Scribd
Upload
75 views5 pages

Rotation Matrix (II) : Diagonalization of Quadratic Form: 4 Assignment For Feynman's Lecture I 2

The document discusses rotation matrices and how they can be used to diagonalize quadratic forms describing conic sections like ellipses. It provides examples of: 1) Describing a conic using a quadratic equation and matrix M. 2) Rotating the coordinate system using a rotation matrix Rθ to diagonalize the quadratic form. 3) Showing the trace and determinant of M are invariant under rotation. 4) Finding the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the conic after diagonalization.

Uploaded by

fudog
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
75 views5 pages

Rotation Matrix (II) : Diagonalization of Quadratic Form: 4 Assignment For Feynman's Lecture I 2

The document discusses rotation matrices and how they can be used to diagonalize quadratic forms describing conic sections like ellipses. It provides examples of: 1) Describing a conic using a quadratic equation and matrix M. 2) Rotating the coordinate system using a rotation matrix Rθ to diagonalize the quadratic form. 3) Showing the trace and determinant of M are invariant under rotation. 4) Finding the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the conic after diagonalization.

Uploaded by

fudog
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 5

4th Assignment for Feynman’s Lecture I 2

3. Rotation Matrix (II): Diagonalization of Quadratic Form

In general, a conic can be described by the quadratic equation


𝑥
𝑥 𝑦𝑀
𝑦 = 1. (1)

where the matrix 𝑀 reads


𝐴 𝐵/2
𝑀= .
𝐵/2 𝐶
For example, if 𝐴 = 𝑎−2 , 𝐶 = 𝑏 −2 and 𝐵 = 0, Eq. (1) will reduce to the standard form of an
ellipse 𝑎−2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 −2 𝑦 2 = 1 with semi-major axis 𝑎 and semi-minor axis 𝑏 . It is just
because of 𝐵 = 0 (i.e. the matrix 𝑀 in Eq. (1) is diagonal) that we are lucky to have the
major and minor axes falling on the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes respectively. However it is generally not
the case.
When 𝐵 ≠ 0, the major/minor-axis of the ellipse will be rotated away of the axes of the
coordinate system. To see how the ellipse is rotated, let us consider a rotation matrix 𝑅 𝜃
that rotates the vector 𝑥 𝑦 𝑇 (counterclockwise) by the angle 𝜃 to 𝑥′ 𝑦′ 𝑇 ,
𝑥′ 𝑥
=𝑅 𝜃 𝑦 ,
𝑦′
under which the conic equation becomes
𝑥′
𝑥′ 𝑦′ 𝑀′ = 1,
𝑦′
where
𝐴′ 𝐵′/2
𝑀′ = .
𝐵′/2 𝐶′
(a) Work out 𝐴′, 𝐵′ and 𝐶′ in terms of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝜃.
(b) Show that Tr 𝑀 = Tr 𝑀′ and det 𝑀 = det 𝑀′, i.e. the trace and determinant of the
matrix 𝑀 is invariant under rotation.
The transform of coordinates is effectively the same as the transformation of the reference
frame in the reverse manner. If in the 𝑥′- 𝑦′ frame, the major/minor axis falls on the axes of
the frame, we say that the quadratic form is diagonalized in the 𝑥′- 𝑦′ frame.

(c) What 𝜃 should be to diagonalize the quadratic form in the 𝑥′- 𝑦′ frame?
When the quadratic form is diagonalized, the semi-major/minor axis can be determined
from the diagonal elements.
(d) Find the semi-major axis 𝑎 and semi-minor axis 𝑏 of a conic described by Eq. (1) in
terms of Tr 𝑀 and det 𝑀.
(e) Show that the conic will be an ellipse (or circle) if det 𝑀 > 0.
Note: a 2 × 2 real symmetric matrix 𝑀 can always be diagonalized by a SO(2) transform
𝑅 𝜃 (i.e. a rotation in the 2-dimensional space). The geometric meaning of diagonalization
4th Assignment for Feynman’s Lecture I 3

is to rotate the conic so that its major/minor axis coincides with the frame axes. After
diagonalization, the diagonal elements are known as the eigen values of the original matrix,
which are invariant under rotation, providing information of the shape of the conic.

Chap. 13 Work and Potential Energy (A)

1. Gravitational Pull from Interstellar Dust

Consider a planet of mass 𝑚 is orbiting around the Sun (whose mass is 𝑀) on a circle of
radius 𝑟. Assume that there is uniform interstellar dust of the density 𝜌 (mass per volume)
in the solar system.
(a) Show that the planet will experience an extra gravitational force provided by the dust of
the magnitude 𝐹 ′ = −𝑚𝐾𝑟, where 𝐾 = 4𝜋/3 𝜌𝐺. (Neglect the resistance due to collisions
with the dust.)
(b) If the angular momentum of the planet is 𝐿, what is the radius 𝑟 of the circular orbit in
terms of 𝐿, 𝐺, 𝑀 and 𝜌?

2. Gravitational Red Shift (Newtonian Limit)

Gravitational red shift refers to the phenomena that light emitted from stars undergoes
frequency shift to red-end due to gravitation. According to quantum mechanics, the energy of
a photon is 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈, where ℎ is the Planck constant and 𝜈 the photon frequency.
(a) What is the inertial (and gravitational) mass of photon?

(b) Given the photon frequency 𝜈 and the mass of the star 𝑀, what is the potential energy
of photon in the gravitational field of the star (according to Newton’s Law of Gravity), if the
photon is 𝑟 distant away from the center of the star?
(c) Suppose the photon travels from 𝑟 to 𝑟 + d𝑟, and its frequency changes from 𝜈 to
𝜈 + d𝜈. What is the corresponding change in the potential energy?
The increase of the potential energy as the photon climbs out of the potential well of the star
should be compensated by the decrease of its kinetic energy such that the total energy is
conserved. Since the kinetic energy of the photon is proportional to its frequency, this will
leads to the drop of photon frequency as it flies away from the star, and hence the
gravitational red shift.
(d) According to the conservation of energy, deduce the photon frequency 𝜈 as a function of
𝑟, given that the frequency when the photon is emitted from the surface of the star (𝑟 = 𝑅) is
𝜈 𝑅 .
(e) Find the red shift Δ𝜈/𝜈 of light of a far star given its mass 𝑀 and radius 𝑅, where
Δ𝜈 = 𝜈 ∞ − 𝜈 𝑅 .
(f) It is observed[1] that the light from the white dwarf Sirius B suffers the gravitational red
shift Δ𝜈/𝜈 = 2.7 × 10−4 . The mass of Sirius B is roughly the same as the solar mass, estimate
the radius and hence the mass density of Sirius B from its gravitational red shift.
4th Assignment for Feynman’s Lecture I 4

Note: The calculation of gravitational red shift in this problem is based on Newton’s Law of
Gravity, which does not take into account the effect of general relativity. The general theory
of relativity is known as a more correct theory of gravity, especially when the gravitational
field is strong or fast varying. To estimate the influence of general relativity, we introduce the
Schwarzschild radius 𝑅𝑆 = 2𝐺𝑀/𝑐 2 . A star will becomes a black hole if its radius is less than
its Schwarzschild radius, which means that light cannot escape from the surface of the star.
From the viewpoint of gravitational red shift, this means light emitted from a black hole will
red shift infinitely, i.e. its frequency drops to zero before travelling far. In this case, general
relativity is important to calculate the red shift correctly. The precise result given by general
relativity is 𝜈 ∞ = 𝜈 𝑅 1 − 𝑅𝑆 /𝑅 1/2 . Our Newtonian approximation is valid only in the
limit when 𝑅 ≫ 𝑅𝑆 , say the radius of the star is far greater than the radius of a black hole of
the same mass.
Reference
[1] M.A. Barstow, H. E. Bond, J.B. Holberg, M.R. Burleigh, I. Hubeny and D. Koester, Mon. Not. R.
Astron. Soc. 000, 1-11 (25-May-2005).

Chap. 14 Work and Potential Energy (B)

1. Potentials of Conservative Forces

Calculate the potential of the following forces. I should also tell you what is the conventional
choice of the potential zero point.
(a) Gravity, near the Earth’s surface: 𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔, potential zero point: 𝑉 𝑧 = 0 = 0.
(b) Gravity, between masses: 𝐹 = −𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 /𝑟 2 , potential zero point: 𝑉 𝑟 = ∞ = 0.
(c) Electrostatic force, between charges: 𝐹 = 𝑞1 𝑞2 / 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 , potential zero point:
𝑉 𝑟 = ∞ = 0.
(d) Ideal spring: 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥, potential zero point: 𝑉 𝑥 = 0 = 0.
(e) Nuclear force: 𝐹 = − 1/𝑟 2 + 1/ 𝑟𝑟0 exp −𝑟/𝑟0 , potential zero point: 𝑉 𝑟 = ∞ = 0.

2. The Choo-choog Machine (III): Work and Energy

Let us go back to the choo-choog machine once more. A weight of mass 𝑀 is held up by the
elbow like pivoted rods of the lengths 𝑙. The roller is being driven by some machinery at a
constant speed 𝑣.

When the distance between the roller and the pivot is 𝑙,


(a) What is the energy 𝐸 (both kinetic and potential) of the weight?
(b) What is the changing rate of the energy d𝐸/d𝑡?
(c) What is the power input by the machinery calculated from 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣? Show that it is the
input power that causes the energy to change, 𝑃 = d𝐸/d𝑡.

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy