Airframes and Systems

Formulas / General:
ð Thrust = m(Vj - Vv) + A(Pj – P0) (Vv is TAS, convert hPa into Nm²)
ð f = (RPM x number of pole pairs) / 60
ð Number of poles = number of pole pairs x 2
ð Transformer windings à Vs / Vp = Ns / Np
ð Isobar à constant pressure
ð Isochor à constant volume
ð Polytrop à mixture of isobar and Isochor (both changes)

Structures
ð Torsion by twisting, tension resists a force pulling it apart
ð Pressurization load is tension
ð Radome is the front of the airplane where the wx radar is behind
ð Most common is aluminum and magnesium alloy
ð DURALUMIN is aluminum copper base, hard to weld, good thermal conductivity and poor corrosion
resistance
ð Safe-life may be used during a declared number of cycles or flight hours
ð Safe-life doesn’t implies that it will never fail
ð Fail-Safe doesn’t implies that it will never fail
ð Strain is deformation due to stress
ð Monoque structure à skin takes all load
ð Shell (Schalen) structure is reinforced semi-Monocoque and transmits efficiently
à Normal and tangent bending stresses as well as torsion
ð Sandwich
à Not suitable for absorbing concentrated loads
à Consist of two sheets separated by light core material
à Core material stabilizes the covering sheets
ð Failure types and probabilities
Type/Group Flight Crew Occupants Aeroplane Probability
Catastrophic fatalities or Multiple fatalities Hull loss < 10^9 (extremely
failure incapacitation improbable)
Hazardous physical distress serious or fatal large reduction in 10^7 - 10^9
failure or excessive injury to a small functional capabilities (extremely remote)
workload, impairs number of or safety margins
ability to perform passengers or
task cabin crew
Major failure physical physical distress, significant reduction in 10^5 – 10^7
discomfort or a possibly including functional capabilities (remote)
significant injuries or safety margins
increase in
workload
Minor failure slight increase in physical slight reduction in 10^3 -10^5
workload discomfort functional capabilities (probable)
or safety margins

ð Cantilever wing is a wing attached to the fuselage at the wing root only
ð Spars and skin carry the bending moment and consist of a web and girders
ð Ribs give aerodynamic shape of the wing
ð Supporting structures (Stringers …) support always in the direction of attachment
ð Torsion box wing à spars, skin, stringers and ribs
ð Skin carries main load during pressurization
ð Stringers
à Shorter than longerons
à Assist the skin to absorb longitudinal compressive loads
à Connect frames
ð Longerons running through multiple frames
ð Windscreen
à Glass (triplex) and polycarbonate laminate
à Inner (mid layer) surface soft polycarbonate
à Heating is usually 3 phase AC (115 V / 400 Hz)
à Heating inop à speed restriction
ð Cockpit side windows usually defogged only
ð Aileron flutter à wing downwards, aileron upwards, CG of aileron behind hinge
ð Wing flutter à torsion and bending
ð Wing loading with wing mounted engine à root compression – tip tension
ð Reduce wing loading in flight by maintaining fuel at the wing tips and aileron up float (for aircrafts
with fuselage mounted engines or wing tips empty – the ailerons move slightly up to relief stress with a
downward force)
ð Trailing edge flaps increase lift at lower AoA (as they increase the effective AoA)
ð Krueger flaps at wing root leading edge (mainly)
ð For IFR equipped ac à pitot always heated, static ports only sometimes
ð Coolant liquid is 30% ethylene and 70% water
ð Decreasing suitability (from best to worst) is 2,3,4,1

- figure 1-
- figure 2 -

- figure 4 -

- figure 3 -

Gear / Wheels
ð Wheel types
Cantilever Fork Half-Fork Dual Wheels

ð Landing gear
à Oil à Damping / Shock absorber during landing
à Nitrogen à Spring / absorbs small movements during taxi
ð Scissor / torsion link prevents movement of oleo strut and shock absorber
ð Telescopic and sprung legs are most common
ð Emergency extension by compressed nitrogen, auxiliary hydraulic and freefall
ð Nose wheel shimmy à vibration / oscillation when moving on the ground à overcome with torsion
link / may be a cause of tyre imbalance and looseness of support mechanism
ð Friction coefficient between tyre and surface during hydroplaning à 0
ð ABS disconnect by the pilot after landing
ð Thermal plug – release air from the tyre in case of overheating
ð Anti-Skid à one wheel is slower à release brake pressure to “fasten” the slower one
ð Anti Skid failure à ON and OFF action of brakes to prevent skidding
ð Anti Skid computer inputs are idle wheel speed, braked wheel speed and desired idle wheel train
slipping rate
ð Anti Skid reduces brake pressure at the slowest wheel
ð Tyres may be repaired several times when profile grooves or is worn
ð Tubeless tyre eliminates internal friction, does not burst, requires solid or branched wheel and has a
radial side casing
ð Auto brake maintains a pre selected deceleration rate and not a fix brake pressure and is switched
off by pilots action.
ð Rejected take offs and auto brake – constant deceleration rate
ð Tyre creep is a circumferential movement of the tyre in relation to the wheel flange

Normal operating range Abnormal movement of the tyre. Change

required.

Hydraulics
ð Hydraulic power = (system) pressure x volume
ð Force = pressure x area
ð Volume = distance x area
ð System pressure usually 3.000 PSI
ð Hydraulic fluids are irritating to eyes and skin but do not cause a fire risk
ð Fluid types (low viscosity (resistance), high flash and fire point, as incompressible as possible,
thermal stability, low emulsifying characteristics, corrosion resistance and combustion resistance)
Type Example Color Seal Material
Vegetable Lockheed 22 Straw natural Natural rubber
Mineral DTD-585 Red Synthetic rubber

Synthetic Skydrol (has better fire Purple / Green Butyl rubber or teflon
(phosphate ester retardant properties)
base)
ð Hydraulic is for high pressure and large flows
ð Check valve or non-return valve (NRV – like a diode) usually just behind the pump and upside of
the accumulator
ð Shuttle valve allows two supplies to be available to a service (normal and emergency)
ð Relief valve in case of normal pressure regulation system failing
ð Pressure relief valve does not seat correctly à low oil pressure
ð Overheat (of pump) and pressure check à in / near the pumps
ð Temperature measuring in the reservoir
à Overheated hydraulic fluid in one of the return lines à hydraulic oil temp indication in
cockpit
ð Low pressure is an indication of insufficient pump output (not for a leak in return line)
ð Pump indication illuminates à low pressure
ð Parameters to monitor are pressure, fluid temperature and quantity
ð Actuator seal damaged or internal leakage à high fluid temperature and NOT decreased pressure
ð System pressurized with bleed air to secure reliable oil supply to the pumps
ð Selector valve directs system pressure to either side of the piston of an actuator
ð Actuator or jack à hydraulic pressure into linear movement
ð Fuses prevent total system loss in case of a leaking hydraulic line
ð Fixed volume pump ð Variable displacement pump = Constant
à Constant displacement pressure pump
à Pressure regulation by cut-out valve à Output volume varies to maintain pressure
à Lubrication by fluid leak (moveable swash plate)
à Start up at full stroke
à Lubrication by fluid leak

Electrics
ð DC generator (dynamo) à fixed inductor field coil (magnet) and rotating field windings
ð AC alternator
à Induced output windings fixed and rotating (electro)-magnet
à Rotor (electromagnet) is DC powered
ð Constant frequency AC alternator à power required field excitation à voltage regulator
ð AC à DC: Transformer Rectifier Unit
ð DC à AC: inverter
ð DC starter motor usually series wound
ð Electric Power à P (watts)
ð Ammeters measure current and wired in series
ð Voltmeters measure current as well but wired in parallel
ð Open circuit means loss of continuity will prevent the components working
Serial connections Parallel connections
I = I1 = I 2 = ... I = I1 + I 2 +...
U = U1 +U 2 +... U = U1 = U 2 = ...
R = R1 + R2 +... 1 1 1
! = ! + ! +...
R R1 R2
General formulas ð Electrical Ant-Icing / De-Icing consist of
Power = U ! I = R ! I 2 à Uncontrolled frequency alternator
à 2 speed cyclic timer
R =U ÷ I
à Electrical elements bonded to the
surface

ð KVAR = idle, reactive or wattles power

à measured

ð KW = real, true, active, effective or useful power

ð KVA = total or apparent power

à measured

ð Shunt wound generator

à presence of magnetic field and min rotation
speed required for activation
à Lots of windings of thin wire
à Voltage drops with increasing load

ð Series wound generator

à Coils have a few and heavy made wires
à Voltage rises with increasing load
à More current from generator à more current in
coil à more voltage
ð Compound wound generator
à Combination of shunt and series
à Constant voltage with changing load

ð Voltage regulator ð Carbon Pile regulator

à In series with shunt wound field coil à The pile changes its resistance with
compression
à When compressed better electrical contact à
reduced resistance

ð Transistors
à Separate is Base
à Narrow is Emitter
à Collector

à Narrow pointing inward à PNP

à Narrow pointing outward à NPN

AND Gate
NOT Gate
OR Gate

XOR Gate
ð If electrical load of AC generator, providing a constant output voltage, increases the voltage
regulator will increase the excitation current (coils are in series even in compound)
ð DC generators usually connected in parallel to provide maximum power (P = U x I and Ig = I1 + I2 +
… in parallel circuits)
ð Generators usually cooled by ram air intakes
ð Battery voltages
à Primary cell: 1.5 V
à Lead acid: 2.2 V (2 V under load) (capacity of small ac 12-18 Ah)
à Nickel Cadmium 1.3 V (1.2 volt under load)
ð Nickel Cadmium most common in aeronautics as they weigh less than lead acid
à They have further advantages but the weight is the most important in aviation
à Reduced charging time and constant output voltage
ð Battery voltage and current drops when nearly discharged (check it with on and off load)
ð Circuit breakers may be used in AC and DC systems
ð Thermal CB à protects overheat without exceeding max permissible current
à Protects in the event of a prolonged over current
ð Magnetic CB à very quick response
ð Trip free à not resettable until overload situation has been cleared
ð Non-Trip free à resettable during the overload situation
ð Zener-Diode à Voltage stabilisation à semi-conductor allows current to flow under certain
conditions (in reverse direction if voltage larger than breakdown voltage)
ð Current limiter fuse allows a short term overload before rupturing (thermal device)
ð CSD
à Disconnect during flight (not at IDLE), reset on ground after engine shut down only
à AC generator driven by CSD requires a voltage regulator
à Low oil pressure, high oil temp, vibrations à disconnect
 à Disconnector is a so called clutch / mechanically activated from the cockpit
à Indications in cockpit are oil temp and pressure
ð Electrically distribution
ð Hot or direct bus is directly connected
to the battery

ð Real and reactive loads must be

matched in order to operate AC
generators in parallel

ð Isolation of equipment decreases the

busbar current consumption

ð AC generator fault à exciter control ð In order to share

(controls the exciter circuit) and à Be in phase, same voltage, phase angle, frequency and
generator breaker will open. BTB may real and reactive load must be shared effective
close to supply the other busbars from à NOT EQUAL CURRENT!
the remaining generator(s) ð Real load sharing à control of generator speed and
torque
ð Changeover relay allows power ð Reactive load sharing à by regulating the excitation
supply to the faulty generator bus bars current (energizing current)
ð Parallel of DC generators by ð Onboard protection against
equalizing circuit in conjunction with à AC generator over- and under voltage (its an constant
voltage regulator varies excitation voltage system, therefore over and under voltage must be
current of generator checked)
à Voltages must be almost equal à Overcurrent
à Overspeed
à Under frequency
Calculate number of windings with
simple calculation:
N1 U1
_ = _
N2 U2

ð To reverse a shunt-type DC electric motor the polarity of either the stator or the rotor must be
reversed
ð Static discharger
à Placed on wing- and tail tip to facilitate electrical discharge
à Placed on the tips to reduce interference with on-board comm systems
à Limits the risk of transfer of electrical charges between ac and electrified clouds
à Has nothing to do with the equalizing of electrical potential (see elec. bondings)
ð Electrical bondings
à Set ac parts to the same (single and NOT 0) potential
à Prevents radio interference; protects against lightning effects
à Provide a single earth for elec. devices
à If inadequate bonded, static noise on the radio may occur
ð How can you tell when metallic bonding … à corrosion at skin joints (all other questions do not
have corrosion as correct answer. Only this question)
ð Incorrect bonding of the aircraft structure may cause à static on the radio
Flight controls
ð Irreversible flight controls
à No natural feel à give no natural feedback
à No need for gust lock
à Trim is achieved by adjusting the “zero force point” (a spring) of the feel system (Q-Feel)
à Zero force position of the elevator à not affected from trim (due to stabilizer)
à Zero force position of the aileron à affected from trim
à Rudder movement à rudder pedal movement during trim as only elevator trim position
does not change the elevator stick. Rudder and aileron affect the stick movement as well
à Standby system will take over in case of failure
ð Artificial feel to prevent overstressing and give increased forces as speed increases
ð Rudder ratio changer à reduces rudder deflection for a given pedal deflection as IAS increases
ð Variable stop system à reduces both rudder and pedal deflection as IAS increases
ð Primary Stop limit the range of movement of the control surface (avoid over stress)
ð Primary flight control à Even Roll spoiler
ð Secondary flight control à Speed brake, Stabilizer, Lift augmentation devices
ð Ground spoiler activation à main wheel spin up
ð Auto-Slat à extends (part of) the slats automatically when certain AoA is exceeded
ð External lock (gust lock) not required for servo tab fitted ac
ð With gust lock ON there is a protection to prevent take-off
ð Stick Shaker inputs are AoA and sometimes rate of change of AoA

Fuel System
ð Small aircraft measures the fuel level (or volume)
ð Tanks in centre, wings, wing tips, fin, part of the hold (sometimes)
ð Booster pumps are submerged into the fuel to cool the pumps
à Low pressure centrifugal pumps (electrically driven) (115 V AC, 20 – 100 psi)
ð Feed box à increase fuel level at the boost pump location
ð Baffle valves reduces unwanted movement of fuel in the tanks and prevent surge of fuel
ð High pressure fuel shut off closes when engine fuel switch is selected to off
à Fuel is delivered by the tanks and low pressure pumps
à Ignition is activated before fuel is delivered by the HPSOV to the fuel nozzles
ð Low pressure fuel shut off closes when fire handle is pulled (115 V AC, 20 – 100 psi)
ð Automatic fuelling shut off valve stop fuelling as soon as a certain level is reached in tank
à Even known as Volumetric Top-Off Unit or VTO (float switch in small ac)
ð Fuel is measured in the line between the booster pump and the engine or at the outlet of the high
pressure filter
ð Fuel Heater (Heat Exchanger with oil system)
located on the engines and NOT in the tanks
ð Upstream of main fuel filter to prevent ice
formation

ð Fuel flow in turbine engines measured in the

line between fuel control unit and engine burners
(as quantity of movement / neither pressure nor
volume is measured)
ð Usually after the high pressure valve
ð Measured as volume or mass (the latter is
more common in large ac)
ð Pressurization valve
à A valve used in a turbine engine fuel system
equipped with duplex nozzles. When the demand
for fuel is low, it flows through the primary
manifold. The pressurization valve opens at a
high fuel flow to deliver fuel to the secondary
manifold. At engine shutdown, the dump valve
port opens to drain fuel from the manifolds.
à Pressurization function to admit fuel to the
nozzles only if the fuel pressure is high enough
for sufficient atomization

ð FCU senses
à Thrust lever angle, compressor inlet temp,
compressor discharge pressure, N2, EGT, rapid
acceleration and deceleration
ð Integral tanks most common
à Further types are rigid removable and bladder (bag or flexible) tanks
ð Fuel types (SG means 1 Liter has a weight of 0.8 kg and not vice versa!!!!)
Type Spec. Gravity Flame / flash Freezing point Boiling point
point
Jet A 0.8 + 38°C - 40 °C 156 – 258 °C
Jet A1 0.8 > + 38°C - 50 °C 156 – 258 °C
Jet B 0.77 - 20°C - 60 °C 156 – 258 °C
ð Limit fuel tank moisture by completely refueling the tanks for overnight stays
ð Crossfeed is for feeding the engines from all tanks (when amount in 1 < 2 à open crossfeed and
turn off pump 1)

Pneumatic Systems
ð Bootstrap à (1.) heat exchanger, compressor,
(2.) heat exchanger, expansion turbine
ð Heat exchangers cool the bleed air in front and
behind the compressor
ð Air is compressed to ensure sufficient temp
drop in the 2. heat exchanger
ð Turbine drives compressor
ð Main temp reduction in heat exchangers
ð Water separator uses centrifugal process
(condensation and not evaporation)
ð Negative value of cabin altitude à descending à rising cabin pressure
ð Cabin diff pressure is positive (7-9 PSI)
ð Cabin air is supplied by engine compressors and not RAM air intakes
ð Warning device to alert crew when cabin alt reaches 10.000 ft
ð Cabin pressure controller in automatic mode
à Control of cabin altitude, control of cabin rate change, and limiting diff pressure
ð Bleed air taken from HP compressor, low pressure stages and if required from the high pressure
stages as well
ð Pressure regulation occurs just before the manifold by the low pressure bleed air valve
ð Max operating altitude due to max diff pressure at max cabin altitude (7-9 PSI)
ð Wing Ice protection for turboprop à pneumatic inflatable boots
ð Wing Ice protection for jets à hot air
ð Pneumatic icing as ¼ “ to ½ “ has accumulated
ð Outflow / cabin air flow valves maintain a constant mass air flow and minimize cabin pressure surge
ð Air conditioning pack inlet flow valve (pack valve) is to maintain constant and sufficient air mass flow
to ventilate the cabin
Piston Engines
ð Intermittent process, theoretically at constant
volume (not pressure)
ð 2 adiabatic / 2 isochoric

ð Power output = torque x RPM

ð Torque is measured at the (reduction) gearbox

(between engine and propeller) à measures oil
pressure

ð Diesel engines have a higher compression

ratio, less max power output and regulated by
fuel flow only, it has no throttle valve (fuel is
injected)
ð Diesel engines produces soot because the fuel
droplets coming from the atomizer do not burn à Thermal efficiency is about 30%
completely
ð Thermal efficiency of Diesel engine is higher
(because of higher compr. Ratio)
ð MAP (usually) decreases during climb
à If climbing and MAP is constant à Power output increases! (because of the constant MAP)
ð Excessive leaning, but still on rich side of EGT à CHT and EGT may exceed
ð Spark plug fouling
à Aircraft descends prolonged time at idle
à During climb without adjusting the mixture
ð Excessive priming
à Fire risk, engine flooding and washes the oil from the cylinder walls
ð Fuel Strainer à kind of fuel filter upstream of needle valve (before carburetor)
ð The higher the octane rating the higher the possible compression
ð Crankshaft assembly comprises of crankshaft, connecting rods and pistons
ð Dry sump – engine sump is dry due to the scavenge pump
à Uses pressure pump AND scavenge pump (with greater capacity)
ð Wet sump uses only pressure pumps
ð Pout point à oil will no longer flow as a result of gravity
ð Valve overlap (exhaust and intake) is for better scavenging and cooling
ð Power output without charger increases due to lower back pressure at the outlet valves
à As altitude increases exhaust back pressure reduces, if MAP is kept constant by gradually
opening the throttle (note this will only apply a power settings below maximum) a greater mass
of air will be induced into the engine and power increases. Since density is mass per unit
volume if the mass of air is increases for the same volume the density must has increased.
(Increase of air density behind the throttle valve)
ð MAP gauge will always show lower pressure than atmospheric when engine running
à Engine sucks the air in à speed increase and pressure decrease
ð Power output monitoring
à Fixed pitch prop à only RPM
à Constant speed prop à RPM and MAP
à Turbocharger boost pressure à MAP gauge only
ð Oil cooler usually fitted in return line before oil tank
ð Pre Ignition – mixture ignited by abnormal condition within cylinder before spark occurs
ð Intercoolers cools the compressed air of the super or turbocharger to prevent detonation
ð Ignition system contains a capacitor (or condenser) in parallel with breaker points
à Breaker points in primary circuit of magneto and connect and de-connect the primary circuit
to induce the voltage in the secondary circuit
à To prevent arching (flashover) at the breaker point the capacitor takes up the voltage
(temporally) and discharges as soon as the breaker points close again
à Impulse magneto coupling gives a very strong and retarded spark at starting (consists of a
spring-loaded clutch. The spring will load up during starting and at a certain point the spring
will release and give very strong spark) – centrifugal force not a coil spring
à Very rapid changes in the primary coil are accomplished by the OPENING of the breakers
ð Blue smoke à burning oil in cylinders
ð White smoke à water particles
ð Black smoke à excessive rich mixture

ð Cowl flap for CHT control

ð Supercharger runs 9 times of crankshaft
speed and is gear driven by crankshaft
ð Turbocharger à compressor driven by
exhaust gas (controlled via waste gate – full
close à all exhaust to turbine))
ð Waste gate seized in cruise / high altitude
position à MAP may exceed critical value
ð Centrifugal compressor air enters eye of
impeller and leaves at tangent to periphery
ð Magneto rotates at half crankshaft speed à Compression ratio is total volume to clearance
ð Cylinder walls usually sprayed or splashed volume
with oil
ð Swept volume = length of stroke x piston area
ð Total volume = volume above BDC
ð The 1 in the mixture ratio is always the fuel
ð Best power 1:12.5 / Best economy 1:16 – 1:18
ð Weak or rich mixture is always in comparison
to 1:15 (ccm) – above weak – below rich
ð Mixture is the ratio between mass of fuel and
mass of air

ð Vapor lock is the vaporization of fuel prior to the carburettor / prior to the engine
à Blockage in a fuel feed line caused by a fuel vapor bubble
ð Mixture adjustment is fuel flow adjustment and not amount of fuel in the mixture
ð Ignition switch controls the primary circuit in the magneto
ð Magneto is switched off by grounding primary and secondary circuit
ð Motor still runs if set magnetos to OFF
à Either excessive carbon formation in cylinder head (not spark plug) OR
à Ground wire broken
ð Octane rating too low à cylinder head and oil temp may exceed their limit
ð Detonation
à Too low octane rating, too weak mixture (not enough cooling), engine overheat (CHT)
à Excessive boost from turbocharger, or high charge temperature
à Incorrect timing (spark plug) or high power at low RPM
à Reduce MAP and fully enrich mixture (to cool)
ð High MAP and low RPM à excessive pressure in cylinders
ð Carburettor diffuser to maintain constant mixture at low and high power
ð Carburettor heating à mixture will become richer (lower air density)
ð Barometric correction in carburettor fuel controller to maintain correct weight fuel to air ratio when
altitude increases (adjusts the fuel flow)
ð Constant RPM / fixed pitch prop / climb à density of air and fuel flow decrease (the latter as the
pressure difference between air intake and carburettor decrease too)
ð Low temp causing carburettor icing is result of vaporization of fuel and expansion of air (up to 30°C
possible)
ð For internal cooling reciprocating engines are dependent on a circulation of lubricating oil and not
on a rich mixture!
ð Max EGT at 1:15
Turbines
ð Brayton Cycle à 2 isentropic and 2 isobaric (continuous combustion process)
ð Continuous process, theoretically at constant pressure (not volume)
ð Total efficiency is chemical power in the fuel transformed into propulsive power (T x V)
ð SFC is the mass of fuel required to produce unit of power for unit of time
à But NOT inversely proportional to altitude at constant TAS
à Nevertheless the SFC decreases with increasing PA but not proportional
ð Static thrust
à Can produce zero propulsive power when airplane is not moving
à Equals the product of the exhaust gas mass flow and the exhaust gas velocity
ð Propelling jet (thrust) is conversion (expansion) of (potential energy) pressure into velocity (kinetic
energy)
ð Bypass ratio is cold stream air to that flowing through the hot core
ð Bypass air
à Effect of lower SFC due to overall decrease in average exhaust gas flow velocity and
higher mass flow
à Ratio of cold air mass flow to core mass flow
ð Bypass ratio à cold / hot à express as full decimal (e.g. 9)
ð Ram air (high speeds) increases the efficiency of the engine
ð Altitude, Ambient temp, bleed and intake heating reduces thrust and efficiency
ð Thermal efficiency increases with decreasing temperature
ð Max T/O power for max 5 minutes unless emergency
ð Bypass / ducted engines
à Cold flow up to 5 times faster than airflow through turbine
à Larger mass airflow with a lower exhaust velocity and lower SFC
ð Engine spinner usually designed to deflect rain/hail into the bypass duct
ð Intakes usually divergent à Ttot const, Ptot const, Pstat increase, Tstat increase, Pdyn decreases,
speed decrease
ð Pressure at intake of stationary aircraft is lower than ambient pressure (suction effect) and rises as
soon as the aircraft accelerates à Pressure recovery (at M 0.1 – 0.2)
à As far as possible total head pressure is achieved at the compressor face
à Velocity decreases (AND NOT total pressure increases)
ð Low pressure stage runs at lower RPM than high pressure stage
ð Booster or LP compressor runs at the same speed as the fan (twin spool)
ð A constant EPR is always constant, even with altitude (when intake low, outtake will lower as well
but the ratio itself remains constant)
ð Old engine compared to new one à the same EPR à same amount of thrust but the RPM of the
older one may be higher
ð EPR – ratio between compressor inlet and turbine outlet pressure (or jet pipe pressure)
ð Rupture of a LP shaft in twin spool may lead to overspeed of LP turbine as there is no “load – the
compressor” to drive
ð Compressor à rotor followed by stator (first
stage has IGV to ensure correct AoA)
ð Exit velocity is higher than entry velocity (for
one rotor stage) even as the flow is divergent as
part of the compressor work delivered to the air is
converted to kinetic energy
ð Disadvantage of axial flow compressor is more
expensive and more vulnerability to foreign
object damage
ð VIGV à Variable Inlet Guide Vanes are fitted
in front of the HP compressor
ð VSV à Variable Stator vanes (the stator of the
compressor)
ð VIGV and VSV control the compressor airflow

ð Blades not rigid fixed à only when running due to aerodynamic and centrifugal forces. This limits
the vibration damage (nothing to do with creep or easy removal)
ð Compressor stall
 à Axial airflow velocity is low relative to the rotor speed (may happen even at low RPM if
relation airflow / RPM is below design speed)
à Indication is a rise in EGT and a high vibration level
EGT rises as a result of less air entering the combustion chamber for the same amount of fuel
à rise in EGT
à High AoA of rotor blades (like a prop) with high RPM and/or low air speed
à If airflow stagnates in first stages à no stall
à If airflow stagnates in rear stages à stall
à Especially at low RPM with high pressure rated compressor (below design RPM / pressure
ratio)
à Engines operated below design speed à tendency to stall in front stages
à Stall margin increases with increasing axial air flow velocity
à Imagine it like the AoA of a propeller blade. High forward speed à low AoA
à Rise in TGT, EGT, increase in vibration level, fluctuating RPM and fuel flow
à Entire compressor stall à air moves back à surge
à Prevent surge during acceleration by controlling the fuel flow. Prevent the pilot from
allowing too much fuel to flow in a too short time
ð Compressor bleed valves (blow off or surge or bypass valves) fitted inter stage between HP and LP
à Bleed air from compressor to atmosphere to relief unwanted pressure rise
à Pneumatically or hydraulically operated
à Are open at low RPM and close as RPM increases
à Decrease airflow across rear stages whilst the across early stages is increased
à Prevent fan stall and LP compressor stall during engine start and low rotor speeds
à Accelerates the airflow in the front stages
ð Advantage of 3 instead 2 spools à fewer VIGV and VSV to prevent stall at lower rotor speed
required
ð Diffuser à At the end of the compressor stage prior to the combustion chamber
à Divergent duct to decrease velocity and increase (static) pressure and temp again
ð Max gas temp in combustion chamber
ð Turbine blades are the temp limiting elements
ð Low cycle fatigue is severe
à High frequency of thrust variations increase the risk
à Derated or reduced take-offs safe engine life
ð Free turbine, constant speed prop
à All values vary with varying power setting (Increase in Power results in an increase of EGT,
EPR, …)
ð EGT and fuel flow increases when bleed air is taken off (BLEED ON)
ð Ignition is used for ground start, take-off, landing, in-flight relights, turbulence and precipitation /
icing
ð Ignititers used during start-up as fuel is sprayed into the combustion chamber
ð Self sustaining speed – turbine will run without any external assistance – not idle speed
ð Centrifugal compressor air enters impeller axially at eye and leaves periphery tangentially
ð Axial compressor more stages than turbine à power output of turbine is higher than power
consumption of compressor
ð Single Spool airflow has greatest velocity on exit of propelling nozzle (convergent duct)
ð Multi Spool advantage is smaller air starter required as only one spool will be started (N2)
ð Free turbine overspeed à risk of free turbine disk bursting
ð Free turbine has no mechanical connection between the compressor and the power output but
there is a connection between turbine and power output
ð Vibration sensors are used to indicate imbalance of one or both of the spools (usually indicating
serious damage)
ð Turbine blades are shrouded which increases the efficiency and prevents airflow to spill around the
blade tips
ð Turbine generates shaft power by converting kinetic energy (velocity of the airstream) into
mechanical work (Turbine drives the shaft/spool/compressor)
ð ACC Active Clearance Control à controlling the diameter of the casing as the blades increases with
increasing temperature (provide clearance between blade tips and casing)
ð Hung start ð Dry start
à Lights up but too low RPM below self à Fuel fails to flow to the engine
sustaining as soon as the starter is disconnected à No light up and no EGT rise
à Low fuel flow and high EGT à Low or stagnating RPM (as only the starter
à N2 below normal RPM turns the shaft)
à Result of compressor stall or surge
à Too low starter pressure or early cut out may
be one reason as well
ð Wet start ð Hot start
à Light up fails à Excess fuel in combustor
à Unburned fuel is sprayed into the chamber à Excessive rise of EGT beyond max value
à Low and stable RPM (as only the starter turns
the shaft)
à No EGT rise
à Some indicated fuel flow
à Dry run required
ð Starting procedure à Starter disconnect at 30% RPM (by centrifugal
à Starter motor turning HP compressor force on N2)
à Shortly after rotation à ignition unit energized à Igniters cancel
à 15% RPM HP shut off valve open à N2 60% and N1 25% sequence is completed
à Igniters activate prior to fuel entering the
combustion chamber but after fuel is delivered to (15%/30%/60% are the main steps)
fuel nozzles (shortly after shut off valve is open)
(à Ignition is activated before fuel is à Problems: No N1 although N2 accelerate
delivered by the HPSOV to the fuel nozzles) normally
à Fuel into combustor
à Lighting occurs now (shortly after shut off
valve is open)
ð Flame connection tube in combustion chamber
à pressure equalization and ignition flash over
ð Swirl vanes in combustor reduce the speed of
the airflow and generate a swirl of incoming air to
enhance mixing of the fuel with air
ð Secondary air in the chamber is used to cool
the inner casing
ð Drain valve to remove unburned fuel
ð Combustion takes place at constant pressure
ð 1 part fuel and 60 parts of air. 45 for cooling
and 15 for combustion.
60:1 overall and 15:1 for combustion (CCM)
ð Direct à 20%
ð Primary zone à 20%
ð Dillution zone à 60%
ð Vibrator or tumbler to provide an AC voltage in
order to facilitate transformation to higher voltage
ð Can-Type combustion chamber
à only 2 igniters fitted (as chambers are
interconnected)
à Better maintenance and more uniform heat
distribution
ð Annular
à Thermal load distribution on the HP turbine is
more favorable
à Reduced thermal stress on turbine

à In combustion chamber and front part of the

HP turbine the temp requirements for the
materials used are most critical
ð Magnetic plug in oil system is used to collect ð Prior to shutdown idle to diminish core
ferrous particles and warn of impending failure temperature and prevent seizure of the rotor
ð Internal leakage of Oil heat exchanger causes blades
oil level to rise if heat exchanger is located ð Propelling nozzle is convergent duct to
downstream of the HP pump (as the fuel accelerate exhaust gasses
pressure will be higher than the oil pressure) à Must be designed to obtain a correct balance
ð High oil temp may be a cause of an heat of pressure and velocity changes
exchanger failure
ð Labyrinth seals (uses high pressure air) à not
completely tight allowing some movement

ð Thrust reverser lever is located on the forward

face of the thrust levers

ð Clamshell doors
à Reversal of hot gasses (mechanically by
pneumatic power)
Clamshell doors in reverse position
ð Reverse Thrust alert
à Reverser doors are unlocked and lever in
stowed position
à Reverser doors remain stowed with lever in
deployed position

Actuator / Bucket doors in reverse position

à Cascade vanes direct the air forwards
à Only the cold stream is reversed

Cold Stream Reverser in reverse position

ð Accessory gearbox drives
à AC generator and CSD
à Oil and hydraulic pumps
 à High pressure (NOT LOW PRESSURE – they are driven electrically) fuel pumps
ð Turbine blade types
Impulse Blade Reaction blades

Stator Rotor Stator Rotor

Velocity Increase Decrease Velocity Increase Increase
Pressure Decrease Constant Pressure Decrease Decrease
Temperature Decrease Constant Temperature Decrease Decrease

ð Impulse / reaction turbine is rotated length-wise so that the gas displays the same effect across the
entire length
ð Turbine blade creep is permanent increase in length due to tensile stress and high temp
ð Turbine inlet temp approx. 1000 °C
ð APU on ground can substitute ground power unit, air starting system and air conditioning
à Supplies three phase 115-200 V, 400 Hz AC
à Generator can be used only if no other power source is feeding the busbar
à Provides electricity, Air for engine starting and air for air conditioning
ð EGT is measured between turbine and free turbine
ð FADEC
à Engine overspeed and/or EGT protection function
à Flow regulation (fuel, acceleration, deceleration)
à Auto start sequence
à Transmission of engine data to instruments
à Thrust monitoring
à Engine limit protection
à Single fault tolerant
à Single data input failure à engine continuous to operate normally
à Has own power sources on the engines
à Uses data from aircraft systems and its own engine sensors
à Consists of electronic engine control unit and its peripherals (fuel metering, actuators,
electrical wiring, sensors, …)
ð Gas turbine engine trending à to enhance maintenance planning and detect anomalies

Propeller
ð Prop blade change mechanism of small props is hydraulically by engine oil
ð Feathered is most high pitch
ð Windmilling is most low pitch
ð If not equipped with auto-feather à blades move in lowest pitch by centrifugal forces
ð Higher TAS / constant speed prop à prop setting constant à prop pitch increases (as RPM will
increase even without changing prop lever)
ð MAP increase / constant speed prop / blade angle increases (to maintain prop RPM)
ð RPM lever “constant speed prop” forward à finer blade angle and vice versa
ð Thrust lever “constant speed prop” forward à coarser blade angle and vice versa
ð Feathered (no rotation) à minimum drag / Windmilling à maximum drag
ð Single acting prop à oil pressure turns the blades towards a smaller angle to ensure the blades will
feather in case of oil failure
ð Double action prop uses oil pressure to move blade angle in both directions
ð Not equipped with feather system à blades move to lowest pitch due to centrifugal forces
ð Turbo Prop Governor ranges:
à Alpha: Power lever controls engine torque, prop lever controls RPM (pitch)
à Beta:
à Beta mode is Ground mode (controlled by Power level then engine RPM).
à Beta produces negative thrust during deceleration on initial landing roll
ð Increase RPM before increasing of MAP (on constant speed prop) and vice versa
à Never “produce” a too high MAP situation!
ð Take-Off and Fixed Pitch Prop for cruise à relative high AoA as cruise setting is a high pitch angle

Oxygen systems
ð 2 independent systems, one for cabin, one for cockpit
ð Max ops pressure (of oxygen bottles in flight deck) exceeded à discharge via safety plug
ð Warning device to alert crew when cabin alt reaches 10.000 ft
ð Masks must be automatically released following depressurization when cabin altitude exceeds
15.000 ft
ð Survival oxygen is the depressurization oxygen as continuous flow system and supplies for at least
15 minutes
à Opening door is pneumatic for gaseous and electrical for chemical
ð Therapeutic oxygen for medical assistance to pax and crew
ð Fixed oxygen for cockpit and pax (depressurization and not indisposition)
ð On-Board use à smoking ban imperative, no trace of grease in system assembly
ð Chemical system advantages are (compared to gaseous)
à Easier maintenance
à Reduced risk of explosion
ð Chemical system disadvantages are (compared to gaseous)
à Less capacity
à Flow can not be modulated
ð Diluter Demand system supplies only on demand (stored in bottles at 1.800 psi)
à NORMAL - oxygen increases with increasing altitude up to FL320 to 100% and flow is
obtained only when breathing in (on demand)
à EMERGENCY – 100% oxygen at slight positive pressure
à TEST slightly higher pressure too

Fire systems
ð Pulling the handle à arming the system and deactivate electrical generators
ð Freon most common fire extinguishant
ð Ion for smoke only
ð Overheat detection in landing gear / wheels wells
ð Gaseous sensors are tested by heating them up
ð Smoke detectors in toilets, and cargo B, C, E
ð Single Loop system without fault protection à fire alarm is triggered (therefore usually 2 loops
installed to crosscheck whether a fire or a fault exists)
ð Bimetallic strips are to delay the alert to prevent false alarms
ð Power plant fire extinguishers are operated by an electrically fired cartridge in the seal of the head
of bottle
ð In the event of engine fire the fuel supply is isolated by pilot action
ð Firewire
à During test the wiring and the warning are tested
à Positive coefficient of capacitance in capacitance system as capacitance increases with
increasing temperature
à Negative coefficient of resistance in resistance system as resistance decreases with
increasing temperature