Unit 1 Nature and Scope of Human Geography

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UNIT 1
NATURE AND SCOPE OF HUMAN
GEOGRAPHY

Structure

1.1 Introduction 1.5 Scope and Branches of Human

Objectives Geography

1.2 Definition 1.6 Relevance of Human Geography

1.3 Development of Human Geography 1.7 Summary

1.3.1 Age of Cosmography and Exploration 1.8 Terminal Questions
1.3.2 Modern Period 1.9 Answers
1.3.3 Post Modern Period
1.10 References and Further Reading
1.4 Nature and Perspective of
Human Geography

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied geography at school level and some of you may have also studied
human geography at the senior secondary level. This unit will further help you understand
the nature, perspective and scope of human geography as an important branch of
knowledge. It also describes the relevance of human geography. Knowledge is not fixed.
It changes with time. It is, therefore, necessary to understand developments in the field
of human geography over time. As knowledge grows, new areas are discovered and thus
new branches evolve and develop. Of course, in this process old ones are abandoned or
relegated.
Geography has two major sub-disciplines - Physical and Human Geography. Physical
geography is defined as the integrated study of the natural or physical environment on or
close to the earth surface whereas human geography is concerned with human activities
over the earth surface. In other words, human geography studies the built environment or
human-made spaces or structures in which people live, work and recreate such as
houses, roads, canals, temples, playgrounds and stadia, etc. It also attempts to 5
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understand the modifications and adaptations as responses to the natural

environment in organising human activities. In other words, human
geography studies the processes of shaping human beings and their
activities in various environmental conditions over the earth surface. It is
also related to the study of location and spatial relations of human activities
over the earth surface. One of the unique characteristics of human
geography lies in its approach to study things and phenomena in wholistic
or integrated manner, not independently, to find answers to ‘what’ is ‘where’
and also to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ things are as they are. The objective of
human geography is not only to describe the world as it appears but also
to understand as to how the world has taken its present shape, what
processes and factors have been involved in shaping the present world? In
a nutshell, it answers ‘what’ is ‘where’ (what is located where), or the
patterns (geographical/spatial distribution), ‘how’ (process of existence) it
has come to be found where it is, and what factors have been responsible
for that (causal relationships).

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this unit, you should be able to:
 define human geography and get acquainted with the development of
human geography as a major sub-discipline of geography;
 become familiar with the nature and scope of human geography; and
 understand the various perspectives employed to the study of human
geography in general and its sub-branches in particular, and
understand the relevance of human geography in the field of
knowledge.

1.2 DEFINITION
The Dictionary of Human Geography defines human geography as “a part
of the discipline of geography concerned with the spatial differentiation and
organisation of human activity and its interrelationships with the physical
environment” (Johnston, et al. 2009, p. 350). It is “A major field of
geography that is centrally concerned with the ways in which place, space
and environment are both conditions and are consequences of human
activities.” (Johnston, et al. 2009, p. 350). The Oxford Dictionary defines
human geography as “the branch of geography dealing with how human
activity affects or is influenced by the earth’s surface.”
Huntington in his book “Principles of Human Geography” in 1922 (after
completing the physical background part wise) primarily looked at the
human aspects in relation to the natural ones. He defines human
geography as “the study of the relation of geographical environment to
human activities.” Vidal de la Blache in his book “Principles of Human
Geography” says: “human geography offers a new conception of the inter-
relationships between earth and man- a conception resulting from a more
synthetic knowledge of the physical laws governing our earth and of the
6 relations between the living being which inhabit it.”
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The father of modern human geography, Friedrich Ratzel, who wrote the
book ‘Anthropogeographie’, defined human geography as the synthetic
study of relationship between human societies and earth’s surface.” Later
on Ellen Churchill Semple defined human geography as “the study of the
changing relationship between the unresting man and the unstable Earth.”
Albert Demangeon defined it as “the study of human groups and societies
in their relationship to the physical environment.”
According to the above definitions, human geography is the spatial study of
human and human activities in relation to physical environment. It means
the spatial pattern of landscape created by human in various physical
conditions as both active as well as passive agent. Geographers, in the
early parts of 20th century were of the opinion that the physical
environment impacts and governs human lives and livelihood, culture and
society. This perspective was known as environmental determinism.
However, their idea didn’t find many followers later. It is important to note
that the interrelationships between the physical environment and humans
have been long and complex. In the early stages of social evolution, human
life was greatly impacted by the physical conditions. However, as humans
developed tools, technologies and institutions, they modified the physical
environment and brought about enormous changes on the face of the
earth. Human is continuously active and so is the nature through its
various processes. In this continuous process, physical environment
provides opportunity with barriers and human being modifies the condition
with technology or adapts it. For example, human uses weather control
mechanisms like air conditioners in urban areas and the use of fossil fuels
to run vehicles or for power generation for comfort, which may have
adverse consequences. Therefore, in view of the definition of Geography by
Hartshorne, human geography may be defined as “Human Geography is
concerned to provide accurate, orderly, rational and synthesized description
and interpretation of the variable realities of ever active human beings and
their activities/organisations over the changing earth surface and its
environment.”
You will study the man-environment relationship reflected in all the definitions
of human geography in the Units 3 and 4 of this Block.

SAQ 1
What do you understand by human geography?

1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

There have always been mentions or manifestations of man-environment
interactions in various forms since the time immemorial. It is still continuing
in a most primitive to an extremely sophisticated form. In terms of written
record, Thales (624 BC to 547 BC) and Anaximander (611 BC to 546 BC)
had mentioned the impacts of climate and vegetation on humans in 6th
Century BC. Similarly, Hippocrates (460 BC to 377 BC) did the work of 7
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comparison of the development of humans of two continents based on

their physical associations. Aristotle said that the people of Asia are brave
while the people of cold regions are not. It was recorded by many others
like Herodotus (484 BC- 425 BC), Strabo (63 BC to 25 AD), etc. In India,
the beginning of written descriptions may be traced back to the time of
Kanishka (127 AD) and Harshvardhana (590–647 CE). Arabic scholars
have also mentioned the human-environment relations in their descriptions
of places and people. Human beings, in its process of social evolution –
from hunters, gatherers to pastoral herding to emergence of settled
agriculture and urban-industrial societies have always been inquisitive about
other places and people. When people travelled and traded merchandise,
they kept some accounts and documents. When the king or the ruler
collected taxes, some kind of maps was prepared by the State.
Communities and groups of people sang songs about the changing
weather conditions and their immediate neighbourhoods. All these conveyed
the sense people made of their surroundings, both physical and human.
However, the formal development of the discipline of human geography can
be recorded from the age of explorations, when proper geographical
documentation of people and places became more systematic, supported
by more scientific maps and geographical societies.

1.3.1 Age of Cosmography and Exploration

During the 15th C and Mid 18th C, there has been a significant expansion
in the volume and quality of geographical knowledge. Much of these came
due to discovery voyages and scientific expeditions of different parts of the
unexplored world. It must be noted at this stage that such explorations
were undertaken mostly by the west European countries as they knew little
about the world beyond their immediate neighbours and shores. Chinese
had undertaken such explorations much earlier both on land and water.
The Greeks, Arabs and Persians travelled far and wide and kept records.
The western shores of the Indian subcontinent and also the eastern flank
of the peninsular India had contacts with Middle East and South-East Asia.
However, European expeditions led to new developments in surveying,
cartography and map-making including development of projections, etc.
Maps were the essential needs for taking voyages and expeditions and
also for exploiting resources for trade and expansion of power. The
pioneering atlas ‘Atlas of Bengal’ (1799) by James Rennel has been a
product of this period. During this period, scientific methods of plant and
animal classification took place like that of Carolus Linnaeus, Lamarck and
Count Buffon based on the descriptions documented by travellers,
explorers and voyagers and also on own observations. That time the theory
of evolution also germinated (1859). The environmental impacts on human
behaviour was also observed and documented (Jean Bodin’s work of 1566,
Nathanael Capenter’s work in 1625 and Charles Louis Montesque’s work in
1721 and 1750) on various parts/zones of the world with increasing
exposure and knowledge to land and people across the world.
Geographical writings on population and demography were also attempted
8 (J.P. Susmith, 1741, Lambert Quetelet, 1848, and Edmund Halley, 1693).
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This is the period when the transition from cosmography to scientific

geography took place. Bernhard Varenius was the first person who
identified two major sub-fields- regional and general geography. In his
opinion, geography should study natural as well as human activities- both.
However, the writings were more cosmographic and the systematic or
scientific development of human geography started in late 18th Century.

1.3.2 Modern Period

The 18th Century is the beginning of scientific writings in Geography based
on the vast knowledge gathered from the voyages and explorations. The term Social
Emmanuel Kant provided the philosophical base for placing geography as a Darwinism coined by
scientific discipline in the classification of knowledge (Holt-Jensen, p. 41). Herbert Spencer in late
19th C applying the
Subsequently, Alexander Von Humboldt and Karl Ritter laid the foundation of Darwinian Theory of
geography as a scientific branch of knowledge. The period of Humboldt Evolution says that as
and Ritter is known as the classical period of modern geography. Gradually the plants and animals
have evolved from
because of their contributions to the field, geography came to be taught in simple to complex
universities, and Carl Ritter was appointed as the first professor of ones over time and
geography in Berlin in 1820. Gradually, the chairs of geography were survived on their own
strength, the human
opened in several universities of Europe. One of such chair professor was societies have also
Paul Vidal de la Blache appointed in 1873. evolved the same way
competing each other.
The early geography was dominated by physical geography and the It supports the idea of
development of human geography was slow. However, it progressed side ‘survival of fittest
‘indicating the white
by side after the monumental initiatives of Humboldt and Ritter in the form Europeans at the top
of Cosmos and Erdkunde respectively describing the interrelationship of all other societies
justifying their power
between human beings and their physical environment. Earlier geography
and command/rule over
was concerned with the description and account of the regions in their all others.
physical characteristics and resources. Later, socio-cultural and economic Determinism is an
idea under which it is
aspects were also taken into account. Geography received good support believed that human
during the phase for colonial expansion where geographical knowledge of activities and
new territories in terms of resources and human beings were considered responses are
completely regulated
to be very useful. by the natural
environment.
The works of Freidrich Ratzel in 1882 in the form of Anthropogeographie Possibilism is
created a milestone in human geography recognising Ratzel as the father antithesis of
or founder of Modern Human Geography with wide publicity and Deteminism, which
advocates that humans
acceptability in the academia. The Anthropogeographie is the synthesis of have many
studies on human societies and physical environment and their opportunities amidst
relationships. Ratzel also contributed to human geography by his book constraints posed by
the natural
Political Geography in 1897, which reflects environmental determinism, environment. Stop-and-
nationalism and racism. It was heavily influenced by the Social Darwinism, Go Determinism or
Neo-Determinism
which justifies the racism and imperialism based on survival of fittest. It
says that humans
was carried forward by the disciple of Ratzel, Miss E.C. Semple, whose should wisely utilise
emphasis was very much on the impact of environment in shaping human the opportunities
provided by the nature
and his/her activities. She was of the view that the role of human beings with its control by
was passive in the relationship with environment taking a side of watching, stopping and
Environmental Determinism. Huntington also contributed human moving ahead but not
against the nature.
geography through his book “The Principle of Human Geography” writing on
environmental determinism highlighting climate primarily as the factor for 9
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shaping society, culture and history. As a reaction to the idea of

environmental determinism, Paul Vidal de la Blache in his book entitled
“Principles de Geographie Humaine” or Principles of Human Geography
highlighted human’s active role in the man-environment relationship. Blache
began the idea of Possibilism, where human creates his/her own
opportunities by modifying its environment within the limitations set by
nature. Subsequently, Griffith Taylor gave the idea of Stop-and-Go
Determinism or Neo-Determinism, considering humans as active but
having an approach to go ahead in tune with nature. Human agencies are
perceived as traffic regulators, which can modify nature through technology
but with limitations set by nature or watch the opportunities logically to
move in the direction of nature safely. Many other early geographers
contributed to human geography within above three approaches. The
subsequent decades saw rise of the regional concept, and regional
geography that presented a comprehensive account of different parts of the
world at different scales taking the physical/environmental and human
aspects together.
However, the framework of regional geography was soon criticised and
quest for scientific approach in geography with extensive statistical data
and development of statistical tools started and that gradually brought in
objectivity, rationality and rigour. A number of models and theories based on
scientific approaches like location and spacing of various activities, such as
Central Place Theory by Walter Christaller, Industrial Location Theories by
Walter Isard, Alfred Weber and August Losch, Migration theories by Earnest
G. Ravenstein, Everett Lee, Willburn Zelinsky, G.K. Zipf and Stauffer; size
and spacing of cities by G.K. Zipf, transport network model by Edward
Ullman, Diffusion Theory by Torsten Hagerstrand, and several models by
Peter Haggett and Richard J. Chorley, followed rigorous scientific methods
in geographical studies. Thus there have been some marked developments
in human geography upto the World War II. It may be seen as a period of
beginning of a new era of human geography, which has been amazingly
fast after the World War II in terms of its growth, specialisations and
approaches.
Till 1950s the pace of new developments in human geography was slow.
Geography was primarily a study of areal differentiation or chorology. In
reaction to this and environmental determinism, the other approach of
geography started emerging in 1950s known as Quantitative Revolution.
During this time, some geographers increasingly promoted the use of
statistical techniques and mathematical models to explain and predict the
causal relationships in geographical research as the regional geography
was grossly lacking in these areas. You may define Quantitative Revolution
as the extensive use of statistical techniques and mathematical models
with the increasing help of computing machines like computers in
geography. This changed conceptual, methodological and technological
(intensive use of computing and graphic technology) approaches
transformed the nature and identity of human geography during this phase.
In the late 1950s, the first attempt to revolutionize human geography took
10
place along with some strong theoretical base. It was mixed of statistical/
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mathematical models with strong spatial dimensions - location, distribution,

hierarchy and interaction. Here interaction was most important due to
spatial causal relationship of phenomena over the space. The rigorous use
of mathematics and statistics in the analysis of causality and further
modelling has been unimaginably progressing since 1950s even today. In
this development, system approach emerged as methodological
development (BJL Berry) to see things and phenomena in an
interconnected system where these are spatially interrelated to each other
and affect each other.
Geography was gradually becoming spatial science that received impetus
from the debate after F.K. Schaefer’s article published on exceptionalism in
geography. Geography subsequently included the philosophy of science into
the human geography rigorously, especially based on mathematical
reasoning and statistical techniques for synthesis and analysis also known
as Positivism in Geography. This endogenous or in-situ transformation
revolutionised the entire discipline across the world and sophisticated
spatial statistical analysis was a major part of human geography with real
world problem solving temperament. It involved well structured research
with scientific approach having capabilities of explaining causal relationship
in geographical research through testing of hypotheses.
During the flourishing time of Quantitative Revolution itself, a new wave of
geographical thought came into existence in human geography as a
reaction to excessive quantification and positivism. This wave of
geographical thought is related to social and welfare geography to start
with and radical geography particularly based on Marxist approach
sometimes termed as Marxist Geography. The newly emerging sub-
branches were Behavioural Geography, Social and Welfare Geography,
Humanistic Geography and Radical Geography. The Quantitative Revolution
and Positivism were thought to be less concerned with the problems of the
society related to poverty, hunger, deprivation, malnutrition and health,
crime, income distribution and inequality, deprivation in education, etc. It
germinated from the social unrest and advocated for the study of equality
and justice. It focused on the well-being of the people and gave less
importance to the other approaches of geographical studies towards
creating justice and equality in the society. It was focussed on the overall
well-being rather than just economic growth. The pioneers of this
movement are D.M. Smith (Human Geography: A Welfare Approach, 1977)
and David Harvey (Social Justice and the City, 1973; The Limits to Capital,
1982).

1.3.3 Post Modern Period

Since late 1980s, human geography started getting more exposed to the
philosophy of science, social science and humanities. It started showing
further more concerned about the ongoing socio-economic and political
conditions across the world with new subject matters of geography like
geopolitics, development and underdevelopment, inequality and social
justice, health, education, gender, sex, subaltern, etc. in the core 11
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background of physical environment, cultural landscape, space, place and

scale. A number of specialised branch of human geography came and are
still coming into being as distinct part of main trunk- human geography.
The later developments in human geography during this period are
Postmodern Geography and Postmodernism which come after modern
period in terms of time but as a critique of modernity or western capitalist
view. It is about looking at the world beyond grand narratives or modern
(capitalist) lenses. Postmodern geography started in later part of 1980s,
which reasserts the importance of space and place in research. It was
started by Michael Dear (1988), Edward Soja (1989), David Harvey (1989)
and others later on.

SAQ 2
Describe the stages of evolution of human geography.

1.4 NATURE AND PERSPECTIVE

Nature
From definition, you have got some understanding about human geography
and other aspects of it. The nature of human geography is interdisciplinary
where it studies the spatial organisation of human responses to the
physical setting or environment in terms of social, cultural, demographic,
economic, and political activities over the earth surface and its
environment. The Dictionary of Human Geography says that “Human
Geography is a major field of geography that is centrally concerned with
the ways in which place, space and environment are both the condition
and in part the consequence of human activities” (Johnston, et al., p. 350).
Human beings are constantly active in the modification of their
surroundings based on technological advancements within the limitations
and opportunities provided by nature. Both nature and human beings are
acting as per their nature and establishing equilibrium point for balance,
which is relative and variable with time and space. Examples are
innumerable like the varying adaptation and house structures by various
inhabitants across the world. Good example of this at present is the
earthquake prone building structures around the world especially along the
pacific ring due to the occurrences of earthquakes. Expansion of living
areas in the sea in many countries of South East and East Asia and
Middle East are also good examples. Still many different social and cultural
practices are continued in this scientific era, which are significantly guided
by nature. Similarly, economic activities of human beings and their spatial
organisations are controlled and guided by nature despite rapid
technological development. The interaction takes place by each other’s
adjustments. The changing social, cultural, economic and political
landscapes are the focus of human geography but in the backdrop of
changing physical/environmental landscape as cause and effect acted by
both.
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Thus the nature of human geography is that it studies the interactions of
both- active human beings and unstable earth surface where physical
environment has several limitations offering possibilities for opportunities to
human beings, and in response human beings modify the natural
environment and adjust within that environment. This relation keeps
changing with the changing nature of physical environment and human
progress.
Perspectives
The dominant perspective of human geography is to study things and
phenomena over the space as areal combinations in totality so as to
develop a synthesizing discipline. As history is the narrative of time,
geography is the account of space and place in their ever changing
dimensions. It looks at multiple-dimensions of things and phenomena
towards the exploration of the reality in completeness by analyzing spatial
associations among each other as these are causally and spatially
interrelated to each other. For example, man’s agricultural activities largely
get their shapes by the physiography, climatic conditions, technological
level, manpower, cultural practices and food habits, market, credit facility,
etc. At the same time the agriculture also creates impact on landscape
and environment. Some examples are land reclamation in Udhampur
District of Uttarakhand, land reclamation in the ravines of Chambal area,
jhooming cultivation, Ganganahar Command Area and such initiatives by
people and governments impact environment. Technological innovations,
development of genetically modified crops may enhance our income but
they also leave deep scars on nature. Human geography starts with the
question ‘what is where’ (what is the location of something) or ‘where is
what’ (what is there in a particular location/place) and attempts to find out
why those things are located at given space of the earth and also how
their existence is such or their distribution pattern is as they are. It explains
not only what and where but also how things exist at present describing
the processes involved in it holistically synthesizing all factors involved in it.
To understand the perspective of Human Geography, it is important to know
the difference of Geography from other disciplines. To sum up, geography
attempts to organise its knowledge of the world into interconnected systems,
in order that any particular fragment of knowledge may be related to all others
that bear upon it” (Adhikari, p. 10).

SAQ 3
What are the nature and perspective of human geography?

1.5 SCOPE AND BRANCHES OF HUMAN

GEOGRAPHY
Scope
The scope of human geography is mostly centred around the humans’
activities related to social, cultural, economic and political spheres over the 13
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earth surface in relation to environmental and physical conditions, that are
varied and dynamically changing. It is not possible to develop the
understanding of all facets of humans’ socio-cultural, economic, political
aspects as each one of these are huge and require specialised attention.
For example, economic aspects of human life include agriculture, livestock
and allied activities, industry and services. Therefore, we need to take a
look at multiple sub disciplines and branches within human geography that
have developed over time. Many may have faded away and many new may
still be in their infancy.

Chart 1: Scope of Human Geography

Source: Drawn after Fenneman’s Diagram (1919)

You may see in the above diagram that human geography borrows the
subject matters from other disciplines (anthropology, sociology, economics
and political sciences). Encircling these is the physical environment.
Various combinations of human and physical environmental conditions can
help in the understanding of the patterns and processes on the surface of
the earth at varying scales- from the micro to the macro. Geography and
history have overlapping areas of interest with other disciplines and liberally
borrows subject matters, themes, issues and concepts from them.
Branches
As human geography focuses on the study of patterns and processes that
shape the human beings with their activities over the earth surface in
different environments, it covers many sub-branches of geography. These
are social geography, cultural geography, economic geography, political
geography, population geography, etc. The main branches of human
14 geography are as given below:
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Branches of Human Geography

Economic Social & Political Population & Medical Humanistic

Geography Cultural Geography Settlement Geography or Radical
Geography Geography Geography
There are a number of sub-branches within these major branches of
human geography. It encompasses a large number of branches and,
therefore, is wide and diverse. It includes the specialised branches of
Economic Geography (resource geography, agricultural geography, industrial
geography, geography of trade, transport and communication, geography of
marketing, business/commercial geography, regional development and
planning, etc.), Social & Cultural Geography (social geography, cultural
geography, gender geography, etc.), Political Geography, (geopolitics,
electoral geography, geography of federalism, etc.), Population and
Settlement Geography (Population Geography, Settlement Geography, Urban
Geography), Medical Geography/Geography of Health and Humanistic or
Radical Geography. Many of these sub-branches are the combinations of
more than one branch like regional development and planning is a blend of
economic geography, social and cultural geography, population geography,
political geography involving all tools and techniques (statistics and
cartographic/geospatial) of regional/spatial studies.

SAQ 4
Mention the scope of human geography. What are the main branches of
human geography?

1.6 RELEVANCE OF HUMAN GEOGRPAHY

Human geography is very relevant in the contemporary time. Despite
micro-specialisation, it remained to be the only discipline having the
capability of conducting wholistic study of real world by synthesizing
various spheres of the reality. The roles and relevance has increased due
to increased real world problems associated with human beings over the
space. To begin with the spatial aspects of contemporary societies and
their characteristics, social problems, issues of regional disparities in
economic development, regional development planning, exploding population
and food security, local, regional and global conflicts, effects of global
warming and climatic change on human society and social organisations,
health problems, etc., require the domain of human geography.
Application of human geographical methods and perspectives may help find
answers to many contemporary problems. For example, what are the
problems faced due to global warming and climate change? Where are
these problems located? What has been the process of impact upon
human being and how this can be minimised or mitigated? Similarly, what
are the health problems over certain region or whole globe, where are
these problems found, how these problems have emerged, and how these
problems can be tackled. These kinds of studies are done in human 15
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geography involving all relevant aspects drawn from various associated

disciplines to find the answers. It contributes to the exploration of
knowledge also with emerging studies on the rapid changing world.
Therefore, in the contemporary times of increased local and global problems
and issues, human geography has got immense relevance in contribution
towards problem solution and knowledge exploration.

SAQ 5
What is the contemporary relevance of human geography?

1.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied:
 about human geography and its definitions, which say that it is the
study of human beings and their activities over changing earth and
environment.
 development of human geography which has travelled a long way from
centuries before Christ to contemporary time.
 the nature and perspective of human geography, which are
interdisciplinary and wholistic with great capability of synthesis.
 scope and branches of human geography which is vast with a number
of branches and sub-branches.
 relevance of human geography in the present day context.

1.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is human geography?
2. How has human geography evolved over time?
3. What are the nature and perspective of human geography?
4. What are the scopes and branches of human geography?
5. Explain the relevance of human geography.

1.9 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Human geography is one of the two sub-disciplines of Geography,
which studies the human activities in the background of changing earth
surface and its (physical) environment.
2. There may be three major stages of development of human
geography- i) Age of Cosmography and Exploration, ii) Modern Period
and iii) Post Modern Period
3. The nature of human geography is interdisciplinary, which draws its
16 subject matters from various other disciplines and integrates into
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geographical framework for the study of whole reality. Its perspective is

to see and examine things and phenomena in wholistic manner.
4. It has got wide scope with a large number of subject matters to study.
The main branches of human geography are Economic Geography,
Social and Cultural Geography, Population and Settlement Geography,
Political Geography and Medical/Health Geography.
5. Human geography has got immense relevance for the exploration of
emerging knowledge in the rapid changing world and also for providing
solutions to various real world problems related to human beings
associated with space.

Terminal Questions
1. You may start your answer with human geography as one of the two
major sub-disciplines of geography. Thereafter define it and explain
what human geography is. Refer to Section 1.1 and 1.2.
2. Discuss the evolution of human geography particularly focussing the
age of cosmography and explorations, modern period and post modern
periods. Refer to Section 1.3.
3. Explain the nature of human geography as interdisciplinary and
perspective of human geography as synthesizing discipline to study
the reality wholistically. Refer to Section 1.4.
4. You may write the scope of human geography starting from human
activities in relation to environmental and physical conditions through
the diagramme based on Fenneman’s early work. Thereafter discuss
about the major branches of human geography. Refer to Section 1.5.
5. Discuss the relevance of human geography in the context of increased
local and global problems and issues like social problems, issues of
regional disparities in economic development, regional development
planning, exploding population and food security, local, regional and
global conflicts, effects of global warming and climatic change on
human society and social organisations, health problems, etc. in the
contemporary time, where human geography has got immense
relevance in contribution towards problem solution and knowledge
exploration. Refer to Section 1.6.

1.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Gregory, D., Johnston, R., Pratt, G., Watts, M.J. and S. Whatmore
(2009). Dictionary of Human Geography, Sussex: Willey-Blackwell.
2. R.J. Johnston, Sixty Years of Human Geography, www.researchgate.net
3. Halt-Jensen, A. (2009). Geography: History and Concepts: A Student’s
Guide, London: Sage.
4. Hammond, C.W. (1979). Elements of Human Geography, London:
Unwin Hyman.
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..........................................................................................................................................................................

5. Boyl, M. (2015). Human Geography: A Concise Introduction, Wiley

Blackwell, Chisester.
6. Hussain, M. (2007). Evolution of Geographical Thought, New Delhi:
Rawat Publications
7. Dikshit, R. D. (2004). Geographical Thought. A Critical History of
Ideas, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India.
8. Adhikari, S. (2015). Fundamentals of Geographical Thought, New
Delhi: Orient Blackswan.
9. Rana, L. (2008). Geographical Thought: A Systematic Record of
Evolution, New Delhi: Concept Publishing House.
10. Hussain, M. (2011). Human Geography, New Delhi: Rawat
Publications.
11. Fenneman, N. M. (1919). The Circumference of Geography, http://
www.d.umn.edu/~okuhlke/Archive/GEOG%205803%20Readings/
Week%206/circumference_geo.pdf.

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