TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
vii
Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………………………………. viii

MODULE 1 Understanding Philosophy and its Branches………………………………………………… 1

Unit 1 The Essence of Philosophy…………………………………………………………………… 3

Unit 2 Understanding Some Philosophies……………………………………………………………11

MODULE 2 Explaining the Nature of Logic………………………………………………………………. 24

Unit 1 The Essence of Logic………………………………………………………………………… 26

MODULE 3 Differentiating Idea and Term…………………………………………………………………34

Unit 1 Forming and Idea……………………………………………………………………………….36

Unit 2 Classifying Terms……………………………………………………………………………….44

Unit 3 Understanding Definition and Its Features………………………………………………….. 52

MODULE 4 Making Proposition and Judgment ……………………………………………………………62

Unit 1 Understanding Judgment and Proposition …………………………………………………..64

Unit 2 Opposing Logical Proposition …………………………………………………………………68

Unit3 Applying Logical Equivalence …………………………………………………………………78

MODULE 5 Reasoning ……………………………………………………………………………………..88

Unit 1 Validating the Truth …………………………………………………………………………90

Unit 2 Forming a Categorical Syllogism ……………………………………………………………94

Unit 3 Understanding Figures of Categorical Syllogism ……………………………………….100

Unit 4 Distinguishing Hypothetical Syllogism ………………………………………………………102

MODULE 6 Avoiding Fallacy………………………………………………………………………………..112

Unit 1 Understanding Verbal Fallacy …………………………………………………………..114

Unit 2 Understanding Non-verbal or Material Fallacy …………………………………………119

 PREFACE
Introduction to Logic is a learning module designed for college students. It
employs the modular approach to the teaching-learning process, a method found
effective for engineering, education, and nursing students.
There are exercises provided every after each lesson. Teachers are encouraged
to use these exercises. However, they can also use tests, quizzes, and exercises of
their own device. After all, everything that transpires in the classroom always depends
on the teachers. They are the masters of their craft. As such, they serve as facilitators
as students learn about the complexities of logic.
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the philosophy professors
who were consulted on and contributed to the making of this module. Some of them
have authored philosophy books whose formats and contents were adopted and
excerpted respectively for this volume.

ACKNOWLEDMENTS
The Learning Module in Philosophy with Logic by Belsica and Molano was the
main reference material when this book was still in its blueprint stage. Thus, the
greatest portion of this acknowledgment goes to them.
Other authors whose ideas were also borrowed for this book are already cited in
the reference page; nonetheless, it is proper to mention their names here:
R. B. Agapay
C. N. Bittle
M. Pinon, OP
F. T. Timbreza
Finally, all glory to Him, the source of wisdom.

MODULE 1
Understanding Philosophy and its Branches
Basic to philosophy is the principle that everything in the world has a cause.
Nothing comes into the world without a cause. There is a cause why you are in the
classroom listening to a lecture, why you feel hungry, why people die, and even why a
leaf falls from the branch of a tree. Christian philosophy adheres to the basic tenet that if
a chain of causes is followed, one will ultimately reach the so-called Prime Mover known
to believers as God and to the atheists as the Super Natural Being.
Generally, philosophy asks questions about the universe and man’s place in it.
What generally comprises the world? Is it entirely physical in its composition and
process? Is there any purpose to it? Can we know anything for sure? Are we free?
What makes philosophy different from other disciplines is the fact that if other branches
of knowledge have no answer to the abovementioned questions, philosophy has.
PRETEST QUESTIONS (OPTIONAL)
Direction: indicate whether the statement is True or False.
____________ 1. All philosophical questions are answered by natural or human reason.
____________ 2. Logic is a branch of philosophy.
____________ 3. Socrates authored the The Republic.
____________ 4. Plato is a student of Socrates.
____________ 5. Aristotle is the adviser of Alexander the Great.
____________ 6. Confucius is a Greek philosopher.
____________ 7. Confucius was expelled from Lu.
____________ 8. Aristotle teaches in the garden.
____________ 9. Socrates was charged with corrupting the youth of Athens.
____________10. St. Thomas Aquinas said that complete happiness is not in this
world, but only in union with God.

Check your answer using the pretest feedback. Then, identify where you belong in the
categories below.
Scores Interpretation Decision
10 Excellent Exempt
7-9 Very Good
5-7 Good
5 Passing
5-Below Needs Improvement Study this module.

Unit 1 THE ESSENCE OF PHILOSOPHY

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:
1. Know the specific and literal definitions of philosophy
2. Understand the meaning and significance of philosophy in human life
3. Discuss the different branches of philosophy
Philosophy defined
The term “philosophy” is derived from two Greek words, philos and sophia which
literally means “love of wisdom.” it was bruited about that a certain Greek philosopher in
rags was traveling around the country when he chanced upon a king. The king asked
the philosopher many personal questions. Finally, on the question concerning his
occupation, the latter said, “I am a lover of wisdom, a philosopher.”
Bittle (1941) defined philosophy as “science of beings in their ultimate reasons,
causes and principles acquired by human reason.”
Meanwhile, Pinon (1973) defines philosophy as the “science of things by their
ultimate principles and causes as known by natural reason alone.”
Whatever its definitions are, philosophy emphasize four main points:
1. Philosophy is a science.

Science is a systematized body of knowledge based on evidence.

Philosophy is a science and like all other branches of science, it is also based
on evidence. This means that philosophy is not based on speculations, opinions
or mere conjecture.

2. Science of things

Philosophy is concerned with everything in the world as far as the

human mind can reach, from the microscopic particles to the giant mountains.
Nothing is exempted, and all things are the concern of philosophy.

3. Ultimate principles and causes

All branches of science have their own special focus. Zoology, for
instance, is concerned with animals; botany deals with plants; sociology
studies people or society and its functions, etc. Now what does philosophy
explore? Philosophy explores the ultimate or final cause of a thing.
 4. Known only by natural reason

A dissecting instrument is used in studying the internal organs of a frog.

Philosophy does not use a piece of equipment, a laboratory device, etc. The
philosopher uses his natural reason, particularly, human reasoning.

Philosophy and Theology

Man, as a rational being, makes decisions or draws conclusions according to
his reasons. He uses his intelligence in organizing systematically and scientifically
facts or data in his search of knowledge. He uses knowledge, and looks for objective
evidence in his dealing with reality.
However, along with man’s rationality are his limitations to comprehend the
meaning of the vast totality of the universe. There are points in the world that man’s
rationality cannot fathom. Christianity recognizes miracles – occurrences that science
cannot explain. A pious person died and after several years his body was unearthed
and found still fresh. There were no traces of decomposition. Before the church
intervened, scientists came to investigate. After tedious years of study, the scientists
gave up. They found no cause why the body remained uncorrupted after many years.
Human rationality cannot explain the occurrence; science cannot explain the cause.
Theology comes in eventually. Man has no choice but to acknowledge the
existence of God. Man asserts and strengthens his faith in his ascent to find the truth,
a truth which rationality cannot explain. This is the point where rationality or
philosophy and faith or theology complement each other. Man uses philosophy for
rational explanation and uses theology for moral surety.

Essence of Philosophy
It is said that philosophy does not take anyone to the end of the rainbow
where one can find a pot of gold. Philosophy does not teach anyone how to become
rich, how to reach the moon, or how to become a celebrity. Philosophy, like art, is not
concerned with the practicalities of human life. It is not interested whether man has
nice clothes, delicious food, a lucrative occupation and many others. Philosophy
looks at the side of man where all of the above-mentioned practicalities of life are not
necessary. Philosophy aims to reach man how to have a happy life. This is the
essence of philosophy.
Unfortunately, philosophy today is no longer given serious attention. This sad
reality exists because of the wonders brought about by scientific or technological
inventions. Scientists, and even ordinary men, turn to the natural sciences as the
only source of knowledge and happiness. Man has forgotten the promise of
happiness beyond material things. This is an attitude perpetuated by ignorance of the
nature and essence of philosophy.

Branches of Philosophy

Logic – The formal and systematic study of the principles of valid inference and
correct reasoning.
Ethics – The branch of philosophy dealing with the concepts and principles of
morality, including such theoretical questions as the source and foundation of
morality, the status and justification of moral rules, the relationship between moral
and other human objectives, and the nature of responsibility. Ethics has various sub-
fields of application, such as medical ethics and business ethics, and its meaning
shades into the more every day, descriptive sense of ‘a set of standards.’
Epistemology – The branch of philosophy dealing with the theory of knowledge- its
sources, limits, kinds, and reliability. These central issues divide major philosophical
schools and label their proponents as either empiricists, rationalists, or sceptics.
Cosmology- The scientific study of the universe on the largest scales of space and
time, particularly the propounding of theories concerning its origin, nature, structure
and evolution.
Metaphysics- A traditional branch of philosophy dealing at the most general level
with the nature of existence- what it is, what sorts of things exist, of what categories,
and in what structure? The term is popularly used to refer to the supersensible,
beyond the realm of experience. The term originated from Aristotle’s ‘first
philosophy,’ the most fundamental and abstract of his writings- “ta meta ta physika”
which means ‘after the physics.’
Aesthetics/Esthetics – The philosophical investigation of arts, including all the
visual arts, music, literature, drama, and dance. The term originally denoted the study
of sense-experience, and began to emerge as a sub-field of philosophy concerned
with beauty close up and artistic value with the work of Baumgarten and Kant in the
19th century. Aesthetics now deals with such issues as what it is for an object or a
performance to be a work of art; whether there are objective standards for judging it;
and what meaning and function can be ascribed to art and the concepts used within
it.
Theodicy – The defense and vindication of God, defined as both omnipotent and
good in the light of evil in the world. The term was first used by Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz ( also spelled Leibnitz) in 1710
Name: ___________________Course/Year______________Score________
Activity 1 – In this activity, you are required to EXPLAIN IN YOUR OWN
WORDS based on the provided reading material.
Answer briefly:

1. Define philosophy.
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Activity 2
Discuss fully:
1. Discuss the importance of philosophy in your life.
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