Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units, 6th Edition

PART III:
Forming and Shaping Processes and Equipment

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PART III: Forming and Shaping Processes and Equipment

 “Forming” indicates changing the shape of an existing

solid body

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PART III: Forming and Shaping Processes and Equipment

 For forming processes, the starting material may be in

the shape of a plate, sheet, bar, rod, wire, or tubing of
various cross sections
 Shaping processes involve the molding and casting of
molten materials and the finished product is near the
final desired shape
 Molten metalis cast into individual ingots or continuously
cast into slabs, rods, or pipes
 Cast structures are converted to wrought structures by
plastic-deformation processes

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PART III: Forming and Shaping Processes and Equipment

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 Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units, 6th Edition
Chapter 13: Metal-Rolling Processes and Equipment

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Chapter Outline
 Introduction
 The Flat-rolling Process
 Flat-rolling Practice
 Rolling Mills
 Various Rolling Processes and Mills

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Introduction
 Rolling is the process of
reducing the cross section
of a long workpiece by
compressive forces
applied through a set
of rolls

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The Flat-rolling Process
 Flat-rolling process is shown
 Friction forces act on strip surfaces
 Roll force, F, and torque, T, acts on the rolls

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The Flat-rolling Process
 As the surface speed of the rigid roll is constant, there
is relative sliding between the roll and the strip along
the arc of contact in the roll gap, L
 At neutral point or no-slip point, the velocity of the
strip is the same as that of the roll
 The maximum possible draft is defined as the
difference between the initial and final strip thicknesses
 From the relationship, higher the friction and the larger
the roll radius, the greater the maximum possible draft
becomes
ho  h f   2 R

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The Flat-rolling Process:
Roll Force, Torque, and Power Requirements

 Rolls apply pressure on the flat strip to reduce its

thickness, resulting in a roll force, F
 Roll force in flat rolling can be estimated from
L = roll-strip contact length
F  LwYavg w = width of the strip
Yavg = average true stress of the strip

 Total power (for two rolls) is

2FLN
Power (in kW) 
60,000
2FLN
Power (in hp) 
33,000
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The Flat-rolling Process:
Roll Force, Torque, and Power Requirements

EXAMPLE 13.1
Calculation of Roll Force and Torque in Flat-rolling
An annealed copper strip 228 mm wide and 25 mm thick is
rolled to a thickness of 20 mm in one pass. The roll radius
is 300 mm, and the rolls rotate at 100 rpm. Calculate the
roll force and the power required in this operation.

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The Flat-rolling Process:
Roll Force, Torque, and Power Requirements

Solution
Roll-strip contact length is calculated through geometry,

L  Rho  h f   3000 25  20   38.7 mm

 25 
Absolute true strain of the strip is   ln    0.223
 20 

Average true stress is 80  280  / 2  180 MPa

The roll force is F  LwYavg  1000

38.7
 1000
250
180  17.4 MN

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The Flat-rolling Process:
Roll Force, Torque, and Power Requirements

Solution
With 100 rpm, the total power is calculated from
2FLN 38.7 100
Power   2 1.74 10 
6
  705 W
66,000 1000 66,000

Force and the power requirements is difficult to obtained

due to (a) the exact geometry between the roll and the
strip and (b) coefficient of friction and the strength of the
material in the roll gap

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The Flat-rolling Process:
Roll Force, Torque, and Power Requirements

Reducing Roll Force

 Roll forces can cause deflection and flattening of the
rolls
 The columns of the roll stand may deflect under high
roll forces
 Roll forces can be reduced by:
1. Reducing friction at the roll–workpiece interface
2. Using smaller diameter rolls
3. Reduce the contact area
4. Rolling at elevated temperatures
5. Applying front and/or back tensions to the strip
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The Flat-rolling Process:
Roll Force, Torque, and Power Requirements

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The Flat-rolling Process:
Geometric Considerations
 Roll forces will bend the rolls elastically during rolling
 When the roll bends, the strip has a constant thickness
along its width
 The heat generated by plastic deformation cause the
rolls to be slightly barrel shaped (thermal camber)
 Roll forces also tend to flatten the rolls elastically

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The Flat-rolling Process:
Geometric Considerations
Spreading
 Increase in width is called spreading
 Spreading increases with:
1. Decreasing width-to-thickness ratio of the entering strip
2. Increasing friction
3. Decreasing ratio of the roll radius to the strip thickness

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The Flat-rolling Process:
Vibration and Chatter
 Vibration and chatter have effects on product quality
and the productivity of metalworking operations
 Chatter defined as self-excited vibration
 Occur in rolling and in extrusion, drawing, machining,
and grinding operations
 Chatter results from interactions between the structural
dynamics of the mill stand and the dynamics of the
rolling operation
 Chatter can be reduced by increasing the roll radius,
strip-roll friction and incorporating dampers in the roll
supports

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Flat-rolling Practice

 Initial rolling steps (breaking down) of the material is

done by hot rolling
 A cast structure is dendritic and is brittle and porous
 Hot rolling converts the cast structure to a wrought
structure with finer grains and enhanced ductility
 Product of the first hot-rolling operation is called a
bloom, a slab, or a billet
 To improve flatness, the rolled strip goes through a
series of leveling rolls

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Flat-rolling Practice

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Flat-rolling Practice:
Defects in Rolled Plates and Sheets

 Defects may be present on the surfaces or there may

be internal structural defects
 They are undesirable as they compromise surface
appearance and adversely affect strength, formability,
and other manufacturing characteristics
 Surface defects may be caused by inclusions and
impurities in the original cast material
 Wavy edges on sheets are
the result of roll bending
 Cracks are due to poor
material ductility at the
rolling temperature
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Flat-rolling Practice:
Other Characteristics of Rolled Metals

Residual Stresses
 Residual stresses develop in rolled plates and sheets
due to nonuniform deformation of materials in roll gap

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Flat-rolling Practice:
Other Characteristics of Rolled Metals

Dimensional Tolerances
 Thickness tolerances for cold-rolled sheets range from
±0.1~0.35 mm
 Flatness tolerances are within ±15 mm/m for cold
rolling and ±55 mm/m for hot rolling

Surface Roughness
 Cold rolling can produce a very fine surface finish
 Cold-rolled sheets products may not require additional
finishing operations

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Rolling Mills
 Automated mills produce close-tolerance, low cost and
high quality plates and sheets at high production rates

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Rolling Mills
 Two-high rolling mills are used for hot rolling in initial
breakdown passes (cogging mills) on cast ingots or in
continuous casting
 In tandem rolling, the strip is rolled continuously
through a number of stands to thinner gages with each
pass

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Rolling Mills
Roll Materials
 Basic requirements for roll materials are strength and
resistance to wear
 Forged-steel rolls have higher strength, stiffness, and
toughness than cast-iron rolls
 Rolls made for cold rolling should not be used for hot
rolling as they may crack from thermal cycling (and
spalling

Lubricants
 Hot rolling of ferrous alloys do not need lubricants
 Water-based solutions are used to Copyright
cool©the rolls
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Various Rolling Processes and Mills

Shape Rolling
 Straight and long structural shapes are formed at
elevated temperatures by shape rolling

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Various Rolling Processes and Mills

Roll Forging
 Cross section of a round bar is shaped by passing it
through a pair of rolls with profiled grooves

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Various Rolling Processes and Mills

Skew Rolling
 Similar to roll forging and used for making ball bearings
 Another method is to shear pieces from a round bar
and then upset them in headers between two dies with
hemispherical cavities

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Various Rolling Processes and Mills

Ring Rolling
 A thick ring is expanded into a large-diameter thinner
one
 Thickness is reduced by bringing the rolls closer
together as they rotate
 Short production times, material savings and close
dimensional tolerances

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Various Rolling Processes and Mills

Thread Rolling
 Thread rolling is a cold-forming process by which
straight or tapered threads are formed on round rods or
wire
 Threads are formed with rotary dies at high production
rates

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Various Rolling Processes and Mills

Thread Rolling
 Thread-rolling process has the advantages of
generating threads with good strength without any loss
of material
 Internal thread rolling can be carried out with a
fluteless forming tap, produces accurate internal
threads with good strength

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Various Rolling Processes and Mills

Rotary Tube Piercing

 Also known as the Mannesmann process
 It is a hot-working operation for making long, thick-
walled seamless pipe and tubing
 The round bar is subjected to radial compressive
forces while tensile stresses develop at the center of
the bar

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Various Rolling Processes and Mills

Tube Rolling
 Diameter and thickness of pipes and tubing can be
reduced by tube rolling, which utilizes shaped rolls

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Various Rolling Processes and Mills:
Various Mills
Integrated Mills
 Integration process starts from production of hot metal
to the casting and rolling of finished products to
shipping

Minimills
 Scrap metal is:
1. Melted in electric-arc furnaces
2. Cast continuously
3. Rolled directly into specific lines of products

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