Class21 Language Change 2
Class21 Language Change 2
HW5 is due today by 5pm. This is the last
homework, so you may celebrate this
occasion by …
working on the LAP [non‐ mean ].
Lecture #21
Nov 28th, 2012
Presentation on Myth 21: ‘America is ruining
the English language.’ please‐pleasant
Unfinished business on language change: serene‐serenity
syntactic change and lexical diffusion. sane‐sanity
Introducing historical linguistics: reconstruction.
crime‐criminal
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Languages do change over time.
The alternation is the result of the GVS taking Explaining why a language changes is a complex
issue, but there are external and internal factors.
place after the Early Middle English Vowel
Change targets all components of a language: the
Shortening rule produced the second word in lexicon (lexical and semantic change) and the
each pair. grammar (morphological, phonological, and
syntactic change [the last to be discussed today]).
Over time, changes can be so substantial that
sparkers of a language would fail to understand
earlier forms of that language (Beowulf!).
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Word order in a language could change over
time. For example, Old English (OE) had more
Syntactic change variable word order than Modern English
(ModE) does.
So, we do find SVO order in simple transitive
clauses:
Hē geseah πone mann
He saw the man
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When the clause began with an element such
as πa (=“then”), the verb would follow that When the object was a pronoun, the order in
element, therefore preceding the subject: OE was typically SOV:
πa sende sē cyning πone disc Hēo hine lQrde
then sent the king the dish She him saved
“Then the king sent the dish.” “She saved him.”
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The same SOV word order also prevailed in As we noted earlier, case markings were lost
embedded clauses, even when the object was during the Middle English (MidE) period, and,
not a pronoun: as you should expect, the SVO order became
πa hē πone cyning sōhte, hē bēotode the unmarked word order in the language.
when he the king visited, he boasted The following table shows the change in word
“When he visited the king, he boasted.” order frequency that took place around 1300
and 1400:
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Negation in OE was done by placing the
negation marker ne before a verbal element:
πQt he na siππan geboren ne wurde
Year 1000 1200 1300 1400 1500
that he never after born not would‐be
OV % 53 53 40 14 2
“that he should never be born after that”
VO % 47 47 60 86 98
Notice word order and the use of double
negatives.
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In Early Modern English, we find the following
line from Shakespeare's Othello: Examples:
"He that filches from me my good name robs more gladder, more lower, moost
me of that which not enriches him.“
royallest, moost shamefullest
Late Modern English then introduced the use of
These were all ok in Middle English.
‘do’ in negation.
The same ‘do’ also started to appear in questions:
‘What heard you him say else?’
(from Much Ado About Nothing)
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The Wife’s Tale of Bath (MidE)
The Wife of Bath’s Tale (ModE)
So, why do some changes make it,
The man’s hat from Boston (MidE) and some don’t?
The man from Boston’s hat (ModE)
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A good example of lexical diffusion from English has
to do with an ongoing change in the stress pattern of
A linguistic change may manifest itself at first words such as convert, which can be either a noun or
in a few words, and then gradually spreads a verb.
Originally, the stress fell on the second syllable of
through the vocabulary of the language. We such words, regardless of their lexical category.
call this lexical diffusion. In the second half of the 16th century, three words,
rebel, outlaw, and record, came to be pronounced
with the stress on the first syllable when used as
nouns. And this stress shift has been “diffusing” ever
since.
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But not all phonological changes involve gradual For a particular instance of language change
diffusion. Some changes affect all instances of the to take place, the innovation must be
sounds involved rather immediately. accepted by the speech community.
For example, the weakening in Cuban Spanish of [s]
to [h] in syllable final‐position applies to all instances So, even though children acquiring English
where [s] occurs in that position: produce goed, the form was never accepted.
Spanish Spanish Cuban Spanish Similarly, throve is not accepted as the past
[filismente] [filihmente] “happily” tense form of thrive (cf. drive‐drove).
[estilo] [ehtilo] “type”
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Social pressures often play an important role The loss of postvocalic [r] along the east coast of the
US is a famous example.
in the spread of a particular innovation. Pronunciations such as [fa:] for [fa:r] originated in
For example, when a change takes place in the parts of England in the 17th and 18th centuries.
speech of a high prestige group, it may It spread along the east coast of the US by the
children of the New England gentry who studied at
gradually start spreading to other groups, and British schools, as well as the newly arrived
ultimately to the whole linguistic community. immigrants who enjoyed high social status as
colonial administrators and church officials.
As a result, the innovation was widely imitated and
spread along much of the east coast and the south.
But social pressures also limited the spread of that
innovation.
In Pennsylvania and other Midland states the most
prestigious group of settles were Quakers from northern
England, an area that retained postvocalic [r].
Similarly, in Canada, the influence of Scottish and Irish
settlers, whose dialect retained the [r], limited the
spread of the innovation to those areas there were in
contact with New England, e.g., Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick.
Interestingly, as we discussed before, “r‐less”
pronunciations have become stigmatized and we see an
opposite trend for [r] restoration.
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Historical linguists, aka comparativists, were The forms compared were typically words that
mainly concerned with “reconstructing” the were believed to have developed from the
properties of the parent language of a group of
languages that are believed to be genetically same ancestral root. They are called cognates.
related. Consider the following table of Germanic
Reconstruction was done by means of the cognates:
comparative method, whereby earlier forms
were determined via the comparison of later
forms.
The earlier forms are called proto‐forms, and
the earlier language is called a proto‐language.
English Dutch German Danish Swedish In 1786, Sir William Jones, a British judge and scholar
working in India, noted that Sanskrit bore to Greek
man man Mann mand man and Latin “a stronger affinity … than could possibly
foot voet Fuß fod fot have been produced by accident,” and he suggested
that the three languages had “sprung from a
bring brengen bringen bringe bringa common source”.
This common source is what came to be known later
Compare the Arabic “non‐cognates”: as “Proto‐Indo‐European” (PIE), the parent language
of most of the languages spoken today in Europe,
[radʒul] ‘man’ Persia, and northern India.
[qadam[ ‘foot’
[juћdˤir] ‘bring’
Reconstructions exercises.
Pidgins and Creoles: Read the section in chapter
10 on Languages in contact, pp. 453‐460
Also, follow the link on the syllabus table online
for a chapter on the topic.
Also, have a look at David Crystal’s Encyclopedia
chapter on pidgins and creoles, pp. 334‐339. It is
on reserve.
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