Energy

Examples Transfer by Work

38
Energy Analysis
 Energy
Examples Transfer by Work

39
Energy Analysis
 Energy
Examples Transfer by Work

40
Energy Analysis
MechanicalMechanical
Energy Energy

41
MechanicalMechanical
Energy Energy

42
 Energy
Problems Transfer by Work

43
Energy Analysis
 Energy
Problems Transfer by Work

44
Energy Analysis
 Energy
Problems Transfer by Work

45
Energy Analysis
46 End
Chapter 2
 47

CHAPTER NO 3
PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
Objectives
• Pure substance and Phases
• Phase Change Process
• Saturation Properties
• Property Diagrams
• Property Tables

48
 State
Pure Substance and Equilibrium
• A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a
pure substance.
• Example include water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide etc.
• A pure substance can be a single chemical element/compound, or a
homogeneous mixture of several elements.
• A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure
substance as long as the chemical composition of all phases is the same
• A mixture of ice and liquid water is pure substance but a mixture of
liquid air and gaseous air is not.

49
Phases ofState
a Pureand Equilibrium
Substance
• There are three principal phases of matter; solid, liquid , gases
• However a substance may have several phases within a principal phase,
each with a different molecular structure
• For example solid carbon exists in form of diamond or graphite(different
molecular structures), two liquid phases of Helium and so on
• Thermodynamics doesn’t concern with exact molecular structure, but its
understanding is helpful in understanding phase transformations
• Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases
• The molecules in a solid are arranged in a three-dimensional pattern (lattice)
that is repeated throughout.
• Molecules are kept at fixed position due
to large intermolecular forces.
• The molecules in a solid continually
oscillate (molecular oscillation) about
their equilibrium positions

50
Phases ofState
a Pureand Equilibrium
Substance
• The degree of oscillation of molecules is proportional to temperature.
• At sufficiently high temperatures, the velocity (and thus the momentum) of
the molecules exceeds the intermolecular forces resulting in breakaway of
group of molecules which is the beginning of melting process.
• In liquids, the molecules are not fixed and they can oscillate freely and as
well as can rotate (molecular rotation).
• The distances between molecules generally experience a slight increase as a
solid turns into liquid.
• In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other and molecules
have no particular arrangement
• Gas molecules move about at random (molecular translation), continually
colliding with each other.
• Molecules in the gas phase are at a considerably higher energy level than
they are in the liquid or solid phases.
• Condensation of a gas involves large amount of energy released from the
gas molecules.
51
Phases ofState
a Pureand Equilibrium
Substance

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at relatively

fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each other in
the liquid phase, and (c) molecules move about at random in the gas phase.

• There are many practical situations where two phases of a pure substance
coexist in equilibrium
• Water exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor in the boiler and the condenser
• Water freezes in pipes during winters is most common phase change process
• However, in this course, we will focus more on liquid-vapor phase change
52process
Phases ofState
a Pureand Equilibrium
Substance
• T-v diagram of phase-change diagram of water at constant-pressure

53
Compressed Liquidand
State Equilibrium
• Consider a piston-cylinder device
containing liquid water at 20oC and 1atm
pressure.

• Under these conditions, water exists in the

liquid phase, and it is called a compressed
liquid, or a subcooled liquid (not about to
vaporize)
• Heat is now transferred to the water until
its temperature rises.
• As the temperature rises, the liquid water
expands (specific volume increases) which
result in upward motion of piston

54
Saturated Liquid
State and Equilibrium
• As more heat is transferred, the temperature
keeps rising until it reaches 100oC.
• At this point water is still a liquid, but any heat
addition will cause some of the liquid to vaporize
• A liquid that is about to vaporize is called a
saturated liquid
• Properties at the saturated liquid state are noted
by the subscript f and 𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑓

55
Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor
State and Equilibrium
• Once boiling starts, the temperature stops rising until
the liquid is completely vaporized.
• The temperature will remain constant during the
entire phase-change process if the pressure is held
constant.
• Midway about the vaporization line, the cylinder
contains equal amounts of liquid and vapor
• The mixture of steam and water is called saturated
steam-water mixture.
• As heating is continued, the fraction of steam increase
in the mixture

56
Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor
State and Equilibrium
• As we continue transferring heat, the
vaporization process continues until the last
drop of liquid is vaporized
• At this point, the entire cylinder is filled with
vapor that is on the borderline of the liquid
phase
• Any heat loss from this vapor will cause some
of the vapor to condense (phase change from
vapor to liquid). A vapor that is about to
condense is called a saturated vapor.
• Thermodynamic properties at the saturated
liquid state and saturated vapor state are given
in Table A-4 as the saturated temperature table
and Table A-5 as the saturated pressure table.

The subscript g will always denote a

saturated vapor state. Note 𝑣4 = 𝑣𝑔
57
Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor
State and Equilibrium
• After the completion of phase change process,
further transfer of heat results in an increase in
both the temperature and the specific volume
of the vapor
• If some heat is taken away at this point (300°C
and 1atm), the condensation of vapor would
not start until temperature reach 100oC.
• A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a
saturated vapor) is called a superheated vapor
• State 5 is called a superheated state because T5
is greater than the saturation temperature for
the pressure
• Thermodynamic properties for water in the
superheated region are found in the
superheated steam tables, Table A-6.

58
Phases ofState
a Pureand Equilibrium
Substance

• If the entire process described in the previous slides is reversed by

cooling the water while maintaining the pressure at the same value, the
water will go back to state 1.
59
SaturationState
Temp and
and Sat Pr
Equilibrium
• Anything wrong with the statement "water boils at 100oC"?
• The complete statement would be “water boils at 100oC at 1atm pressure”
• If the pressure inside the cylinder were raised to 500 kPa by adding
weights on top of the piston, water would start boiling at 151.8°C.
• That is, the temperature at which water starts boiling depends on the
pressure; therefore, if the pressure is fixed, so is the boiling temperature
• At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes
phase is called the saturation temperature Tsat
• Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase is called the saturation pressure Psat
• At a pressure of 101.325 kPa, Tsat = 99.97°C.
• At a temperature of 99.97°C, Psat is 101.325 kPa.
• At 100.00°C Psat is 101.42 kPa

• Saturation tables are available for almost all substances

60
 State and Equilibrium

61
 State and Equilibrium

62
SaturationState
Temp and Equilibrium
and Sat Pressure
• It takes a large amount of energy to melt a
solid or vaporize a liquid
• The amount of energy absorbed or
released during a phase-change process is
called the latent heat
• More specifically, the amount of energy
absorbed during melting is called the
latent heat of fusion and is equivalent to
the amount of energy released during
freezing
• Similarly, the amount of energy absorbed
during vaporization is called the latent
heat of vaporization and is equivalent to
the energy released during condensation
• At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion
of water is 333.7 kJ/kg and the latent heat
of vaporization is 2256.5 kJ/kg
63
 State
liquid–vapor and Equilibrium
saturation curve

64
 State
Tsat and Psat and Equilibrium
Dependence
• Self Study

65