fact & Fiction

D.D. Shipp Cutler-Hammer, Pittsburgh, Pa.

F.J. Angelini Cutler-Hammer, Philadelphia, PA

ABSTRACT sizing of grounding conductors, bonding of all metallic

housings
Power Systems Grounding is probably the most or raceways, which systems "shall be permitted to be
misunderstood element of any Power Systems design. grounded" as well as the conditions in which isolation or
Therefore, this paper will review the characteristics of insulation may be substituted for grounding.
different Power Systems Grounding techniques as
currently applied -- and misapplied within industry today. The driving influence within the NEC (written by the
In many cases, misunderstood concepts and perceptions National Fire Protection Association) for electrical system
of the purpose and type of Power Systems Grounding to grounding is best summed up by the 2 fine print notes
be selected dates back to the 1940's and earlier. Since (FPN) of "article 250-1. Scope"
that time much research, coupled with experience, has
taken place that is now available to industry. This paper (FPN): Systems and circuit conductors are
will review the many different system grounding practices grounded to limit voltages due to lightning, line
and present information on different grounding methods. surges, or unintentional contact with higher
Safety, National Electric Code requirements, and voltage lines, and to stabilize the voltage to
operational considerations, such as continuity of service, ground during normal operation. Systems and
will be investigated. Finally, examples of proper circuit conductors are solidly grounded to
applications within various industries will be given. facilitate overcurrent device operation in case of
ground faults.
INTRODUCTION
(FPN): Conductive materials enclosing electrical
Historically, the method of system grounding selected for conductors or equipment, or forming part of such
various electrical system settings, e.g. industrial, equipment, are grounded to limit the voltage to
commercial, etc., dates back to the early part of this ground on these materials and to facilitate
century when only two methods were considered: solid overcurrent device operation in case of ground
grounded and ungrounded. Solid grounding with its faults.--
advantage of high fault levels to drive protective devices
had equally significant disadvantages such as dangers Equipment, buildings/premises and personnel safety are
posed by arcs in hazardous areas. Also, the issue of of utmost concern. To accomplish safety as implied by
service continuity of critical loads pointed away from this the FPN, the NEC requires grounding conductors to
grounding method. The perception that ungrounded extend from the source to the most remote part of the
systems provide service continuity, at least through the electrical system at that voltage level and to be bonded
first ground fault, strongly suggested ungrounded to all metallic enclosures and raceways. These
systems. grounding conductors comprise a key element of
equipment grounding and are required for all grounded
In more recent times, however, well accepted, if not systems; not just solid grounded systems. Article 250-5
misapplied grounding techniques utilizing resistance or contains the specifics regarding the voltage levels also
reactance, have provided the power systems engineer found in the majority of industrial/commercial power
other alternatives. These techniques as well as solidly systems. Excerpts of article 250-5, as applicable to
grounded and ungrounded systems will be examined industry are as follows:
next.
Art. 250-5
PRESENT PRACTICE Alternating-Current Circuits and Systems to be
Grounded. AC circuits and systems shall be grounded as
Industrial/Commercial provided for in (a), (b), (c) or (d) below. Other circuits and
systems-shall be permitted to be grounded.
With very few exceptions, industrial or commercial power
systems grounding is dictated by article 250 of the (a) Alternating-Current Circuits of Less than 50
National Electric Code (NEC). The notable exceptions Volts. AC circuits of less than 50 volts shall be
are Power Companies and Mining Systems. grounded under any of the following conditions:
(1) Where supplied by transformers if the
Article 250 dictates which systems must be grounded transformer supply exceeds 150 volts to
(solid grounding implied), how they are to be grounded, ground.
 (2) Where supplied by transformers if the Where such systems are grounded, they shall
transformer supply system is comply with the applicable provisions of this
ungrounded. article.
(3) Where installed as overhead conductors
outside of buildings. Although high impedance grounding has always been
permitted by the NEC for systems with line-to-neutral
(b) Alternating-Current Systems of 50 volts to 1000 voltages in excess of 150 volts, exception no. 5 was
volts. AC systems of 50 volts to 1000 volts added in the 1987 NEC to clarify a common
supplying premises wiring and premises wiring misinterpretation. As all types of system grounding are
systems shall be grounded under any of the developed further in the ensuing sections, it should be
following conditions: noted that older industrial system voltages of 440 volts
(1) Where the systems can be so grounded are analogous to 480 volt systems.
that the maximum voltage to ground on
the ungrounded conductors does not SAFETY AND OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
exceed 150 volts.
(2) Where the system is 3-phase, 4-wire, There are some safety and operational aspects that
wye connected in which the neutral is should be addressed. We would like to briefly consider a
used as a circuit conductor. few of these. One of the real hazards with an
(3) Where the system is 3-phase, 4-wire ungrounded system is the occurrence of a second
delta connected in which the midpoint of ground fault. Although nothing happens after a single
one phase is used as a circuit conductor. ground fault, the second ground fault acts like a phase-
(4) Where a grounded service conductor is to-phase fault. Therefore it is important to remove ground
uninsulated in accordance with the faults from ungrounded systems as soon as possible.
exceptions in sections 230-22, 230-30, This is often difficult and is usually done by trial and
and 230-41. error. Ground fault location is much simpler on a high
resistance grounded system. The ability to locate and
Exception 1. electric furnaces. rapidly remove ground faults helps to make a high
resistance grounded system safer and more reliable than
Exception 2. rectifiers/adjustable speed drives. an ungrounded system.

Exception 3. Separately derived systems Another area that should be addressed is safety. Many
supplied by transformers with a primary rating < people are of the opinion that an ungrounded system is
1000 volts and: safer. This opinion says that since contact with a single
a. used exclusively for control. phase does not complete a circuit, you will not get
b. qualified maintenance and shocked. Although theoretically true, this is not the case
supervision. in the real world where there is always capacitive
c. control power continuity is coupling to ground. Personnel safety and the possibility
required. of fire are not significantly different between an
d. ground detectors installed. ungrounded system and a high resistance grounded
system under solid ground fault conditions. Differences
Also in recognition of its acceptance, high do occur under arcing ground fault conditions. These will
resistance grounded systems are treated thusly: be addressed later in this paper.

Exception No. 5: High-impedance grounded Another area of consideration is continuity of service. A

neutral systems in which a grounding high resistance grounded system limits the ground fault
impedance, usually a resistor, limits the ground current to a value only slightly higher than an
fault current to a low value. High impedance ungrounded system. These values are small enough that
grounded neutral systems shall be permitted for it is acceptable to not trip safety devices and let faults
three-phase AC systems of 480 volts to 1000 remain on the system. The advantages of high
volts where all of the following conditions are resistance grounded systems are the easier location of
met: the fault and the elimination of transient overvoltages
(a) The conditions of maintenance and which can lead to premature insulation failure.
supervision assure that only qualified
persons will service the installation.
(b) Continuity of power is required. DEFINITIONS
(c) Ground detectors are installed on the
system. In order to establish a common perspective, some
(d) Line-to-neutral loads are not served. definitions and short explanations of terms must be
presented. The definitions are taken from the IEEE
(c) Alternating-Current systems of 1 KV and over-- "Green Book" [Ref.2].
where supplying other than portable equipment,
such systems shall be permitted to be grounded.
2
Ungrounded System. A system, circuit, or apparatus System 1 includes all of the 480 volt system including the
without an intentional connection to ground, except source generators through all the primary delta windings
through potential indicating or measuring devices or of the loads. The wye ungrounded motor and wye-wye
other very high impedance devices. Note; Although solidly grounded transformer secondary is also a part of
called ungrounded, this type of system is in reality the 480 volt system. Any grounding problem in the
coupled to ground through the distributed capacitance of secondary of Tl will effect the 480 volt system. In
its phase windings and conductors. In absence of a contrast, any grounding problem in grounding systems 2,
ground fault, the neutral of an ungrounded system under 3 or 4 will not effect its respective primary grounding
reasonably balanced load conditions will usually be held system due to its primary delta windings.
there by the balanced electrostatic capacitance between
each phase conductor and ground. As a preface to the subject of system grounding, a close
look at all the electrical parameters in the following
Grounded System. A system of conductors in which at example, will illustrate the effect grounding has on
least one conductor or point (usually the middle wire or current and voltage under "bolted" ground fault
neutral point of a transformer or generator winding ) is conditions.
intentionally grounded, either solidly or through an
impedance. In figure 2, a sustained ground fault occurs on a 480 volt
wye connected (could be delta) ungrounded system.
Grounded Solidly. Connected directly through an Since the system is only, in essence, capacitively
adequate ground connection in which no impedance has coupled to ground through a relatively high impedance,
been intentionally inserted. the entire system is displaced above ground as indicated
in figure 3b. Figure 3a illustrates the system voltage
Resistance Grounded. Grounded through an profile prior to the ground fault condition. The system will
impedance, the principal element of which is resistance. remain in this position until the fault is cleared, or another
Inductance Grounded. Grounded through an phase breaks down to form a double line-to-ground fault.
impedance, the principle element of which is inductance.
Since there is no direct ground path back to the neutral
Effectively Grounded. Grounded through a sufficiently point of the source in figure 3b, the current must return
low impedance, such that X0/X1 is positive and less than through the distributed capacitance (insulation system) of
3.0 and R0/X0 is positive and less than 1.0. the 2 unfaulted phases. As indicated, only 1.04 amps will
flow. The dashed lines represent the line-to-line voltage
relationship so that a delta system can also be
WHAT COMPRISES A GROUND SYSTEM? visualized.

A grounding system is isolated from other grounding Ioa=Iob=(480 V)/-j800Ω =0.6 amps
systems by delta windings in 3 phase systems. It only
takes 1 delta winding to accomplish isolation; not both (.6) COS 30° + (.6) COS 30° =1.04 amps
primary and secondary windings. There are 4 separate
grounding systems illustrated in Figure 1.

Fig.2 Ground Faults on Ungrounded Systems

Fig.1 Grounding Systems

3
 A comparison of all the voltages and currents of these 2
types of grounding as listed in table I, support the
following observations:

1) In a solidly grounded system, very high ground

fault current is available--but with low or
suppressed system voltages.
2) In an ungrounded system, the available ground
fault current is very low--but the voltage on the
normal line-to-ground insulation is increased
from a line-to-ground value to a full line-to-line
magnitude .

TABLE I
Fig.3 Voltages During Ground Fault
Comparison of System Quantities during a sustained
If this system is now solidly grounded at its source (wye
line-to-ground fault on a solidly grounded and
connection), the system can now supply 29,200 amps
ungrounded system.
(This data is typical of a 480 volt system served by a
1500 KVA transformer with a 500 MVA primary source )
under ground fault conditions as shown in figure 4.
System
Figure 5a shows the voltage profile under normal load
Grounded Ungrounded
conditions (same as figure 3a). Since the neutral point is
Voltage
clamped to the ground system (figure 5b), the B phase
Phase A to Phase C 480 480
source voltage is now shorted out. (Envision the B
phase-to-ground voltage shrinking to zero.) Under these Phase A to Phase B 480/ 3 480
conditions, the maximum available fault current will flow. Phase C to Phase B 480/ 3 480

Phase A to Ground 480/ 3 480

Phase B to Ground 0 0
Phase C to Ground 480/ 3 480

Fault Current - Amperes

Phase B 29,200 1.04

Phase C 0 .6
Phase A 0 .6

These two examples show the extremes of the common

accepted understanding of these types of power system
Fig.4: Ground Fault on a Solidly grounding. Other types of system grounding fall between
Grounded System these two extremes. For sustained ground fault
conditions (bolted fault), table I is an accurate summary--
as far as it goes. However, under arcing ground fault
conditions, the system performance characteristics
change considerably but this aspect is seldom
addressed. System grounding criterion under arcing
ground fault conditions, will be expanded upon within the
appropriate section to follow.

Although a 480/277V system is used as an example,

higher voltage systems follow directly.

Fig.5: Voltage Profiles for Solidly

Grounded System

4
 TO GROUND THE SYSTEM OR NOT TO GROUND the fault quickly and therefore minimize damage. It also
greatly reduces the shock hazard to personnel.
When the type of grounding to be selected is being
addressed within the design stage of an electrical power
system, there are 2 key questions which must be
considered:

1) Are there any line-to-neutral loads?

2) How important is service continuity for this

electrical system?

The answers to these questions strongly influence the

type of grounding selected. Line-to-neutral loads
suggest solid grounding; high continuity of service
requirements suggest an ungrounded or something
approaching an ungrounded system. Additional FIG. 6
characteristics with the appropriate discussions will be Solidly Grounded Systems
clarified in the following section. (Industrial/Commercial)

The logic behind requiring systems with less than 150

METHODS OF SYSTEM GROUNDING volts to ground to be solidly grounded, is that studies,
laboratory experiments and case histories [4][7] have
Solidly Grounded shown that it takes about 150 volts across a gap in low
voltage systems, to sustain an arc. With less than 150
Solidly grounded systems are by far the most common volts, the arc is generally self healing and rarely
found in industrial/commercial power systems today. In continues. Solid grounding in this case provides
many cases, solid grounding (NEC-Article 250-5) is equipment and personnel safety, permits the application
mandated. In others, it is selected based on economics. of economical line-to-neutral loads and in the case of a
The 480/277 volt system in figure 6a (typical to "solid" ground fault, assures prompt actuation of phase
commercial buildings such as a hotel) is solidly grounded protective devices---assuming the equipment grounding
to permit 277V (line-to-neutral) fluorescent lighting function (green insulated or bare connector in same
(economics). raceway) is intact. The historical incidence of sustained
ground faults is so low in 120/208 volt or 120/240 volt
For line-to-neutral loads to be applied, the neutral point systems that the NEC has not found it necessary to
of the wye connected source must be solidly grounded require separate system ground fault protection.
for the system to function properly and safely. If the
system is not solidly grounded, the neutral point of the Ungrounded
system would "float" with respect to ground as a function
of load subjecting the line-to-neutral loads to voltage For those systems where service continuity is of primary
unbalances and instability. concern, the ungrounded system historically has been
selected. The perception is that ungrounded systems
The 120/208V wye system in figure 6b must be solidly have higher service continuity. This is based on the
grounded to comply with the NEC (all systems with line- argument that the ground fault current is small and that
to-ground voltages of 150 volts or less and for those negligible burning or heating will occur if the fault is not
systems with line-to-neutral loads). It is selected primarily cleared. Therefore line-to-ground faults can be left on the
where a lot of 120 volt (line-to-neutral) loads are present system until it is convenient to find and clear them. This
(such as a condominium). perception has some validity if you limit your criterion to
"bolted" or "hard" faults. However, in the real world, the
The 240/120 volt 3-phase delta system shown in figure vast majority of all faults start as low level arcing ground
6c (typically light commercial such as a Burger King or faults. When arcing ground faults are considered, the
McDonald's) must also be solidly grounded to comply following conditions surface--but are seldom addressed.
with the N.E.C. (the lowest line-to-ground voltage is less
than 150 volts). 1) Multiple Ground Faults
2) Resonant Conditions
To insure that these systems are safe, the NEC requires 3) Transient Overvoltages
that equipment grounding conductors (bare or green
insulated) must extend from the source to the furthest Multiple ground faults can and do occur on ungrounded
point of the system within the same raceway or conduit. systems. While a ground fault on one phase of an
Its purpose is to maintain a very low impedance to ungrounded system does not cause an outage, the
ground faults so that a relatively high fault current will longer the ground is allowed to remain the greater is the
flow thus insuring that circuit breakers or fuses will clear
5
likelihood of a second ground occurring on another Although the neutral point of the system is at a new
phase because the unfaulted phases have line-to-line reference point, the AC sine wave continues to rotate on
voltage impressed on their line-to-ground insulation. In a 60 cycle basis. One-half cycle later in time (180
other words, the insulation is overstressed by 73 percent. electrical degrees), the A phase is as shown-above the
Also, there is an accelerated degradation of the ground plane at point C. The instantaneous voltage
insulation system due to the collective overvoltages across the ground fault is now twice the normal line-to-
impinged upon it, through successive ground-faults over neutral crest voltage relative to ground potential. The
a period of several years. ground fault restrikes across the gap and suddenly yanks
the A phase to ground potential. The non-linearity of the
Although not that common, resonant conditions may arc (high frequency components) will tend to excite the
result in ungrounded systems when one phase is inductance/capacitance of the system resulting in a high
grounded through an inductance, for example, a ground frequency oscillation (not shown) between + 200% and -
within the winding of an instrument transformer. When 200%. When the arc extinguishes, the system voltage
this happens, the high circulating currents result in high relationships will tend to remain in a new position with
voltages across the unfaulted phases. respect to ground potential as shown in the lower part of
C. Since the arc current has been extinguished, a new
trapped DC charge on the phase A capacitance of -
200% now applies.

In the next 1/2 cycle the AC sine wave will rotate the
voltage vectors from point C to the lower part of D (-
200% to -400%) at which time the arc restrikes, and the
mechanism repeats itself between -400% and +400%. At
this point in time the voltages to ground are shown at 5.5
per unit (550%) on the unfaulted phases. If the arc
extinguishes, the mechanism will continue. From a
practical standpoint, voltages in excess of 700% are rare
since most insulation systems break down between
600% and 700%. Bear in mind that these overvoltages
are superimposed on the entire electrical system thereby
Fig. 7 Series Resonant Circuit (when XL=XC) explaining accelerated insulation deterioration an and in-
creasing incidence of ground fault occurrences over
Transient overvoltages due to restriking or intermittent time.
ground faults can and do develop substantial
overvoltages on ungrounded electrical systems with Although fig. 8 shows a maximum deviation in just 3
respect to ground [Ref. 1]. There have been many arcs, it might take considerably longer to reach these
documented cases within industry where multiple levels since the arc may restrike before reaching
equipment failures (e.g.-motors) over an entire 480V maximum voltages on the AC sine wave. Also, if the fault
system have occurred while trying to find and locate a becomes a "hard" fault at any time during the process,
ground fault. Measured line-to-ground voltages of 1200 the trapped charges will be dissipated leaving the
volts or higher in these instances are not that voltage relationships as shown at point B.
uncommon. In all instances, the cause has been traced
to a low-level intermittent arcing ground fault on an
ungrounded system.

The mechanism explaining how this occurs is best

explained in conjunction with fig. 8. At point A in time,
just prior to a ground fault, the neutral point of the system
is at or near ground potential due to the electrostatic
charge on the systems' shunt capacitance to ground
(insulation, surge capacitors) under balanced load
conditions.

Should the A phase conductor become grounded, the

system voltages would be displaced as illustrated at
point B. At the instant after the fault occurs, when the A
phase capacitive charging current (Ioc) passes through
zero, it is extinguished leaving a trapped charge on the
shunt capacitance to ground of A phase. With no path to Fig.8
dissipate this trapped charge, (fixed DC voltage) the Transient Overvoltages from
system tends to stay in the position shown at point B. Restriking Ground Fault

6
Inductance Grounded
In resistance grounding the neutral is
Adding inductive reactance from the system neutral point connected to ground through one or more
to ground (fig.9) is an easy method of limiting the resistors. There are two types of
available ground fault from something near the maximum resistance grounding.
3 phase short circuit capacity (thousands of amperes) to
a relatively low value (200 to 800 amperes). However, a) Low resistance (200A to 1200A)
experience and studies have indicated that this inductive b) High resistance (less than 10A)
reactance to ground resonates with the system shunt
capacitance to ground under arcing ground fault Fig.10 Resistance Grounded
conditions and creates very high transient overvoltages
on the system. The mechanism under which this occurs
is very similar to that discussed under the ungrounded High Resistance Grounded
system characteristics. To control the transient
overvoltages, studies have shown that the design must High resistance grounding is almost identical to low
permit at least 60% of the 3 phase short circuit current to resistance grounding except that the ground fault current
flow under ground fault conditions. e.g. A 6000 amp magnitude is typically limited to 10 amperes or less (fig.
grounding reactor for a system having 10,000 amps 3 10b). High resistance grounding accomplishes two
phase short circuit capacity available. Due to the high things. The first is that the ground fault current
magnitude of ground fault current required to control magnitude is sufficiently low enough such that no
transient overvoltages, inductance grounding is rarely appreciable damage is done at the fault point. This
used within industry. means that the faulted circuit need not be tripped off-line
when the fault first occurs. It also means that once a fault
does occur, you don't know where the fault is located. In
this respect, it performs just like an ungrounded system.
In reactance grounding, the
neutral is connected to The second point however, is significant in the sense
ground through a reactor. that it can control the transient overvoltage phenomenon
present on ungrounded systems if engineered properly.
The significant difference between its performance and
that of an ungrounded system is that when the ground
fault arc is extinguished at points C and D in fig. 8, the
trapped charge left on the capacitance of the system is
Fig.9 Reactance Grounded continuously dissipated off as heat in the resistor. The
result is that the neutral point is held at approximately
Low Resistance Grounded that position of fig. 3b. For high resistance grounding to
be effective, the size of the resistor must be carefully
For large electrical systems where there is a high selected for each system [9]. Under ground fault
investment in capital equipment or prolonged loss of conditions, the resistance must dominate over the
service of equipment has a significant economic impact, system charging capacitance but not to the point of
low resistance grounding has been selected. A resistor is permitting excessive current to flow and thereby
connected from the system neutral point to ground and excluding continuous operation.
generally sized to permit only 200A to 1200 amps of
ground fault current to flow (Fig. 10a). Enough current Grounding Transformers
must flow such that protective devices can detect the
faulted circuit and trip it off-line but not so much current So far this paper has discussed system grounding where
as to create major damage at the fault point. Since the the neutral point of the source has been readily
grounding impedance is in the form of resistance, any available. But what does one do when the neutral point is
transient overvoltages are quickly damped out and the not available? As the ungrounded system problems
whole transient overvoltage phenomena is no longer became more apparent to industry, they recognized that
applicable. it was to their advantage to ground their delta connected
systems. Some took the approach of purposely
Although theoretically possible to be applied in low grounding one phase. Although somewhat effective for
voltage systems (e.g. 480V), industrial experience has the transient overvoltage criterion, it leaves the system
shown that with a significant amount of the system with the continuous line-to-line overvoltage condition and
voltage dropped across the grounding resistor, there is the multiple fault (line-to-line) problems mentioned
not enough voltage across the arc forcing current to flow, previously.
for the fault to be reliably detected. For this reason, low The best way to ground an ungrounded delta system
resistance grounding is not used for low voltage systems (existing or new) is to derive a neutral point through
(under 1000 volts line-to-line). grounding transformers. This may be accomplished in
one of two ways as shown in fig. 11.

7
 Fig.11 Grounding Tranformers

In fig. 11a, high resistance grounding is accomplished Although high resistance examples are shown, other
through three auxiliary transformers connected wye- variations are available for higher voltage systems.
broken delta. The resistor inserted in the "broken delta" leg
is reflected to the primary under ground fault conditions The Effect of Grounding Impedance on Transient
and limits the current to a nominal value as dictated by its Overvoltage
design. Under any system condition other than ground
faults, the 3 secondary voltages add vectorially to zero. It was noted earlier in this paper that arcing ground faults
With zero voltage across the resistor, no current flows and could produce high transient overvoltages with disastrous
the grounding resistor does not impact the system. effects on system equipment and dangers to operating
However, under ground fault conditions, one of the 3 personnel. Studies [Ref. 8] have examined the relationship
voltages is shorted out and the voltage across the resistor between the grounding method employed and desirable
now is no longer zero. Under these conditions, the resistor ratio of sequence network impedances, e.g. X0/X1, R0/X0.
is now in the circuit and current does flow with the effect of Due to the transitory nature of the arcing ground fault, a
limiting the primary current to the design value. Also, high frequency component remains somewhat constant
sensing the voltage drop across the resistor (device 59G) while the 60 hertz component varies directly with the
can be used to signal an alarm advising that a ground fault system grounding impedances. For low magnitudes of X0
has occurred. The 3 lights across each individual the ground fault current magnitude wave form appears as
transformer will constitute a version of the normal ground shown in fig. 12a with a normal current zero occurring as
detection scheme currently employed on ungrounded expected (60 hertz value). However, when Xo is increased
systems. significantly, the current magnitude decreases significantly
(60 hertz component only) which allows the high frequency
High resistance grounding can also be achieved oscillatory waveform to intersect the zero axis "out-of-step"
alternately by a zig-zag grounding transformer as shown in or at an "abnormal time" as indicated at point B in fig. 12b.
fig. 11b. The scheme in fig. 11a uses the flux in the This abnormal current zero (sometimes referred to as a
transformer's iron core to produce secondary voltages with virtual zero) allows the normal charge on the system
their respective phase relationships as described coupling capacitance to discharge at the wrong time. The
previously. With the zig-zag transformer, the windings are result is an abnormally high overvoltage condition.
connected in a zig-zag fashion such that the flux in the iron
is vectorially summed opposed to vectorially summing the Table II presents the basic association between these
secondary voltages. Consequently it behaves on the system factors and those grounding methods already
system just as the 3 auxiliary transformers do. It appears reviewed.
"transparent" to the system except under ground fault
conditions. The resistor makes it resistance grounded.

In both of these cases, either approach accomplishes the

same end. Therefore, selection should be based on space,
weight, size and/or economics as applicable to the system
in question.

8
 Fig.12

The Effect of Grounding Impedance

on Transient Overvoltage

Other factors effecting the choice of grounding method

TABLE II include:

X0/X1 and R0/X0 Ratios for Low Transient Mechanical Stress in Generator Windings - A
Overvoltage generator winding is braced to withstand a three-phase
fault on its terminals. The unit should be grounded so
Grounding Method Desired X0/X1, R0/X0 Ratio that the maximum line-to-ground fault current does not
exceed this value. This requires X0/X1 to be greater than
Ungrounded o No ratios available or equal to 1.0 . This is a major factor if generator
o Produces high transient supplies 4 wire systems without an interposing
voltages. transformer (exclude 480V generators).
o Systems grounded
through potential Selective Relaying - in conventional unit generator
transformers included systems, selective relaying for ground faults is not a
here. problem since the delta-wye transformer effectively
isolates the zero sequence circuits. For other systems
Solid Grounding o X0/X1 inherently very where selectivity is a problem, provision should be made
low unless wye-wye for sufficient ground fault current to flow to operate the
transformers used. ground relays.

Reactance Grounded o X0/X1 should be kept Surge Protection - on ungrounded or high impedance
less than 3.0 grounded systems, full line-to-line voltage rated
arresters must be used. For large systems with
Low Resistance extensive application of surge protective measures,
Grounded o R0/X0 should be equal considerable savings are available when using 80%
to or greater than 2.0 arresters. For this rating, the grounding method
o X0/X1 should be equal to employed must provide for X0/X1 equal to or less than
or less than 20. 3.0 and R0/X0 equal to or less than 1.0 (effectively
grounded).
High Resistance o Resistive current
Grounded value should be sized
≥ to the total three-
phase capacitive
current to ground under
ground fault conditions.

9
 TECHNICAL SUMMARY applications where almost no switching of loads is
Table III summarizes the characteristics of all the types permitted) and high resistance grounded systems [Ref.
of system grounding as typically used by industry. Table III] as viable options. It also precludes line-to-
neutral loads.
SELECTION CRITERIA In some instances, the capacitive charging current of
some systems can be substantial. Too much capacitive
When addressing grounding within the design process, a system charging current may preclude continuous
close look at Table III will assist in the selection process. operation (greater than 10 amps) and require breaking
As mentioned previously, the 2 key considerations, line- the system into subsystems using isolation transformers
to-neutral loads and service continuity, must be the to apply high resistance grounding (Transient
initiation point. It should also be noted that the type of overvoltage failures would be expected to be high on
grounding selected for each system or subsystem may these systems). Economics in this case, however, may
be independently addressed with more than one type of require low resistance grounding as the most practical
system grounding selected within a given electrical option.
system.
Maintenance of a high resistance grounded system
For high service continuity requirements, all types of actually can be better than an ungrounded one. Since
system grounding which require automatic segregation high resistance grounding controls transient
of the faulted zone (e.g. high ground fault current) by overvoltages, the incidence of grounds on the system
operation of a protective device, cannot be a should decrease. The techniques used to find and clear
consideration. This leaves ungrounded, ground-fault grounds are identical to those of an ungrounded system.
neutralizer (not discussed due to very limited

Table III
System Characteristics with Various Grounding Methods

Ungrounded Essentially solid grounding Reactance Ground-fault Resistance Grounding

grounding neutralizer
Solid Low-value High-value Low High
reactor reactor resistance resistanc
e
Current for Less than 1% Varies, may be Usually designed 5 to 25% Nearly zero fault 5 to 20% Less than
phase-to- 100% or greater to produce 60 to current 1%
ground fault 100%
in percent of
three-phase
fault current
Transient Very high Not excessive Not excessive Very high Not excessive Not excessive Not
over- excessive
voltages
Automatic No Yes Yes Yes No Yes No
segregation
of faulted
zone
Lightning Ungrounded Grounded-neutral Grounded-neutral Ungrounded Ungrounded Ungrounded Unground
arresters neutral type type type if current is neutral type neutral type neutral type ed neutral
60% or greater type
Remarks Not Generally used on system (1) 600 Not used due to Best suited for Generally used Generally
recommended volts and below and (2) over 15kV excessive over- high-voltage on industrial used on
due to over voltages over-head lines systems of 2.4 to systems
voltages and where faults may 15kV 5kV and
nonsegregation be self-healing below
of fault
can then be de-energized and the fault cleared when
One variation of high resistance grounding actually convenient---all without de-energizing any loads.
improves system maintainability. This variation utilizes a
pulsing contactor which momentarily shorts out part of Medium voltage systems (2.4KV to 5.0KV) can also be
the resistor when it is decided to locate the ground-- high resistance grounded with similar system
without tripping circuits off-line and observing the ground improvements as those indicated for 480 volt systems.
detection lights. While the entire system is operating, the Above 5.0KV service continuity may not always be
pulsing contactor controls are manually energized realized due to corona at the fault location, although the
permitting a cyclic pulse of current (e.g. from 4 amps to current is very low.
7 amps, back to 4 amps, etc.) to flow. A special sensitive
clamp-on ammeter is then put around all 3 conductors of
each circuit. The one with the pulse on it is the one
grounded. Tracing that circuit further will allow pin-
pointing the exact fault location. The pulsing contactor
10
 3. IEEE std. 141-1986, " IEEE Recommended
Low resistance grounding (see Fig. 10) is also a viable Practice for Electric Power Distribution for
alternative for medium voltage systems. However it Industrial Plants" (IEEE Red book), IEEE,
requires tripping of the faulted circuit by protective NY,NY.
ground fault devices and the equipment grounding
conductor function. For most of Industry, this is the 4. J. R. Dunki-Jacobs, "The Escalating Arcing
preferred choice. Ground Fault Phenomenon", IEEE Transactions
on Industry Applications, Nov./Dec., 1986.
Solid grounding or effective grounding is the preferred
choice for systems supplying 4 wire loads, uninsulated 5. The National Electrical Code Handbook; NFPA,
aerial line systems or systems with voltages above 1987.
15KV.
6. Using the National Electrical Code; Grounding,
CONCLUSIONS Instructors’ Guide," NFPA, 1981.

Proper System Grounding of electrical power systems 7. C. L. Wagner, "Grounding Report II", Effect of
can significantly improve reliability and safety. Retrofits Grounding Impedance on the Magnitude of
of existing systems can be achieved utilizing grounding Transient Overvoltage Due to Arcing Grounds",
transformers as shown in Fig. 11. New systems can be Westinghouse Transmission and Distributions
designed using wye connected generators and delta- Systems, 1960.
wye transformers.
8. Electrical Transmission and Distribution
The characteristics of different grounding techniques set Reference Book, Westinghouse Electric Corp.,
forth in this paper should provide an intelligent basis for 1964.
proper selection consistent with the needs of the power
system in question. 9. Industrial Power Systems Data Book, General
Electric Company, 1956.
REFERENCES
10. "System Neutral Grounding and Ground Fault
1. D. Beeman, Industrial Power Systems Protection Guide", (PRSC-4E), ABB Corp.,
Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1955 Coral Springs, Fl., Feb., 1986.

2. IEEE std. 142-1982, "IEEE Practice for

Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems" (IEEE Green book), IEEE, NY, NY.

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