IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

956
18.13. Reservoir Sedimentation
Every river carries certain amount of sediment load. The sediment particles try to
settle down to the river bottom due to the gravitational force, but may be kept in
__ suspension due to the upward currents in the turbulent flow which may overcome
the
gravity force. Due to these reasons, the river carries fine sediment in suspension
as
suspended load, and larger solids along the river bed as bed load. When the silt
laiden
water reaches a reservoir in the vicinity of a dam, the velocity and the turbulence
are
considerably reduced. The bigger suspended particles and most of the bed load,
therefore, gets deposited in the head reaches of the reservoir. Fine particles may
travel some
more distance and may finally deposit farther down in the reservoir, as shown in
Fig.
18.24. Some very fine particles may remain in suspension for much longer period,
and
may finally escape from the dam along with the water discharged through the
sluiceways, turbines, spillway, etc.
Turbid inflow
Water
surface
Lake
Fine
sediments
Sluiceways
fig. 18.24. Sediment.accumulationinatypical-reservoir.-
··-·····--·
· The deposition of sediment in the reservoir is known as 'Reservoir Silting' or
'Reservoir Sedimentation'.
The deposition of the sediment will automatically reduce the water storing capacity
of the reservoir, and if this process of deposition continues longer, a stage is
likely to
reach when the whole reservoir may get silted up and become useless .
.·
Moreover, with the passage of time, the reservoir capacity will go on reducing.
Thus, if
today at the time of construction, a reservoir can store 10,000 cubic metres of
water, tQmorrow
say after five years, it may be able to store only say 8,000 cubic metres of water.
Therefore,
in order to see that the capacity does not fall short of requirement ever during
the design period,
we must take this silting into account. The total volume of silt likely to be
deposited during
the designed life period of the dam is, therefore, estimated ; and approximately
that much of
1
volume is left unused to allow for silting, and is known as dead storage. The
remainder is
known as the effective storage or the live storage. The dead storage generally
vaje~ -~t\y~n____ .
--I-5Lo-·25o/o-oftlre-mta:l-capaciry:Fot-examp1e ilil3liilia dam~-tlie gross
capaCiiy of the dam is
· 9,344 million cubic metres and the dead storage provided is 2,054 million cubic
metres. All
1
the outlets fetching water from the reservoir are provided above the dead storage
level.
The importance of this silting can be understood by considering the following
example :
/
·
Let the total capacity of a reservoir be 30 million cubic metres and the provision
of
dead storage be 6 million cubic metres. Let the average volume of sediment
deposition
be 0.15 million cubic metres per year. Then it is evident, that the dead storage
will be
1·
1
1
filled up in
o.~5 =40 years, and the total storage in about 0~~5 = 200 years.
957
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
Hence, the usefulness of this reservoir would start reducing after 40 years, and
after
200 years it would be nothing but a collection of sand and sediment with no water
in it,
provided the siltation rate remains constant at 0.15 M.m 3/yr.
18.13.1. Density Currents. In a reservoir, the coarser sediment settles down along
the
bottom of the reservoir, as the muddy flow approaches the reservoir; while the
finer sediment
usually remains in suspension, and moves in a separate layer than the clear
reservoir water, as
shown in Fig. 18.24. This layer of water, containing the fine sediment, mo~ es
below the upper
clearer reservoir °"'(lter, as a density current, since its density is slightly
more than the density
of the main body of the resei-Voir water. Because of their density difference, the
water of the
density current does not mix easily with the reservoir water, and maintains its
identity for a
considerable time. The density current can thus be removed through the dam
sluiceways, if
they are located properly and at the levels of the density current. A lot of
sediment load can,
thus, be passed out of the reservoir, if it is possible to locate the dam outlets
and sluice ways in
such a fashion, as to vent out the density currents. Trap efficiency ofreservoirs
may thus be
decreased by about 2 to 10%, if it is possible to vent such density currents
through the outlets
and sluice ways of the dams.

,18.13.2. Trap Efficiency. Now, we introduce another very important term called
Trap efficiency. Trap efficiency is defined as the percentage of the sediment
deposited
in the reservoir even inspite of taking precautions and measures to control its
deposition.
Therefore, Trap Efficiency (11)
_ Total sediment deposited in the reservoir
Total sediment flowing in the river
... (18.13)
Most of the reservoirs trap 95 to 100% of the sediment load flowing into them. Even
if various feasible silt control measures are adopted, it has not been possible to
reduce
. this trap efficiency below 90%-or so; · - -- - -
18.13.3. Capacity Inflow Ratio. The ratio of the reservoir capacity to the total
inflow
of water in it, is known as the capacity-inflow ratio. It is a very important
factor, because the
trap efficiency (11) has been found to be a function of capacity-inflow ratio i.e.

1(
~ = ~~:~tyI .

·
. .(18.14)
~aph obtained for ~e existing reservoirs between trap efficiency and log of
( ~:'fl~~y) has been found to be of the type shown in Fig. 18.25.
The
~!!100 ............. .

~~
80
z
~~
60
U::L
Es t.o
LU Vl
CAPACITY INFLOW RATIO (log) -
Fig. 18.25.

I
I
I
958
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
It is evident from the above curve, that if capacity reduces (with constant
inflow),
trap efficiency reduces, and hence, lesser sediment is trapped. Therefore, the
silting rate
in the reservoir shall be more in the beginning, and as its capacity reduces due to
silting,
the silting rate will reduce. Hence, the complete reservoir-silting may take longer
period.
It can also be concluded that for small reservoirs (having small capacity) on large
rivers (having large inflow rates), the trap efficiency is extremely low, because
the
capacity inflow ratio is very small. Such reservoirs silt very little and most of
their
sediment is passed downstream. On the other hand, large reservoirs on smaller
rivers
shall silt tremendously and almost complete deposition of sediment may take place:
18.13.4. Silting of Power Reservoirs. In case of reservoirs constructed solely for
the purpose of power generation, the silting iS comparatively less important. This
is
because of the fact, that for the proper and efficient functioning of a power
reservoir,
only a certain minimum head is necessary. This head remains available even after
some
silt gets deposited. So, only if sufficient water required for power generation
remains
available, the reservoir's efficiency remains unaffected by-silting. But due to
silted
water, the abrasion of the blades of the turbines may occur very soon, and power
production may be stopped over a considerable length of time.
18.13.5. Silting Control in Reservoirs. In order to increase the life of a
reservoir,
it is necessary to control the deposition of sediment. Various measures are
undertaken
in order to achieve this aim. The various methods which are adopted can be divided
into
two parts :
(1) Pre-constructing measures ; and (2) Post-constructing measures.
These measures are discussed below :
(1) Pre-constructing measure. They are those measures which are adopted before
and during the execution of the project. They are innumerated below :
(a) Selection of Dam Site. The silting depends upon the amount of erosion from the
catchment. If the catchment is less erodible, the silting will be less. Hence, the
silting
can be reduced by choosing the reservofr site fo such a waf as to exClude tne "fun
off"-~-_-·
from the easily erodible catchment.
(b) Construction of the Dam in Stages. The design capacity plays an important role
in the silting of a reservoir. When the storage capacity is much less than the
average
annual runoff entering the reservoir, a large amount of water will get out of the
reservoir,
thereby, reducing the silting rate compared to what it would have been if the
entire water
would have been stored. Therefore, the life of a reservoir can be prolonged by
constructing the dam in stages. In other words, first of all, the dam should be
built lower, and
raised subsequently when some of its capacity gets silted up.
(c) Construction of Check Dams. The sediment inflow can be controlled by building
check dams across the river streams contributing major sediment load. These are
smaller
i
1
dams and trap large amounts of coarser sediments. They are quite expensive.
1
(d) Vegetation Screens. This is based on the principle that vegetations trap large
_._.__amountLof_s_edim_e_nt._The_~eg_et_atfon_growth is, therefore, pr:omoted
at_the entrance_o_f_ _ _
the reservoir as well as in the catchment. These vegetative covers, through which
flood
waters have to pass before entering the reservoirs, are known as vegetat_ion
screens, and
provide a cheap and a good method of silt control.
(e) Construction of Under-sluices in the Dam. The dam is provided with openings
,
in its base, so as to remove the more silted water on the downstream side.
The sediment concentration will be more at some levels than at others. Therefore,
sluices are located at the levels of higher sediment concentration. The method in
itself,
is not sufficient because the water digs out a channel behind the sluice for
movement
and leaves most of the sediment undisturbed. Therefore, this is simultaneously
supplemented with mechanical loosening and scouring of the neighbouring sediment in
order
1
/
1
1
_
959
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
to ii:icrease its effectiveness. But to provide iarge sluices near the bottom of
the dam, is
again a structural problem. The use of this method is, therefore, limited.
(2) Post-constructing Measures. These measures are undertaken during the operation
of the project. They are given below:
(1) Removal of Post Flood Water. The sediment content increases just after the
floods ; therefore, attempts are generally made not to collect this water. Hence,
the
efforts should be made to remove the water entering the reservoir at this time.
(2) Mechanical Stirring of the Sediment. The deposited sediment is scoured and
disturbed by mechanical means, so as to keep it in a moving state, and thus, help
in
pushing it towards the sluices.
(3) Erosion Control and Soil Conservation. This includes all those general methods
which
are adopted to reduce erosion of soil and to make it more and more stable. This
method is the
most effective method for controlling siltation, because when the soil erosion is
reduced, the
sedimentation problem is reduced automatically. But the methods of treating the
catclunent in
order to minimise erosion are very costly. It has been estimated that the
investment required
for treating 16% of the Indian catclunent area is Rs. 1,000 crores. In India, only
1.5% of the
catclunent area has been treated to minimise silting.
Example 18.16. The following information is available regarding the relationship
between trap efficiency and capacity inflow ratio.
Capacity inflow ratio
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Trap efficiency percent
87
93
95
95.5
96
96.5
97 ~
97
97
97.5
Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of 30
millton
cubic metres, if the average annual flood inflow is 60 million cubic metres and the
average annual sediment inflow is 2,00,000 tonnes. Assume a specific weight of the
sediment equal to 1.2 gm per c.c. The usual life of the reservoir will terminate
when
80% of its initial capacity is filled with sediment.
Solution.
·
Average annual sediment inflow = 2,00;000 tonnes
= 2 x 105 tonnes= 2 x 10 11 gm
Volume of average annual sediment inflow
11
11
2 x 10
- 2 x 10
3
=
1.2 c.c. - 1.2 x 106 m
=
~:~ x 106 cubic metres =~million cubic metre = ~ M.m3
Initial Reservoir Capacity
=30 M.m3
Annual flood inflow
= 60 M.m3
Let us assume that 20% of the capacity, i.e. 6 M.m 3 is filled up in the first
interval.
Capacity inflow ratio at the start of the interval
= ~~ =0.5
Trap efffcienCy B.f die·-itai-IOf-the -iiitei·Va1·:-0~90-.- ---··-- ---·---- --
------ - -------- -- Capacity inflow ratio at the end of the
inte~val = ~~ =0.4
Trap efficiency at the end of interval = 0.955
. .
d urmg
. the mterva
.
1 = 0.96 + 0.955 = 0.9575 .
A verage trap e ffic1ency
2
Volume of sediment deposited annually till the 20% capacity is filled
1
3
= '6 x 0.9575 M.m
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
960
:. No. of years during which 20% of the capacity, i.e. 6 M.m 3 shall be filled up
6
36
years= .
= 37.6years
1
0 .9575
x 0.9575
·
6
Similarly, in the 2nd interval
. m
. fl ow rat10
. at the start= 24 = 04
Capacity
.
60
18
. Capacity inflow ratio at the end =
=0.3
60
Trap efficiency at the start
=0.955
Trap efficiency at the end
=0.95
Average trap efficiency
. = 0.95.25.
:. No. of years during which the next 20% of capacity shall be filled up
=
1
6
6
36
=
= 37 .8 years.
9525
0
x 0.9525
.

Similarly, in the 3rd interval

. Capacity inflow ratio at start
18
= 60 =0.3
Capacity inflow ratio at the end =
!~ = 0.2
Trap efficiency at the start
= 0.95
Trap efficiency at the end
= 0.93
Average trap efficiency during the interval = 0.94
-------- ------
·-
----·------· ·-----·-- ·---
,,
No. of years during which the next 20% of the capacitjshaU be filled up
______
··----
6
36
= x 0.94 = 0.94 = 38.3years.

*
Similarly, in the 4th interval
Capacity inflow ratio at the start= 12/60 = 0.2
Capacity inflow ratio at the end = 6160=0;1
Trap efficiency at the start
= 0.93
Trap efficiency at the end
= 0.87
Average trap efficiency during the interval = 0.90
-'---'--No;-of-years-during·which-the-next W%of-the-capacity shaH be filled ):Ip ··
--· · - - ------· ·! -
I
6 • 3'6
= x 0. 9 = 0. 9 = 40 years.

*
Total probable life till 80% capacity gets filled up
= 37.6+ 37.8 + 38.3+40.0=153.7years.
I
Ans.

The above calculations of dividing the entire capacity into intervals (20% each in
the above case) can also be carried out in a tabular form, as shown below in Table
18.28.
961
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
Table 18.28
Sediment trapped Years reqd. to fill up
per year; Col. (5) x · 20% capacity (6
Mcum.)
Av. annual sediment
-6 inflow = Col. 5 x
Col. (6)
M.cum.
in years
(6)
(7)
Cavacitv
Capacity
Vol.inM.
cum.

%
Capacity/ inflow
Col. (2)
=
60Mcum
11
Av. Trap
ejf. Tlav
during the
interval
(5)
Trap
efflciency
(2)
30
(3)
(4)
100
0.5
0.96
80
24
0.4
0.955
60
18
0.3
0.95
40
12
0.2
0.93
0.1
0.8
(1)
i
0.1596 -- -
36.6
0.9525
0.1588
37.8
0.94
0.1566
38.3
0.90
0.15
40.0
0.9575
20
-
:E = 153.7 vrs
Example 18.17. A proposed reservoir has a capacity of 500 ha-m. The catchment
area is 125 km 2 , and the annual streamflow averages 12 cm of runoff. If the
annual
sediment production is 0.03 ha.mlkm2, what is the probable life of the reservoir
before
its capacity is reduced by 10% of its initial capacity by sedimentation? The
relationship
between trap efficiency T) (%) and capacity inflow ratio Cl!. is as under :
Cl!

0.01
43
0.02
60
0.04
74
0.06
80
0.08
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
84
87
93
95
96
0.7
97
(U.P.S.C., Civil Services, 1987)
Solution. Av. annual sfreamflow = 12 cmofrunoff
--Area:·orcafcfiiiieiit 'C- :cc::::
- -'c;; ·n5'krii2 ~'f25x ro 6'm.2·
:. Annual flood inflow
= (125 x 106)
·
_g_
m3
100
= 15 x 106 m3 =15 M.m3 (Mcum).
Annual sediment inflow = 0.03 ha-mlkm2 of the catchment
= 0.03 x 125 ha-m = 0.03 x 125 x 104 m3 = 3.75 x 104 m3
= 3.75
x IO6 m-' = 0.0375 M-m3 (Mcum).
100
It means that 0.0375 Mcum of sediment flows every year into the dam/reservoir
site, but the quantum of this, which is trapped in the reservoir, depends upon the
average
trap efficiency (T\) during that year, and this trap efficiency, in turn, depends
upon the
capaci~y/inflow ~atio.
_ ____ _ _ ~--_ __ __ _
In the question, the total capacity to be filled up by sediment is 10% of the
initial
reservoir capacity,
10% x 5 Mcum = 0.5 Mcum.
Now, we have to calculate the time during which this 0.5 Mcum of sediment will
get deposited in the reservoir, as follows :
Capacity of the reservoir at the start = 5 Mcum
Capacity of the reservoir at the end
(i.e .. when 0.5 Mcum of sediment is filled up)= 4.5 Mcum
i.e.
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
962
:. Capacity/inflow at the start=
11 at start= 95%.

5
~:u:
15
-
0.333
Capacity/inflow at the end =
~·; = 0.30
11 at the end of the interval = 95%.
Average 11 = 95%
:. Sediment load trapped/yr.
0.0375 x 95% 0.035625
:. No. of years during which 0.5 Mcum of sediment will get trapped
=
-
=
=
0.0~;625 years = 14.04 years ; say 14 years.

Hence, after 14 years, 10% reservoir capacity will get filled up. Ans.
18.14. Estimating Sediment Load likely to Enter a Proposed Reservoir
The quantum of sediment flowing into a dam reservoir along with river runoff
primarily depends upon the erosion characteristics of its catchment and the
characteristics of the rainfalls that produce the run off entering the reservoir.
The sediment is basically produced by rains by the process of sheet erosion. The
flowing water is the most active agent for erosion of soil from the land. Other
agents
like wind, gravity, ice and human activities do help in the erosion process. The
rain
drops in itself, loosen the soil perticles and break the soil lumps. The action of
flowing
sheet of water on the land surface helps in eroding the top soil from the ground
surface
and transport it down to the channels. The erosion caused by rainfall and runoff,
thus,
constitutes of the following two parts :
(1) Sheet erosion. It includes the detachment of geological material from the land
surface by the impact of raindrops, and its subsequent removal by overland flow;
and
(2) Channel erosion. It includes river bank erosion and transportation of the
materials by concentrated flow.
Human activities, like overgrazing of grass land, cutting of forests, forest fires,
.Ploughing, of land, and various mining & other excavationsetc. have-
magnified-,the------·
problem of water erosion in river channels.
18.14.1. Factors Affecting the Erodibility of a Soil. The factors which effect
the erodibility of a soil are given below :
(i) Particle size of soil. Larger the size of soil particles, the lesser would be
its
chances for erosion.
t ·. · .
(iz} Land slope. The greater is the land. slope, the greater is the action of
erosive
agents, the optimum being at 40° slope.
(iiz) Vegetation. The-thicker is the vegetation cover over a soil, the lesser will
be
the scope of erosion of the soil from the area.
(iv) Presence of Salt·and Colloidal Matter in the Soil. The binding materials
like kaolinite, montmorillonite, biotite, etc., do help in increasing the force
of.cohesion between the soil particles, ther.eby reducing the erodibility of the
-"---s-011-.---------------------------··-··--·.-·.-- -· -'··---·-----
--------------··---·------
(v) Moisture Content of Soil. The greater is the·moisture content of the soil, the
lesser is the scope of its erosion.
(vi) Soil compaction. The higher is the compaction of soil, the lesser is the
chance
of its erosion.
(viz) Soil Properties. The characteristics of the soil, such as soil texture,
structure,
stratification, permeability, composition etc. d_o affect the soil binding, which
in turn
will neutralise the force of weathering agents.
(viii) Human Activities. Human activities on the land like mining, agricultural
operations,
construction of projects, land use, etc. do increase the erosion from the given
land.

_ _ __
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
963
(ix) Rainfall characteristics. The intensity, duration, quantity and distribution
of rainfall
over space and time are some of the important factors that affect sediment yield.
18.14.2. Estimation of Sheet Erosion. The sediment yield of a reservoir
basically depends on sheet erosion which can be estimated by the following
empirical equations :
(1) Musgrave Equation. Musgrave (1947) suggested the following equation to
compute the annual gross sheet erosion from a catchment, on the basis of 19 widely
scattered research stations in USA :
E =CR · ( S0/10 )1. 35 ( L/72 )o.3 5 ( P 3ofl.25 )1. 75
... (18.15)
where E = Erosion of soil lost from the catchment in
inches/year
C = the soil erosion rate, which varies from
0.43 to 0.53 inch/year depending on the soil
type (which depends on texture and permeability of soil)
R = the cover factor, which varies from 0.95 for
poorly covered land to 0.10 for row crops
S0 = Land slope in percentage, the default
being 10%
L = Length of the land slope in feet
P30 = The max. rainfall in inches having' 30 '
min. duration and of 2 year frequency.
It was also stipulated that the erosion value of E computed above, in inch/year,
can
be multiplied by 150 to obtain the erosion value in ton/year/acre.
(2) Universal Equation. Agriculture Research Service ofU. S. Deptt. of Agriculture
_____ developed_a universal.equation (1961) to predict erosion from small
catchments. This
universal equation is given as :
Ea= Rf' K -(LS) Cm· P
... (18.16)
where Ea= Average soil loss in ton/acre/year.

(i) Rf is Rainfall-run off factor. Its value takes into account the effect of rain
drop impact as well as the resulting amount and rate of run off. It should also
include the cumulative effects of many moderate sized storms as well as the
effects of occasional severe storms.

The value of Rf is generally taken as equal to EI (rainfall erosion index), which

is
computed as :
E · l=EX/30
... (18.17)
where E = storm energy in 100 ft-ton/acre/inch
- .
ho= Max. 30-minute intensity in inch/hr.
-
The value of E is further computed as :
E=
1 ~0 [ 916+331 log/J
... (18.18)
where E = Storm energy in 100 ft-ton per acre per inch.
I= Storm intensity of the given storm with a
limit of 3 inch/hr, since median drop size
does not continue to grow beyond this limit.

I
I
I
964
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
The EI value can, thus, be computed by eqn (18.17) for a given storm. For a
specified period, the individual storm EI values can be summed up, which provide
a numerical measure of the erosive potential of the rainfall within that period
(one
year). In this manner, the average annual total of the storm EI values in a
particular
area is obtained, which is called the rainfall-erosion index for that area, which
equals Rf"
(ii) K is Soil erodibility factor. Its value is determined experimentally for the
given soil type. Representative values for different types of soils have been
worked out and listed for different regions of USA by Soil Conservation
Service of USA, as shown in Table 18.29.
Table 18.29. Computed K Values for Soils on Erosion Research Stations
(After Wischmeier and Smith, 1978).
Soil
Source of Data
Dunkirm silt loam
Keene silt loam
Shelby loam
Lodi loam
Fayette silt loam
Cecil sandy clay loam
Marshall silt loam
Ida silt loam
Mansic clay loam
LaCrosse, WI
Watkinsville, GA
Clarinda, IA
Castana, IA
Hays, KS
Hagerstown silty clay loam
Austin clay
Mexico silt loam
State College, PA
Temple, TX
McCredie, MO
ComputedK
0.69a
Geneva,N.Y
Zanesville, OH
Bethany, MO
Blacksburg, VA
Honeoye silt loam
Marcellus, NY
Cecil sandy loam
Clemson, SC
Ontario loam
Cecil clay loam
Boswell fine sandy loam
Cecil sandy loam
Zaneis fine sandy loam
Tifton loamy sand
Freehold loamy sand
Geneva, NY ·-·
Watkinsville, GA
Tyler, TX
Watkinsville, GA
Guthrie, OK
Tifton, GA
Marlboro, NJ
0.48
0.41
0.39
0.38a
0.36
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.31a
0.29
0.28
0.28a
0.28a
------- 0.27". ...
0.26
0.25
0.23
0.22
0.10
0.08
Blath flaggy silt loam with surface stones> 2 inches removed
Arnot, NY
Albia gravelly loam
Beemerville, NJ
a Evaluated from continuous fallow. All others were computed from rowcrop data.

0.05a
0.03
For soils containing less than 70% of silt and very fine sand, K can be computed as
:
K=
-
1 ~0 [ 2.1 Ml.1
4
(10- 4) (12-a) + 3.25 (b-2) + 2.5 (c - 3)
J ...(18.19)
where M = particle size parameter, defined as percent
- sl.ti & very find sand- (size 6.1 rru:Il-6:C)()2- --·---
- - -- - -- -------- - - --- - -
mm) times the quantity (100-percent clay)
a = percent organic matter
b = soil texture code used in USDA soil classification
c = profile permeability class
[Note : When the silt fraction does not exceed 70%, erodibility varies
approximately as the
1.14 power of M, but addition of organic matter content, soil structure, and
profilepermeability class as done in Eqn. (18.19) improves the prediction
accuracy.]
965
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
(iii) (LS) =Topographic Factor. It is the ratio of soil loss per unit area from a
field slope
to that from a 72.6 ft length of uniform 9% slope under otherwise identical
conditions. For a specified slope and its length, LS can be computed as :
(LS)= (
7~ 6
J
(65.41 sin2 e + 456 sine+ 0.065)
... (18.20)
where 'A = slope length in ft
e = angle of slope
. M = 0.5 if the per cent slope is 5 or more
m = 0.4 on slopes of 3.5 to 4.5%
m = 0.3 for slopes of 1 to 3%
m = 0.2 for uniform slopes of less than 1%.

(iv) Cm= Soil Cover and Management Factor. It measures the combined effect of all
inter-related cover and management variables, including the type of vegetation,
plant
spacing, the stand, the quality of growth, crop sequence, tillage practices, crop
residues, incorporated residues, land use residues, fertility treatment, etc.
Values of Cm for pasture, range, idle land, and woodland for a combination of cover
conditions are given in Table 18.30.
Table 18.30. Factor Cm for permanent Pasture, Range, and Idle Land
(After Wischmeier and Smith 1978).
Vegetative canopy
Type and heigh/'
Cover that contracts the soil suiface
Percent 1-----+---~---~P_e_rc_e_nt_,g,_ro~u_n_d_c_ov_e_r_ _ _~--coverc
0
20
40
50
80
95+
No appreciable
canopy
G
w
Tall weeds or
25
with the average
drop fall
height of 20 in.

50
short.brush
G
w
G
w
75
G
w
Appreciable brush
or bushes, with the
average drop
fall height of 6 Y2 ft
25
50
G
w
G
w
75
G
w
Trees, but no
appreciable
low brush
Average drop
· fiil11ieight ·
of 13 ft
25
G
w
50
G
w
75
---G
w
0.45
0.45
0.36
0.36
0.26
0.26
0.17
0.17
0.40
0.40
0.34
0.34
0.28
0.28
0.42
0.42
0.39
0.39
--- ·-o.3-6 0.36
0.20
0.24
0.17
0.1.0
0.13
0.16
0.10
0.12
0.18
0.22
0.16
0.19
0.14
0.17
0.19
0.23
0.18
0.21
0.17
0.20
0.10
0.15
. 0.09
0.13
0.07
0.11
0.06
0.09
0.09
0.14
0.08
0.13
0.08
0.12
0.10
0.14
0.09
0.14
0.09
0.13
0.042
0.091
Q.038
0.083
0.035
0.076
0.032
0.068
0.040
0.087
0.038
0.082
0.036
0.078
0.041
0.089
0.040
0.087
··0.039 ··
0.084
0.013
0.043
0.013
0.041
0.120
0.039
0.011
0.038
0.013
0.042
0.012
0.042
0.012
0.040
0.013
0.042
0.013
0.042
0:012
o.041
0.003
0.011
0.003
0.011
0.003
0.001
0.003
0.011
0.003
0.01 I
0.003
0.011
0.003
0.011
0.003
0.011
0.003
- •Q.011
0.003
o.oi 1
a The listed C values assume that the vegetation and mulch are randomly distributed
over the entire area.

Canopy height is measured as the average fall height of water drops falling from
the canopy to the ground.
Canopy effect is inversely proportional to the drop fall height and is negligible
if fall height exceeds 33 ft.
c Portion of total area surface that would be hidden from view by canopy in a
vertical projection (a bird's-eye view).
d G: cover at the surface is grass, grasslike plants, decaying compacted duff, or
litter at least 2 in. deep.
W: cover at the surface is mostly b~oadleafherbaceous plants (as weeds with little
lateral-root network near
the surface) or undecayed residues or both.
b
966
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
(v)
P= Support Practice Factor. Its value depends upon crop land practice such as
contour tillage, strip cropping on the contour, and terrace systems. Values of P
have
been given for each of these practices by Wischmeier and Smith (19 7 8). In
general,
tillage and planting on the contours reduce erosion. Table 118.31 gives P values
for
contouring.
Table 18.31. P values (Eq. 18.16) and Slope-Length Limits for contouring
(Wischmeier & Smith)
Land Slope%
P Value
Maximum Length* (feet)
1-2
0.60
400
3-5
0.50
300
6-8
0.50
200
9-12
120
13-16
0.60
0.70
17-20
0.80
80
60
21-25
0.90
50
* Limit may be increased by 25% for residue cover after crop seedlings will
regularly
exceed50%.

Since it is difficult to get proper data for the use of Eq. (18.16) for a
developing
country like India, this equation is not popular in developing countries.
18.14.3. Sediment Measurement by Sample Recorder. The sediment produced
by sheet erosion from a catchment may not always reach at the point of measurement;
i.e. the site of dam reservoir. Some part of sediment may be deposited en-route ..
The
ratio b·etween the yield of sediment at the measuring site and the .gross erosion
in the
catchment is called the sediment delivery ratio.
Thus, the sediment yield is the gross sediment yield minus the quantity of sediment
-depOsifed en route. The seoiment yield, infact, is important; since it ls this
sediment____
which will get deposited in the reservoir, affecting its useful life.
The sediment yield of a reservoir can be calculated either by using an appropriate
empirical equation, out of the ones developed by various investigators; or by
developing
a rational appropriate relation between inflow and sediment, on the basis of actual
measurements of sediment load at the site of the reservoir. The continuous
measurements of suspended load and bed load at the reservoir site for a number of
years will
help in developing a rational relation (either a mathematical equation or a
graphical
curve) between sediment and the inflow into the reservoir. We will first of all
discuss
the method of the actual measurement of sediment and developing an appropriate
relation between sediment yield Cqs) and the river discharge (Q) at the given site.

are--used
-·-·---rsr43:1-:-Measuring suspeiiaeasedimeiit foad-:- Sediment samplers
to
measure suspended sediment at a given site on the river to obtain the most reliable
results
of sediment yield. The bed load should also be calculated either by using the
available
empirical equations*, or on an adhoc basic of 2.5-25% of the suspended load, as to
calculate the total sediment load (sum of suspended load and bed load).
A typical sediment sampler used in India is shown in Fig. 18.26. A depth
integrating
hand sampler used for smaU-streams is also shown in Fig. 18.27.

* Please see article 4. 9.

967
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
Lever to lift
stopper
Length
of
pipe
Hinged
clamped
Brass
plate
l
Fig. 18.26. Line diagram of a typical sediment sampler (Punjab bottle sampler).
Water
----=---= w::...
--------
.:::....:::. :...-:.....--=
surface
---...=-=-= -=-"'=
----Standard
wading rod
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
Interchangeable
nozzle
P"mt Milk bottle
Unsampled
sediment
Load
Bed level
Fig. 18.27. AUS.DH-48 depth-integrating hand sampler for small streams.
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
968
The sampler is taken into the stream to a depth of 0.6y below the water surface, or
at two
depths at 0.2y and 0.8y depths to collect samples of sedimented water in the
sampler bottle.
The collected sample of sedimented water is then analysed in the laboratory either
by a
gravimetric method, or by hydrometric method to determine the quantum of coarse
sediment
(particle size higher than 0.2 mm), medium size sediment (particle size bet>reen
0.075 mm to
0.2 mm) and of fine sediment (particle size less than 0.075 mm), separately . Their
sum will
indicate the total sediment load present in the given volume of water sample.
Sediment
load present in the water sample is then expressed in ppm (parts for million) as :
d.
Dry mass of sediment
.
.
..
x· 106
Sed1ment 1oa mppm =
Total mass of original sample including the mass of
sediment & of water
... (18.21)
This value can be converted into t/day by multiplying the average unit wt. of
sediment (say 1.2 t/m3 ) with the total volume of daily inflow in m3 .
When a large number of such sample records become available for the given site,
then a curve can be plotted between the sediment load (qs) in t/day on x-axis and
daily
discharge in m3Is on y-axis, as to obtain a curve known as sediment rating curve,
as
shown in Fig 18.28. Such a plotting is usually done on a log-log paper.
1000~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~ 100
VI
;;:;-..§.

..."'ClOl
.c
u
VI
·;:;
10
>-
·c;
Cl
10 .
, 100
f--lls=K--j
Sediment Load, q 5 t/d (log scale)
Fig. 18.28. A typical sediment rating curve.

When a standard sediment rating curve is established for a given site, the sediment
yield (qs) can be read out by simply knowing the discharge rate only. However, care
must be taken to see that for different seasons of the year, different curves will
have to
be developed, since the sediment yield of a basin may vary with the season. The
curve,
_ __fo_Lg!)'._J'tl~rnbJrro_11:mQns_o_Qn__p_erio_d) _may be entirely different from
·.the. curve for.the'
month of say August (monsoon season).

* The sample collected by the sampler is first passed through a BSS-100 sieve and
the coarse particles
retained are taken out and oven dried. Thus, the quantity of coarse sediment
(higher than 0.2 mm size) is
obtained. Sedimented water passing 200 µ sieve is allowed to stand for 20 minutes,
so that the finer particles
settle down. The settled_ mass is removed by the process of decantation (pouring
out water from the settled
tank). The settled residue is dried and weighed, as to get the mass of fine
sediment (0.075 ~ - 0.2 mm).
Poured. water contains sediment of still finer particles. To isolate this, the
sample is filtered through a filter
paper, and the quantity retained therein is dried and weighed. This gives the mass
of fine sediment (particle
size< 0.075 mm). The summation of all the three masses will give the total mass of
sediment.
..

969
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
.

The sediment rating curves can be used to compute daily sediment load for the given
daily· discharge values, and their summation can give us the monthly or the _annual
sediment load.
18.14.3.2. Mathematical equation for a sediment rating curve. The sediment
rating curve (straight line poi:tton) giving sediment load in tonnes/day (qJ w.r.
to daily
discharge (Q) in m3I sec can be expressed by a mathematical equation of the form :
q_, = K. Qn
... (I 8.22)
Taking log on both sides,
log qs =log K + n · log Q
This equation is similar to the form
y=a +bx,
where log qs is plotted on y-axis and log Q on x-axis.
n=b
... (18.23)
... (18.24)
log K =a
A mathematical solution for such an equation can be obtained by the statistical
method of least squares, where in the various known values of x (i.e. log Q) and y
(i.e. log qs) are analysed to estimate a and b values as :
·
a=
I.y·I.x2 -I.x·I.xy
NI. x 2 - (I. x) 2
... (I 8.25)
b = NI.xy~ I.x. I.!
... (18.26)
N · I.x -(I.x)
By computing values of a and b, values of n and K become known to finally compute
the relation between qs and Q by Eq. (18.22).
The use of this method will become clear when we solve example 18.18.
------ ·- -- Exan1ple 18.18:A -resefv7SiYlias tliefollowing .sedimenr and'dischatge
data ~Year
Discharge (M nz3)
Sediment load (M.t) as
measured by silt sampler
81
1430
3850
83
2050
84
6510
85
2880
86
1120
6050
88
2220
2.65
5.82
3.60
7.15
5.22
1.95
6.88
3.94
82
87
Calculate the average total sediment load/year/JOO sq. km of the catchment at ihe
site. Develop a regression relation and predict the total and observed sediment
yield
for the inflow of 3450 M.m3 for the year 1978. Take the catchment area at the site
as
3050 sq. km. What is the tQtal sediment yield for 100 years ? Assume bed load as
10%;
of suspended load.
·
'
____ _ ~C>.l"l!t~II'. A\.'~~a_g_~~~~illl~E:t!()_ad!!leasure<!_ by silt ~E_lpl~_-
···-·--- _,_
2.65+5.82+3.6+7.15+5.22+ 1.95+6.88+3.94.
=
8
37.21
= --Mt/year=4.651 Mt/yr.
8
Since sediment load is measured by a silt sampler, the
of suspended load.
Now, assume Bed load= 10% of suspended load
give~
values of sediment are
/
970
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
:. Total load = Suspended load + Bed load
:. Total sediment load = 1.1 x 4.651 = 5.116
(qs) = 5.1l6 Mt/yr.

or
Sediment deposited in a reservoir consolidates gradually due to the increasing silt
load on
it every year and the wt. of water above it. Assuming the average sediment unit
weight
(sediment in a reservoir consists of sand, silt and clay in water) as 1.2 t/m 3, we
have
=.S.116 Mt
:. -Total silt load/year
3=4263M
3
qs =5.116M·
l.2
m
.
m
Catchment area
= 3050 sq. km
- .
4.263Mm3
:. Sedmient load/100 sq. km/year =
x 100
30 0
5
3
= 0.1397 M m /100 sq. km/year
Ans.

Total sediment yield in 100 years= 4.263 M m3/yr. x 100 yr.= 426.3 Mm
3
Ans.

In order to develop a regression type non-linear equation between total sediment

load (qs) and discharge (Q), represented as qs = K · Q11 , we carry out the
required calculac
Lions in table 18.32 to evaluate the values of a and b by Eqn. (18.25) and (18.26),
as :
T_able 18.32. Computations to develop Equation
y =a +bx by the method of least squares.

year
Discharge
-Q(M~ni 3 )
(I)
(2)
-
Suspended
Sediment
inei1sui-ed in
M.t
Total sediment
i.e. q_,. in M m3
1 1*
col(3)x-·1.2
(3)
(4)
logQ =x
x2
- /(Jg col r2r ::T(c~>l 5)2
(5)
(6)
-- ---
x·y
logqs=Y -, __ coH5)
iogccJl(4}
x col (7)
(8)
(7)
------·- - - ----
--
9.9561
0.3855
l.2164
3.5855
12.8555
0.7271
2.6070
3.300
3.3.IJ8
10.9677
0.5185
l.7172
7.15
6.554
3.8136
14.5433
0.8165
3.1138
2880
-- 5.22
4.785
3.4594
11.9674
0.6799
2.3520
1120
l.95
1.788
9.2977
0.2522
0.7690
81.

- 1436
2.65
2.429
3.1553
82
3850
5.82
5.335
83
2050
3.60
84
6510 -
85 86
3.0492
---
-"--
- --·-- - -------
--
6050
6.88
6.307
3.7818
14.3017
0.7998
3.0247
88
2220
3.94
3.612
3.3464
l l.1981
0.5577
l.8663
I
27.503
95.0875
4.7372
16.6664
1.2 t/m
l l
_ = col(3)x1.z
(
I
----- ----
87
.
. M ') q, in M · t
* l/s (Total sedunent.m
m· = ·
x ( l.l )**
3
I -
**Total sediment= 1.1 (Observed sediment by soil sampler)
·
J
-
...

-
971
RESERVOIRS ANO PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
LY·Lx2-Lx·Lxy
NLx2- (Lx)2
4.7372x 95.0875-27.503 x 16.6664
we get
a=------------=----..,,8 x 95.0875 - (27 .503) 2
-7.9275
'
or
a= _
= - 1.8500
4 2850
..
K = 0.014
But log K =a=- 1.8500
------ _____ _:_ --N·Lxy--Lx·LY. Also
. b= N·Lx2-(Lx)2
Using·
... (i.e. 18.25)
a=--"------=-
... (i.e. 18.26)
= 8 x 16.6664-27.503 x 4.7372 = 3.0440 = 0.7104
8 x 95.0875- (27.503) 2
4.2850
But
b = n = 0.7104
Regression equation is hence given as :
. qs = K · Qn = 0.014 (Q) 0·7104 Ans .
. , T.otal. sediment yield for the year 1978 having inflow of 3450 M m,3
.
=0.014(3450)0 ·7104 =4.565Mm3
· = 4.565 M m3 x 1.2 ti m3 = 5.48 Mt . Ans.
Observed. or suspended sediment load for the year 197?

=
5
i~8 Mt= 4.98 Mt
Ans.

18.14.3.3. Empirical equations for total sediment yield. The following empirical!
equations have been developed by several investigators, for estimating the annual
sediment yield of a reservoir.
(1) Swami's Regression Equation. Swamy and Garde (1977) have proposed a relation
correlating the cumulative volume of sediment deposited in a reservoir with the
.. -curiiufative voliiriie-ofwater inflow; andillifiaJ.oeCI-sTope-oflne·river;as·-
-- -, c '
-Vs= C. B . (Vci)°-94 (So)0.84
... (18.27)
where Vs= cumulative vol. of sediment deposited in
the reservoir in M · m 3 ·
C = Regression constant with safe value of
the order of 1.16. However a value less
. than 1.16 may be adopted depending on
the reservoir
B = Wid,th of the re.servoir at full reservoir
level in m
Vci = Cumulative vol. of inflow per unit width
· - - - - -'-sc-o-r-rh-e-reservofr--0 - - - - - - - - - - - - · - - - -
S0 = Bed slope of the river.
(2) Jogelkar's Equation. An equation proposed by Jogelkar (1960) is given as :
Qs=0.59(Ar 0·24
... (18.28)
3
where Qs = Annual silting rate in M · m per 100 sq.
km of catchment area
A = Catchment area in sq km
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
972
(3) Khosla's Equation. Khosla (1953) has proposed the following empirical equation.
Qs = 0.323 (A)- 0·28
..• (18.29)
where Qs= Annual siltation rate in M · m3/100 s.q
km/year
A= Catchment area in sq. km.
This equation always gives lower estimate of sediment yield at a site ..
(4) Varshneys Equations. Varshne_y and Raichur hf!Ve_propo_s_ed the following
equai'ions for calculating sediment yield for an ungauged basin. -- -(i) Up to I 30
sq. km catchment for mountainous rivers
Q.. = 0.395 (Af o.311
... (18.30)
where Qs = Annual sediment yield rate in M · m 3 per
100 sq. km of catchment
A= catchment area in km2.
(ii) Rivers draining plain area up to 130 sq. km
Qs = 0.392(Af0· 302
.. '.(18.31)
Qs & A have the same meaning as in Eqn. (18.30).
(iiz) For area greater than 130 sq. km for North Indian catchment
Qs = 1.534 (Af o.264
... (18.32)
Qs &A have the same meaning as in Eq. (18.30).

(iv) For South Indian Rivers up to 130 sq. km

Qs ::::: 0.46 (A f 0.468
... (18.33)
Qs & A have
the s~m~
m~al!i.!!g a_sjf!_Eqn,DB.30). __, __ _
-- ·- - -::-: :_- ---- : - ------- __ ::: _____ -- -- ··(v) For areas greater than
130 sq. km for South Indian catchments
~-·-·:.

Q.1.=0.277(A)~ 0 - 194
--=----~-
~
~---.--
.

... (18.34)
Qs & A have the same meaning as in Eqn. (18.30).

(5) Using Known. Data of Similar Catchment. Sediment yield of an unmeasured

watershed Q.1•2 can be computed from sediment yield of measured catchment Qs 1 of
similar topography, la(n~ c)over and land use, on area proportion basis, as
Qs2 = Qs1
2
Ac
... (18.35)
. Example 18.19. Estimate the sediment load in tonne at the proposed dam site in
North India with the following data using wi_rious empirica_~,e_'{1!_f!,t~o~s_:
_______ _
I---i
~~-.Catchment area -= I 830 sq. km
i
Width of reservoir at FRL = 560.0 m
River slope at the dam site = 0.006
Average inflows at the site are as follows :
Year
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
lnjlow M · 11/
2210
1290
1640
1780
2150
1980
2540
1285
1620
973
RESERVOIRS AND PLAN.NINO FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
Assume annual siltatio.n rate per JOO sq. km from a similar catchment of 3050 sq.
km to be 10.35 M · m3/JOO sq. km.
Solution. The sedimentation rate is worked out by using various equations as
described in the previous article.
·
(1) By Swamy' s Regression Method: The computation is carried out in Table 18.28
by using Eqn. (18.27) as :
Vs == C. B
CVcf 94 (So)°.84
where C == 1.16
B==560m
So ==0.006
.. Vs= cumulative vol. of sediment deposited in M · m3
~ 1.16 x 560 CVci)0 ·94 x (0.006) 0·84
= 8.837 (Vci)0.94
where
is the cumulative vol. of annual in~
flows per unit width B of reservoir, ov,er
the given years.
vci
The computations are carried out in Table 18.33, which is self explanatory.
Table 18.33. Computation of sediment Load by Swamy's Regression Method
-rNO~
-- Year- - JnJloW-iii
M·m
3
cumulative·
inflow in M m3
--··
0.94'
--v,1 ~-1:-umutariiiinii""flowperunir- --- Vs.. =8.837
(Vci)
widthB of reservoir=
c~g)
=8.837 (col 5)0·94 M · m3
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
1
1982
2210
2210
3.946
32.11
2
1983
1290
3500
6.250
49.48
3
1984
1640
5140
9.179
71.01
4
1985
1780
6920
12.357
93.91
-'-5- -J986- ---2lso--- ---9010--·
(5)
-
•6~196
(6)
~-2T:ro----'--
6
1987
1980
11050
19.732
145.80
7
1988
2540
13590
24.268
177.11
8
1989
1285
14875
26.563
192.81
9
1990
1620
16495
29.455
212.48
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
974
Qs =sedimentation rate per 100 sq. km
lOOsq. km
- V:rU-~;
. cumulative
. . vol. of silt) ><---,..=__--.,,2
-
No.ofyears(i.e.9)
212.48 100
·=-9-x 1830
or
Q.1. = L29 M m3/100 sq. km
t:Aof1830km
.\
Ans.

(2) By Jogelkar's Equation.

Q_,. = 0.59 (Ar o.24

= o.59 (183or 0·24
= 0.10 M m3/100 sq. km·.· Ans;
(3) By Khosla 's Equation
Qs = 0.323 (Af o.28
= o.323 (183or 0·28
=0.04Mm3/100sq.km Ans.
(4) By Varshneys EquationforNorths Indian catchment exceeding 130 sq. km.
Qs = 1.534 (Aro.264
= 1.534 c133or 0·264
= 0.21~ M m3/100 sq. km
Ans.

(5) From similar catchment.·

Q.1•1 = 4.56 M m3/100 sq. km
A1 =3050sq.km
A2 = 1830 sq. km
~.. ~Q, x (~:r
. = 0.35 x
_
cc
c~
___ . ..
. .

____________ _
..

(~o;~ )Mm3/100 sq.km·

=0.21 Mm 3/100sq.km Ans.
18.15. Reservoir Sediment.ation Studies on Existing Reservoirs·
Sedimentation ·of storage reservoirs is a 11atural process, since large part of the
silt
eroded from the catchment and transported· by the river, gets deposited on the bed
of
the reservoir. This causes reduction in the live as well as dead storage capacities
of the
reservoir. Progressive loss of capacity due to sediment accumulation results in
reduced
. benefits and.max._e_y_~n_c_ause_op.erationaLproblems .. Jt,.-therefor:_e,-
becomes:...necessa-ry--to-·_._.. _-+ monitor the sedimentation rates in the
existing reservoi;s at regular inte,1;als, to help
'
in planning and executing suitable remedial measures for controlling sedimentatiOn
in
order. to prolong the life of the reservoir and its b~nefits,
Regular monitoring and updating of elevat~on-capacity curve of the reservoir
immensely helps in better water. management. With this .aim, conventfonal
hydrographic
surveys are conducted at regular intervals at the existing reservoirs to determine
the
available capacities at different i;:levations, and to help compute the
sedimentation
volume at such regular intervals. Such conventional surveys will require
computation
1
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
. c
975
of water spread area at different water levels, and is quite a tedious and a costly
process.
Remote. sensing techniques do offer a modern answer to the costly conventional
surveys, as it offers a great potential for application in capacity evaluation of
medium
to large reservoirs. From the data provided by the remote sensing satellites, it
has now
been possible to compute loss of .reservoir capacity due to sedimentation; and its
distribution. The results obtained from this technique have been found to be quite
com-.
parable with those obtained from the costly and cumbersome conventional methods.
One
of the greatest advantage of this technique is that the capacity evaluation could
be easily
computed on yearly basis.
The methodology involved in this technique requires the use and analysis of the
satellite imageries provided by the Remote Sensing satellites, which collect the
data of
the Earth surface features in different bands at regular intervals. In the case of
Indian
Remote Sensing Satellites IRS-IA and IRS-IB* (both id.entical satellites), this
periodicity is 22 days for Indian sub-continent. These two satellites together are
thus capable
to provide us data of all our reser\/oirs at 11 days interval. The third satellite
of this
series IRS- IC has also been launched recently on 28.01.1996 and h<:lps in
providing
better pictures even of cloud bound areas. IRS-ID has further been launched· on
29 .09 .1997, through our first Indian rocket launcher.
·
·
Due to the .water withdrawals from an existing reservoir, its water spread area.
goes on
changing throughout the year. The reservoirs are generally full just after the
monsoon period
in October, and get depleted to almost dead storage/minimum drawdown level just
before
start of monsoon season in May or June, every year. The satellite data of various
dates during
the period from October to May, provide us an array of water spread areas between .
maximum water level. (i.e. around the FRL) and the minimum reservoir level (i.e.
around
the dead storage level/minimum drawdown level). From the whole set of the satellite
data,
a few of them which are cloud free and of good quality and representative of the
whole
range.ofreservoirJevels .atclose.llitervals, areselectedfor-analysis ..
The method of analysis depends upon the data products. The selected CCT's/FCC's
of various dates are analysed for determining the water spread areas. The
corresponding
water levels are obtaineq from the daily gauge record of the reservoir. From these,
the
water volumes between two consecutive water levels are. computed using Prismoidal
or
any appropriate. formula. Volume of water below the minimum water level (as
recorded
by the satellite) and the "ne~ zero"**elevation, are estimated based upon the
previous
hydrographic surveys. In case, these informations are not a~ailable in the
hydrographic .
survey data, then the elevation-area relationship obtained from the hydrographic
surveys
as well as the one obtained from the satellite data interpretation, should be
extended to
get the new zero elevation, and then the volume between the minimum mapped water
level and this new zero level is estimated. After this, the cumulative water volume
at
each reservoir level is computed, an.d then the .revised. elevation-area-c~acity
curve is
draw-ri~ By-comp-anng the orTginaTarea~capaclt)--9urveor-any -other-s~ch cii°r~e:-
the-to-tal.
sediment volume and its distribution can be computed.

18.16. Observed Sedimentation Rates for Various Important Indian Reservoirs

The observed sedimentation rates for various important dam reservoirs in India are
·
indicated in col. (6) & (7) of Table 18.34.
·
*IRS-IA was launched on 19.03.1988,and IRS-IB was launched on 23.08.1991.
** The minimum reservoir bed level is raised due to sedimentation, which is termed
as the new zero.
976
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
Table 18.34. Annual Sedimentation Rates of Various Indian Reservoirs
S.
No.

(I!

Name and Location of Catchment

reservoir
area in JOO
sq. km
(3)
(2)
Capacity
of
reservoir
at FRLin
M·m 3
Sulface
area at
MRL
M·m 2
(4)
(5)
Dead
Annual Annual volume
of sediment
storage
sediment
capacity
rate in
deposit M · m3
ham/JOO col (6) x col (3) provided in
sq. m
M·m 3
JOO
(6)
(8)
(7)
34.08
95
Bhakra i.e. Govind
Sagar) (HP)
568
2
· Gandhi Sagar (MP)
226
7413
660
10.08
22.71
586
3
Hirakund (Orissa)
834
8146
725
3.89
32.44
2318
4
Lower Bhawani (TN)
61.5
929
-
4.10
2.52
0
5
Maithan (DVC)
63
1275
-
13.02
8.20
165
6
Matatila (UP)
207.5
883
-
3.50
7.26
50
7
Mayurkshi
18.6
617
-
20.09
3.74
68
8
Nizam Sagar (AP)
216.94
715
130
6.57
14.25
-
8
Panchat (DVC)
Ill
1475
153
9.92
11.01
170
10
Ramganga (UP)
30.76
2448
17.30
5.32
395
II
Sri ram Sagar or
Shivaji Sagar (AP)
8.19
3454
-
15.20
1.24
849
12
Tawa(MP)
2312
-
8.10
-
263
I
(WB~
169
9351
6.00
·•
-
18.17. Reservoir Losses
Huge quantity of water is generally lost from an impounding reservoir due to
evaporation, absorption, and percolation. Depending upon which, the following
losses
may occur from such a reservoir :
1. Evaporation losse.s ;
2. Absorption losses ; and
3. Percolati.on losses or Reservoir leakage.
These losses are discussed below.
18.17.1. Evaporation Losses. The evaporation losses from a reservoir depend
upon several factors, such as : water surface area, water depth, humidity, wind
velocity,
temperature, atmospheric pressure and quality of water as discussed in article
7.34.2.3.
The evaporation loss from a reservoir under th~ gix.~n_atmospheric.conditions-can-
be._::_ ..- - - '·easily estimated by measuring the standard pan evaporation and
multiplying the same
by the pan coefficient. The pan coefficients and various types of pans in use are
given
in article 7.34.3.4.
The evaporation losses become very significant in a hot and humid country like
India ; and realistic estimation of these losses is quite important. These losses
in fact
vary from place to place and from season to season, and hence monthly values of
these
losses are usually determined. Typical average values of these losses for North and
South India are given in table 18.35.
- 977
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
Table 18.35. Monthly Reservoir Evaporation Losses
Losses in cm
Month
North India
South and Central India
January
7
IO
February
9
10
18
March
13
April
16
27
24
18
-
May
June
July
September
14
14
October ·
13
November
9
December
8
172
August
Total
23
25
18
,,
15..
15
15
13
10
10
182
On the basis of a review conducted on 130 sample reservoirs, the Central Water
Commission, in 1990, has, however, estimated the average annual evaporation los_s
to
be 225 cm ; and the total water lost from all the existing reserv·oirs to be 27000
Mm3
per annum. What a tremendous waste of precious water!
In order to control such large scale wastage of water, several methods haw been
devised by engineers and scientists. All these methods. are based upon the efforts
made
to reduce the evaporation rate from the surface of the water bodies by physical or
-----··=chemieahneans;~since-the"Cbasic=meteorolo-
gical"factors"'affoctin'g'evaporation=cannbt ·be-'"
controlled under normal conditions. The following methods are generally used for
evaporation control :
1. Wind breakers
2. Covering of the water surface
3. Reduction
Of the exposed water surface
\.

/
4. Use of underground storage rather than the use of surface storage
5. Integrated operation of reservoirs
.

/
6. Use of chemicals for retarding the evaporation rate from the reservoir surface.
Out of all these methods, the last.method has evoked the maximum response from
____ !!G>_y~r the world, and has b_een considered to be the
onl:y..Q!"~f.ti~L~9luti_qn_fQ!.cf..O.l1J_e_!
vation of fresh water, inspite of its various limitations and disadvantages in high
cost of
application in normal conditions. The use of chemicals, called Water Evapo-
Retardants
(WERs), fo):~ontrolling the evaporation rate from the surface of reservoirs is
therefore,
discussed here in details.
A non toxic chemical, capable of forming a thin monomolecular film over the water
surface, is generally spread over the reservoir water surface in powder, liquid or
emulsion form. The resulting film prevents energy inputs from the atmosphere, thus
reducing
evaporation. Such a film, however, allows the passage of enough air through it, to
avoid
any harmful effects on the aquatic life due to shortage of oxygen.

'
I
I
j
I
I
I
I
978
. IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
Fatty alcohols of different grades like : Cetyl alcohol (C 16 .H 33 .0H) popularly
called
lzexa decanol, Stearyl alcohol (C 18 .H 37 .0H) popularly called Octadecanol, and
Behenyl
alcohol (C 22 .H45 .0H) called docosanol, or a mixture of these chemicals, have
been
generally used and found to be quite suitable. These chemicals should, however, be
99%
pure for getting the desired properties of mono/ayer. National Chemical Laboratory,
Pune, has d.eveloped one more compound by synthesising alkoxy ethanols.
In general, all such chemical compounds should ·possess the following properties :
(i) the chemical compound (WER)should be tasteless, odourless, non-toxic, non-
inflammable, and should not produce any effect on the quality of water:
(ii) the chemical should easily spread and form an even compact cohesive and
efficient monomolecular film on the water surface.
(iii) the thin.film formed by the chemical should be pervious to oxygen and carbon
dioxide, but tight enough to prevent escape of water molecules.
(iv) the thin film formed by the chemical shou.ld be durable, and should be able to
re-seal itself, when .broken.due to external disturbances such as wind,waves,
etc.
(v) the chemical and the film formed by it should not be adversely affected by the
water borne bacteria, proteins and other impurities present in the water body.
The use of chemical WERs ·has, however not been found to be cost effective for
mass scale use, and has further not been found to be suitable under the following
conditions :
(a) when the wind velocities exceed 10 km/hr or so.
(b) when the temperature rises above 40°C or so.

(c) when the size of the water body is relatively large.

,~,~ ::_12e,\!~lopmentof cheapecWERs
capabJe ofwithstanding-higher-wind speeds:upto-about
20 ·km/hr and having strong cohesive forces and properties· of self spreading and
re-uniting
to maintain the monolayer in resilient state even at high wind velocities, is
therefore of vital
importance. Moreover, the life of the film formed, must be longer, so as to reduce
the
frequency of application to about 3 to 7 days from its present frequency of 24
hours.
Development of such chemical WERs is the subject matter of present research.
Other kmg term evaporation control measures like plantation of trees to act as wind
breakers*, reduction of exposed water surface by covers, underground storage of
water,
integrated operation of reservoirs; etc. have been employed in som·e parts of the
country.
The effectiveness and economics of these method.s are,·however, yet to· be
established.
In . India, ·the ·water conservation methods• are presently being adopted only in
draught prone and.. scarcity areas, since large scale use of such methods on ali
the
___r_e_s_e_r_y_o_ii:s__oLthe__c_o_untryJs_no.tfound_to. be.economicaLor-
pr;actically-unfeasible-due-to----·-·.. ·
their large size and adverse meteorological factors.
18.17.2. Absorption Losses. These losses do not play any significant role in
planning,
since their amount, though sometimes large in the beginning, falls considerably as
the pores
get saturated. They certainly depend upon the type of soil forming the reservoir.
18.17.3. Percolation Losses or Reservoir Leakage. For most of the reservoirs,
the banks are permeable but the permeability is so low that the leakage is of no
*
Trees having lesser evapotranspiration should only be chosen and identified.
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
979
importance. But in certain particular cases, when the walls of the reservoir are
made of
badly fractured rocks or having continuous seams of porous strata, serious le'akage
may
occur. Sometimes, pressure grouting may have to be used to seal the fractured
rocks.
The cost of grouting has to be accounted in the economic studies of the project, if
the
. leakage is large.
18.18. Reservoir Clearance
The removal of trees, bushes and other vegetation from the reservoir area is known
as reservoir cleararice. It is an expensive operation and difficult to be justified
on .
cost-benefit considerations. Non-clearance of such vegetation may lead to the
following
troubles :
(i) decay of organic material may create undesirable odours and tastes, and hence,
·
becomes important for water supply reservoirs.
(ii) trees projecting above the water surface may create undesirable appearance,
when the reservoir is to be used for recreation and tourism purposes.
(iii) bushes, trees, etc. wlll float and may create debris problems at the dam.
18.19. Selection of a Suitable Site for a Reservoir
It is almost impossible to select a perfect ideal reservoir site. But its selection
is
guided by the following factors :
(i) A suitable dam site is available. The cost of the dam is generally a
controlling
factor in the selection of a reservoir site.
(ii) The gt-ological formations for the reservoir banks, walls, etc. should be such
as
to entail minimum leakage.
(iii) The geology of the catchment area should be such as to entail minimum water
losses through absorption and percolation.
(iv) The site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed. A deep reservoir is
· preferred-to a shallow one,-because-of-lowedand cost:per=unit of capacity, less
evapora,
tion loss, and less possibility of weed growth.
(v) The reservoir site must have adequate capacity.
(vi) Too much silt laiden tributaries should be avoided as far as possible.
(vii) The reservoir basin should have a deep narrow opening in the valley, so that
the length of the dam is minimum.
18.20. Reservoir Induc.ed Seismicity
During the recent times, a very strange phenomenon has been observed in several
dams
of the world. What actually has happened is that the reservoir basins or areas
which were
seismologically inactive, started showing seismic activities, as the reservoir was
filled up
with water. The magnitude of these earthquakes is found increasing with the filling
of the
reservoir, giving severe shocks when the reservoir is full. In all such cases, the
epicentre is
.al ways seen cto &efocatecfwfrhinilie-riservoiroialong ffs-boroei. - -An important
Indian example of such an earthquake has been in the case of Koyna
dam (Maharashtra), which is situated in the seismologically inactive zone in
Peninsular
India. However, when the dam got ready and water started collecting (1962) in the
reservoir, the earthquakes also started occurring (1963). The frequency and
intensity of
these earthquakes had gone on increasing, as more and more water went on collecting
in the reservoir. On 10th December, 1967, the severest shock occurred with a
magnitude
of about 6.5, followed by three more shocks of decreasing magnitudes. The
epicentres
of all these shocks were traced to be within the reservoir area.

i
980
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC"STRUCTURES
Some other examples of such earthquake sites, noticed outside India, are at Lake
Mead (U.S.A.) ; Grand Val Lake (France) ; Vorgorno Lake (Switzerland) ; etc.
This phenomenon has been studied by various seismologists, and it has ·been
suggested
by some that in most such cases, there must have existed some inactive faults in
the reservoir
basin area, which became active again due to the extra-ordinary load ofthe
reservoir water,
thus causing displacements along these faults and consequently resulting in
earthquakes.
Some other seismologists have suggested that these earthquakes are caused due to
increased
pore pressure in the adjoining rocks, which lowers their shearing strength,
resulting in the
release of tectonic strain.
Based on these explanations, the various preventive methods suggested for prevent-
·•
ing or reducing such earthquakes, include :
(i) filling of the reservoir to a limited safe level ;
(ii) reducing pore pressure by draining out water from weaker adjoining rocks ;
and
·
(iii) to actively explore the dam site for the absence of inactive faults before
selecting the same.
Such earthquakes, however, show a decreasing tendency with time. This
phenomenon is indeed very complex and interesting, and still needs further
research.
18.21. Economic Height of a Dam
The economic height of a dam is that height of the dam, corresponding to which,
the cost of the dam per unit of storage is minimum. For this purpose, the estimates
are
prepared for construction costs, for several heights of the dam, somewhat above and
below the level at which the elevation-storage curve shows a fairly high rate of
increase.
. of storage per unit rise of elevation, keeping the length of the dam moderate.
The construction cost is found to increase with the dam height, as shown in Fig.
18.29 .
.

,_
!fl \/')
Ow
UUJ
z a..
s~
>u Z
:::>0
er '.:i
>-
_J
z
:l:
·-~.

\/')-
.·
I
Oz
u-
~~~~~~~~-:-~......,...~~---
DAM HEIGHT !N
Fig. 18.29
__:__:_
_,
A
METRES~
_________________________.

---- t
HEIGHT OF~
(MOST ECONOMICAL HEIGHT)
Fig. 18.30
-------------·-------·--;---··-·--·--·-···---~
·--
·-·---------
For each dam height, the reservoir storage is known from the reservoir-capacity
curve.
The construction cost per unit of storage for all the possible dam height.s can
then be worked
out and plotted, as shown in Fig. 18.3"0.
The lowest point A on this curve, gives the dam height for which the cost per unit
of storage is minimum, and hence, most economical.
Example 18.20. The construction costs for certain possible heights of a dam at a
given site have been estimated and are tabulated in the table below. The storage
capacity for all these dam heights are also given.
981
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FORDAM RESERVOIRS
Construction cost in
million Rs.
(3)
4
8
12
18
Height of the dam in
metres
(2)
S.No.
(1)
JO
20
30
40
50
60
65
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Storage in million cubic
metres
(4)
50
110
180
250
350
500
600
27
39
50
Determine the most economical height of the dam from purely construction point
of view.
Solution. The given table is extended, so as to workout the cost per million cubic
metre of storage, as shown in col. (5) of Table 18.36.
Table 18.36
S.No.
(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Height of the dam
in metres
Construction cost
inM.Rs.
Storage in M.m 3
(2)
10
20
30
40
5.0
60
65
(3)
4
8
12
18
27
39
50
(4)
50
110
180
250
350
500
600
Cost per unit of s~orage
Col.3
Col.4
(5)
0.080
0.073
0.067
0.072
0.077
O.Q78
0.083
- -- --- ·· ---The-cost--per-unit-of-storage is--plotted-cagainstc-the:cheight·of-
the-dam; as shown in
Fig. 18.31. The most economical height is the lowest point of this curve, and it
works
out to ~e 30 metres. Ans.
·
E
::>
j) sor-~-t--::::--r-~~r-~-r--=:::::::i=====-r--~~
----h-_ . . . .--:
Cl
:
°'~
a. x
~ ~
a::
-........,~
1
Lowest· point
601--~=-i1----t----+----r-----t--,-----t---~
Ol
c
c:: ...

-
----- --- .. ~~-~-..C-46·+-·--·-_--_------+----------~--+-·-_-_--_-------~
-- .
1-----r--------------r--·_-_-_--·--r-----·-_--·_·-~·
I
I
c::
~
ht.

0
u
I
~
I
I
0
10.

20
30
40
Height of dam in
Fig. 18.31.

50
60
metres~
701
982
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
,.

PROBLEMS
1. (a) What is meant by a 'Reservoir'? Discuss briefly the different types of
reservoirs and the
purpose served by each type.
(b) Describe briefly the techniques that are employed for computing the storage
capacity of a
reservoir for different water surface elevations.
2. (a) What is meant by a 'Flood control reservoir' ; and what are their different
types ?
(b) Discuss with a neat sketch, the various storage zones of the dam reservoir.
(c) What factors you will ~eep in mind while selecting a suitable site for a dam
reservoir?
_3. (a) Differentiate clearly between the following :
(i) A flood control reservoir and a multipurpose reservoir.
(ii) A retarding basin and a storage reservoir.
(iii) Firm yield, design yield, and secondary yield of a reservoir.
(b) Briefly describe as to how you would fix the storage capacity of a reservoir
and the height of
the dam required for this storage.
(Madras University, 1976)
4. (a) What is the relation between 'reservoir capacity' and 'reservoir yield'?
(b) How would you fix the capacity of a dam reservoir at a particular river site,
provided the inflow
pattern and demand pattern are known. Explain the mass curve method which is used
for this purpose.
5. (a) Explain how the storage capacity of a reservoir is fixed.
(Madras University, 1973, 1974)
(b) Explain the mass curve method that can be used for determining:
(i) Reservoir capacity for fulfilling given demand.
(ii) Demand rate from a reservoir of a given capacity.

6. Discuss briefly and with necessary neat sketches, the demand patterns for the
following types of
reservoirs :
(i) Single purpose conservation reservoir.
(ii) Single purpose flood control reservoir.
(iii) Multipurpose reservoir.
-7.-(a) What-is meant,by ,-'flood,routing-_ through-_reservoirs"?=--"~ '' --:-:-
-=-- "' -:- -=, --, =-o --- ==-: -------c-(b) Describe step by step procedure that
you will adopt for flood routing computations required for
reservoirs under 'trial and error method'.
8. Describe a method for routing flood water through a deep reservoir using the
fundamental relation
between inflow, outflow (discharge) and storage. Take Q = C.L.

ri312 for the spillway.

(U.P.S.C.,Engg. Services, 1974)

9. The initial inflow in a reservoir and outflow over the spillway was 30 m 3/sec.
During a storm,
the following inflow rates were noted at the ends of successive half day periods :
240, 300, 240, 90, 30
3
and 30 m /sec. The relationship between discharge over the spillway (Q), and
storage rate in the reservoir
(f}may be expressed by the equation
Q=l.~.
2 T
Assuming that the average inflow rate duri11_g e11c_!i h_alf d_ay_l'_(:r!()dj~
eq~}J()_tlle a_yc;:r~ge_()(thC:: __________ _
-rates oceurririg_at_tlie-begfonlng-and aTtile-eiid of the period, find the outflow
at the end of half hour
period.
Hence plot to a suitable scale the inflow and outflow "hydro graphs.
10. What are the factors on which the rate of silting of an ~mpounding reservoir
depends? What is
c
trap efficiency?
Discuss the principal measures that should be undertaken to control the inflow
sediment to an
impounding reservoir.
An impounding reservoir had original storage capacity for 738 ha-m. The drainage
area of the
reservoir is 80 sq. km, from which, annual sediment discharges into the reservoir
at the rate 0.1153 ha-m
11
RESERVOIRS AND PLANNING FOR DAM RESERVOIRS
983
per sq. km. of the drainage area. Assuming the trap efficiency as 80 per cent. find
the annual capacity
(U.P.S. C.. E11gg. Services, 1969)
loss of the reservoir in per cent per year.
[Ans. 10%]
11. Write short notes on any four of the following :
(i) Reservoir losses
(ii) Reservoir clearance
(iii) Economic height of a dam
(iv) Cost benefit considerations in planning dam reservoirs.
[Note. Please See Chapter 20 of "Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering"]
(v} Reservoir sedimentation and its control (vi) Density currents
(vii) Trap efficiency
(viii) Estimating the life of a reservoir.