© National Strength and Conditioning Association

Volume 26, Number 4, pages 24–29

Keywords: acceleration; maximum-velocity running;

stride frequency; stride length

Means and Methods of Speed

Downloaded from http://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj by BhDMf5ePHKav1zEoum1tQfN4a+kJLhEZgbsIHo4XMi0hCywCX1AWnYQp/IlQrHD3i3D0OdRyi7TvSFl4Cf3VC4/OAVpDDa8KKGKV0Ymy+78= on 03/03/2021

Training, Part I
John M. Cissik, MS, CSCS, *D; NSCA-CPT, *D
Texas Woman’s University, Denton,Texas

• Flexibility. paring sprinters to 10-km runners and

summary • Fatigue. marathoners. Not only did sprinters
• Technique. have greater fascicle lengths, but they
This article covers factors affecting • Stride length and frequency. also possessed smaller pennation angles
(i.e., degree of alignment with the long
speed, describes sprinting tech- Structure and Makeup of an axis of the muscle). It is unclear how
nique, distinguishes between accel- Athlete’s Muscles trainable these qualities are (i.e., per-
Several aspects of the structure of an ath- centage of fast-twitch fibers, fascicle
eration and maximum speed, and lete’s muscles may potentially effect length, and pennation angles).
their ability to run fast. First, possessing
covers technique drills. Common a greater percentage of fast-twitch mus- Flexibility
faults and coaching cues are also cle fibers means that one has the poten- Flexibility will allow an athlete to move
tial to produce greater amounts of force the limbs through a full range of motion
discussed. more quickly than individuals with a without impediment. This will serve to
greater percentage of slow-twitch mus- make the running motion more fluid and
cle fibers. In a classic study, Costill et al. efficient and can increase stride length and
inear speed is an important factor (6) demonstrated that sprinters had a frequency (14). Though static stretching

L for athletic success. Faster athletes

will usually win the race, be able to
jump the farthest, throw farthest, get to
significantly greater percentage of fast-
twitch muscle fibers than distance run-
ners and untrained individuals. In addi-
may be used to improve flexibility, the
greatest carryover to running will occur if
dynamic flexibility exercises are used (3).
the ball first, elude the defender, and so tion to the percentage of fast- versus
forth. Running speed is so important that slow-twitch muscle fibers, the actual Fatigue
it is frequently used as a test to evaluate structure of the muscle may influence Speed training should not take place
athletic potential. Understanding those speed. Kumagi et al. (12) compared under fatigued conditions. Fatigue will
factors that influence speed will help the sprinters who could run 100 m in under interfere with a muscle’s ability to short-
strength and conditioning professional 11 seconds with those who ran it be- en quickly. This means that as the ath-
choose exercises and organize programs. tween 11 and 11.7 seconds. They found lete becomes more tired, he or she will
that the faster sprinters had greater fasci- slow down; as a result, training may in-
There are a number of factors that affect cle lengths (the lengths of bundles of advertently teach the athlete to run at
speed. These include: muscle fibers running from proximal to slower speeds. Fatigue will also interfere
distal tendons), which accounted for an with coordination, which will affect the
• Structure and makeup of an athlete’s almost 22% faster shortening velocity. athlete’s ability to run with proper form.
muscles. Abe et al. (1) found similar results com- This situation could develop and rein-

24 August 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

force bad habits. It could also result in will break each component down into The arms should be swung backwards
injury from bad form (3). greater detail. from the shoulder powerfully. If the
arms are swung back forcefully enough,
Technique Driving Phase the stretch reflex at the shoulder will
Technique is a major limiting factor for The driving phase begins when the lead swing them forwards. Hands should be
running fast. According to several author- foot lands on the outside of the forefoot swung from the hips to the height of the
ities, an athlete can only run as fast as his just in front of the athlete’s center of grav- shoulders, without crossing the midline
or her technique allows (14, 16). Tech- ity (i.e., the athlete’s hips). The foot is of the body (3, 5).
nique makes the motions more fluid, effi- driven to the ground by the hip extensor
cient, and faster. Technique also prevents muscles. It is important for the quadri- The techniques described above generally
injuries that could result from excessively ceps to fire as the foot makes contact with require 12–15 m of accelerating to achieve
loading tissues due to bad form. the ground to keep the knee from flexing because the athlete must be running with
excessively, which would dissipate elastic enough velocity to coordinate the limbs in
Stride Length and Frequency energy. The ankle should be dorsiflexed, the manner described above (3, 13). As a
Several authors refer to speed as being with the foot’s big toe pulled up, the com- result of this, there is some question
the product of stride length and stride bination of which will allow for the stor- about whether mastery of this technique
frequency (7, 13, 14). A debate exists re- age of elastic energy to be maximized to is important for athletes that are not par-
garding which is more important for help with propulsion later (3, 10). ticipating in track and field sports.
speed. Hunter et al. (8) investigated the
relationship between stride length and The athlete will continue to exert force Acceleration or Maximum
stride frequency using college-age ath- with the hip and knee extensors and pull Speed?
letes. Hunter et al. showed a negative re- himself or herself over the center of gravi- Running mechanics are different over
lationship between stride length and ty. As the hips pass over the foot, the ath- the first 12–15 m of a sprint. During the
stride frequency (i.e., athletes with a lete should focus on plantarflexing the first 12–15 m, an athlete is increasing
greater stride rate had a lower stride foot until the toes break contact with the his or her velocity and stride length. As
length and vice versa), but also showed ground. When the toes leave the ground, stride length is increasing, the foot will
that when comparing sprinting trials then the driving phase has ended (3, 10). be making contact with the ground ini-
(near maximum to maximum), stride tially behind the athlete (depending on
length remained constant whereas stride Recovery Phase starting position), then it will make con-
frequency increased. In other words, for As the foot leaves the ground, the athlete tact in front of but closer to the athlete
each individual athlete, there is an opti- should immediately dorsiflex the ankle than during maximum velocity, which
mal relationship between the two; how- to approximately 90 degrees while will mean a lower shin angle during foot
ever, both qualities should be trained to pulling the big toe up. As this is being contact. It also means that during the
help improve speed. done, the athlete should flex the knee first 12–15 m, the athlete will be focus-
and quickly bring the heel up toward the ing primarily on frontside running me-
The following describes sprinting tech- hips/buttocks. This helps to “shorten chanics (i.e., high knee, dorsiflexion)
nique and its importance in speed train- the lever,” which will allow the leg to be and little on backside mechanics (plan-
ing, differences between acceleration swung forward more quickly (3, 10). tarflexion, heel to hip) as body lean will
and maximum-velocity running, and be too great to allow for the backside
various exercises used to help develop As the heel is brought to the hip, the leg mechanics to take place (4, 13).
sprinting technique. will be swung forward. The athlete
should imagine that he or she is trying There are not many positions or sports
Sprinting Technique to step over the opposite knee with the where athletes will be sprinting more
Due to the fact that technique can limit swing ankle. As the athlete is stepping than 12–15 m in a straight line. In
an athlete’s ability to run fast, it is im- over the opposite knee, the athlete’s leg many sports, with the exception of con-
portant to understand what should be will naturally begin to unfold. As this is ditioning drills, athletes will sprint a
occurring during “ideal” sprinting tech- occurring, the leg should be driven short distance, then stop and change di-
nique. Jarver (10) breaks the sprinting back down to the ground from the hips, rections. This brings up an important
motion down into two phases: the dri- ending the recovery phase (3, 10). question: Should athletes focus on max-
ving phase and the recovery phase. This imum-velocity running if they will be
section will provide a brief overview of The athlete should swing their arms in performing it rarely in the sport? The
sprinting technique; the remainder of opposition to the legs to help with bal- answer is going to depend on the nature
this paper dealing with technique drills ance and to help provide momentum. of training performed for the sport. If

August 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 25

 all speed work is performed at distances travel from the hip to the height of the summary). First, the drills are performed
less than 12–15 m, then focusing on shoulder, driving the arms back forcefully. in a seated position. Instruct the athlete to
frontside running mechanics will suf- If the arms are driven back forcefully, the sit tall, the right hand next to the athlete’s
fice. However, if sprints and condition- stretch reflex at the shoulder will recover right hip and the left hand in front of the
ing drills cover distances greater than the arms forward—which will also serve athlete’s left shoulder. On the start com-
12–15 m, then maximum-velocity run- to reduce the number of things the athlete mand, the athlete will drive the left arm
ning techniques should be emphasized. will have to think about when running at backwards until the left hand is next to
For other types of sprints (i.e., game sit- high speeds. In elite sprinters, elbow an- the left hip. As this occurs, the athlete will
uations, speed drills, and so forth), the gles will vary from 60 degrees in front of drive the right arm forward until the right
techniques mentioned above should the body to 140 degrees in back (3–5). hand is in front of the right shoulder. The
serve as a goal. In other words, even if athlete should continue alternating until
one is accelerating over a short distance, There are several progressions for teach- the drill is terminated. Once mastery of
the athlete should still be striving to ing the arm swing (see the Table for a the seated drill has occurred, the athlete is
achieve the techniques mentioned
above. The technique drills that will be Table
described later in this paper also serve as Technique drill progressions
a way to aid in an athlete’s conditioning.
The technique drills develop balance, Type of Drill Progressions
coordination, and improve mobility; all
Arm swing drills 1. Seated
of which are important for athletes.
2. Standing
3. Walking
So how does one train technique? The
4. Jogging
next section of this paper will cover vari-
ous types of drills for training technique. Ankling 1. Walking, one leg
2. Walking, alternating legs
Technique Drills 3. Straight leg bounding, one leg
Technique drills are used to break the 4. Straight leg bounding, alternating legs
sprinting motion down into more man-
ageable components. This is important Heel kicks 1. Walking, one leg
because breaking down the skills into 2. Walking, alternating legs
their parts and mastering them first at 3. Jogging, one leg
slow speed and then at faster ones make 4. Jogging, alternating legs
them easier to learn. Eventually, the ath-
letes can transfer the techniques of the High knee drills 1. Walking, one leg
parts (i.e., the drills) to the whole (i.e., 2. Walking, alternating legs
sprints at maximum speed) (14). There 3. Skipping, one leg
are several categories of drills that are 4. Skipping, alternating legs
used to teach aspects of the sprinting mo- 5. Running, alternating legs
tion. These include (a) arm-swing drills, * without then with arms
(b) ankling, (c) heel kicks, (d) high-knee
A drills 1. Walking, one leg
drills, (e) A drills, and (f ) B drills.
2. Walking, alternating legs
3. Skipping, one leg
Arm-Swing Drills
4. Skipping, alternating legs
The arm swing is an important and often
* without then with arms
overlooked aspect of technique training.
During sprinting, the arms act in opposi- B drills 1. Walking, one leg
tion to the legs serving to prevent upper- 2. Walking, alternating legs
body rotation, which could lead to a loss 3. Skipping, one leg
of balance and timing (2, 10, 14). When 4. Skipping, alternating legs
coaching the arm swing, the emphasis 5. A drills + B drills (for example, A drill for 20
should be on avoiding the arms crossing yards, B drill every 3rd step)
the midline (which would contribute to * without then with arms
upper-body rotation), having the hands

26 August 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

ready to perform the same drill standing, There are several progressions for teach- heel to the hip immediately following
then walking, and then jogging. ing ankling. At first, the drill is per- plantarflexion. This serves to “shorten
formed walking, focusing on one leg at a the lever” so that the mass of the leg is
There are several common errors seen time (i.e., only the right leg performs closer to the axis of rotation, allowing
with the arm swing. First, athletes may ankling). With the legs stiff, move for- the leg to be cycled forward more quick-
not swing the arm from the shoulder— ward until the hips have passed over the ly during sprinting (10).
they may swing by locking the upper arm right foot. As this happens, the right
into place and only moving the lower ankle will go into plantarflexion before Heel-kick drills begin at a walking pace
arm. This is called “beating a drum” or the foot breaks contact with the ground. (like ankling) and begin by focusing on
“milking the cows” and does not allow When the right foot breaks contact with one leg at a time (e.g., the right leg).
the athlete to move his or her arm quickly the ground, it should be cast and driven Keep the left leg stiff and step forward.
enough during high-speed sprinting. forward from the hip. The outside of the As the hips move over the right foot, the
Athletes should be encouraged to move right forefoot will contact the ground right ankle should plantarflex as it
the arms from the shoulders. Second, (cast position, big toe up) and will pull breaks contact with the ground. When
athletes may allow their arms to cross the the body over it. When the desired dis- the foot breaks contact with the ground,
midline of the body, which will increase tance is covered, switch legs. After the it should be “cast” and immediately lift-
the rotation of the upper body while run- athlete is proficient performing this drill ed up to the right hip. As the heel is lift-
ning. This is called “running like a chick- with one leg at a time, have the athlete al- ed up, the right hip will flex to approxi-
en.” Athletes should be reminded to drive ternate legs. Note that the walking ver- mately 45 degrees. Repeat until the
the arms backward while running. Third, sions of ankling are meant to be slow desired distance is covered, then switch
athletes may swing the arms too high technique drills. To work on speed and sides. Once proficiency is achieved in
(i.e., hand is over the shoulder) or may explosive power, these drills can be per- that drill, perform it by alternating be-
not swing back far enough (i.e., hand formed as straight leg bounding exercis- tween the right and left sides.
does not reach the hip). This can affect es; focusing on correct ankle mechanics
arm speed negatively. Coach the athletes while trying to get off the ground as Athletes that lack good flexibility will
to move the arms “hip to shoulder.” quickly as possible. have trouble bringing the heel to the hip
during this drill, which will make cor-
Ankling Besides having difficulty achieving and rect technique difficult to visualize. To
Ankling teaches how to lift the feet off the maintaining the cast position, the most help solve this problem, the advanced
ground and how to put them down during common errors with foot placement in- versions of this drill are performed at a
sprinting. This is an important skill as volve running on the toes or running jogging pace. The increased speed will
proper positioning of the foot will mini- heel-to-toe. Running on the toes is a fre- enable the athlete to bring their heel to
mize the amount of time spent on the quent problem when one attempts to their hip during the drill.
ground, minimize power lost into the teach the cast position and having the
ground by providing a more rigid ankle forefoot contact the ground first. If the There are two frequent errors seen dur-
joint, and minimize injuries that could be toes contact the ground, it could actual- ing this drill. First, many athletes will
caused by improper foot placement (3–5). ly make the athlete have balance prob- perform this drill by pointing the knee
lems while running, which is undesir- down toward the ground. It should be
When coaching foot action during able. To correct, emphasize a pawing emphasized that the hip will flex during
sprinting, emphasize plantarflexion as motion where the forefoot strikes the this drill, and this is important for the
the hips pass over the foot to push the ground and then pulls the body along. sprinting motion. The goal is not to
body forward. When the back foot Running heel-to-toe is problematic be- stretch the quadriceps; it is to teach
breaks contact with the ground, it cause often the structures of the lower bringing the heel to the hip during the
should immediately be “cast.” Casting limb are unable to absorb the forces, and sprinting motion. A second error is that
refers to dorsiflexing the ankle to ap- this can lead to hamstring injuries over the athletes will lose the cast to their foot
proximately 90 degrees while pulling the time. Athletes need to be encouraged to while it is brought to the hips. Remind
big toe up (5). The foot should remain cast the foot, “stay off the heels,” and athletes that they should not allow their
in the cast position until it is again on allow the forefoot to contact the ground. foot to “dangle” and that the ankle must
the ground and the hips are passing over remain rigid.
it. In ankling, the foot will be driven for- Heel Kicks
ward from the hips, and the outside of Heel kicks are designed to build upon High-Knee Drills
the forefoot will make contact with the the mechanics taught by ankling drills. High-knee drills help to teach frontside
ground and will pull the body over it. Heel kicks teach the athlete to bring the mechanics while reinforcing casting the

August 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 27

 foot and also help to condition the hip mediately brought to the right hip (as in striding,” which can cause the athlete to
flexors. These are initially taught at walk- heel kicks). Keeping the heel in contact spend more time on the ground and brake
ing speeds, focusing on one leg at a time. with the hip, the right leg should be cy- while running. Encourage athletes to “stay
To perform the high-knee drill with the cled forward (the athlete should focus tall” while performing B drills.
right leg, the right ankle will plantarflex on “stepping over the opposite knee”).
as the hips pass over it. As the foot leaves As the leg is cycled forward, the knee Normally, ankling and arm-swing drills
contact with the ground, it should be cast will be lifted high (as in the high-knee are learned first. Moderately skilled ath-
as the right knee is lifted high (parallel to drill), and the leg will begin to unfold. letes can progress through many of the
the ground). Keeping the foot cast, place From that position, the foot should be arm-swing and ankling progressions in
it on the ground slightly in front of the driven down from the hips as in the minutes. Once ankling and arm swings
hips so that the outside of the forefoot high-knee drills. Repeat for the desired are mastered, heel kicks and high-knee
contacts the ground. The foot should be distance, and then switch sides. Arm drills are learned simultaneously. Once
driven to the ground from the hips (3, 4). swing can be integrated into the drill as heel kicks and high-knee drills have
Repeat for the desired distance, and then mastery is achieved (3). been mastered, athletes can progress to
switch sides. Initially, the arm swing is A drills. After A drills have been mas-
not emphasized during this drill. Howev- Once the drill is perfected, the athlete tered, some athletes may benefit from
er, after the athlete has perfected the hip can begin to alternate between the two performing B drills. The Figure presents
and ankle motion, the arm swing can be sides. Advanced athletes will perform a breakdown of various technique drills
introduced. the drill with a skip. as well as progressions than may be fol-
lowed for each category of drill.
Once the above drill is perfected, the B Drills
athlete can begin to alternate between B drills combine the A drill with an ac- As was mentioned above, technique
the two sides. Advanced athletes can tive foot strike. They are an advanced drills are useful for breaking down the
perform the drill with a skip. sprinting exercise that teaches how to sprinting motion and developing as-
exert more force against the ground. pects of it. It is worth mentioning that if
There are two errors commonly seen Like A drills, these exercises are fre- drills are not performed perfectly and if
with this drill. First, an athlete with quently recommended for inclusion in a they are not mastered in the proper se-
weak hip flexors and core muscles may sprinting program (13–15). quence, then they will waste the athlete’s
have trouble staying tall while perform- time (17). Drills performed imperfectly
ing the drills. This will be seen as they As with many of the drills, this drill is or before the athlete is physically or
will flex the trunk as they lift the knee. initially performed as a walk focusing on technically ready for them may develop
Coaches should emphasize that athletes one leg at a time. Basically, the athlete and reinforce bad technique, which will
must “stay tall” while performing these will perform an A drill. However, as the have a negative impact on the athlete’s
exercises. A second error is that athletes leg is cycled forward, the hamstrings are speed and could lead to injuries.
will lose the cast to their ankle while the relaxed. The combination of the relax-
foot is brought to the hips. ation of the hamstrings and the driving It should be noted that not all track and
forward of the knee will cause the leg to field coaches agree about the usefulness
A Drills extend at the knee. The extended leg is of technique drills in the acquisition of
A drills combine high-knee drills with then driven down (from the hips) much speed. Jakalski (9) advocates a different
heel kicks. McFarlane feels that A drills like the other drills. coaching approach. As opposed to better
share many similarities with the sprint- stride length and stride frequency
ing motion (albeit at slower velocities As with the other drills, athletes can in- through the leg-swing drills used by
than sprinting) and should be performed tegrate arm motions, alternate between many, Jakalski advocates that improve-
extensively in sprint training (13–15). both legs, and turn the drills into a skip. ments in stride lengths and frequencies
Like many of the previous drills, a num- Advanced athletes can combine A drills are determined largely, or perhaps entire-
ber of progressions are used for A drills. with B drills (e.g., perform A skips with ly, from the ground force applied during
a B skip on the third step) (14). the stance phase. The point is that longer
Initially, the drill is performed as a walk, strides are accomplished by simply ap-
focusing on one leg at a time. When fo- One of the most frequent errors seen when plying greater ground force. The greater
cusing on the right leg, the right ankle learning this drill is to lean backwards ground force provides greater lift into
will plantarflex as the hips pass over it. while extending the knee. This should not the aerial phase, more aerial time, and
As the foot leaves contact with the be encouraged because, if it is carried over therefore a greater distance before the
ground, the foot should be cast and im- to actual sprinting, it can result in “over- next step (i.e., a longer stride).

28 August 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

According to Jakalski, elite sprinters are Speed and Agility. Monteray, CA: ed.). J. Jarver, ed. Mountain View, CA:
achieving their greater velocities through Coaches Choice. 2004. TAFNEWS Press, 2000, pp. 79–82.
a combination of exerting more force 5. Coaching Education Committee. 17. West, T., and S. Robson. Running
against the ground and an ability to exert Coaching Education Program: Level II drills—Are we reaping the benefits? In:
it more quickly than other athletes. Course (Sprints, Hurdles, Relays). USA Sprints and Relays (5th ed.). J. Jarver,
Jakalski (and other likeminded coaches) Track and Field. 2001. ed. Mountain View, CA: TAFNEWS
feels that many of the technique drills, 6. Costill, D.L., J. Daniels, W. Evans, W. Press, 2000, pp. 64–67.
especially the A and B drills, have limited Fink, G. Krahenbuhl, and B. Saltin.
value and may actually artificially con- Skeletal muscle enzymes and fiber Acknowledgments: The author would
strain a sprinter’s technique: These con- composition in male and female track like to thank Michael Cunningham and
straints would lead to slower velocities, athletes. J. Appl. Physiol. 40(2):149– Ken Jakalski for their help in the prepa-
and the focus of technique training 154. 1976. ration of this article.
should be on skipping and bounding 7. Faccioni, A. Assisted and resisted
drills to help improve the force against methods for speed development. In:
the ground and the rate of force develop- Sprints and Relays (4th ed.). J. Jarver,
ment (9). Though the focus of track ed. Mountain View, CA: TAFNEWS
coaching education in the United States Press, 1995. pp. 63–69.
is on improved technique and efficiency 8. Hunter, J.P., R.N. Marshall, and P.J.
(see Ref. 5 for more information on this McNair. Interaction of step length and
approach), Jakalski and other coaches step rate during spring running. Med.
present a glimpse as to where the field Sci. Sports Exerc. 36(2):261–271. 2004.
might go one day. 9. Jakalski, K. Contemporary research
and sprinting: Reconsidering the con-
A final caution with technique drills: ceptual paradigm of running mechan- Cissik
They are not a substitute for sprinting. ics. Track and Field Coaches Review.
Though technique drills will help devel- 75(1):21–22. 2002. John Cissik is the Wellness Services Di-
op aspects of technique, they are per- 10. Jarver, J. Sprinting in a nutshell. In: rector at Texas Woman’s University in
formed at much slower velocities than Sprints and Relays (1st ed.) J. Jarver, ed. Denton,Texas.
sprinting, and this means they do not Los Altos, CA: TAFNEWS Press,
duplicate sprinting from a kinematic 1978. pp. 9–13.
standpoint (11). In other words, tech- 11. Kivi, D.M.R., and M.J.L. Alexander.
nique drills would be useful as warm-up A kinematic comparison of the run-
exercises but not as part of the main ning A and B drills with sprinting.
workout. With that in mind, Part II of Track Coach 150:4782–4783; 4788.
this article will cover various types of ex- 2000.
ercises used to train speed and will pre- 12. Kumagai, K., T. Abe, W.F. Brechue, T.
sent a sample program. ♦ Ryushi, S. Takano, and M. Mizuno.
Sprint performance is related to mus-
References cle fascicle length in male 100-m
1. Abe, T., K. Kumagi, and W.F. Brechue. sprinters. J. Appl. Physiol. 88:811–816.
Fascicle length of leg muscles is greater 2000.
in sprinters than distance runners. 13. McFarlane, B. A basic and advanced
Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 32(6):1125– technical model for speed. NSCA Jour-
1129. 2000. nal. 15(5): 57–61. 1993.
2. Bodysen, H. Power training for sprint- 14. McFarlane, B. A look inside the bio-
ers. In: Sprints and Relays. J. Jarver, ed. mechanics and dynamics of speed.
Los Altos, CA: TAFNEWS Press, NSCA Journal. 9(5): 35-41. 1987.
1978. pp. 65–68. 15. McFarlane, B. Developing maximum
3. Cissik, J.M. Technique and speed de- running speed. NSCA J. 6(5):24–28.
velopment for running. NSCA’s Per- 1984.
formance Training Journal. 1(8): 18-21. 16. Verhoshansky, Y. Recommended
2002. methods of speed development in elite
4. Cissik, J.M., and M. Barnes. Sports athletes. In: Sprints and Relays (5th

August 2004 • Strength and Conditioning Journal 29