CHEMICAL KINETICS

INTRODUCTION

Figure I : An agama lizard basks in the sun. As its body warms, the chemical
reactions of its metabolism speed up.

The lizard in the photograph is not simply enjoying the sunshine or working on its
tan. The heat from the sun’s rays is critical to the lizard’s survival. A warm lizard
can move faster than a cold one because the chemical reactions that allow its
muscles to move occur more rapidly at higher temperatures. A cold lizard is a
slower lizard and an easier meal for predators.

From baking a cake to determining the useful lifespan of a bridge, rates of

chemical reactions play important roles in our understanding of processes that
involve chemical changes. Two questions are typically posed when planning to
carry out a chemical reaction. The first is: “Will the reaction produce the desired
products in useful quantities?” The second question is: “How rapidly will the
reaction occur?” A third question is often asked when investigating reactions in

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greater detail: “What specific molecular-level processes take place as the reaction
occurs?” Knowing the answer to this question is of practical importance when the
yield or rate of a reaction needs to be controlled.

The study of chemical kinetics concerns the second and third questions—that is,
the rate at which a reaction yields products and the molecular-scale means by
which a reaction occurs. This chapter examines the factors that influence the rates
of chemical reactions, the mechanisms by which reactions proceed, and the
quantitative techniques used to describe the rates at which reactions occur.

Chemical kinetics, the branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with

understanding the rates of chemical reactions. It is to be contrasted
with thermodynamics, which deals with the direction in which a process occurs but
in itself tells nothing about its rate. Thermodynamics is time’s arrow, while
chemical kinetics is time’s clock. Chemical kinetics relates to many aspects
of cosmology, geology, biology, engineering, and even psychology and thus has
far-reaching implications. The principles of chemical kinetics apply to purely
physical processes as well as to chemical reactions. One reason for the importance
of kinetics is that it provides evidence for the mechanisms of chemical processes.
Besides being of intrinsic scientific interest, knowledge of reaction mechanisms is
of practical use in deciding what is the most effective way of causing a reaction to
occur. Many commercial processes can take place by alternative reaction paths,
and knowledge of the mechanisms makes it possible to choose reaction conditions
that favour one path over others.

A chemical reaction is, by definition, one in which chemical substances are

transformed into other substances, which means that chemical bonds are broken
and formed so that there are changes in the relative positions

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of atoms in molecules. At the same time, there are shifts in the arrangements of

the electrons that form the chemical bonds. A description of a reaction
mechanism must therefore deal with the movements and speeds of atoms and
electrons. The detailed mechanism by which a chemical process occurs is referred
to as the reaction path, or pathway.

The vast amount of work done in chemical kinetics has led to the conclusion that
some chemical reactions go in a single step; these are known as elementary
reactions. Other reactions go in more than one step and are said to be stepwise,
composite, or complex. Measurements of the rates of chemical reactions over a
range of conditions can show whether a reaction proceeds by one or more steps. If
a reaction is stepwise, kinetic measurements provide evidence for the mechanism
of the individual elementary steps. Information about reaction mechanisms is also
provided by certain non kinetic studies, but little can be known about a mechanism
until its kinetics has been investigated. Even then, some doubt must always remain
about a reaction mechanism. An investigation, kinetic or otherwise, can disprove a
mechanism but can never establish it with absolute certainty.

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RATE OF
REACTIONS

Chemical kinetics is the description of the rate of a chemical reaction (reaction

rate). This is the rate at which the reactants are transformed into products. This
may take place by abiotic or by biological systems, such as microbial metabolism.
Since a rate is a change in quantity that occurs with time, the change we are most
concerned with is the change in the concentration of our contaminants into new
chemical compounds:

change∈ product concentration

Reactionrate=
corresponding change∈time

And,

change∈reactant concentration
Reactionrate=
corresponding change∈time

In environmental degradation, the change in product concentration will be

decreasing proportionately with the reactant concentration, so, for substance A the
kinetics looks like:

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−∆( A)
Rate=
∆t

The negative sign denotes that the reactant concentration (the parent contaminant),
is decreasing. It stands to reason then that the degradation product C resulting from
the concentration will be increasing in proportion to the decreasing concentration
of the contaminant A, and the reaction rate is:

∆(C )
Rate=
∆t

By convention, the concentration of the chemical is shown in parentheses to

indicate that the system is not at equilibrium. Δ(X) is calculated as the difference
between an initial concentration and a final concentration:

Δ(X) = Δ(X)final  − Δ(X)initial

Thus, the chemical transformation of one isomer of the compound to another takes

place at a certain rate under specific environmental conditions. The rate of reaction
at any time is the negative of the slope of the tangent to the concentration curve at
that specific time.

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The above graph shows the kinetics of the transformation of a compound. The rate
of reaction at any time is the negative of the slope of the tangent to the
concentration curve at that time. The rate is higher at t1 than at t3. This rate is
concentration-dependent (first-order).

Suppose the balanced chemical equation for a reaction is of the form

A + 3B → 2Z.

The rate could be expressed in the following alternative ways:

d[Z]/dt, –d[A]/dt, –d[B]/dt, dz/dt, −da/dt, −db/dt

where t is the time, [A], [B], and [Z] are the concentrations of the substances, and
a, b, and z are their amounts. Note that these six expressions are all different from
one another but are simply related.

Chemical reactions proceed at vastly different speeds depending on the nature of

the reacting substances, the type of chemical transformation, the temperature, and
other factors. In general, reactions in which atoms or ions (electrically charged
particles) combine occur very rapidly, while those in which covalent bonds (bonds
in which atoms share electrons) are broken are much slower. For a given reaction,
the speed of the reaction will vary with the temperature, the pressure, and the
amounts of reactants present. Reactions usually slow down as time goes on
because of the depletion of the reactants. In some cases the addition of a substance
that is not itself a reactant, called a catalyst, accelerates a reaction. The rate
constant, or the specific rate constant, is the proportionality constant in the
equation that expresses the relationship between the rate of a chemical reaction and
the concentrations of the reacting substances. The measurement and interpretation

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of reactions constitute the branch of chemistry known as chemical kinetics. For

most reactions, the rate decreases as the reaction proceeds.

FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATES

The rates at which reactants are consumed and products are formed during
chemical reactions vary greatly. Five factors typically affecting the rates of
chemical reactions will be explored in this section: the chemical nature of the
reacting substances, the state of subdivision (one large lump versus many small
particles) of the reactants, the temperature of the reactants, the concentration of the
reactants, and the presence of a catalyst.

The Chemical Nature of the Reacting Substances

The rate of a reaction depends on the nature of the participating substances.

Reactions that appear similar may have different rates under the same conditions,
depending on the identity of the reactants. For example, when small pieces of the
metals iron and sodium are exposed to air, the sodium reacts completely with air
overnight, whereas the iron is barely affected. The active metals calcium and
sodium both react with water to form hydrogen gas and a base. Yet calcium reacts
at a moderate rate, whereas sodium reacts so rapidly that the reaction is almost
explosive.

The Physical States of the Reactants

A chemical reaction between two or more substances requires intimate contact

between the reactants. When reactants are in different physical states, or phases
(solid, liquid, gaseous, dissolved), the reaction takes place only at the interface
between the phases. Consider the heterogeneous reaction between a solid phase

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and either a liquid or gaseous phase. Compared with the reaction rate for large
solid particles, the rate for smaller particles will be greater because the surface area
in contact with the other reactant phase is greater. For example, large pieces of iron
react more slowly with acids than they do with finely divided iron powder. Large

pieces of wood smolder, smaller pieces burn rapidly, and saw dust burns
explosively.

Fig (a): Iron powder reacts rapidly with dilute hydrochloric acid and produces
bubbles of hydrogen gas: 2Fe(s) + 6HCl(aq) ⟶ 2FeCl3(aq) + 3H2(g). Fig (b): An
iron nail reacts more slowly because the surface area exposed to the acid is much
less.

Temperature of the Reactants

Chemical reactions typically occur faster at higher temperatures. Food can spoil
quickly when left on the kitchen counter. However, the lower temperature inside of
a refrigerator slows that process so that the same food remains fresh for days. Gas
burners, hot plates, and ovens are often used in the laboratory to increase the speed
of reactions that proceed slowly at ordinary temperatures. For many chemical
processes, reaction rates are approximately doubled when the temperature is raised
by 10 °C.

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Concentrations of the Reactants

The rates of many reactions depend on the concentrations of the reactants. Rates
usually increase when the concentration of one or more of the reactants increases.
For example, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) deteriorates as a result of its reaction
with the pollutant sulfur dioxide. The rate of this reaction depends on the amount
of

sulfur dioxide in the air.

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The above figure shows a statue made from carbonate compounds such as
limestone and marble typically weather slowly over time due to the actions of
water, and thermal expansion and contraction. However, pollutants like sulfur
dioxide can accelerate weathering. As the concentration of air pollutants increases,
deterioration of limestone occurs more rapidly.

An acidic oxide, sulfur dioxide combines with water vapor in the air to produce
sulfurous acid in the following reaction:

SO2 (g) + H2O (g) → H2SO3 (aq)

Calcium carbonate reacts with sulfurous acid as follows:

CaCO3 (s) + H2SO3 (aq) → CaSO3 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

In a polluted atmosphere where the concentration of sulfur dioxide is high, calcium

carbonate deteriorates more rapidly than in less polluted air. Similarly, phosphorus
burns much more rapidly in an atmosphere of pure oxygen than in air, which is
only about 20% oxygen.

The Presence of a Catalyst

Relatively dilute aqueous solutions of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, are commonly

used as topical antiseptics. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to yield water and
oxygen gas according to the equation:

2H2O2 (aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

Under typical conditions, this decomposition occurs very slowly. When dilute
H2O2 (aq) is poured onto an open wound, however, the reaction occurs rapidly and

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the solution foams because of the vigorous production of oxygen gas. This
dramatic difference is caused by the presence of substances within the wound’s
exposed tissues that accelerate the decomposition process. Substances that function
to increase the rate of a reaction are called catalysts, a topic treated in greater detail
later in this chapter.

RATE LAWS

As described in the previous topic, the rate of a reaction is often affected by the
concentrations of reactants. Rate laws (sometimes called differential rate laws)
or rate equations are mathematical expressions that describe the relationship
between the rate of a chemical reaction and the concentration of its reactants. As an
example, consider the reaction described by the chemical equation

aA + Bb → products

where a and b are stoichiometric coefficients. The rate law for this reaction is

written as:

rate = k [A]m [B]n

in which [A] and [B] represent the molar concentrations of reactants, and k is
the rate constant, which is specific for a particular reaction at a particular

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temperature. The exponents m and n are the reaction orders and are typically

positive integers, though they can be fractions, negative, or zero. The rate
constant k and the reaction orders m and n must be determined experimentally by
observing how the rate of a reaction changes as the concentrations of the reactants
are changed. The rate constant k is independent of the reactant concentrations, but
it does vary with temperature.

The reaction orders in a rate law describe the mathematical dependence of the rate
on reactant concentrations. Referring to the generic rate law above, the reaction
is m order with respect to A and n order with respect to B. For example, if m = 1
and n = 2, the reaction is first order in A and second order in B. The overall
reaction order is simply the sum of orders for each reactant. For the example rate
law here, the reaction is third order overall (1 + 2 = 3). A few specific examples are
shown below to further illustrate this concept.

The rate law:

rate = k [H2O2]

describes a reaction that is first order in hydrogen peroxide and first order overall.
The rate law:

rate = k [C4H6]2

describes a reaction that is second order in C4H6 and second order overall. The rate
law:

rate = k [ H+ ] [OH−]

describes a reaction that is first order in H+, first order in OH−, and second order
overall.

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Reaction Order and Rate Constant Units

In some cases, the reaction orders in the rate law happen to be the same as the
coefficients in the chemical equation for the reaction. This is merely a coincidence
and very often not the case.

Rate laws may exhibit fractional orders for some reactants, and negative reaction
orders are sometimes observed when an increase in the concentration of one
reactant causes a decrease in reaction rate. A few examples illustrating these points
are provided:

NO2 + CO ⟶ NO + CO2 rate=k[NO2] 2

CH3CHO ⟶ CH4 + CO rate=k[CH3CHO] 2

2N2O5 ⟶ NO2 + O2 rate=k[N2O5]

2NO2 + F2 ⟶ 2NO2F rate=k[NO2][F2]

2NO2Cl ⟶ 2NO2 + Cl2 rate=k[NO2Cl]

It is important to note that rate laws are determined by experiment only and are not
reliably predicted by reaction stoichiometry.

Rate Constant Units for Common Reaction Orders

Overall Reaction Order (x) Rate Constant Unit (Lx−1 mol1−x s−1)

0 (zero) mol L−1 s−1
1 (first) s−1
2 (second) L mol−1 s−1

3 (third) L2 mol−2 s−1

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INTEGRATED RATE LAWS

The rate laws discussed thus far relate the rate and the concentrations of reactants.
We can also determine a second form of each rate law that relates the
concentrations of reactants and time. These are called integrated rate laws. We can
use an integrated rate law to determine the amount of reactant or product present
after a period of time or to estimate the time required for a reaction to proceed to a
certain extent. For example, an integrated rate law is used to determine the length
of time a radioactive material must be stored for its radioactivity to decay to a safe
level.

Using calculus, the differential rate law for a chemical reaction can be integrated
with respect to time to give an equation that relates the amount of reactant or
product present in a reaction mixture to the elapsed time of the reaction. This
process can either be very straightforward or very complex, depending on the
complexity of the differential rate law. For purposes of discussion, we will focus

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on the resulting integrated rate laws for first-order, second-order, and zero-order
reactions.

First-Order Reactions

Integration of the rate law for a

simple first-order reaction (rate
= k[A]) results in an equation describing how the reactant concentration varies
with time:

[A]t = [A]0 e−kt

where [A]t is the concentration of A at any time t, [A]0 is the initial concentration
of A, and k is the first-order rate constant.

For mathematical convenience, this equation may be rearranged to other formats,

including direct and indirect proportionalities:

and a format showing a linear dependence of concentration in time:

ln[A]t = ln[A]0 – kt

Second-Order Reactions

The equations that relate the concentrations of reactants and the rate constant of
second-order reactions can be fairly complicated. To illustrate the point with
minimal complexity, only the simplest second-order reactions will be described
here, namely, those whose rates depend on the concentration of just one reactant.

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For these types of reactions, the differential

rate law is written as:

rate = k[A]2

For these second-order reactions, the integrated rate law is:

where the terms in the equation have their usual meanings as defined earlier.

The integrated rate law for second-order reactions has the form of the equation of a
straight line:

A plot of 1/ [A]t versus t for a second-order reaction is a straight line with a slope
of k and a y-intercept of 1/ [A]0. If the plot is not a straight line, then the reaction is
not second order.

Zero-Order Reactions

For zero-order reactions, the differential rate law is:

rate = k

A zero-order reaction thus exhibits a constant reaction rate, regardless of the

concentration of its reactant(s). This may seem counterintuitive, since the reaction
rate certainly can’t be finite when the reactant concentration is zero. For purposes

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of this introductory text, it will suffice to note that zero-order kinetics are observed
for some reactions only under certain specific conditions. These same reactions
exhibit different kinetic behaviors when the specific conditions aren’t met, and for
this reason the more prudent term pseudo-zero-order is sometimes used.

The integrated rate law for a zero-order reaction is a linear function:

[A]t = – kt + [A]0

y = mx + b

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A plot of [A] versus t for a zero-order reaction is a straight line with a slope

of −k and a y-intercept of [A]0. The graph given (page 17) shows a plot of [NH3]
versus t for the thermal decomposition of ammonia at the surface of two different
heated solids. The decomposition reaction exhibits first-order behavior at a quartz
(SiO2) surface,
as

suggested by the exponentially decaying plot of concentration versus time. On a

tungsten surface, however, the plot is linear, indicating zero-order kinetics.

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COLLISION THEORY

We should not be surprised that atoms, molecules, or ions must collide before they
can react with each other. Atoms must be close together to form chemical bonds.
This simple premise is the basis for a very powerful theory that explains many
observations regarding chemical kinetics, including factors affecting reaction rates.

Collision theory is based on the following postulates:

1. The rate of a reaction is proportional to the rate of reactant collisions.

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2. The reacting species must collide in an orientation that allows contact

between the atoms that will become bonded together in the product.

3. The collision must occur with adequate energy to permit mutual penetration
of the reacting species’ valence shells so that the electrons can rearrange and
form new bonds (and new chemical species).

We can see the importance of the two physical factors noted in postulates 2 and 3,
the orientation and energy of collisions, when we consider the reaction of carbon
monoxide with oxygen:

2CO(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2CO2

Carbon monoxide is a pollutant produced by the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels.

To reduce this pollutant, automobiles have catalytic converters that use a catalyst
to carry out this reaction. It is also a side reaction of the combustion of gunpowder
that results in muzzle flash for many firearms. If carbon monoxide and oxygen are
present in sufficient amounts, the reaction will occur at high temperature and
pressure.

The first step in the gas-phase reaction between carbon monoxide and oxygen is a
collision between the two molecules:

CO(g) + O2(g) ⟶ CO2(g) + O(g)

Although there are many different possible orientations the two molecules can
have relative to each other, consider the two presented in figure given below. In the
first case, the oxygen side of the carbon monoxide molecule collides with the
oxygen molecule. In the second case, the carbon side of the carbon monoxide
molecule collides with the oxygen molecule. The second case is clearly more likely

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to result in the formation of carbon dioxide, which has a central carbon atom
bonded to two oxygen atoms (O=C=O). (O=C=O). This is a rather simple example
of how important the orientation of the collision is in terms of creating the desired
product of the reaction.

If the collision does take place with the correct orientation, there is still no
guarantee that the
reaction will
proceed to form
carbon dioxide.
In addition to a
proper
orientation, the
collision must also
occur with sufficient energy to result in product formation. When reactant species
collide with both proper orientation and adequate energy, they combine to form an
unstable species called an activated complex or a transition state. These species are
very short lived and usually undetectable by most analytical instruments. In some
cases, sophisticated spectral measurements have been used to observe transition
states.

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Collision theory explains why most reaction rates increase as concentrations

increase. With an increase in the concentration of any reacting substance, the
chances for collisions between molecules are increased because there are more
molecules per unit of volume. More collisions mean a faster reaction rate,
assuming the energy of the collisions is adequate.

Activation Energy and the Arrhenius Equation

The minimum energy necessary to form a product during a collision between

reactants is called the activation energy (Ea). How this energy compares to the
kinetic energy provided by colliding reactant molecules is a primary factor
affecting the rate of a chemical reaction. If the activation energy is much larger
than the average kinetic energy of the molecules, the reaction will occur slowly
since only a few fast-moving molecules will have enough energy to react. If the
activation energy is much smaller than the average kinetic energy of the molecules,
a large fraction of molecules will be adequately energetic and the reaction will
proceed rapidly.

Figure Ⅱ shows how the energy of a chemical system changes as it undergoes a

reaction converting reactants to products according to the equation

A+B⟶ C+D
Reaction diagrams are widely used in chemical kinetics to illustrate various
properties of the reaction of interest. Viewing the diagram from left to right, the
system initially comprises reactants only, A + B. Reactant molecules with sufficient
energy can collide to form a high-energy activated complex or transition state. The
unstable transition state can then subsequently decay to yield stable
products, C + D. The diagram depicts the reaction's activation energy, Ea, as the
energy difference between the reactants and the transition state. Using a specific

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energy, the enthalpy change of the reaction, ΔH, is estimated as the energy
difference between the reactants and products. In this case, the reaction is
exothermic (ΔH < 0) since it yields a decrease in system enthalpy.

Figure Ⅱ: Reaction
diagram for the
exothermic equation
A+B ⟶ C+D

The Arrhenius
equation relates the activation energy and the rate constant, k, for many chemical
reactions:

In this equation, R is the ideal gas constant, which has a value 8.314 J/mol/K, T is
temperature on the Kelvin scale, Ea is the activation energy in joules per mole, e is
the constant 2.7183, and A is a constant called the frequency factor, which is
related to the frequency of collisions and the orientation of the reacting molecules.

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CATALYSIS

Among the factors

affecting chemical reaction rates discussed in the earlier section, was the presence
of a catalyst, a substance that can increase the reaction rate without being
consumed in the reaction. The concepts introduced in the previous section on
reaction mechanisms provide the basis for understanding how catalysts are able to
accomplish this very important function.

Figure Ⅲ shows reaction diagrams for a chemical process in the absence and
presence of a catalyst. Inspection of the diagrams reveals several traits of these
reactions. Consistent with the fact that the two diagrams represent the same overall
reaction, both curves begin and end at the same energies (in this case, because
products are more energetic than reactants, the reaction is endothermic). The
reaction mechanisms, however, are clearly different. The uncatalyzed reaction
proceeds via a one-step mechanism (one transition state observed), whereas the
catalyzed reaction follows a two-step mechanism (two transition states observed)
with a notably lesser activation energy. This difference illustrates the means by

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which a catalyst functions to accelerate reactions, namely, by providing an

alternative reaction mechanism with a lower activation energy. Although the
catalyzed reaction mechanism for a reaction needn’t necessarily involve a different
number of steps than the uncatalyzed mechanism, it must provide a reaction path
whose rate

determining step is faster (lower Ea).

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Figure Ⅲ: Reaction diagrams for an endothermic process in the absence (red

curve) and presence (blue curve) of a catalyst. The catalyzed pathway involves a
two-step mechanism (note the presence of two
transition states) and an intermediate species
(represented by the valley between the two transitions
states).

Homogeneous Catalysts

A homogeneous catalyst is present in the same phase as

the reactants. It interacts with a reactant to form an
intermediate substance, which then decomposes or
reacts with another reactant in one or more steps to regenerate the original catalyst
and form product.

As an important illustration of homogeneous catalysis, consider the earth’s ozone

layer. Ozone in the upper atmosphere, which protects the earth from ultraviolet
radiation, is formed when oxygen molecules absorb ultraviolet light and undergo
the reaction:

Ozone is a relatively unstable molecule that decomposes to yield diatomic oxygen

by the reverse of this equation. This decomposition reaction is consistent with the
following two-step mechanism:

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A number of substances can catalyze the decomposition of ozone. For example, the
nitric oxide–catalyzed decomposition of ozone is believed to occur via the
following three-step mechanism:

As required, the overall reaction is the same for both the two-step uncatalyzed
mechanism and the three-step NO-catalyzed mechanism:

Notice that NO is a reactant in the first step of the mechanism and a product in the
last step. This is another characteristic trait of a catalyst: Though it participates in
the chemical reaction, it is not consumed by the reaction.

Heterogeneous Catalysts

A heterogeneous catalyst is a catalyst that is present in a different phase (usually a

solid) than the reactants. Such
catalysts generally function by
furnishing an active surface upon
which a reaction can occur. Gas and liquid phase reactions catalyzed by
heterogeneous catalysts occur on the surface of the catalyst rather than within the
gas or liquid phase.

Heterogeneous catalysis typically involves the

following processes:

1. Adsorption of the reactant(s) onto the surface of the catalyst

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2. Activation of the adsorbed reactant(s)

3. Reaction of the adsorbed reactant(s)
4. Desorption of product(s) from the surface of the catalyst

Figure Ⅳ illustrates the steps of a mechanism for the reaction of compounds

containing a carbon–carbon double bond with hydrogen on a nickel catalyst.
Nickel is the catalyst used in the hydrogenation of polyunsaturated fats and oils
(which contain several carbon–carbon double bonds) to produce saturated fats and
oils (which contain only carbon–carbon single bonds).

Figure Ⅳ: Mechanism for the Ni-catalyzed reaction. (a) Hydrogen is adsorbed on

the surface, breaking the H–H bonds and forming Ni–H bonds. (b) Ethylene is
adsorbed on the surface, breaking the C–C π-bond and forming Ni–C bonds. (c)
Atoms diffuse
across the

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surface and form new C–H bonds when they collide. (d) C2H6 molecules desorb
from the Ni surface.

Many important chemical products are prepared via industrial processes that use
heterogeneous catalysts, including ammonia, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and
methanol. Heterogeneous catalysts are also used in the catalytic converters found
on most gasoline-powered automobiles.

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CONCLUSION

Chemical kinetic studies are important in understanding reactions, and they also
have practical implications. For example, in industry, reactions are conducted in
reactors in which compounds are mixed together, possibly heated and stirred for a
while, and then moved to the next phase of the process. It is important to know
how long to hold the reaction at one stage before moving on, to make sure that
reaction has finished before starting the next one.

By understanding how a reaction takes place, many processes can be improved.

For example, if it is known that a particular intermediate is involved in a reaction,
the use of conditions (such as certain solvents) that are incompatible with that
intermediate might be avoided. In addition, reagents might be added that would
make certain steps in the reaction happen more easily.

Not only are chemical kinetic studies important in industry, but they are also used
to understand biological processes, especially enzyme-catalyzed reactions. They
also play a role in environmental and atmospheric chemistry, as part of an effort to
understand a variety of issues ranging from the fate of prescription pharmaceuticals
in wastewater to the cascade of reactions involved in the ozone cycle.

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 CHEMICAL KINETICS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 https://openstax.org
 https://www.britannica.com
 https://www.sciencedirect.com
 https://openstax.org
 Class 12 Chemistry Part Ⅰ Textbook
 https://www.toppr.com
 https://en.wikipedia.org
 https://www.researchgate.net
 https://www.intechopen.com
 https://byjus.com
 https://chem.libretexts.org
 https://www.csus.edu
 https://www.coursera.org
 https://opentextbc.ca
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com

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