MALBUN – MENDEZ – MENDEZ

PLANT PROPAGATION
Plant propagation is the process of creating new plants. There are two types of
propagation: sexual and asexual. Sexual reproduction is the union of the pollen and egg, drawing
from the genes of two parents to create a new, third individual. Sexual propagation involves the
floral parts of a plant. Asexual propagation involves taking a part of one parent plant and causing
it to regenerate itself into a new plant. The resulting new plant is genetically identical its parent.
Asexual propagation involves the vegetative parts of a plant: stems, roots, or leaves.
The advantages of sexual propagation are that it may be cheaper and quicker than other
methods; it may be the only way to obtain new varieties and hybrid vigor; in certain species, it is
the only viable method for propagation; and it is a way to avoid transmission of certain diseases.
Asexual propagation has advantages, too. It may be easier and faster in some species; it may be
the only way to perpetuate some cultivars; and it bypasses the juvenile characteristics of certain
species.

Sexual Propagation
Sexual propagation involves the union of the pollen (male) with the egg (female) to
produce a seed. The seed is made up of three parts: the outer seed coat, which protects the seed;
the endosperm, which is a food reserve; and the embryo, which is the young plant itself. When a
seed is mature and put in a favorable environment, it will germinate (begin active growth). In the
following section, seed germination and transplanting of seeds will be discussed.

Seed
To obtain quality plants, start with good quality seed from a reliable dealer. Select
varieties to provide the size, color, and habit of growth desired. Choose varieties adapted to your
area which will reach maturity before an early frost. Many new vegetable and flower varieties
are hybrids, which cost a little more than open pollinated types. However, hybrid plants usually
have more vigor, more uniformity, and better production than non-hybrids and sometimes have
specific disease resistance or other unique cultural characteristics.
Although some seeds will keep for several years if stored properly, it is advisable to
purchase only enough seed for the current year’s use. Quality seed will not contain seed of any
other crop, weeds, seeds, or other debris. Printing on the seed packet usually indicates essential
information about the variety, the year for which the seeds were packaged, and germination
percentage you may typically expect, and notes about any chemical seed treatment. If seeds are
obtained well in advance of the actual sowing date or are stored surplus seeds, keep them in a
cool, dry place. Laminated foil packets help ensure dry storage. Paper packets are best kept in
tightly closed containers and maintained around 40◦F. in a low humidity. The door shelves in a
refrigerator work well.
Some gardeners save seed from their own gardens; however, such seed is the result of random
pollination by insects or other natural agents, and may not produce plants typical of the parents.
This is especially true of the many hybrid varieties.

Germination
Germination will begin when certain internal requirements have been met. A seed must
have a mature embryo, contain a large enough endosperm to sustain the embryo during
germination, and contain sufficient hormones to initiate the process. In general, do not expect
more than 65% to 80% of new seeds to germinate. From those germinating, expect about 60% to
75% to produce satisfactory, vigorous, sturdy seedlings. There are four environmental factors
which affect germination: water, oxygen, light, and heat.

Water
The first step in the germination process is the imbibition or absorption of water. Even
though seeds have great absorbing power due to the nature of the seed coat, the amount of
available water in the substrate affects the uptake of water. An adequate, continuous supply of
water is important to ensure germination. Once the germination process has begun, a dry period
can cause the death of the embryo.
Light
Light is known to stimulate or to inhibit germination of some types of seed. The light
reaction involved here is a complex process. Some crops which have a requirement for light to
assist seed germination are ageratum, begonia, browallia, impatiens, lettuce, and petunia.
Conversely, peas, beans, calendula, centaurea, annual phlox, verbena, and vinca will germinate
best in the dark. Other plants are not specific at all. Seed catalogs and seed packets often list
germination or cultural tips for individual varieties. When sowing light-requiring seed, do as
nature does, and leave them on the soil surface. If they are covered at all, cover them lightly with
fine peat moss or fine vermiculite. These two materials, if not applied too heavily, will permit
some light to reach the seed and will not limit germination. When starting seed in the home,
supplemental light can be provided by fluorescent fixtures suspended 6 to 12 inches above the
seeds for 16 hours a day. High intensity lights will provide more light over the course of the day
and will enhance the quality of seedlings. These lights cost more than the common shop lights,
but are often worth the investment if you plan on growing plants indoors.

Oxygen
In all viable seed, respiration takes place. The respiration in dormant seed is low, but
some oxygen is required. The respiration rate increases during germination, therefore, the
substrate in which the seeds are placed should be loose and well-aerated. If the oxygen supply
during germination is limited or reduced, germination can be severely retarded or inhibited.

Temperature
A favorable temperature is another important requirement of germination. It not only
affects the germination percentage but also the rate of germination. Some seeds will germinate
over a wide range of temperatures, whereas others require a narrow range. Many seeds have
minimum, maximum, and optimum temperatures at which they germinate. For example, tomato
seed has a minimum germination temperature of 50 degrees F. and a maximum temperature of
95 degrees, but an optimum germination temperature of about 80 degrees. Where germination
temperatures are listed, they are usually the optimum temperatures unless otherwise specified.
Generally, 65 to 75 degrees F. is best for most plants. This often means the germination flats may
have to be placed in special chambers or on radiators, heating cables, or heating mats to maintain
optimum temperature. The importance of maintaining proper substrate temperature to achieve
maximum germination percentages cannot be over-emphasized. It’s also very important to note
that the recommended temperatures need to be maintained 24 hours a day.
Methods of Breaking Dormancy
One of the functions of dormancy is to prevent a seed from germinating before it is
surrounded by a favorable environment. In some trees and shrubs, seed dormancy is difficult to
break, even when the environment is ideal. Various treatments are performed on the seed to
break dormancy and begin germination.

Scarification
Seed scarification involves breaking, scratching, or softening the seed coat so that water
can enter and begin the germination process. There are several methods of scarifying seeds. In
acid scarification, seeds are put in a glass container and covered with concentrated sulfuric acid.
The seeds are gently stirred and allowed to soak from 10 minutes to several hours, depending on
the hardness of the seed coat. When the seed coat has become thin, the seeds can be removed,
washed, and planted. Another scarification method is mechanical. Seeds are filed with a metal
file, rubbed with sandpaper, or cracked with a hammer to weaken the seed coat. Hot water
scarification involves putting the seed into hot water (170 to 212 degrees F). The seeds are
allowed to soak in the water, as it cools, for 12 to 24 hours and then planted. A fourth method is
one of warm, moist scarification. In this case, seeds are stored in nonsterile, warm, damp
containers where the seed coat will be broken down by decay over several months.

Stratification
Seeds of some fall-ripening trees and shrubs of the temperate zone will not germinate
unless chilled underground as they over winter. This so called “after ripening” may be
accomplished artificially by a practice called stratification. The following procedure is usually
successful. Put sand or vermiculite in a clay pot to about 1 inch from the top. Place the seeds on
top of the medium and cover with ½ inch of sand or vermiculite. Wet the medium thoroughly
and allow excess water to drain through the hole in the pot. Place the pot containing the moist
medium and seeds in a plastic bag and seal. Place the bag in a refrigerator. Periodically check to
see that the medium is moist, but not wet. Additional water will probably not be necessary. After
10 to 12 weeks, remove the bag from the refrigerator. Take the pot out and set it in a warm place
in the house. Water often enough to keep the medium moist. Soon the seedlings should emerge.
When the young plants are about 3 inches tall, transplant them into pots to grow until time for
setting outside.
Another procedure that is usually successful uses sphagnum moss or peat moss. Wet the
moss thoroughly, then squeeze out the excess water with your hands. Mix seed with the
sphagnum or peat and place in a plastic bag. Seal the bag and put it in a refrigerator. Check
periodically. If there is condensation on the inside of the bag, the process will probably be
successful. After 10 to 12 weeks, remove the bag from the refrigerator. Plant the seeds in pots to
germinate and grow. Handle seeds carefully. Often the small roots and shoots are emerging at the
end of the stratification period. Care must be taken not to break these off. Temperatures in the
range of 35 to 45 degrees F (2 to 70C) are effective. Most refrigerators operate in this range.
Seeds of most fruit and nut trees can be successfully germinated by these procedures. Seeds of
peaches should be removed from the hard pit. Care must be taken when cracking the pits. Any
injury to the seed itself can be an entry path for disease organisms.
Starting Seeds
Substrate (aka Media)
A wide range of materials can be used to start seeds, from plain vermiculite or mixtures
of soilless substrates to the various amended soil mixes. With experience, you will learn to
determine what works best for the seeds that you are starting. When choosing a substrate it’s
important to keep in mind what the good qualities of a germinating substrate are. It should be
rather fine and uniform, yet well-aerated and loose. It should be free of insects, disease
organisms, and weed seeds. It should also be of low fertility or total soluble salts and capable of
holding and moving moisture by capillary action. One mixture which supplies these factors is a
combination of 1/3 sterilized soil, 1/3 sand or vermiculite or perlite, and 1/3 peat moss.
The importance of using a sterile medium and container cannot be over-emphasized. The
home gardener can treat a small quantity of soil mixture in an oven. Place the slightly moist soil
in a heat-resistant container in an oven set at about 250 degrees F. Use a candy or meat
thermometer to ensure that the mix reaches a temperature of 180 degrees F. for at least 1/2 hour.
Avoid over-heating as this can be extremely damaging to the soil. Be aware that the heat will
release very unpleasant odors in the process of sterilization. This treatment should prevent
damping-off and other plant diseases, as well as eliminate potential plant pests. Growing
containers and implements should be washed to remove any debris and rinsed in a solution of 1-
part chlorine bleach to 9 parts water.
An artificial, soilless mix also provides the desired qualities of a good germination
substrate. The basic ingredients of such a mix are sphagnum peat moss and vermiculite, both of
which are generally free of diseases, weed seeds, and insects. The ingredients are also readily
available, easy to handle, lightweight, and produce uniform plant growth. “Peat-lite” mixes or
similar products are commercially available or can be made at home using this recipe: 4 quarts of
shredded sphagnum peat moss, 4 quarts of fine vermiculite, 1 tablespoon of superphosphate, and
2 tablespoons of ground limestone. Mix thoroughly. These mixes have little fertility, so seedlings
must be watered with a diluted fertilizer solution soon after they emerge. Do not use garden soil
by itself to start seedlings; it is not sterile, is too heavy, and will not drain well.

Containers
Flats and trays can be purchased or you can make your own containers for starting seeds
by recycling such things as cottage cheese containers, the bottoms of milk cartons or bleach
containers, and pie pans, as long as good drainage is provided. At least one company has
developed a form for recycling newspaper into pots, and another has developed a method for the
consumer to make and use compressed blocks of soil mix instead of pots. You can make your
own flats from scrap lumber. A convenient size to handle would be about 12 to 18 inches long
and 12 inches wide with a depth of about 2 inches. Leave cracks of about 1/8-inch between the
boards in the bottom or drill a series of holes to ensure good drainage.
Clay or plastic pots can be used and numerous types of pots made of compressed peat and
other biodegradable materials are also on the market. Multi-cell containers (packs) where each
cell holds a single plant reduce the risk of root injury when transplanting young plants. Peat
pellets, peat or fiber-based blocks, and expanded foam cubes can also be used for seeding. The
downside to sowing seeds in individual cells or pellets is that they dry out faster than multiple
seedlings sown in a flat or larger container.
Seeding
The proper time for sowing seeds for transplants depends upon when plants may safely
be moved out-of-doors in your area. This period may range from 4 to 12 weeks prior to
transplanting, depending upon the speed of germination, the rate of growth, and the cultural
conditions provided. A common mistake is to sow the seeds too early and then attempt to hold
the seedlings back under poor light or improper temperature ranges. This usually results in tall,
weak, spindly plants which do not perform well in the garden.
After selecting a container, fill it to within ¾ inch of the top with moistened substrate.
For very small seeds, at least the top ¼-inch should be a fine, screened mix or a layer of
vermiculite. Gently firm the substrate at the corners and edges with your fingers or a block of
wood to provide a uniform, flat surface.
For medium and large seeds, make furrows 1 to 2 inches apart and 1/8 to ¼-inch deep
across the surface of the container using a narrow board or pot label. By sowing in rows, good
light and air movement results, and if damping-off fungus does appear, there is less chance of it
spreading.
Seedlings in rows are easier to label and handle at transplanting time than those which
have been sown in a broadcast manner. Sow the seeds thinly and uniformly in the rows by gently
tapping the packet of seed as it is moved along the row. Lightly cover the seed with dry
vermiculite or sifted substrate if they require darkness for germination. A suitable planting depth
is usually about twice the diameter of the seed.
Do not plant seeds too deeply. Extremely fine seed such as petunia, begonia, and
snapdragon are not covered, but lightly pressed into the medium or watered in with a fine mist. If
these seeds are broadcast, strive for a uniform stand by sowing half the seeds in one direction,
then sowing the other way with the remaining seed in a crossing pattern.
Large seeds are frequently sown into some sort of a small container or cell pack which
eliminates the need for early transplanting. Usually 2 or 3 seeds are sown per unit and later
thinned to allow the strongest seedling to grow. A germination test will allow you to determine
how many seeds need to be sown per cell. If seeds have a very low germination rate (<40%), sow
at least 3 seeds per cell or consider tossing out the seed. For germination rates of 40-80%, sow 2-
3 seeds per cell. If you want to be frugal with your seeds, sow only 1 per cell if your rate is over
80%.

Seed Tape
Most garden stores and seed catalogs offer indoor and outdoor seed tapes. Seed tape has
precisely spaced seeds enclosed in an organic, water-soluble material. When planted, the tape
dissolves and the seeds germinate normally. Seed tapes are especially convenient for tiny, hard-
to-handle seeds. However, tapes are much more expensive per seed. Seed tapes allow uniform
emergence, eliminate overcrowding, and permit sowing in perfectly straight rows. The tapes can
be cut at any point for multiple-row plantings, and thinning is rarely necessary.
Learn how to make your own seed tape.

Pregermination
Another method of starting seeds is pregermination. This method involves sprouting the
seeds before they are planted. This reduces the time to germination, as the temperature and
moisture are easy to control. A high percentage of germination is achieved since environmental
factors are optimum. Lay seeds between the folds of a cotton cloth or on a layer of vermiculite in
a shallow pan. Keep moist, in a warm place. When roots begin to show, place the seeds in
containers or plant them directly in the garden. While transplanting seedlings, be careful not to
break off tender roots. Continued attention to watering is critical. Some seed companies sell
carefully dried pregerminated seeds. They are usually more expensive compared to conventional
seeds and their shelf life is relatively short (approximately a month), but it’s a convenient way to
ensure a relatively high production rate for the seeds being sown.
When planting fresh, pregerminated seeds in a container to transplant in the garden later,
place 1 seed in a 2- to 3-inch container. Plant the seeds at only ½ the recommended depth.
Gently press a little soil over the sprouted seed and then add about ¼ inch of milled sphagnum or
sand to the soil surface. These materials will keep the surface uniformly moist and are easy for
the shoot to push through. Keep in a warm place and care for them as for any other newly
transplanted seedlings.
A convenient way to plant small, delicate, pre-germinated seeds is to suspend them in a
gel. You can make a gel by blending cornstarch with boiling water to a consistency that is thick
enough so the seeds will stay suspended. Be sure to cool thoroughly before use. Place the gel
with seedlings in a plastic bag with a hole in it. Squeeze the gel through the hole along a pre-
marked garden row. Spacing of seeds is determined by the number of seeds in the gel. If the
spacing is too dense, add more gel; if too wide, add more seeds. The gel will keep the
germinating seeds moist until they establish themselves in the garden soil.

Watering
After the seed has been sown, moisten the planting mix thoroughly. Use a fine mist or
place the containers in a pan or tray which contains about 1 inch of warm water. Avoid splashing
or excessive flooding which might displace small seeds. When the planting mix is saturated, set
the container aside to drain. The soil should be moist but not wet.
Ideally, seed flats should remain sufficiently moist during the germination period without
having to add water. One way to maintain moisture is to slip the whole flat or pot into a clear
plastic bag after the initial watering. The plastic should be at least 1 inch from the soil. Keep the
container out of direct sunlight; otherwise the temperature may rise to the point where the seeds
will be harmed. Many home gardeners cover their flats with panes of glass instead of using a
plastic sleeve. Be sure to remove the plastic bag or glass cover as soon as the first seedlings
appear. Surface watering can then be practiced if care and good judgment are used.
Lack of uniformity, overwatering, or drying out are problems related to manual watering.
Excellent germination and moisture uniformity can be obtained with a low-pressure misting
system. Four seconds of mist every 6 minutes or 10 seconds every 15 minutes during the daytime
in spring seems to be satisfactory. Bottom heat is an asset with a mist system. Sub irrigation or
watering from below may work well, keeping the flats moist. However, as the flats or pots must
sit in water constantly, the soil may absorb too much water, and the seeds may rot due to lack of
oxygen.

Temperature and Light

Several factors for good germination have already been mentioned. The last item, and by
no means the least important, is temperature. Since most seeds will germinate best at an optimum
temperature that is usually higher than most home night temperatures, special warm areas must
often be provided. The use of thermostatically controlled heating cables is an excellent method
of providing constant heat.
After germination and seedling establishment, move the flats to a light, airy, cooler
location, at a 55 to 60-degree F. night temperature and a 65 to 70-degree F. day reading. This
will prevent soft, leggy growth and minimize disease troubles. Some crops, of course, may
germinate or grow best at a different constant temperature and must be handled separately from
the bulk of the plants.
Seedlings must receive bright light after germination. Place them in a window facing south, if
possible. If a large, bright window is not available, place the seedlings under a fluorescent light.
Use two 40-watt, cool-white fluorescent tubes or special plant growth lamps. Position the plants
6 inches from the tubes and keep the lights on about 16 hours each day. As the seedlings grow,
the lights should be raised.

Transplanting and Handling

If the plants have not been seeded in individual containers, they must be transplanted to
give them proper growing space. One of the most common mistakes made is leaving the
seedlings in the seed flat too long. The ideal time to transplant young seedlings is when they are
small and there is little danger from setback. This is usually about the time the first true leaves
appear above or between the cotyledon leaves (the cotyledons or seed leaves are the first leaves
the seedling produces).

Don’t let plants get hard and stunted or tall and leggy.
To transplant, carefully dig up the small plants with a knife or wooden plant label. Let the
group of seedlings fall apart and pick out individual plants. Handle small seedlings by their
leaves, not their delicate stems. Gently ease them apart in small groups which will make it easier
to separate individual plants. Avoid tearing roots in the process. Punch a hole in the medium into
which the seedling will be planted (see below for information about media). Make it deep
enough so the seedling can be put at the same depth it was growing in the seed flat. Small plants
or slow growers should be placed 1 inch apart and rapid-growing, large seedlings about 2 inches
apart. After planting, firm the soil and water gently. Keep newly transplanted seedlings in the
shade for a few days, or place them under fluorescent lights. Keep them away from direct heat
sources. Continue watering and fertilizing as in the seed flats.
Most plants transplant well and can be started indoors, but a few plants are difficult to
transplant. These are generally directly seeded outdoors or sown directly into individual
containers indoors. Examples include peas, beans, carrots, beets, chard, zinnias and cucurbits,
such as melons and squash.

Media for Transplanting

Seedling growing mixes and containers can be purchased or prepared similar to those
mentioned for germinating seed. The medium should contain more plant nutrients than a
germination mix, however. Some commercial soilless mixes have fertilizer already added. When
fertilizing, use a soluble house plant fertilizer, at the dilution recommended by the manufacturer,
about every 2 weeks after the seedlings are established. Remember that young seedlings are
easily damaged by too much fertilizer, especially if they are under any moisture stress.

Containers for Transplanting

 There is a wide variety of containers from which to choose for transplanting seedlings.
These containers should be economical, durable, and make good use of space. The type selected
will depend on the type of plant to be transplanted and individual growing conditions. Standard
pots may be used, but they waste a great deal of space and may not dry out rapidly enough for
the seedling to have sufficient oxygen for proper development.
There are many types of containers available commercially. Those made out of pressed
peat can be purchased in varying sizes. Individual pots or strips of connected pots fit closely
together, are inexpensive, and can be planted directly in the garden. When setting out plants
grown in peat pots, be sure to cover the pot completely. If the top edge of the peat pot extends
above the soil level, it may act as a wick, and draw water away from the soil in the pot. To avoid
this, tear off the top lip of the pot and then plant flush with the soil level.
Community packs are containers in which there is room to plant several plants. These are
generally inexpensive. The main disadvantage of a community pack is that the roots of the
individual plants must be broken or cut apart when separating them to put out in the garden.
Compressed peat pellets, when soaked in water, expand to form compact, individual pots.
They waste no space, don’t fall apart as badly as peat pots, and can be set directly out in the
garden. If you wish to avoid transplanting seedlings altogether, compressed peat pellets are
excellent for direct sowing.
Community packs and cell packs, which are strips of connected individual pots, are also
available in plastic and are frequently used by commercial bedding plant growers, as they
withstand frequent handling. In addition, many homeowners find a variety of materials from
around the house useful for containers. These homemade containers should be deep enough to
provide adequate soil and have plenty of drainage holes in the bottom.

Hardening Plants
Hardening is the process of altering the quality of plant growth to withstand the change in
environmental conditions which occurs when plants are transferred from a greenhouse or home
to the garden. A severe check in growth may occur if plants produced in the home are planted
outdoors without a transition period. Hardening is most critical with early crops, when adverse
climatic conditions can be expected.
Hardening can be accomplished by gradually lowering temperatures and relative
humidity and reducing water. This procedure results in an accumulation of carbohydrates and a
thickening of cell walls. A change from a soft, succulent type of growth to a firmer, harder type
is desired.
This process should be started at least 2 weeks before planting in the garden. If possible,
plants should be moved to a 45 to 50-degree F. temperature indoors or outdoors in a shady
location. A cold frame is excellent for this purpose. When put outdoors, plants should be shaded,
and then gradually moved into sunlight. Each day, gradually increase the length of exposure.
Don’t put tender seedlings outdoors on windy days or when temperatures are below 45 degrees
F. Reduce the frequency of watering to slow growth, but don’t allow plants to wilt. Even cold-
hardy plants will be hurt if exposed to freezing temperatures before they are hardened. After
proper hardening, however, they can be planted outdoors and light frosts will not damage them.
The hardening process is intended to slow plant growth. If carried to the extreme of
actually stopping plant growth, significant damage can be done to certain crops. For example,
cauliflower will make thumb size heads and fail to develop further if hardened too severely.
Cucumbers and melons will stop growth if hardened.
Propagation of Ferns by Spores
Though ferns are more easily propagated by other methods, some gardeners like the
challenge of raising ferns from spores. One tested method for small quantities follows:
Put a solid, sterilized brick (bake at 250 degrees F. for 30 minutes) in a pan and add water
to cover the brick. When the brick is wet throughout; squeeze a thin layer of moist soil and peat
(1:1) onto the top of the brick. Pack a second layer (about an inch) on top of that. Sprinkle spores
on top. Cover with plastic (not touching the spores) and put in a warm place in indirect light. It
may take up to a month or more for the spores to germinate. Keep moist at all times. A prothallus
(one generation of the fern) will develop first from each spore, forming a light green mat. Mist
lightly once a week to maintain high surface moisture; the sperm must be able to swim to the
archegonia (female parts). After about three weeks, fertilization should have occurred. Pull the
mat apart with tweezers in ¼-inch squares and space them ½-inch apart in a flat containing a 2-
inch layer of sand, ¼-inch of charcoal, and about 2 inches of soil/peat mix. Cover with plastic
and keep moist. When fern fronds appear and become crowded, transplant to small pots.
Gradually reduce the humidity until they can survive in the open. Light exposure may be
increased at this time.

Asexual Propagation
Asexual propagation, as mentioned earlier, is the best way to maintain some species,
particularly an individual that best represents that species. Clones are groups of plants that are
identical to their one parent and that can only be propagated asexually. The Bartlett pear (1770)
and the Delicious apple (1870) are two examples of clones that have been asexually propagated
for many years.
The major methods of asexual propagation are cuttings, layering, division, budding and
grafting. Cuttings involve rooting a severed piece of the parent plant; layering involves rooting a
part of the parent and then severing it; and budding and grafting is joining two plant parts from
different varieties.

Cuttings
Many types of plants, both woody and herbaceous, are frequently propagated by cuttings.
A cutting is a vegetative plant part which is severed from the parent plant in order to regenerate
itself, thereby forming a whole new plant.
Take cuttings with a sharp blade to reduce injury to the parent plant. Dip the cutting tool
in rubbing alcohol or a mixture of one-part bleach: nine parts water to prevent transmitting
diseases from infected plant parts to healthy ones. Remove flowers and flower buds from
cuttings to allow the cutting to use its energy and stored carbohydrates for root and shoot
formation rather than fruit and seed production. To hasten rooting, increase the number of roots,
or to obtain uniform rooting (except on soft, fleshy stems), use a rooting hormone, preferably one
containing a fungicide. Prevent possible contamination of the entire supply of rooting hormone
by putting some in a separate container for dipping cuttings.
Insert cuttings into a rooting medium such as coarse sand, vermiculite, soil, water, or a
mixture of peat and perlite. It is important to choose the correct rooting medium to get optimum
rooting in the shortest time. In general, the rooting medium should be sterile, low in fertility,
drain well enough to provide oxygen, and retain enough moisture to prevent water stress.
Moisten the medium before inserting cuttings, and keep it evenly moist while cuttings are
rooting and forming new shoots.
Place stem and leaf cuttings in bright, indirect light. Root cuttings can be kept in the dark
until new shoots appear.

Stem Cuttings
Numerous plant species are propagated by stem cuttings. Some can be taken at any time
of the year, but stem cuttings of many woody plants must be taken in the fall or in the dormant
season.

Tip cuttings: Detach a 2 to 6-inch piece of stem, including the terminal bud. Make the cut just
below a node. Remove lower leaves that would touch or be below the medium. Dip the stem in
rooting hormone if desired. Gently tap the end of the cutting to remove excess hormone. Insert
the cutting deeply enough into the media to support itself. At least one node must be below the
surface.

Medial cuttings: Make the first cut just above a node, and the second cut just above a node 2 to
6 inches down the stem. Prepare and insert the cutting as you would a tip cutting. Be sure to
position right side up. Axial buds are always above leaves.

Cane cuttings: Cut cane-like stems into sections containing one or two eyes, or nodes. Dust
ends with fungicide or activated charcoal. Allow to dry several hours. Lay horizontally with
about half of the cutting below the media surface, eye facing upward. Cane cuttings are usually
potted when roots and new shoots appear but new shoots from dracaena and croton are often cut
off and re-rooted in sand.

Single Eye: The eye refers to the node. This is used for plants with alternate leaves when space
or stock material are limited. Cut the stem about ½-inch above and ½-inch below a node. Place
cutting horizontally or vertically in the medium.

Double Eye: This is used for plants with opposite leaves when space or stock material is limited.
Cut the stem about 12-inches above and 12-inches below the same node. Insert the cutting
vertically in the medium with the node just touching the surface.

Heel cutting: This method uses stock material with woody stems efficiently. Make a shield-
shaped cut about halfway through the wood around a leaf and axial bud. Insert the shield
horizontally into the medium.

Leaf Cuttings
Leaf cuttings are used almost exclusively for a few indoor plants. Leaves of most plants
will either produce a few roots but no plant, or just decay.

Whole leaf with petiole: Detach the leaf and up to 1 ½ inches of petiole. Insert the lower end of
the petiole into the medium. One or more new plants will form at the base of the petiole. The leaf
may be severed from the new plants when they have their own roots, and the petiole reused.
Whole leaf without petiole: This is used for plants with sessile leaves. Insert the cutting
vertically into the medium. A new plant will form from the axillary bud. The leaf may be
removed when the new plant has its own roots.

Split vein: Detach a leaf from the stock plant. Slit its veins on the lower leaf surface. Lay the
cutting, lower side down, on the medium. New plants will form at each cut. If the leaf tends to
curl up, hold it in place by covering the margins with the rooting medium.
Leaf sections: This method is frequently used with snake plant and fibrous rooted begonias. Cut
begonia leaves into wedges with at least one vein. Lay leaves flat on the medium. A new plant
will arise at the vein. Cut snake plant leaves into 2-inch sections. Consistently make the lower
cut slanted and the upper cut straight so you can tell which is the top. Insert the cutting vertically.
Roots will form fairly soon, and eventually a new plant will appear at the base of the cutting.
These and other succulent cuttings will rot if kept too moist.

Root Cuttings
Root cuttings are usually taken from 2 to 3-year-old plants during their dormant season
when they have a large carbohydrate supply. Root cuttings of some species produce new shoots,
which then form their own root systems, while root cuttings of other plants develop root systems
before producing new shoots.

Plants with large roots: Make a straight top cut. Make a slanted cut 2 to 6 inches below the first
cut. Store cutting about 3 weeks in moist sawdust, peat moss, or sand at 40 degrees F. Remove
from storage. Insert the cutting vertically with the top approximately level with the surface of the
rooting medium. This method is often used outdoors.

Plants with small roots: Take 1 to 2 inch sections of roots. Insert the cuttings horizontally about
12 inches below the medium surface. This method is usually used indoors or in a hotbed.

Layering
Stems still attached to their parent plants may form roots where they touch a rooting
medium. Severed from the parent plant, the rooted stem becomes a new plant. This method of
vegetative propagation, called layering, promotes a high success rate because it prevents the
water stress and carbohydrate shortage that plague cuttings.
Some plants layer themselves naturally, but sometimes plant propagators assist the
process. Layering is enhanced by wounding one side of the stem or by bending it very sharply.
The rooting medium should always provide aeration and a constant supply of moisture.

The following propagation methods can all be considered types of layering, as the new
plants form before they are detached from their parent plants:
Tip layering: Dig a hole 3 to 4 inches deep. Insert the shoot tip and cover it with soil. The tip
grows downward first, then bends sharply and grows upward. Roots form at the bend, and the
recurved tip becomes a new plant. Remove the tip layer and plant it in the early spring or late
fall. Examples: purple and black raspberries, trailing blackberries.
Compound layering: This method works for plants with flexible stems. Bend the stem to the
rooting medium as for simple layering, but alternately cover and expose stem sections. Wound
the lower side of the stem sections to be covered. Examples: heart-leaf philodendron, pothos.

Mound (stool) layering: Cut the plant back to 1 inch above the ground in the dormant season.
Mound soil over the emerging shoots in the spring to enhance their rooting. Examples:
gooseberries, apple rootstocks.

Air layering: Air layering is used to propagate some indoor plants with thick stems, or to
rejuvenate them when they become leggy. Slit the stem just below a node. Pry the slit open with
a toothpick. Surround the wound with wet unmilled sphagnum moss. Wrap plastic or foil around
the sphagnum moss and tie in place. When roots pervade the moss, cut the plant off below the
root ball. Examples: dumbcane, rubber tree.

Simple layering: Bend the stem to the ground. Cover part of it with soil, leaving the last 6 to 12
inches exposed. Bend the tip into a vertical position and stake in place. The sharp bend will often
induce rooting, but wounding the lower side of the branch or loosening the bark by twisting the
stem may help. Examples: rhododendron, honeysuckle.

Division
Plants with more than one rooted crown may be divided and the crowns planted
separately. If the stems are not joined, gently pull the plants apart. If the crowns are united by
horizontal stems, cut the stems and roots with a sharp knife to minimize injury. Divisions of
some outdoor plants should be dusted with a fungicide before they are replanted. Examples:
dahlias, iris, rhubarb, day lilies.

Separation
Separation is a term applied to a form of propagation by which plants that produce bulbs
or corms multiply.

Bulbs: New bulbs form beside the originally planted bulb. Separate these bulb clumps every 3 to
5 years for largest blooms and to increase bulb population. Dig up the clump after the leaves
have withered. Gently pull the bulbs apart and replant them immediately so their roots can begin
to develop. Small, new bulbs may not flower for 2 or 3 years, but large ones should bloom the
first year. Examples: tulip, narcissus.

Corms: A large new corm forms on top of the old corm, and tiny cormels form around the large
corm. After the leaves wither, dig up the corms and allow them to dry in indirect light for 2 or 3
weeks. Remove the cormels, and then gently separate the new corm from the old corm. Dust all
new corms with a fungicide and store in a cool place until planting time. Examples: crocus,
gladiolus.

Grafting
Grafting and budding are methods of asexual plant propagation that join plant parts so
they will grow as one plant. These techniques are used to propagate cultivars that will not root
well as cuttings or whose own root systems are inadequate. One or more new cultivars can be
added to existing fruit and nut trees by grafting or budding.
The portion of the cultivar that is to be propagated is called the scion. It consists of a
piece of shoot with dormant buds that will produce the stem and branches. The rootstock, or
stock, provides the new plant’s root system and sometimes the lower part of the stem. The
cambium is a layer of cells located between the wood and bark of a stem from which new bark
and wood cells originate.

Four conditions must be met for grafting to be successful: the scion and rootstock must be
compatible; each must be at the proper physiological stage; the cambial layers of the scion and
stock must meet; and the graft union must be kept moist until the wound has healed.

Cleft grafting: Cleft grafting is often used to change the cultivar or top growth of a shoot or a
young tree (usually a seedling). It is especially successful if done in the early spring. Collect
scion wood 3/8 to 5/8 inch in diameter. Cut the limb or small tree trunk to be reworked,
perpendicular to its length. Make a 2-inch vertical cut through the center of the previous cut. Be
careful not to tear the bark. Keep this cut wedged apart. Cut the lower end of each scion piece
into a wedge. Prepare two scion pieces 3 to 4 inches long. Insert the scions at the outer edges of
the cut in the stock. Tilt the top of the scion slightly outward and the bottom slightly inward to be
sure the cambial layers of the scion and stock touch. Remove the wedge propping the slit open
and cover all cut surfaces with grafting wax.

Bark grafting: Unlike most grafting methods, bark grafting can be used on large limbs, although
these are often infected before the wound can completely heal. Collect scion wood 3/8 to 1/2
inch in diameter when the plant is dormant, and store the wood wrapped in moist paper in a
plastic bag in the refrigerator. Saw off the limb or trunk of the rootstock at a right angle to itself.
In the spring, when the bark is easy to separate from the wood, make a 12-inch diagonal cut on
one side of the scion, and a 1½-inch diagonal cut on the other side. Leave two buds above the
longer cut. Cut through the bark of the stock, a little wider than the scion. Remove the top third
of the bark from this cut. Insert the scion with the longer cut against the wood. Nail the graft in
place with flat-headed wire nails. Cover all wounds with grafting wax.

Whip or tongue grafting: This method is often used for material 1/4 to ½ inch in diameter. The
scion and rootstock are usually of the same diameter, but the scion may be narrower than the
stock. This strong graft heals quickly and provides excellent cambial contact. Make one 2½-inch
long sloping cut at the top of the rootstock and a matching cut on the bottom of the scion. On the
cut surface, slice downward into the stock and up into the scion so the pieces will interlock. Fit
the pieces together, then tie and wax the union.

Care of the Graft

Very little success in grafting will be obtained unless proper care is maintained for the
following year or two. If a binding material such as strong cord or nursery tape is used on the
graft, this must be cut shortly after growth starts to prevent girdling. Rubber budding strips have
some advantages over other materials. They expand with growth and usually do not need to be
cut, as they deteriorate and break after a short time. It is also an excellent idea to inspect the
grafts after 2 or 3 weeks to see if the wax has cracked, and if necessary, rewax the exposed areas.
After this, the union will probably be strong enough and no more waxing will be necessary.
Limbs of the old variety which are not selected for grafting should be cut back at the time
of grafting. The total leaf surface of the old variety should be gradually reduced as the new one
increases until at the end of 1 or 2 years, the new variety has completely taken over. Completely
removing all the limbs of the old variety at the time of grafting increases the shock to the tree
and causes excessive suckering. Also, the scions may grow too fast, making them susceptible to
wind damage.

Budding
Budding, or bud grafting, is the union of one bud and a small piece of bark from the scion
with a rootstock. It is especially useful when scion material is limited. It is also faster and forms
a stronger union than grafting.

Patch budding: Plants with thick bark should be patch budded. This is done while the plants are
actively growing, so their bark slips easily. Remove a rectangular piece of bark from the
rootstock. Cover this wound with a bud and matching piece of bark from the scion. If the
rootstock’s bark is thicker than that of the scion, pare it down to meet the thinner bark so that
when the union is wrapped the patch will be held firmly in place.

Chip budding: This budding method can be used when the bark is not slipping. Slice downward
into the rootstock at a 45-degree angle through 1/4 of the wood. Make a second cut upward from
the first cut, about one inch. Remove a bud and attending chip of bark and wood from the scion
shaped so that it fits the rootstock wound. Fit the bud chip to the stock and wrap the union.

T-budding: This is the most commonly used budding technique. When the bark is slipping,
make a vertical cut (same axis as the root stock) through the bark of the rootstock, avoiding any
buds on the stock. Make a horizontal cut at the top of the vertical cut (in a T shape) and loosen
the bark by twisting the knife at the intersection. Remove a shield-shaped piece of the scion,
including a bud, bark, and a thin section of wood. Push the shield under the loosened stock bark.
Wrap the union, leaving the bud exposed.

Care of Buds
Place the bud in the stock in August. Force the bud to develop the following spring by cutting the
stock off 3 to 4 inches above the bud. The new shoot may be tied to the resulting stub to prevent
damage from the wind. After the shoot has made a strong union with the stock, cut the stub off
close to the budded area.

LAND PREPARATION TYPES; METHODS; OBJECTIVES; ADVANTAGES

Land preparation types, and techniques in agriculture

Land preparation or Tillage practice is a very important practice to enhance good yield
from crops grown. It is one of the measures used to control crop diseases and pest invasion.
The purpose of land preparation is to provide the best soil conditions which will enhance the
successful establishment of the tissue culture plants. It is one of the measures used to control
crop diseases & pest invasion. Land preparation is also called as tillage practice; tillage practice
is the mechanical pulverization or manipulation of the soil to take about favorable conditions for
the growth of crops. Tillage practices include all operations used for the function of modifying
the soil characteristics. It costs about 30% of the total cost of cultivation.
The objective of land preparation is to develop potential tree growth, survival, and uniformity
of a crop about to be established (planted). Through proper land preparation, factors that limit
tree growth are reduced. These factors will be included; You should be aware of land preparation
types for proper implementation.

 Poor drainage
 Frost
 Weed competition
 Heavy slash
 Compacted or naturally dense soils
Land preparation improves site conditions in one or more of the following ways:

 Reducing weed competition for light and nutrients

 Improving soil, water, and air conditions through & water cultivation
 Loosening tight or compacted soils to allow
 Reducing frost susceptibility during mounding.
One must know about land preparation types in farming as it plays a major role in growing crops.

Tillage for soil conservation:

Tillage is an important and the main tool for conservation of the land. As per definition, its
primary function is to provide a favorable soil environment for the plant growth, which is
indirectly related to soil conservation. The effect of tillage on soil erosion is the purpose of its
several effects on soil such as aggregation surface sealing infiltration & resistant to erosion,
destruction of soil structure either by excessive tillage or tillage operations at improper soil
moisture condition tends to raise the soil erodibility, causing significant soil loss. To achieve a
better result for soil conservation the following points must be considered for tillage operations.

1. Till no more than necessary

2. Till only when soil moisture is in the good limit &
3. Vary the depth of ploughing.
Tillage Depth:
A plowing depth in the 15-20 cm range is generally adequate, and there is seldom any
advantage in going deeper. In fact, shallower plowing is often suggested for low rainfall areas
like the Sahel to conserve moisture.
In some areas, tractor-drawn sub-soilers (long, narrow shanks that penetrate down to 60
cm) are used in an effort to break up deep hardpans (compacted layers). Results are fair to poor,
depending on the kind of hardpan; those consisting of a dense clay coat often re-cement
themselves within a short time.
About 65-80 percent of the reference crops’ roots are found in the topsoil since this layer
is more fertile (partly due to its higher organic matter content) & less compacted than the subsoil.
However, any roots that enter the subsoil can utilize its valuable moisture reserves, production a
critical difference during a drought. Proper fertilization of the topsoil will support much deeper
root development. On the other hand, poor drainage & excessive acidity in the subsoil will
hinder or prevent root penetration.

Different land preparation techniques:

The different land preparation techniques distinguished are:

 Conventional Tillage
 Conservation Tillage
 Zero Tillage

Conventional Tillage:
Conventional tillage is the sequence of operations traditionally or most generally used in
a given geographic area to produce a given crop. The operations used vary considerably for
different crops & in different regions.
In the past, conventional tillage included moldboard plowing, usually in the fall. Spring
action included one or more passes with a disk harrow or field cultivator before planting. More
recently, conventional tillage has changed to contain the use of a chisel plow instead of a
moldboard plow, and newer combination tools are replacing chisel plows. These implements
leave additional residue than traditional moldboard plows, but often not enough to qualify as
conservation tillage.
The soil surface following conventional tillage as practiced in the past was effectively
free of plant residue. This was helpful with older planting equipment that had limited capability
to plant into the residue. It also buried weed seed and disease-bearing crop & weed residue,
thereby helping to reduce problems with weeds & plant diseases before the advent of modern
chemical control.
The name clean tillage is used for any system that leaves the soil surface more or less free
of residue. A soil surface essentially free of residues can be achieved with other implements,
especially following a crop such as a soybean that produces fragile, easy-to-cover residue.
Removing all residues from the soil surface & disturbing the soil surface greatly increases the
potential for soil erosion. The potential for water erosion is fewer in flat fields, but the potential
for wind erosion is high. Improved planters, seed quality, and herbicides have largely eliminated
the want to practice clean tillage.

Minimum Tillage:
Minimum tillage is the small manipulation of the soil. It is otherwise referred to as
traditional tillage process. It is not as sophisticated & technical as the conventional tillage. It
involves the use of the cutlass to slash weeds & vegetation regrowth on the farm, the less
manipulation is done with the how and rake.
 Farmers with access to tractor- or animal-drawn tillage equipment may overdo tillage,
particularly through repeated harrowing to control sprouting weeds or break up clods. Killing
one crop of weeds by stirring the soil stimulates another by moving other weed seeds closer to
the soil surface. Excessive tillage stimulates the microbial breakdown of humus & may further
destroy good soil physical condition by over-pulverizing the soil, the machinery, animal, and
foot traffic compact the soil, impairing root growth and drainage. Tillage is seldom excessive
when hand tools are used to arrange ground for the reference crops, because of the amount of
labor it would involve. Slash-and-burn and slash-and-mulch methods fall under zero tillage, as
do methods using particularly adapted mechanical planters to sow seed into the unplowed
ground. The plow or plant system described above or plowing & planting in one tractor pass are
examples of minimum tillage. The savings on equipment wear and fuel are benefits where
tractors are used.

Zero tillage practice:

Zero tillage otherwise called no tillage is a simplified form of minimum tillage. It
involves only opening a narrow strip about 2 to 3cm wide or hole in the ground for seed or
seedling placement. Zero tillage is no pre-planting seedbed preparation. Weeds are taken care of
with the use of herbicides & cutlass without disturbing the land. The crop is then planted directly
without tilling or ploughing the soil, this process is highly effective under sloppy lands where
soil & water erosion is heavy.
In this method, the soil structure is not disturbed & all soil microorganisms remain intact,
the soil is also not prone to erosion and the cost of production is reduced. However, the use of a
chemical in this tillage method makes the cost of producing high because of the expensive prices
of chemical and sometimes unavailable. Good tillage perform is one of the prerequisites to
having a good yield.

Methods Involving No-Tillage or Seedbed Shaping:

Under conditions of shifting cultivation, low management or steeply sloping or rocky
soils, the land is often cleared by simply slashing and burning, followed by making the seed
holes with a planting stick or hoe. No attempt is completed to actually till the soil or to form a
specific type of seedbed.
Slash, burn and plant: This process is most suitable for sandy soils which are naturally
loose or for other soils that are maintained in good filth (a loose, crumbly situation) by a lengthy
vegetative fallow which produces soil humus. It may be the feasible method for rocky soils or
those with pronounced slopes where tillage would accelerate erosion.
Slash, mulch, and plant: This process is suited to the same conditions. The vegetation is
slashed down or killed with an herbicide & then left on the surface to form mulch (a protective
covering). The seeds can be planted in the ground or may even be scattered over the ground
before slashing. The mulch is valuable for erosion & weed control, conserving soil moisture, and
keeping soil temperatures more uniform.

BASAL FERTILIZER
Basal fertilization, also known as pre-planting fertilization, has the main purpose to
increase soils biological fertility and concentration of mineral elements, providing big quantities
of lacking nutrients. Thanks to basal fertilization it is possible to create the agronomic
basis necessary for the correct implementation of plants production. It differs from the usual
fertilization for its extraordinary application. Generally, it is carried out: only once before the
cultivation of a soil for herbaceous crops; before planting a woody crop (grape, fruit and olive
trees).

Basal fertilization guarantees good results of multi-year crops such as fruit trees, while
in case of crops in a protected environment, it is better to limit this type of measure because all
greenhouses have drip or sprinkling water distribution systems, so fertiation can be effectively
used.
Dosage in basal fertilization.
The dosage in basal fertilizations varies according to the results provided by a chemical-
physical analysis of the soil concerning: nutrients supply, bulk density, texture, pH, total and
active limestone, electrical conductivity, organic substance, Cation-exchange capacity (CEC),
total nitrogen, assimilable phosphorus and exchangeable potassium.

How basal fertilization occurs.

This type of fertilization consists in the distribution of slow-release nutrients, which are
gradually introduced during the agricultural cycle of crops. Usually, phosphate, potassic
and organic fertilizers are used. The guidelines in a given context may change according to the
nutrients, especially in relation to their mobility in the soil:

Nitrogen is the main macronutrient for crops and it is very mobile, both in soil and
plants.
For this reason, its application before transplanting in open field crops is strongly discouraged
and must be minimized in protected crops (max 10% of total removals).

Phosphorus is an element with low mobility, which stimulates the development of new
roots and it is suitable for pre-planting fertilization.

Potassium is not very mobile in soil too and it’s particularly suitable for basal
fertilizations. It is the element that improves fruits quality and, thus, its supply is recommended
during their ripening.

THREE VITAL STEPS IN URBAN GARDENING

1. Soil preparation
2. Seed germination and seedling propagation
3. Care and maintenance

For beginners, direct seeding (planting seeds directly in the soil) is a good start as it is
the most known method, especially for sowing vegetable seeds. However, some seeds grow
better when sown in containers or seedbeds first and transferred when seedlings sprout.

Here is the step-by-step process to begin your seed germination and seedling
propagation:

Step 1: Choose and prepare your container

You may be creative in using any reusable containers available at home like seed
pans, paper boxes, old plastic containers, egg trays, or seedling trays. The crucial part of
using containers is to make sure to drill holes at the bottom for drainage. Clean the
containers that you will be using to ensure that there are no fungal spores or pests that will
hinder plants’ growth.

Step 3: Prepare soil medium

Soil must be sterilized for two hours in an oven toaster. An alternative to this is to
cook the soil in a pan and stir it for 10-15 minutes. After sterilizing, place the soil into the
container and water it.

Step 4: Prepare and sow the seeds

For sterilizing vegetable seeds, Joven lays them in a clean paper or a plate and exposes
them to the sun for 15-30 minutes. Larger seeds can be slightly poked into the soil using a finger,
the smaller seeds must be scattered only, while medium-sized ones are often sown in holes. In
covering them with soil, this depends on size; the larger the seed, the higher amount of soil you
can cover them.

Step 5: Seed germination

Seed germination is a process of cultivating seeds and is the first step in plant
development. Giving the seeds proper care is important for them to be successful. They must be
protected and cared for with enough water and sunlight until a few leaves sprout. If one to two
leaves emerge, transplant them.

Step 6: Pricking/thinning
This next process refers to transferring the seedlings into a more spacious room where
they can develop freely. The seedlings must also be slowly exposed to sun and air before they are
transferred to the ground. Pricking the seedlings must be carefully done as they are still fragile.
Pick them from the bottom not directly from the plants’ stem to loosen the compacted soil and
not to disturb the roots.

Step 7: Transplanting
When you successfully prick the seedlings, transfer them where they’ll grow best.
Regularly check the young plants and wait for it to grow.

Step 8: Plant care and maintenance

In tending plants, you’ll face challenges like pests and diseases. To solve this, be
prepared and learn how to make natural pesticides so you would know what to do when you
encounter them in your garden. You may plant natural repellants around your crops such as
spring onion, lemongrass, and citronella. For sprouts, regularly monitor any worms to prevent
them from eating the whole. Joven also recommends watering the plants late in the afternoon.
Add trellis, nylons, sticks, or bamboo poles for vegetables or crops that will need support to
develop further.
You may also opt to do a natural insect attractant. By this, you won’t need to apply
pesticides directly to the plant as this will attract the pests surrounding them. You can make your
own by placing a native coconut vinegar or also known as ‘tuba’ with molasses in a plastic
container. This can be hanged around the garden while left open wide to attract more insects.
A guide to urban gardening, part 4: making natural fertilizer
Living in urban areas entails challenges like pollution. As per Rosalie Joven, gardener
and resource speaker during the webinar ‘Basics to Urban Gardening’, if your home garden is
located beside or near the roads, the application of natural fertilizers will help combat pollution
(caused by cars and other pollutants) for your plants.

The previous articles talked about the advantages of urban gardening, different methods

to achieve it, and steps in gardening. In the last part of the series, Joven discusses types of natural
fertilizers and the process of making them.
 
Natural fertilizer helps to:
 feed the indigenous microorganisms,
 improve soil tilth or the soil’s physical condition,
 aerate the soil and retain soil moisture,
 provide quality, better-tasting food with higher nutrient content, and
 lessen production costs.

Making natural fertilizers

You can lessen your expenses by making your own natural fertilizer that is safer
compared to the fertilizers that contain harmful chemicals. This will provide nutrients and proper
growth for your vegetables.
To make an easy natural fertilizer, you’ll need 30% of carbonized rice hull (CRH), 50% of
decomposed manure, and 20% of sawdust. Do not apply fresh manure as it contains bacteria that
might harm your plants. It should be decomposed for at least one to three months, added with
dried leaves. As per Joven, chicken manure is recommended as it has a higher organic matter.

1. Indigenous microorganisms (IMO)

Among natural fertilizers, this is a primary component or the ‘mother’ of other
fertilizers, said Joven. Indigenous microorganisms (IMOs) are made of moldy rice. This
removes the foul odor of manure and other fertilizers. To create this, prepare your container:
it can be a wooden box, bamboo pole, or plastic gallon. Let the cooked rice sit in the
container and bury it upside down in a shaded area. If using a plastic container, cover it
under a shade of trees or bamboo groove if possible. Wrap your wooden box or bamboo pole
with plastic so it won’t get wet when it rains. Make sure to keep it out of reach of children.
After three days, get the container and it must have pink or light-colored molds in it. If
dark molds develop, bury or throw it as it is harmful due to its disease-causing organisms. If
this is the case, you’ll have to re-do the procedure again. Make sure to clean the materials
and use another area to bury the moldy rice in. If successful, add muscovado sugar or
molasses to the moldy rice, cover the container with a cloth or paper, and leave it in a cool,
shaded area. Ferment it for seven days and it will turn into a dark juice. This can help you
with soil fertility.
If dark molds appear, these must be discarded or buried as it may contain pathogenic
organisms.

2. Fish Amino Acid (FAA)

 If you have intestines, gills, and bones of fish, you may use this method at home. This
fertilizer is rich in nitrogen that can enhance your soil and that can be fed to animals. Just
add them all in a plastic container, add the same amount of muscovado sugar or molasses
and five tablespoons of Indigenous microorganisms (IMO), then mix it well. Conceal the
container using a clean cloth, let it sit in a shaded area for 10-15 days, and collect the juice
afterward. Mix two to three tablespoons of FAA in one liter of water and spray it on the
plants, soil, or compost. Muscovado sugar or molasses will help lessen the bad smell of your
FAA, so it is highly suggested to add it up.

3. Fermented Fruit Juice (FFJ)

One example of this is fermented banana-papaya-squash (BSP). This fertilizer contains a
high level of potassium and beta carotene that helps in plants’ growth. To make this, cut
each fruit (banana, papaya, and squash) into thin slices and mix it thoroughly with water
enough to moisten the mixture then add one kilo of molasses and wait for seven to ten days.
An easy alternative to this is banana tea that is also packed with nutrients. Simply soak the
banana peels into the water and leave it overnight or for a few days.

4. Kitchen wastes compost

Among the other fertilizers, this is the easiest method to follow. Doing this can reduce
your kitchen wastes and can help protect the environment. This can be practiced by filling a
pail with kitchen wastes like fruit peels, vegetable peels, and gills of fish.

5. Calcium Phosphate
This fertilizer allows the plants to have enough nutrients to produce flowers and fruits.
Aside from providing additional nutrients for the plants, it also strengthens the plants’
ability to absorb more nutrients and water. Do this by gathering the eggshells from the eggs
you consumed at home and roast them in a pan. Do not let all parts of it be burnt. “If using
brown eggs, the white part should become light brown,” said Joven.

Roast and stir crushed eggshells in a pan until it turns light brown. Make sure not to overdo
it. Soak the eggshells in native coconut vinegar that should be at least three times the
volume of your eggshells. Let it sit for a few weeks until you see that the eggshells are torn.
A tip from Joven, you can also ask for free eggshells from the bakery where you buy your
bread.

MALUNGGAY NUTRIENTS
6 Science-Based Health Benefits of Moringa oleifera
Moringa oleifera is a plant that has been praised for its health benefits for thousands of
years. It is very rich in healthy antioxidants and bioactive plant compounds. So far, scientists
have only investigated a fraction of the many reputed health benefits.

Here are 6 health benefits of Moringa oleifera that are supported by scientific research.
1. Moringa oleifera Is Very Nutritious
Moringa oleifera is a fairly large tree native to North India. It goes by a variety of names,
such as drumstick tree, horseradish tree or ben oil tree. Almost all parts of the tree are eaten or
used as ingredients in traditional herbal medicines. This especially applies to the leaves and pods,
which are commonly eaten in parts of India and Africa.
Moringa leaves are an excellent source of many vitamins and minerals. One cup of fresh,
chopped leaves (21 grams) contains

Protein: 2 grams
Vitamin B6: 19% of the RDA
Vitamin C: 12% of the RDA
Iron: 11% of the RDA
Riboflavin (B2): 11% of the RDA
Vitamin A (from beta-carotene): 9% of the RDA
Magnesium: 8% of the RDA

In Western countries, the dried leaves are sold as dietary supplements, either in powder or
capsule form. Compared to the leaves, the pods are generally lower in vitamins and minerals.
However, they are exceptionally rich in vitamin C. One cup of fresh, sliced pods (100 grams)
contains 157% of your daily requirement. The diet of people in developing nations sometimes
lacks vitamins, minerals and protein. In these countries, Moringa oleifera can be an important
source of many essential nutrients. However, there is one downside: Moringa leaves may also
contain high levels of antinutrients, which can reduce the absorption of minerals and protein.
Another thing to keep in mind is that taking Moringa oleifera supplements in capsules
won’t supply a large number of nutrients.
The amounts are negligible compared to what you consume if you eat a balanced diet based on
whole foods.
Moringa leaves are rich in many important nutrients, including protein, vitamin B6,
vitamin C, riboflavin and iron.

2. Moringa oleifera Is Rich in Antioxidants

Antioxidants are compounds that act against free radicals in your body.
High levels of free radicals may cause oxidative stress, which is associated with chronic diseases
like heart disease and type 2 diabetes. Several antioxidant plant compounds have been found in
the leaves of Moringa oleifera. In addition to vitamin C and beta-carotene, these include:

 Quercetin: This powerful antioxidant may help lower blood pressure

 Chlorogenic acid: Also found in high amounts in coffee, chlorogenic acid may help
moderate blood sugar levels after meals. One study in women found that taking 1.5
teaspoons (7 grams) of moringa leaf powder every day for three months significantly
increased blood antioxidant levels. Moringa leaf extract may also be used as a food
preservative. It increases the shelf life of meat by reducing oxidation. Moringa oleifera is
rich in various antioxidants, including quercetin and chlorogenic acid. Moringa leaf
powder can increase blood antioxidant levels.

3. Moringa May Lower Blood Sugar Levels

High blood sugar can be a serious health problem. In fact, it’s the main characteristic of
diabetes. Over time, high blood sugar levels raise the risk of many serious health problems,
including heart disease. For this reason, it’s important to keep your blood sugar within healthy
limits. Interestingly, several studies have shown that Moringa oleifera may help lower blood
sugar levels. However, most of the evidence is based on animal studies. Only a few human-based
studies exist, and they’re generally of low quality. One study in 30 women showed that taking
1.5 teaspoons (7 grams) of moringa leaf powder every day for three months reduced fasting
blood sugar levels by 13.5%, on average.
Another small study in six people with diabetes found that adding 50 grams of moringa leaves to
a meal reduced the rise in blood sugar by 21%. Scientists believe these effects are caused by
plant compounds such as isothiocyanates. Moringa leaves may lead to reduced blood sugar
levels, but more research is needed before any solid recommendations can be made.

4. Moringa oleifera May Reduce Inflammation

Inflammation is the body’s natural response to infection or injury. It’s an essential
protective mechanism but may become a major health issue if it continues over a long period of
time. In fact, sustained inflammation is linked to many chronic health problems, including heart
disease and cancer, Most whole fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices have anti-inflammatory
properties. However, the degree to which they can help depends on the types and amounts of
anti-inflammatory compounds they contain. Scientists believe that isothiocyanates are the main
anti-inflammatory compounds in moringa leaves, pods and seeds. But so far, research has been
limited to test-tube and animal studies. It remains to be seen if Moringa oleifera has similar anti-
inflammatory effects in humans. In animal and test-tube studies, Moringa oleifera has been
shown to have anti-inflammatory properties. This effect has not been studied in humans.

5. Moringa Can Lower Cholesterol

Having high cholesterol has been linked to an increased risk of heart disease. Fortunately,
many plant foods can effectively reduce cholesterol. These include flaxseeds, oats and almonds.
Both animal- and human-based studies have shown that Moringa oleifera may have similar
cholesterol-lowering effects. Moringa oleifera can lower your cholesterol levels, potentially
reducing the risk of heart disease.

6. Moringa oleifera May Protect Against Arsenic Toxicity

Arsenic contamination of food and water is a problem in many parts of the world. Certain
types of rice may contain particularly high levels. Long-term exposure to high levels of arsenic
may lead to health problems over time. For instance, studies have linked long-term exposure to
an increased risk of cancer and heart disease. Interestingly, several studies in mice and rats have
shown that the leaves and seeds of Moringa oleifera may protect against some of the effects of
arsenic. These results are promising, but it’s not yet known whether this also applies to humans.
Animal studies suggest that Moringa oleifera may protect against arsenic toxicity. However, this
has not yet been studied in humans.

THE BOTTOM LINE

Moringa oleifera is an Indian tree that has been used in traditional medicine for
thousands of years. However, only a few of its many reputed health benefits have been studied
scientifically. To date, studies show that Moringa oleifera may lead to modest reductions in
blood sugar and cholesterol. It may also have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects and
protect against arsenic toxicity. Moringa leaves are also highly nutritious and should be
beneficial for people who are lacking in essential nutrients.