MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS

FUNDAMENTALS

Dr. ADHEED HASAN SALLOMI

MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS
FUNDEMENTALS

First Edition

ADHEED H. SALLOMI

2
1 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
to
WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

3
 CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION1
to
WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Since the dawn of civilization, communication has been of high

importance to mankind. Communication was accomplished by sound
through voice. However, as the distance of communication increased,
numerous devices were introduced, such as horns, and drums.
In this introductory chapter we will briefly review the history of wireless
networks, from the smoke signals of the pre-industrial age to the cellular,
satellite, and other wireless networks of today explaining their main
features, advantages, and disadvantages.

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1.1 Communications in Pre-industrial Age

The wireless systems were developed in the Pre-industrial age. Since the
early days of civilization, various forms of communication took place
without the advantage of physical connectivity. Communication was
accomplished by human voice, and as the communication distance was
increased, horns and drums were introduced.

Communication systems utilize light were injected for greater distances.

These systems transmitted information over line-of-sight (LOS) distances
using smoke signals, fireworks signals, torch signaling, flashing mirrors,
or flags. Observation stations were built on hilltops and along roads to
relay messages over large distances. All these early optical communication
networks utilize the light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Drawbacks to smoke signals included distance limitations based on line –
of- sight (LOS), and errors caused by the wind. If the smoke puff was
blown away or dissipated too soon, the communication was lost. Using
flags was also limited to line-of-sight daytime operation.
These early communication networks were replaced by the telegraph
network which was invented by Samuel Morse in 1838, and later by the
telephone.

1.2 History of Communications Using Electricity

The history of communications using electricity started with the invention

of the commercial telegraph shown in Figure 1.1. Telegraph was the first
technology used to transmit the information data over communication
channels. Thus, it led to many fundamental advances in communications.

Figure 1.1 The First Telegraph

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The most important element of the telegraph was its instantaneous
operation across longer distances.

In 1875, Alexander Graham Bell invented the practical telephone shown in

Figure 1.2. The invention of Telephone was the next development in
communications as it gave the ability to:
- increase the message-handling capacity of telegraph lines.
- transmit human speech over a single line , thereby leading to local
wireline telephone services.

Figure 1.2 The First Telephone

Electromagnetic propagation formulas discovered by Maxwell, and the

detection of electromagnetic radiation discovered by Hertz led to the
invention of radio as another advance in communications.

Several years later, Marconi demonstrated the radio’s ability to provide

continuous contact over distances of several hundred miles with ships
sailing in the English Channel in 1897. This led to advances in wireless
communications.
Radio technology advanced rapidly to enable transmissions over larger
distances with better quality, less power, and smaller, cheaper devices,
thereby enabling public and private radio communications, television, and
wireless networking.

The electromagnetic spectrum, outside the visible region, has been

adopted for communications, through the use of radio in recent times.
It can be advantageous to use radio waves as a communication medium
(channel) rather than using cables (landlines).

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Providing wireless communications to an entire population was first
proposed at Bell Labs in the late 1940s, but was considered unmarketable.
It was a service that connected between a user in a car and the fixed public
network.
In 1946, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), granted a
license for the operation of the first commercial land-mobile telephone
system in 25 cities in the USA. Thirty years after the introduction of
mobile telephone service, the New York system could only support 543
users. These initial systems used a central transmitter to cover an entire
metropolitan area. This inefficient use of the radio spectrum severely
limited the system capacity.

A solution to this capacity problem emerged during the 50’s and 60’s
when researchers at AT&T Bell Laboratories developed the cellular
concept. Cellular systems exploit the fact that the power of a transmitted
signal falls off with distance. With the development of solid-state radio
frequency hardware in the 1970s, the wireless communications era was
born. Figure 1.3, shows pictures of mobile telephones through several
years.

Cellular was designed to overcome the limitations of the conventional

mobile telephone. The first analog cellular system deployed in Chicago in
1983, at which point the FCC increased the cellular spectral allocation
from 40 MHz to 50 MHz. Throughout the late 1980’s, as more and more
cities became saturated with demand for cellular service, the development
of digital cellular technology for increased capacity and better
performance became essential. Wireless communications is enjoying its
fastest growth period in history, due to enabling technologies which
permit widespread deployment.

Mobile Car Telephone Portable Cell-phone Prototype Cellular Telephone

1964 1970 1973

Figure 1.3 Mobile Telephones Development

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1.3 Generations of Cellular Communication Systems

Cellular systems as a wireless communication systems became popular

because it allows more phone users to be supported. The cellular systems
have gone through many generations.

1.3.1 First Generation (1G)

The first-generation systems were designed to provide voice service and

low rate (about 9.6 kbps) circuit-switched data services.
These systems use analog frequency modulation (FM) for speech
transmission, and designed to carry narrow-band circuit switched voice
services. These mobile telephone systems employ Frequency Division
Multiple Access (FDMA) to share the allocated spectrum.
One of the popular standards developed around the world is Advanced
Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) which began in the United States in 1983.
These systems use two separate frequency channels, one for base station
to mobile (down link) and the other for mobile to base station (up link) for
full duplex transmission.
One challenge facing analog systems was the inability to handle the
growing capacity needs in a cost-efficient manner.

First Generation (1-G) AMPS Systems

Uplink Frequencies (MHz) 824-849 MHz
Downlink Frequencies (MHz) 869-894 MHz
Modulation FM
Channel Bandwidth 30.0 kHz
Number of Channels 1666
Multiple Access FDMA

Example 1.1

Advanced Mobile Phone Service AMPS system uses bands of 824 to 849
MHz for uplink and 869 to 894 MHz for downlink transmission. This
spectrum is divided into channels each of 30-kHz bandwidth. Determine :
i) The total spectrum allocated to the system.
ii) The separation between uplink and downlink.
iii) The total number of channels in the system.
Solution

i) The spectrum for uplink = 849 MHz-824 MHz

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 = 25.0 MHz

The spectrum for downlink = 894 MHz-869 MHz

= 25.0 MHz

The total provided spectrum = 25 MHz + 25 MHz 869

= 50.0 MHz
ii) The separation between downlink and uplink = 869 MHz - 824 MHz
= 894 MHz - 849 MHz
= 45.0 MHz
50  106
iii) The total number of simplex channels =  1666 channels
30  103

824 MHz 849 MHz 869 MHz 894 MHz

45 MHz

1.3.2 Second Generation (2G)

Digital technology was introduced in the second generation cellular and

cordless telephone systems to accommodate more cellular phone
subscribers ( to increase the network capacity).
Cellular systems. The main benefits of using digital technology in
telecommunications include increased ability to meet capacity demands,
increasing network transmission efficiency, better voice quality, lower
levels of interference, integration of transmission and switching, and
higher security than analog.
The most recent cellular telephone systems employ digital transmission
with code-division multiple access (CDMA) for distinguishing the signals
to and from individual subscribers.
There are three principal types of second-generation networks in operation
throughout the world: the global system for mobile communication
(GSM), IS-136, and IS-95.

GSM systems uses Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) for

transmission rate of 280 kbps per 200 kHz channel, with eight channels
per carrier. GSM was standardized in Europe but now used worldwide.

The digital advanced mobile phone (DAMP) systems (IS-136) used the
carrier transmission rate of 48 kbps in 30 kHz channel, to reduce the
computational requirements for equalization.

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Another 2G system based on CDMA is the CDMA system IS-95 ,which
is used to avoid the need for equalization. It is a direct sequence (DS)
spread spectrum system in which the entire bandwidth of the carrier
channel is made available to each user simultaneously. (IS-95) CDMA
systems are limited by interference produced by the signals of other users
transmitting within the same bandwidth.
CDMA is an advanced digital cellular technology, which can offer six to
eight times the capacity of analog technologies (AMP) and up to four
times the capacity of digital technologies such as TDMA. CDMA can
provide better speech quality than other digital cellular system.

A few years after the deployment of the second-generation systems,

market demand was more than the systems were able to support, and
mobile voice and basic data services had become an integral part of user
requirements.
Once digital cellular became available, operators began incorporating data
services in addition to voice. The 2G systems with added data capabilities
are sometimes referred to as 2.5G systems. This enhancement is referred to
as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).
A maximum data rate of 171.2 Kbps is possible with GPRS when all 8
timeslots of a GSM frame are allocated to a single user.
The urgent need to increase capacity (for data and voice) led to move
directly from second generation to third generation.

1.3.3 Third Generation (3G)

The mobility and flexibility provided by the mobile communication

systems have been driving to an accelerated growth of new mobile
services and a fast increase in the users rates.
The third generation (3G) cellular systems are designed to handle data
and/or voice. The third generation cellular networks have been deployed in
some parts of the world since 2002 and will be widely deployed due to
their high speed transmission.
These third generation (3G) networks, known as universal personal
communication networks (PCN) use lower power handsets. Low-power
handsets for personal communication systems (PCS) eliminated the need
to have different handsets for wide-area (cellular) and local (cordless)
applications.
The download speed on the most advanced 3G networks is about 8Mbit/s.
The first version of third-generation specifications was deployed in Korea
and Japan in 2000 and 2001. In 2006, all cellular technologies (first,

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second, 2.5, and third-generation) coexisted, with the most common
cellular technology GSM (of the second generation).

1.3.4 Fourth Generation (4G)

The explosive growth of wireless systems coupled with the computers

indicate a bright future for wireless networks. Fourth generation systems
are on the horizon that will provide broadband wireless access with high
bit rates that approach 60Mbps.
The future growth of mobile and portable communication systems will be
tied more closely to radio spectrum allocations and regulatory decisions
which support new services, as well as to consumer needs and technology
advances in the signal processing, access, and network areas.
The primary goals of the (4G) networks are:
1- The introduction of new technologies to cover the need of higher data
rates and multimedia services (speech, audio, video, image).
2- The integration of existing technologies in a common platform.

The adaptation of wireless technologies to the user's demand has been one
of the main drivers of the revolution happened in the information society.

1.3.5 Fifth Generation (5G)

In order to meet the extra ordinary growth in data and the need to faster
connections and greater capacity, the 5G is designed.
In addition to faster connections and greater coverage and capacity, the
5G networks provide fast response time referred to as latency, which
means the time taken for devices to respond to each other over the
wireless network. The 5G response time is about 1 millisecond, while it is
30 milliseconds in 4G, and around 100 milliseconds in 3G networks.
The major categories of 5G networks:
1. Massive machine to machine communications or the Internet of
Things (IoT) that connects billions of devices in many applications
without human intervention.
2. low latency communications provides real-time control of systems in
industry, agriculture, robotics process, remote medical care systems,
smart cities, and smart schools.
3. New and Emerging technologies that will be accessible by everyone.
4. 5G will keep connection with smart cities, smart homes and smart
schools, and enable opportunities that we haven’t even thought of yet.
Figure 1.4 provides a comparison of wireless systems generations.

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Example 1.2

Determine the time taken to download the content of a DVD (4.7 GB) over
a line with a bandwidth of 60 Mbit/s. Compare this time if a 5G laptop or
smart phone?
Solution
1 Byte =8 bits
4.7  10 9  8 bits
 626.666 sec .  10.444 min .
60  10 6 bit / s
4.7  10 9  8 bits
 3.76 sec .
10  10 9 bit / s

5G
MERGING SYSTEMS - (low latency)
10 Gbit/s

4G
ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS - (WCDMA)
60-200Mbps

2.5G & 3G
DIGITAL -(TDMA),(CDMA),(WCDMA)
(PCN)
2 Mbps

2G
DIGITAL - (TDMA) & (CDMA)
GSM , IS-136 , IS-95
48-280 kbps

1G
ANALOG-FDMA
(AMPS)
Spectral Efficiency
9.6 kbps

Figure 1.5 Comparison of Mobile Telephone Generations

1.4 Wireless Communications Categories

Wireless telecommunications can be divided by their coverage areas and

bit rates into two main categories: Mobile communications and fixed

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wireless communications. Each category has its own unique market in
terms of customer needs and technology requirements.

1.4.1 Fixed wireless communication systems

The fixed wireless are flexible data communication systems which do not
need mobility. They can be implemented as an extension to, or as an
alternative for a telephone service to rural areas or to overcome obstacles
such as mountains and rivers by replacing a wire-line local loop with radio
communications. Fixed wireless systems can be used over campus or
neighborhood area to reduce the cost of conventional wire-line.

These systems can be also used to provide radio connectivity to stationary

in-building users with very high speed services as local area networks
(LAN).

1.4.2 Mobile wireless communication systems

The mobile communications market requires mobility (ability to move

while communicating). This feature greatly increases the complexity of
the network and requires a wireless connection to the user. Capability for
mobility is an advantage over the fixed networks. The goal of mobility is
anytime, anywhere communications. Mobile communications technology
must be able to provide service to mobile phone users while outside their
home system. The cost, system complexity, performance, and types of
services offered by each of these mobile systems are vastly different.
There are two types of mobile communication systems:

Mobile Satellite Systems which provide global coverage to mobile users,

with very low bit rates. Satellites provide mobile communications services
to aircraft and ships, and they are important to be used in desert where no
other communication services are available.

These systems use a number of satellites that are in orbit at a 700 to 10000
km distance from the earth. The satellites are circling the earth in such a
way that some of them are visible all the time from any point on the earth's
surface. Each of the satellites performs base station functions and takes
care of the large cell below it. Earth stations of a satellite system control
the operation of satellites and behave as connection points to the public
land networks.

Land Mobile Radio Systems which provide wide area coverage to

vehicular and pedestrian users.
Figure 1.5 illustrates the categories of wireless communication systems.

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 Local Area Network (LAN)
Fixed

Fixed Wireless Network

Land Mobile Radio System

Satellite Mobile Radio System

Figure 1.5 Wireless Communication Systems Categories

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1.5 Mobile and Portable Radio Terminals

The term mobile has traditionally been used to classify a radio terminal
that can be moved during communication. The term mobile is used to
describe a radio terminal that is attached to a high speed mobile platform
(like a cellular telephone in a fast moving vehicle).
The term portable describes a radio terminal that can be hand-held and
used by someone at walking speed (like a walkie-talkie or cordless
telephone inside a home).
The term subscriber is often used to describe a mobile or portable user
because in most mobile communication systems, each user pays a
subscription charge for using the system, and each user’s communication
device is called a subscriber unit. The mobile user is allowed to continue
the phone conversation while on the move.

There are two aspects of mobility:

Device (Terminal) Mobility: Devices can be connected anytime,

anywhere, to the network. The limit of mobility depends on the type of
mobile radio network. As an example the mobility for a cordless telephone
is much less than for a mobile telephone that can be used in a car.

Personal (User) Mobility: Users communicate (wireless) anytime,

anywhere, with anyone. The mobility is to be supported across the whole
network (country) or even beyond the network boundaries.
In mobile communication systems, the radio terminal needs to be
continuously tracked by the system to satisfy the connectivity to the
network. This tracking mechanism is known as mobility management.

1.6 Radio Transmission Systems

The mobile device (subscriber unit) is connected to the network in a

wireless way via electromagnetic waves ( radio , infrared , or light waves).
Both radio and light waves are of electromagnetic nature and travel in air
at the speed of light (3×108 meters/sec). The wavelength of a certain
frequency can be determined by the formula:

c f  (1.1)

where: c is the speed of electromagnetic waves in meters per second,  is

the signal wavelength in meters, and f is the signal frequency in Hertz.

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The radio channel is the frequency band over which the information is
carried from the transmitter to the receiver. Each channel has a fixed band
width, and capacity (data rate). Different channels (frequency band) can
be used for data transmission in parallel independently.

Example 1.3

A spectrum of 120 kHz is allocated to transmit information between a base

station (BS), and a mobile station(MS) through four channels, each
occupies 30kHz. If the allocated band starts from B (Hz), name the limits
of the channels.
Solution
120  10 3
 4 channels
30  10 3
There are four simplex channels. The first channel starts from B to
B+30kHz, the second channel starts from B+30kHz to B+60kHz, the third
channel starts from B+60kHz to B+90kHz,and the forth channel starts
from B+90kHz to B+120kHz.

B - B+30kHz

B+30kHz - B+60kHz
Base Station B+60kHz - B+90kHz
Mobile Station
BS B+90kHz - B+120kHz MS

B Hz B+30kHz B + 60kHz B + 90kHz B + 120kHz

120kHz

The system have four simplex channels over which transmission can take
place in one way(unidirectional). If full duplex transmission is required,
two different channels can be used or time division in a channel.

Mobile radio transmission systems may be classified as simplex, half-

duplex or full-duplex.
If a user is allocated a single frequency, then the communication system is
said to be a simplex system. There are two modes of simplex radio
transmissions: Single direction simplex, and Two Direction Simplex.

Single direction simplex

Here, information in the form of single frequency radio waves will travel
in one direction only, from a transmitter to a receiver. So, in these systems,

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communication is possible in only one direction. Paging systems, in which
messages are received but not acknowledged, are simplex systems.

Transmitter Receiver

Figure 1.6 Simplex Transmission System

Two Direction Simplex Transmission Systems (Half Duplex)

Here, a single frequency is used to transmit information in two directions

but only in one direction at a time. It is also called Half-duplex radio
systems. It allow two-way communication, using the same radio channel
for both transmission and reception. This means that at any given time, a
user can only transmit or receive information. This mode is mostly used
for mobile vehicle radio systems, where a radio station is used to repeat
transmissions from one mobile to all other mobiles.

1.6.3 Full Duplex Transmission Systems

One frequency is used for transmission in one direction and another

frequency is used for transmission in the other direction. Both
transmissions occurring simultaneously. Full duplex systems allow
simultaneous radio transmission and reception between a subscriber and a
base station, by providing two simultaneous but separate channels (two
different channels), so the user may constantly transmit while receiving
signals from another user.

f
f

Transmitter Receiver Receiver Transmitter

Site 1 Site 2

Figure 1.7 Half -duplex Transmission System

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The cellular systems that realizing two-way wireless communication
between the fixed part of the system (base station) and mobile stations
moving in the area covered by the base station system are full-duplex
systems.

f1

f2

Transmitter Receiver Transmitter Receiver

Site 1 Site 2

Figure 1.8 Full -duplex Transmission System

1.7 Current Wireless Communication Systems

Most people are familiar with a number of mobile radio communication

systems used in everyday life.
Garage door openers, remote controllers for home equipment, cordless
telephones, walkie-talkies and cellular telephones are all examples of
mobile wireless communication systems.
All mobile radio communication systems are designed to connect moving
terminal to a fixed station. The data rates, the sizes of the areas covered by
each system and the frequency ranges are different in these systems.
In this section we will discuss in brief some of the current wireless
communication systems.

1.7.1 Garage door openers

The receiver in the garage door opener converts the received signal into a
simple binary signal which is sent to the switching center of the garage
motor. Garage door openers have small coverage area, so the driver has to
be in close range to the base station with in the garage in order to close or
open the door. Garage door openers work at a carrier frequency less than
100 MHz.

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1.7.2 Wireless Remote Controllers

Most of the equipments used in our houses such as satellite receivers,

televisions, fans, air conditioners, light fixtures, and many of other
equipments in everyday life use remote controllers to control the operation
of these equipments. Some of these controllers use infrared frequency,
and they have limited size coverage area.

1.7.3 Private Mobile Radio (PMR)

The private mobile radio (PMR) are independent mobile radio systems.
Some of them are simple like walkie- talkie, and other are complex radio
systems that use a technology similar to that of cellular mobile radio
systems.

Simple Private Mobile Radio:

Constraints like “push-to-talk” (depress a microphone key each time you

want to talk), and “release-to-listen” are fundamental features of half-
duplex transmission systems. Transmitter and receiver used the same
frequency channel, and a “push-to-talk” procedure is required for the non-
talking party to “take over” the channel.

Complex Private Mobile Radio:

These systems support telephone calls and some data communication

between a control desk and a number of car telephones in the area. A small
number of radio channels are allocated for each system inside a
geographic area.
Traditionally, each organization has its own mobile radio system that is
completely independent from others such as the radio system owned by a
taxi operator.
Figure 1.9 shows three networks with one channel allocated for each ; that
is, each organization has only one channel available for all time whether
other organizations using their channels or not.
Assuming there is a demand for three simultaneous calls, one for each
organization, each organization will use its own channel to carry that call.
If there are two calls for organization 1and one call for organization 2, one
of calls of organization 1 will be blocked although the channel of the
organization 3 is free.

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 Organization No.1 Organization No.2 Organization No. 3

Users
A B C D E F

Call Status Going on X Blocked Going on No call No call No call

Channel Allocated Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3

Channel Status Busy Busy Free

Figure 1.9 Private Mobile Radio System

1.7.4 Cordless Telephone Systems

Cordless telephone systems are full duplex communication systems that

use radio to connect a portable handset to a fixed base station so they may
be plugged into the telephone line supplied by the phone company.
The radio link between the cordless phone base station and the portable
handset is designed to behave identically to the coiled cord connecting a
traditional wired telephone handset to the telephone carriage.

In first generation analog cordless telephone, the portable unit was

designed to communicate with a single base station and only over
distances of a few tens of meters, replacing telephone cord with a wireless
link to provide the user with limited range and mobility. This type can be
used where a small coverage area is required such as a house or an office.

The aim of the second-generation digital cordless system is to allow

subscribers to use the same terminal (portable handset) in residential as
well as public access areas such as offices, shopping malls, train stations,
and so on to receive and to originate calls. Typical second generation base
stations provide coverage ranges up to a few hundred meters.
The cordless systems differ from cellular systems in a number of ways.
Their coverage area size is small, typically less than half a kilometer, and
they are designed for low-speed mobiles (typically few foot per second),
and provide coverage in specific zones instead of continuous wide-area
coverage provided by cellular systems.
Cordless handsets transmit very low power. A typical average transmitted
power is about 5 to 10 mW compared with a few hundred milliwatt for
cellular handsets.

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One of the most popular cordless telephone systems make use of
microcells which cover small distances, usually less than 100 m, using
base stations with antennas mounted on street lights or on sides of
buildings. Figure 1.10 illustrates a cordless telephone system.

Public Switched Telephone

Fixed Port Network
(Base Station) (PSTN)

Wireless Link

Cordless Handset

Figure 1.10 Cordless Telephone System

1.7.5 Cellular Telephone Systems

The wireless (cellular) technology is partially replacing the use of the

wired telephone network.
Cellular systems accommodate a large number of mobile stations over a
large area within a limited frequency spectrum. Mobile stations (MS) may
be hand-held personal unit or installed in vehicles(mobiles).

A cellular network consists of a large number of wireless subscribers who

have cellular telephones (users), that can be used in cars, in buildings, on
the street, or almost anywhere. There are also a number of fixed base
stations, arranged to provide coverage of the subscribers.

The unit area of RF coverage for cellular is called a cell. In each cell, a
base station transmits from a fixed cell site location, which is often
centrally located in the cell, to mobile stations or subscriber units. Base
stations are supported by, and interconnected to each other and the public
switched telephone network (PSTN) via mobile switching center (MSC),
as illustrated in Figure (1.11).

The mobile switching center (MSC) is responsible for connecting all

mobiles to the (PSTN) in a cellular system. Thus an incoming call from a
mobile user is first connected to a base station and from there to the MSC
and then to the wired network. From there the call goes to its destination,

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which might be an ordinary wire line telephone, or might be another
mobile subscriber. It can be noticed that a cellular network is not an
independent network, but rather an appendage to the wired network.

Each mobile communicates via radio with one or more base stations. The
wireless link from a base station to the mobile users is interchangeably
called the downlink or the forward channel, and the link from the users to
a base station is called the uplink or a reverse channel. A call from a user
can be transferred from one base station to another during the call. The
process of transferring is called handoff.

Each mobile contains a transceiver (transmitter and receiver), an antenna,

and control circuitry. The base stations consist of several transmitters and
receivers, which simultaneously handle full duplex communications and
generally have towers that support several transmitting and receiving
antennas. The base station connects the simultaneous mobile calls via
telephone lines, microwave links, or fiber-optic cables to the switching
center. The base station serves as a bridge between all mobile users in the
cell and connects the simultaneous mobile to the MSC.

Cell

Base Station
Mobile Station

Mobile Switching Center Public Switch Telephone

(MSC) Network
(PSTN)

Figure 1.11 Cellular Telephone System

The mobile switching center (MSC) plays a major role in coordinating the
activity of all of the base stations and connects the entire cellular system to
the public telephone network.

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1.7.6 Paging Systems

Paging systems or pagers are simplex (unidirectional) systems that

transmit short texts (messages), or generate an audible beep. Pagers are
small wireless communication devices that are used by subscribers to
receive messages (numeric, alphanumeric, or voice messages).
Paging systems broadcast messages simultaneously from many tall base
stations or satellites transmitting at very high power (hundreds of watts to
kilowatts) and low data rate. Paging networks vary in their complexity and
coverage area. There are two types of paging networks :

1- On-site (Simple)Pagers : They are pager systems that use terrestrial

transmitters (base stations) to cover a particular geographic area, such as a
city, a metropolitan region, a building or a hospital.
2- Wide-area pagers: They are pager systems that use satellite
transmitters to provide worldwide coverage . Customers can receive large
amounts of text and display the e-mail message on a screen.
Paging networks are illustrated in Figure 1.12.

Although paging receiver are low power, low complexity, light weight,
and low cost, the paging transmitters consist of telephone lines, many base
station transmitters and high towers. Paging systems has been reduced as
cellular systems provide a similar text-messaging service or even better
bidirectional messaging services.

Landline Link
Site 1
Paging Terminal

Paging Control Center

Public Switched
Telephone System Satellite Link
(PSTN) Site 2

Paging Terminal

Figure 1.12 Paging System Types

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1.8 Some New Communication Technologies

Many communication systems were introduced shortly after the beginning

of the twenty-first century. More non-cellular communication wireless
systems have been introduced, such as Bluetooth systems, Wireless Local
Area Network (WLAN).

1.8.1 Bluetooth Systems

The idea that resulted in the Bluetooth wireless technology was born in
1994 when Ericsson Mobile Communications decided to investigate the
feasibility of a low-power, low-cost radio interface between mobile
phones and their accessories.
Bluetooth is the best known of what are called wireless personal area
networks (PANs). Wireless PANs can replace the cables used to pass data
among closely located electronic equipment.
The Bluetooth standard is based on a tiny microchip incorporating a radio
transceiver that is built into digital devices. The transceiver replacing the
need for a connecting cable for devices such as cell phones, laptop
computers, and network access points. This radio technology offered the
opportunity to universally bridge across existing data networks.
The Bluetooth wireless technology consists of hardware, software, and the
capability to communicate both voice and data wirelessly, using a standard
low-power, low-cost technology interoperate among devices.

Bluetooth is mainly for short range communications, e.g. from a laptop to

a nearby printer or from a cell phone to a wireless headset. The system
operates in the license-free 2.4 GHz frequency band, at a link range of 10
meters. With improved transmission power and receiving sensitivity, the
range can be increased up to 100 meters.
Devices incorporating Bluetooth include mobile phone headsets and
computer accessories such as printers, keyboards, the wireless computer
mouse, as well as in hands-free devices for mobile phones.

1.8.2 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) and Wi-Fi

Today, laptops, servers, personal computers, personal digital assistants use

the Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), or WiFi to communicate with
one another, and often connects to an outside Wide Area Network (WAN).
A Local Area Network (LAN) allow information, to be easily shared
between different users. Generally they are high-speed networks that cover

24
a small geographical area, such as a department of a company, university,
hospital, research center, or manufacturing site.
In wireless LANs network devices are not physically fixed, so it is
possible for a user to physically move within the reception area while
using a device. LANs are especially appropriate where installing wires
would be difficult, or where cables would restrict users. Furthermore, once
the wireless access point has been installed, additional users may be added
without increasing the cost of the network. Wireless LAN standard is
commonly known as (Wi-Fi), and is now widely implemented. It uses
microwave radio in the 2.4 GHz band to provide license free broadband
communication possibilities system. Many mobile phones now contain
WiFi chips to allow them hook up to the Internet wirelessly.
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)
technology is used for very long distances such as 10 to 20 km.

1.8.3 Ultra-Wideband (UWB)

Ultra Wide Band (UWB) transceivers are now able to provide very high
data transmission speeds in the range 100 to 500 Mbps across distances of
five to 10 meters. UWB messages are composed of a series of pulses. By
varying the pulses amplitude, polarity, or timing across a range of
frequencies, information is coded into a stream of data.
A typical UWB transmitter radiates low energy compared to the energy
emitted by a 0.6 W mobile phone.

1.8.4 Radio-frequency Identification (RFID) Systems

Low power wireless communication is widely used in radiofrequency

identification (RFID) of people and objects. There are two basic types of
RFID: active and passive.
In the active system the object or person whose movements are controlled
or monitored carries a radio transmitter. The signal from the transmitter is
detected by a fixed receiver mounted on the entry or exit under
surveillance. Information from the receiver is then analyzed by a computer
that sends instructions to permit or prevent passage.

In the passive system the object or person carries a microchip attached to a

tiny antenna, called a transponder. The radio transmitter is mounted on the
entry or exit under surveillance. The signal from the transmitter prompts a
responding signal from the transponder. This response is then relayed to a
computer, which takes the appropriate action.

25
Most of the RFID devices to which the public are exposed are passive (i.e.
non broadcasting) devices.
The power output of RFID devices is generally small, of the order of 10
mW. A large number of specific wireless frequencies are approved for
short range RFID devices, from 9 kHz to 17.3 GHz.

WiFi, Bluetooth, UWB and RFID technologies involve short range radio
signaling with associated low power outputs.

1.8.5 Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA)

Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA) is a digital mobile radio telephone

system that is designed to meet the needs of the most demanding private
mobile radio (PMR). TETRA is especially designed for professional users
who need high reliability and security such as emergency services and
national police forces.

TETRA is designed to meet the needs of the most demanding private

mobile radio (PMR) that is owned and operated by a private company or
organization, and public access mobile radio (PAMR) that is usually
owned commercially.
TETRA offers various features very useful for PAMR and PMR users that
are not available in other current technologies, such as extensive coverage.
For each cell in TETRA, there is a pool of available traffic channels and
each user have a traffic channel allocated on a call basis. Upon termination
of the call, the previously occupied channel returns immediately to the
pool of available channels. Using this channel allocation strategy, a large
amount of random users can be accommodated in a small number of
traffic channels, so TETRA can cope with very high peak demand.
The TETRA base stations have outputs of a few tens of watts and are
similar to GSM base stations. TETRA has been designed to operate in the
frequency range from VHF (150 MHz) to UHF (900 MHz).

1.8.6 ZigBee Wireless Technology

Control devices usually requires low-latency and low- power consumption

even at lower bandwidths.
Zigbee communication technology is designed for control and sensor
networks for wireless personal area networks (WPANs). Zigbee
technology is a short-range, two-way data transmission system between

26
sensors and control system, low-cost, low-power consumption and best
suited for industrial control, and automation.

It can handle many devices at low-data rates. Zigbee systems operate at

868 MHz, 902-928MHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies with low date rates. It
can cover a range of 10-100 meters. Zigbee systems are simpler than the
other short-range wireless sensor networks as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. Zigbee
networks communication range can be extended by using routers and
allow many nodes to interconnect with each other.

As shown in Figure 1.13, Zigbee network consists of coordinator, router

and end device. The coordinator acts as a network bridge, and responsible
for handling and storing the information while performing receiving and
transmitting data operations. Zigbee routers act as intermediary devices
that permit data to pass through other devices. End devices have limited
functionality to communicate with the nodes.

Zigbee End Device

Existing
Network
Zigbee Coordinator

Zigbee Router

Figure 1.13 Zigbee Network Architecture

27
PPR
ROOB
BLLE
EMMSS

1.1 In pre-industrial ages smoke signals were used for communications.

a-Which time of day is preferable to receive smoke signals?
b-What are the drawbacks of smoke communication systems?
c-State the main conditions required to achieve successful
communication by using smoke ?

1.2 Flags and drums were used as simple communication systems.

a- What is method used to extend the communication range of these
systems? What is the similar techniques used these days to
achieve the same purpose?
b- Communications using flags is still used in sports games. Name
some of these games.
c- Which time of day is preferable to receive flag signals? Why?
d- Suggest alternative simple communication techniques that can be
used instead of flag signals.

1.3 Between smoke, torches, voice, flags, drums, and horns, which
device use the light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum ?

1.4 In optical communications observation stations were built on hilltops

and along roads to relay messages over large distances. What is the
proper name that can be given to these stations?

1.5 Satellite communication systems use a number of satellites that are

in orbit at a 700 to 10000 km distance from the earth, i.e. Lower
Orbit (LEO). Compare the round-trip delay of data sent between a
satellite and the earth for LEO, and geostationary GEO satellites that
are of 36000 km distance from the earth.

1.6 What are the limitations of wired and fiber optics communication
systems ?

1.7 How radio links can be used to support wired networks? Give an
example.

1.8 State the main advantages of radio communication systems.

1.9 Classify the following mobile communication systems into analog

or digital systems : IS-95, GSM, GPRS, AMPS, PCS.

28
 1.10 Mobile communication systems have been driving to an accelerated
growth in the users rates. Why ?

1.11 How can Bluetooth communication range can be extended from 1.0
m to 10.0 m?

1.12 Capacity in mobile communication systems is described in terms of

different factors. What are they ?

1.15 An infra-red remote controller is used to control a satellite receiver

which is 6m away from the user.
a- Which type of transmission channel is used here ? Name the
base station and the mobile station in this communication
system.
b-What is the time required for the signal to be receiver by the
receiver ?
c- Determine the wave length if the frequency used is 1.2 GHz.
d- Is the remote controller portable or mobile device ?
__________________________________________________________

29
2 CHAPTER TWO

MOBILE CHANNEL
CHARACTERIZATION

31
2.1 Radio Wave Propagation Models

A propagation model is a set of mathematical expressions, diagrams, and

algorithms used to predict the radio wave propagation characteristics of a
given environment.
Generally, the prediction models can be either empirical (also called
statistical) or theoretical (also called deterministic), or a combination of
these two.
The so-called empirical models are based on measurements and will be
applicable in different propagation environments. The theoretical models
deal with the fundamental principles of radio wave propagation
phenomena. The theoretical models work according to principles of
physics and, due to that; they can be applied to different environments.
Ray–tracing techniques are often employed for theoretical propagation
modeling of the two main physical processes (diffraction and reflection)
especially for cellular phone communication in urban environment. It

30
enables to estimate the signals strength, their Directions-of-Departure
(DOD), and Directions-of-Arrival (DOA).

Depending on geographical information (size and the density of

constructions and natural objects), propagation environment is divided
into three main categories; urban, suburban and rural. Further, in respect
of the size of the coverage area, the outdoor propagation models can be
subdivided into two classes, macro cell and micro cell prediction models.

2.2 Large-Scale Propagation Models

Ray-optical approximations are commonly adopted in modeling the

propagation of electromagnetic waves in wireless communication, where
the signals have frequencies over 800 MHz.
This is a reasonable approximation, because the signal wavelengths are
very small compared to the buildings, hills, and forests. Thus the
electromagnetic signal is assumed to propagate through space in one of the
following ways: directly from the transmitter to the receiver (line-of-sight
path); reflected from earth or buildings; diffracted from larger objects; or
scattered from objects that have smaller dimensions like lamp posts. The
approach can be applied to both indoor and outdoor areas.

1. Line-of-sight (LOS) path. Communication may take place by optical

line of sight, which is the shortest direct path between the transmitter and
the receiver. This is a good approximation in space communication, where
no intervening obstacles exist. It provides the simplest propagation model.
2. Reflection. On earth the transmitted signal will not have a free path, but
will face obstacles. If the signal wavelength is smaller relative to the
surface encountered, it is reflected from the surface. Outdoors the ground
or buildings, indoors the walls cause reflections. Reflection is more
important indoors than outdoors.
3. Diffraction. Diffracted fields are generated by secondary wavelets.
According to Huygen’s principle these wavelets combine to produce a
new wavefront propagating away from the diffracting edge as cylindrical
waves. At the edges of large objects the radio wave is diffracted, when the
signal wavelength is smaller relative to the surface encountered.
This means that the electromagnetic wave ‘bends’ around the corner and
can reach a receiver, which is not in line of sight. Analytical models for
diffraction are not developed, but diffraction phenomenon is included in
the empirical models implicitly.
4. Scattering. If the electromagnetic wave has a wavelength, which is
comparable to the object encountered, it is scattered. An incoming signal

32
is scattered into many weaker signals. The obstacles can be cars or trees
outside. Because the power levels will be significantly reduced, scattering
can mostly be ignored and will not be discussed further.

Propagation Models

Theoretical Models Combined Models Empirical Models

Large Scale Models Small Scale Models

Figure 2.1 Propagation Models

2.3 Free Space Signal Propagation

The power radiated by a transmitter antenna spreads to all directions in

space and thus only part of it can be collected by the receiver antenna.
The transmitting antenna, which emits the signal equally in all directions
at the power level of (Pt) watts, is called an isotropic antenna.
If a sphere of radius (d) is drawn around the isotropic antenna, at each
point of its surface (S), the electromagnetic field induced by this antenna
is identical as shown in Figure (2.1). On more practical level, all real
antennas radiate better in some directions than others, and cannot be
isotropic. That is because the radiation intensity is proportional to the
square of the current in the antenna. The current everywhere in the
antenna is not the same, so more energy is radiated from some parts than
from others.

33
 Figure (2.1) Isotropic Antenna
Satellite link and point to point link in microwaves system are good
example of free- space propagation as shown in figure 2.2.

Figure (2.2) Satellite-Microwave Communications

When a transmitting antenna has a gain of (Gt) in a given direction, and

transmits a power of Pt , the power density Pd sent in this direction
measured at the distance (d) in watt per square meter is:
Pt Gt
Pd  W / m2
4 r 2
The receiver antenna directed at the transmitting antenna and located at
specified distance from the latter will collect only a part of the radiated
power. The received power at a distance (d) from the transmitting antenna
i.e. Pr (d) depends on the effective area of the antenna (Aeff) and is given
by the formula:
Pt Gt
Pr (d )  Pd  Aeff   Aeff
4 d 2

34
The antenna gain is usually given by:
4  Aeff
Gr 
2

G r 2
Aeff 
4

Substituting the effective area will result in:

Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr (d )  
4 d 2 4

 2
Pr (d )  Pt Gt Gr ( )
4 d

In logarithm scale the equation can written as:


Pr (d )  Pt  Gt  Gr  20 log ( )
4 d
It is necessary to notice the following points:

1.The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the actual power radiated
by a transmitter antenna to all directions in space and it is the product of the
transmitted power by the transmitting antenna gain.

EIRP  Pt  Gt

When the gain is related to the isotropic antennas as a reference antenna the
gain will be expressed in (dBi), but when the dipole antenna whose gain is
equal to 1.64 is taken as a reference the unit will be (dBd).

dBi  dBd  10 log(1.64)  dBd  2.15

2. The distance d should be more than zero, and must be located at the far-
field of the transmitting antenna.
The far-field of a transmitting antenna is defined as the region beyond the
far- field distance (df), that is related to the largest linear dimension (L) of
the transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier wave length. The far-field
distance (df) is given by:

2 L2
df  (4)


35
3.The atmosphere effects (L) may be added to the free space model
especially in satellite communications. The model will take the form :
 2 1
Pr (d )  Pt Gt Gr ( )
4 d L
4.If the r.m.s value of the input voltage to the receiver is (v), that can be
given as:
V2
Pr (d ) 
Rant
Rrec R V
V  Vant  Vant ant  ant
Rant  Rrec 2 Rant 2
(Vant / 2) 2 (Vant ) 2
Pr (d )  
Rant 4 Rant

The atmosphere effects (L) may be added to the free space model especially
in satellite communications. The model will take the form:
 2 1
Pr (d )  Pt Gt Gr ( )
4 d L

2.1 Free Space Signal Propagation

The power radiated by a transmitter antenna spreads to all directions in

space and thus only part of it can be collected by the receiver antenna.
The transmitting antenna, which emits the signal equally in all directions
at the power level of (Pt) watts, is called an isotropic antenna.
The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal
strength when the transmitter and receiver have clear, unobstructed LOS
path between them. This model can be applied in satellite communication
systems and microwave (point to point ) radio links. The free space model
predicts that received power decays with T-R separation distance raised to
some power. The free space power received by a receiver antenna which
is separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given
by the Friis free space equation

If a sphere of radius (d) is drawn around an isotropic antenna, at each

point of the sphere surface (S), the electromagnetic field induced by this
antenna is identical as shown in Figure (2.1). On more practical level, all
real antennas radiate better in some directions than others, and cannot be
isotropic. That is because the radiation intensity is proportional to the

36
 square of the current in the antenna. The current everywhere in the
antenna is not the same, so more energy is radiated from some parts than
from others.
When a transmitting antenna gain in a given direction is (Gt), the power
density sent in this direction measured at the distance (d) is Pt.Gt /4π d2
watt/m2. The receiver antenna directed at the transmitting antenna and
located at specified distance from the latter will collect only a part of the
radiated power. The received power at a distance (d) from the transmitting
antenna i.e. Pr (d) depends on the effective area of the antenna (Ar) and is
given by the formula:

Pt Gt Ar
Pr (d )  (2.4)
4 d 2

Equation (2.4) shows the dependence of the received power on the

distance (d) between the transmitting and the receiving antenna. The gain
of the receiving antenna (Gr) and its effective area depend on the
geometrical properties of the antenna and on the received wavelength.
Effective area of the receiving antenna (Ar) can be described by

Gr . 2
Ar  (2.5)
4

where Gr is the receiving antenna gain, λ = c/f, is the wavelength of the

transmitted signal, c is the light velocity in meter/sec, and f is the
frequency of the transmitted signal in Hertz.
Substituting (2.5) in (2.4), will give the power of the received signal as:

PG G Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr (d )  t t r 2  (2.6)
(4d /  ) (4 d ) 2

The free space equation of (2.6) shows that the received power falls off as
the square of T-R separation distance increased.
The free space path loss represents the ratio of the transmitted and
received power that depends on the gain of the transmitter antenna, the

37
distance between the antennas, and the effective aperture of the receiver
antenna.
The mean path loss (Lp) describes the signal attenuation in a free space,
that would result if all absorbing, diffracting, obstructing, refracting,
scattering and reflecting were sufficiently removed. The path loss (Lp) is
usually given using the receiver antenna gain instead of the effective
aperture:

1
Pt  1 
1
    
2

Lp   Gt Ar  Gt Gr   
pr  4 d 2 
(2.7)
  4 d  

Free–space loss is caused by beam divergence that is the signal energy

spreading over larger areas at increased distances from the source. The
free space loss (Lp) is given by the expression:

2
  
L p    (2.8)
 4 d 

The free space model only a valid predictor for the values of (d) which are
in the far-field of the transmitting antenna.
The far-field of a transmitting antenna is defined as the region beyond the
far- field distance (df), which is related to the largest linear dimension (D)
of the transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier wave length. The far-
field distance (df) is given by:

2D 2
df  (2.9)


Additionally, to be in the far-field region, (df) must satisfy that (df >>D,
and df >>λ).

3.2 Free Space Propagation Model

The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal
strength when the transmitter and receiver have clear, unobstructed LOS
path between them. Satellite communication systems and microwave LOS
radio links typically undergo free space propagation. As with most large-

38
scale radio wave propagation models, the free space model predicts that
received power decays as a function of the T-R separation distance raised
to some power (i.e., power law function). The free space power received
by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating transmitter
antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friis free space equation

Rant
V Rrec
Vant ~

CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION
to
WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

39