Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Energy of the Future

By Dr Lisa Bushby
[Aug 22, 2006]
President George W Bush believes that hydrogen is the fuel of the future. In 2003 he
announced an initiative worth $1.2 billion over a period of five years to fund research into the
use of hydrogen fuel cells. The EU and Member States agree and are estimated to have
supported activities in this field to the tune of 600 million euros for the 2002-2006 period.
The biggest driving force (no pun intended) behind the massive investment is the auto
industry, which relies on oil-fuelled cars, but the electronics industry, which currently uses
limited-life lithium ion batteries, is also making significant contributions.
Problems with Current Technologies
There are many disadvantages associated with running internal combustion engines, not least
economic issues. The price of oil is extremely volatile and the last 12 months have seen the
cost per barrel rocket. In today's political climate the trend looks likely to continue upwards.
Furthermore, burning gasoline releases carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and hydrocarbons, amongst other gases, and particulate
matter into the atmosphere, which cause serious environmental damage. But it is not just the
environmental effects of harmful emissions - public health is also being compromised. For
example, nitrogen oxides can react with volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere to
form smog, which is known to increase respiratory problems in humans and carbon dioxide is
a "greenhouse gas" that contributes to global warming.
Electronic devices such as laptops, cell phones, mp3 players, etc. are powered by lithium
batteries, but these also have inherent problems. Lithium ion batteries operate using salts of
lithium to provide conductivity, they can then be recharged by introducing an electric current
in the opposite direction. The system returns to its charged state. However, because
recharging does not completely return the cell to its previous charged state, the battery
deteriorates with time, i.e. lithium ion batteries have a limited lifespan.
The rising cost of oil, a more environmentally-conscious public, and fears that oil supplies
will dry up within 50 years are forcing change. Fuel cell technology is seen as a viable
alternative.
Fuel Cell Operation Mechanism
Fuel cells are essentially electrochemical cells and operate following the same basic
mechanism as everyday batteries. However, unlike batteries, where all of the chemicals used
in the cell are contained and when the reaction is complete the battery is dead, fuel cells have
a constant flow of fresh chemicals into the cell and so in theory have an unlimited life.
Hydrogen fuel cells, which are the most commonly used, convert flows of hydrogen and
oxygen into water (H2O) and produce electricity in the process.
At the anode, hydrogen is forced through a catalyst (usually platinum powder) where it is
ionized: 2H2 ==> 4H+ + 4e-. The electrons then pass through an external circuit, where their
flow can be harnessed as electricity, on their way to the cathode.
At the cathode, oxygen reacts with the products from the anode (the protons and electrons) to
produce water: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- ==> 2H2O. Along with heat, this is the only by-product of the
hydrogen fuel cell: the reactants are normally fully utilized.
Aside from electricity and heat, which itself can be captured and used, water is the only
product from a hydrogen fuel cell. Of course, this is harmless and so the process has huge
environmental advantages over polluting combustion engines. However, water builds up in
the cell and so it must be removed periodically otherwise it will saturate. This is usually
achieved through a water pump or separator.
As explained, fuel cells generate electricity through a chemical process. This means that they
are not subject to the Carnot Limit (a theoretical limit on the efficiency of an engine based on
the flow of heat between two reservoirs), and that they can effectively extract more energy
from fuel than combustion-based methods. Traditional internal combustion engines typically
have efficiencies of around 30%, whereas fuel cells can achieve 40-70% efficiency.
Return on Investment
There is considerable progress being made, and governments and organisations are beginning
to see the results from the huge amount of research they have supported into fuel cell
technologies.
Typically cars need 15,000 watts to run - achieving this wattage at an acceptable temperature
has proved a significant challenge for those working in this area. However, in the autumn of
2005, engineers sponsored by Honda at Stanford University announced that they had
produced a fuel cell, which delivers a power density of 400mW/cm 2 at around 400°C, i.e. a
fuel cell stack with a total membrane surface area of 4m2 could produce sufficient power to
run a car.
Stanford University's solid oxide membrane-based hydrogen fuel cell effectively cut the
operating temperature of the fuel cell in half without compromising on any power making the
likelihood of a commercially-viable fuel cell-driven car much more of a possibility.
Also in 2005 Honda's second-generation fuel cell vehicle (FCV) was certified by both the US
Environmental Protection Agency and the California Air Resources Board for commercial
use and is the world's most advanced FCV in daily operation. Other auto makers are hot on
the heels of Honda in terms of their fuel cell vehicles and so it is likely that we will see more
FCVs on the roads in coming years.
Another exciting development in the application of fuel cell technology is the use of fuel cell
power plants for electric power generation. Siemens, Ballard, and FuelCell Energy Inc,
among others, are all developing these, albeit in some cases on a small scale (e.g. for home
power generation). Most fuel systems convert natural gas or biofuels into hydrogen for
processing with oxygen to generate multiple megawatts of useable electricity.
While existing fuel cell technology is already being applied in the auto industry and by power
plant operators, electronics manufacturers are nearing commercialization of their products.
For example, Panasonic and Toshiba both demonstrated a direct methanol fuel cell for laptop
computers at the International Consumer Electronics Show earlier this year, and MTI Micro
has recently signed an agreement with Samsung to develop a series of prototypes for
Samsung's cell phones operating using a methanol fuel cell.
Conclusion
Along with the hydrogen fuel cells' high efficiency (from 40-70%), the possibility of utilizing
both heat and electricity from them will make a significant contribution to reducing
atmospheric emissions. For example, a fuel cell operating at 60% efficiency would emit 35-
60% less CO2 at the fossil fuel stage and 80% less from hydrogen.
Energy sources of the future will have to be cleaner and more efficient than current sources -
fuel cells fulfill these requirements. Several challenges remain before we will see wide-
spread commercialization, mainly because of restrictions with size, cost, reliability and
safety, but an environmentally-friendly source of power is definitely on its way.
Nitrogen Dioxide, Ozone & Lead Partner to Increase Pollution Dangers to Urban Children
By Roberta C. Barbalace
[Dec. 3, 2009]
The adverse health effects of ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) have been known for
decades. The Clean Air Act was established in 1963, but ambient a quality was not regulated
until 1970, and by 1971 EPA had established one hour National Ambient Air Quality
Standard (NAAQS) of 0.08 ppm for both O3 and nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide and
ozone are two of the major outdoor ambient chemical pollutants affecting asthmatics. In
addition, nitrogen dioxide plays a role in formation of acid rain, contributes to global
warming, and hampers the growth of plants. Ground-level ozone interferes with a plant's
ability to manufacture (photosynthesize) and store food, and lowers plant resistance to
disease.
Just when we think that we are getting a handle on the entire criminal record of these two
compounds, scientists from the University of California, Irvine have linked them to another
environmental and health outlaw, lead (Pb). In an abstract published in Environ. Sci.
Technology, October 14, 2009 (article ASAP) R. D. Edwards, N. L. Lam, L. Zhang, M. A.
Johnson and M. T. Kleinman from the School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine
reported that nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3) from vehicles emissions react with
surfaces painted with lead based paint and increase the release of lead. According to
Edwards, paint is made of two basic components: pigment granules and an unsaturated
polymeric binder that holds them together. O3 and NO2 typically react with unsaturated
compounds. Edwards and colleagues suspected that this characteristic might make lead
pigment granules become deposited in house dust or be more available to children's hands in
urban environments where O3 and NO2 are frequently in high concentration.
The researchers coated stainless steel with a thin layer of lead based paint and exposed them
to NO2 and O3. They then evaluated the coated surfaces using reflectometry and scanning
electron microscopy. They also wiped the surfaces and calculated the amount of lead on the
wipes. Edwards and his colleagues reported that NO2 and O3 changed the surfaces'
morphology and significantly increased the amount of lead that can were wiped off them.
The results of this research suggests that a lot more emphasis must be placed on eliminating
lead based paint from the urban environment and lowering the emission of O 3 and NO2 in
American cities that are still remediating old buildings and in developing nations where lead
based paint is still being sold.
Nitrogen Dioksida, Ozon & Partner Lead untuk Meningkatkan Bahaya Polusi untuk Anak
Perkotaan
Dengan Barbalace Roberta C.
[Desember 3, 2009]
Efek kesehatan yang merugikan dari ozon (O3) dan nitrogen dioksida (NO2) telah
dikenal selama beberapa dekade. The Clean Air Act didirikan pada tahun 1963, tetapi ambien
kualitas tidak diatur sampai tahun 1970, dan pada tahun 1971 EPA telah membentuk satu jam
Nasional Standar Kualitas Udara Ambien (NAAQS) dari 0,08 ppm untuk kedua O3 dan
nitrogen dioksida. Nitrogen dioksida dan ozon adalah dua dari luar ambien polutan kimia
utama yang mempengaruhi penderita asma. Selain itu, nitrogen dioksida berperan dalam
pembentukan hujan asam, memberikan kontribusi terhadap pemanasan global, dan
menghambat pertumbuhan tanaman. Ground-level ozon mengganggu dengan kemampuan
tanaman untuk memproduksi (berfotosintesis) dan menyimpan makanan, dan menurunkan
ketahanan tanaman terhadap penyakit.
Hanya ketika kita berpikir bahwa kita mendapatkan pegangan di seluruh catatan
kriminal dua senyawa, ilmuwan dari University of California, Irvine telah menghubungkan
mereka ke yang lain melarang lingkungan dan kesehatan, timbal (Pb). Dalam abstrak yang
diterbitkan di Lingkungan. Sci. Teknologi, 14 Oktober 2009 (pasal ASAP) RD Edwards, NL
Lam, L. Zhang, MA Johnson dan MT Kleinman dari Sekolah Kedokteran Universitas
California, Irvine melaporkan bahwa nitrogen dioksida (NO2) dan ozon (O3) dari kendaraan
emisi bereaksi dengan permukaan yang dicat dengan cat berbasis memimpin dan
meningkatkan pelepasan timbal. Menurut Edwards, cat terbuat dari dua komponen dasar:
butiran pigmen dan pengikat polimer tak jenuh yang memegang mereka bersama-sama. O3
NO2 dan biasanya bereaksi dengan senyawa tak jenuh. Edwards dan koleganya menduga
bahwa karakteristik ini mungkin bisa membuat butiran pigmen memimpin menjadi disimpan
dalam debu rumah atau lebih tersedia untuk tangan anak-anak di lingkungan perkotaan di
mana O3 dan NO2 sering dalam konsentrasi tinggi.
Para peneliti stainless steel dilapisi dengan lapisan tipis cat berbasis memimpin dan
terkena mereka untuk NO2 dan O3. Mereka kemudian mengevaluasi permukaan dilapisi
menggunakan reflectometry dan pemindaian mikroskop elektron. Mereka juga menyeka
permukaan dan dihitung jumlah timbal di tisu. Edwards dan koleganya melaporkan bahwa
NO2 dan O3 mengubah morfologi permukaan 'dan secara signifikan meningkatkan jumlah
timbal yang dapat tersapu dari mereka.

Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa lebih banyak penekanan harus ditempatkan pada cat
berbasis menghilangkan timbal dari lingkungan perkotaan dan menurunkan emisi O3 dan
NO2 di kota-kota Amerika yang masih remediating bangunan tua dan di negara-negara
berkembang yang berbasis cat timbal masih yang dijual.