MBA

Organisation Behaviour Management

Lecturer:
1.0 Abstract
Organisation Behaviour is understand and development of people skill
involve in multidisciplinary field provided to have insightful exposure of
individual and group behaviour, interpersonal processes, and organizational
dynamics.
Organisation, achieving that work along in a segment of personnel within an
organisation with a group of people can achieve the required purpose.
Organisation Behaviour is what people do in an organization (social system) and
how that behaviour affects the performance of the organisation.[]Neha Rathi, 23
Aug 2012. k.k. Parekh Institute of Management Studies, Amreli.
Managers are responsible for the functioning of the organisation.
Organisational Behaviour has become very important for managers
Globalization has presented challenges and opportunities for organization
behaviour. Organisation behaviour has become very important for managers
because globalization has presented challenges and opportunities for
organization behaviour. Various changes such as increase in the number of
women employees, corporate downsizing, increase in number of temporary
workers are taking place in the organizations. Business is shifting to where the
technology is driven. There are a lot of challenges and opportunities for
managers to use organizational behaviour concepts. Organisational behaviour
focuses on how to improve productivity, reduce absenteeism, turnover and
deviant workplace behaviour and increase organisational citizenship behaviour
and job satisfaction. It is concerned with the study of what people do in an
organisation and how their behaviour affects the organizations performance.
The following paper is conceptual in nature and it attempts to explain what
organisation behaviour is and its role in management of business.

2.0 Methodology of research:

In this research can find different type of research to complete the report.
They are qualitative research and quantitative research, at this research only
apply with the theoretically model which involve the case study method from
qualitative method thereon, and data will be collected from different websites,
books, journals, articles, etc. Hence, different organisations such as…… are study
in such approach.

3.0 Background of research

Commonly mention management function is the function and procedure of
the manager that lead with planning, leading and controlling, there are distinct
of the functions from the accounting, finance, marketing, etc. Through these
functions is facilitated to obtain a practical means to direct the objectives,
centralised and integrated the direction execution requirements. They are used
to combine the process of so combining the work which individuals or groups
have to perform with facilities necessary for its execution, that the duties so
performed provide the best channels for efficient, systematic, positive and co-
 ordinated application of available effort. In addition it is a system of co-operative
activities of two or more persons. There are involvements of the identifiable
group of people contributing their efforts towards attainment of goals.
There are process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed,
defining and delegating responsibility and authority and establishing relationship
for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in
accomplishing objectives.
Exhibiting more predetermined qualities of mutual relationship by adjust the
diverse elements. Thus, it enables the corporate leaders to defines,
departmentalises and assigns activities so that they can be most effectively
executed.
Moreover, reinforce decentralise management thereof, at the provision of
the authorities, delegation and coordination, similar at the communication with
motivation theory then complete and improve the leadership method to
accomplish goals and plans with the individual effort contribute effectively to
some more or less clearly defined purpose for that have been brought together.
[]Principle Of Management and Organization Behaviour

4.0 Introduction of Organization Behaviour Study

4.1 Understand insight of organization concept and type, organization
behaviour concept and module characteristic.
Organization concept: In social environment whereby people
established organization to achieve the same objective. It goes through
responsibilities arrangement and layer structure to establish the complete
entity.
Content of organization involved: A) specific environment
B) people is the core
C) particular objective
D) with different authorities level
by function regulation
F) active functional opportunities entity

Type of the organization: a)economy organization

b)political organization
c)culture organization
d)mass organization
e)religion organization

4.2 Organization Behaviour: Integrated human related knowledge apply with

the system analysis method. Research a behaviour of a group of people in
the organisation, to predict and leading ability of each managerial
personnel’s behaviour. This is to effectively actualize the company
objective.
4.3 Finding and analysis

4.3.1 Pre-dominate the study of importance of the organizations

behaviour.

Meaning: 1. Research target: Human behaviour displine.

Research area included variety of the bussiness corporation, government

sector, school, hospital, army, etc. Integrated and systematically research on
the group human related research outcome then perusal on the people
behaviour. Purpose of this is to predict the human development trend.

The core of the organization behaviour research and application are

emphasized on the human management to adjust human morale, initiative
and creativity. It also assists on the correct people delegation, reasonably
delegate the talented people. For more advantage is the improvement of
the human relationship hence increase the mass cohesiveness and initiative.
In order to promote leadership level, this method has improve the manager
and subordinates relationship. Overall it would be constructive to assist the
organisation change and development.

4.4 Organizations behaviour study.

It starts from the organization management development to organization
behaviour study. First stage in year of 30’s is the scientific management era, in
spite of business external environment, competition, market situation, etc. The
organisation is implemented as obligated system, policy and principle that
emphasized planning, organizing, command, coordination and control. It also
involve apply tradition and charisma with legal authority and impersonal and
merit basis for selecting, hiring, and promoting employees. []Daniel A. Wren,The
University of Oklahoma and ARTHUR G. BEDEIAN,Louisiana State University
and A&M College,The Evolution of Management Thought,Sixth edition.
2nd stage in 60’s, there were theory from Mayer, Michael Ragge, Burned
and Zaiersnick presented the importance of behaviour. The changes of the
relationship that involved the psychological and social need in the organisation
will influence work efficiency.
3rd(Lawrence and Lorsch) and 4th stage in 70’s, emphasized on the
organization structure and management method that comply to the ultimate
strategy, it apply calculation method as appropriate path. Meanwhile the 4 th
stage is the existent of this company is the contribution to the social thus people
have become the organisation important factor with organization value and
function.
 []http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/98-115_2dcf4172-0442-
416c-a6a9-2a6edf6c0d33.pdf

[]http://www.slideshare.net/vaxelrod/emerging-21st-century-organizational-
models-abc?next_slideshow=1

At present basic structure of the human behaviour theories in such the

psychology, social and culture apply to the individual, group and organization.
In a competitive environment, nonetheless, manager must design organizations
to function effectively even if that design deviates from norm imposed by
national culture and the political context. The finding and analysis for the
organisation behaviour with those 3 categories will describe in the following
chapter and act within the organisation as a key component of successful
management.

5.0 Individual Behaviour

-Insight understanding type of individual behaviour and individual behaviour
characteristics. Subliminal, Initiative, cause and effect, sustainable, changeability
of the behaviour will provide a hint on the person’s characteristic. According to
the economist McGregor assumption, the behaviour is to produce the largest
benefit to themselves. Human behaviour leading the performance of work in the
organization, that guides the development of standard and value orientation.
The theory X deem the laziness behaviour of the people, many individual
objective are opposed to the organisation objective. Therefore, there are
irrational emotional that uncontrolled by people, would average person dislikes
working and will avoid it if possible. As previously stated, people dislike working,
they must be directed, tightly controlled, and pressured to get them to work
toward organisational goals. Further, average person wants security, avoids
responsibility; and has little ambition the manager. And it will be a little latitude
given to the worker by the manager, McGregor has seen how punishment for
the poor performance together with closely supervise them.
-Behaviour theory, realize the factor influence the form of individual.

learning
value attention

attitude perception

-Understanding the theory apply on the management activities.

It seem that the factors of learning, attention, perception, attitude and value can
be modify to reinforce or reward of desired behaviours. Take the example, value
illustrate a firmly held belief and opinion that “a specific mode of conduct or end
–state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse
mode of conduct or end-state of existence. They contain a judgemental element
 in that they carry an individual’s ideas as to what is right, good, or desirable.
Values have both content and intensity attributes. The content attribute says
that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important. The intensity
attribute specifies how important it is. When we rank an individual’s values in
terms of their intensity, we obtain that person’s value system. All of us have a
hierarchy of values that forms our value system. This system is identified by the
relative importance we assign to such values as freedom, pleasure, self-respect,
honesty, obedience, and equality.
-Find how to implement emotion management.
-Understand that use the cognitive error.
-Insightful understand the individual attitude characteristic and attitude that
influence individual behaviour.

The theory Y assumption are as follows

The average person does not dislike work; it is as natural as play. If a person is
committed to a set, he will work towards them without an external control. Goal
commitment follows from the satisfaction of a person’s desire to achieve.
Generally the average person can learn to accept responsibility. Lack of ambition
is not a basic human characteristic. Creativity, ingenuity, and imagination are
human characteristics that are widely dispersed in the population and modern
organizations only partially use and tap the potentialities of its workers.
Managers who hold Theory Y assumptions have a positive view of people;
believe they have much hidden potential, and that people will work toward hese
two sets of different assumptions reigned in the academic literature for many
years. They were widely understood by practicing managers. Although called a
theory, they are not theories as described earlier. They are assumptions or
beliefs about human motivation that can strongly affect management
behaviour.
6.0 Motivation
Theory applies on critical motivation and concept.
-Satisfying that the employees feeling with their work and producing better
results for their employer than they do under other working arrangements. At
the first place, building additional responsibilities into someone’s job sounds a
bit like finding more work for an employee to do, why should employee react
positively to this? The answer can be found by looking at the sorts of factors that
lead people to want to join an organisation and to perform to the best of their
capabilities once there. We are talking here about how to motivate employee at
work. Motivation is one of the most important functions of any manager, and
one of the most difficult to carry out effectively.
Motivation theories have been applied in organisations through a range of
different management techniques, such as job design and empowerment, goal
setting and feedback and the use of reward systems.
Initially, individuals vary in terms of what energizes and directs their
behaviour, both between people and within the same person overtime. Effecting
of the degree and directing of motivation is caused by individual differences and
variations in needs, personality, values, belief and emotional. Second,
Performing of the work that affect the motivational processes such things as the
organisation’s reward system, the nature of the work and the interactions that
take place with managers, work colleagues and customers.
From a managerial mind-set, observing which process on in the mind of
people at work and the motivated behaviours have an important distinction to
be made. Influencing which employee can persistence and intensity
demonstrated in any work provided within the job context and by the
knowledge, skill and ability of the individual worker, as well as through
motivational processes(Blumberg & Pringle 1982).
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, with the possibility that the priority order of
the five needs may vary for different people and overtime for the same
individual.(Wahba & Bridwell 1987). For this and other criticisms, Clayton
Alderfer (1972) has proposed a simplified hierarchical framework, one that
clusters physiological and safety needs together as ‘existence needs’, while love
needs are termed ‘relatedness needs’, and esteem and self-actualisation needs
are termed ‘growth needs’. To the fulfilment progression mechanism, Alderfer
has also added a frustration-regression mechanism. This proposes that higher-
order needs that are frustrated intensify the importance of needs at a lower
level in the hierarchy. Likewise, if I have limited opportunities for the satisfaction
of growth needs, I may compensate for this by seeking greater fulfilment of
lower-order existence and relatedness needs (such as increased pay, more time
socialising with my colleagues).
One of the related problems with the Maslow and Alderfer approaches is
that the categories of needs (such as growth and existence) are defined in pretty
broad and abstract terms, making it difficult for managers to provide specific
opportunities for need fulfilment. David McClelland’s(1987) explanation of
needs and their impact on work motivation avoids this problem by defining a set
of specific higher order needs that, broadly speaking, map onto the growth and
relatedness needs in Alderfer’s framework. These needs are not hierarchically
arranged but exist alongside each other and may even compete with each other
(Steers et al. 2004). Of these three sets of needs, the need for achievement has
received the most attention.

McClelland [] Human motivation By David C. McClelland and his colleagues

have asserted that people with high nAch(need of achievement) are likely to be
motivated more by intrinsic rewards (such as pay, recognition or promotion).
They are also more likely to set themselves more difficult ‘stretch’ goals and to
seek opportunities to take personal responsibility for outcomes (Nicholson
2005). Studies of business entrepreneurs also confirm that high nAch(need of
achievement) indicated desire for significant accomplishment, mastering of
skills, control, or high standards is somewhat predictive of an entrepreneurial
orientation (Collins et al. 2004). Need for affiliation and need for power have
been less frequently studied. McClelland and DH Burnham (1995) differentiate
between leaders’ pursuit of personalised power and their pursuit of socialised
power. The former involves seeking power for reasons of self-interest (such as
personal advancement), while the latter involves seeking power in order to help
others achieve their individual and collective goals. They argue that the need for
socialised power is a key motivational factor for effective leaders. Making which
good team leaders are caused by the high on nAch of manager, in that they seek
out opportunities to build positive social relationships. On the downside,
nevertheless, they seek out opportunities to build positive social relationships.
On the downside, however, they also may tend to avoid dealing with conflict
and can exhibit high levels of conformity in social settings. Developing that can
be shaped for those three set of needs instead of innate, according to
McClelland, through socialisation and training.
Recently, there has been growing interest in another type of need fulfilment
theory, dealing with what is termed ‘intrinsic motivation’ which means ‘the
inherent tendency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise
one’s capabilities, to explore, and to learn’ (Ryan & Deci 2000, p.70). Intrinsic
motivation causes us to do something because the act itself is inherently
satisfying (for example, performing well on a task satisfies an internal
psychological need for competence; taking responsibility for decisions at work
satisfies a need for autonomy or control). This constraints with extrinsic
motivation, which refers to doing something because the act leads to something
else (such as pay, recognition from a supervisor or increased job security) or
because of some externally imposed constraint (such as managerial orders).
According to self determination theory (Ryan & Deci 2000), all humans possess
innate needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness (similar to the growth
and relatedness needs in Alderfer’s hierarchy), which in turn generate an
inherent predisposition for self-motivation among all employees. Where such
opportunities are denied to individuals, it is argued that both their performance
and their psychological health and wellbeing will suffer (Sheldon et al. 2004).
In summary, it is obvious that needs are important sources of motivation,
and that they provide at least part of the answer to the question of what gets
people motivated at work. However, it is important to recognise that the
pathway from needs to motivated behaviour is not always a direct one. The
relationship between the two is mediated and filtered by dispositional
tendencies, by how an individual interprets those needs and the behaviours that
will satisfy them, and by contextual constraints on behaviour (Kanfer 1990). We
now look at the role of personality, values, beliefs and social processes in that
filtering process.

Personality
Helping of the determination are quite stable set of traits, thought processes
and behaviours shaping characteristic behaviour and thought (Judge & Miliffe
2005). ‘Big five’ personality dimension is the best-known way of describing
personality as it relates to behaviour in the work setting. (Barrick & Mount
1991). These are extroversion (for example, gregarious, assertive or socialable
behaviour), emotional stability (for example, calm, secure or relaxed behaviour),
conscientiousness (for example, dependable, organised or hardworking
behaviour) and openness to experience (for example, creative, non-conformist
or flexible behaviour). A meta-analytical study by Tim Judge and Remus Ilies
(2002) has found that emotional stability (negative influence) and
conscientiousness (positive influence) were consistently correlated with
performance motivation. There is also evidence to suggest that age-related
changes in personality may be responsible for declining levels of achievement
motivation among older workers (Kanfer & Ackerman 2004).
Values and performance beliefs
Values are tolerably stable sets of beliefs that people have regarding how
they ideally ought to behave (Kehr 2004). Employee with believes that this is
what must be done. For instance, an employee may decide to stay behind after
hours in that to assist a work colleague who is having difficulty, even though he
or she is hungry and tired and would really like to go home
According to Shalom Schwartz (1992), 10 core values that affect how we
think we must behave. Some of these values (such as achievement and power)
adjust well with the needs-based theories described earlier (for example,
helping one’s colleague in accordance with benevolence values may also satisfy
relatedness needs and the need for socialised power). Nevertheless, values are
likely directly pertaining to our desires to satisfy basic needs, and most probably
conflict with them. We may, for example, believe that we ought to spend time
helping colleagues with their work, but equally not want to do so because of the
impact that it will have on our own achievement levels.

Schwartz’s 10-value model of motivational types of values

Value dimension Specific values

Universalism Broad-mindedness, wisdom, equality,
world at peace, world of beauty,
protecting environment
Conformity Politeness, obedience, self-discipline,
honouring parent
Hedonism Pleasure, enjoying life
Achievement Success, ambition
Benevolence Helpfulness, honesty, forgiveness
Power Social power, wealth, authority
Stimulation Daring, varied life, exciting life
Self-direction Cretivity, freedom, independence
Tradition Humility, devoutness, respect for
tradition
Security Family security, rational security, social
order

Self-efficacy belief can be contributed employees to being influenced by

stable beliefs about what they should do, employees are also powerfully
motivated by their beliefs about what they can do (Luthans 2002). Certain task
and individual performance enhance by a person’s belief to of extend of
outcomes (Stajkovic & Luthans 1998, 2003). For example, Shalom Baum & Edwin
Locke (2004) found that levels of self-efficacy among CEO-entrepreneurs were
strongly related to venture growth up to six years after the levels were initially
measured! Achieving that job demand coped and welled been to the positive
self-efficacy beliefs(Luthans 2002). Related to Albert Bandura (1997), no capable
of achieving of particular goals due to lack of believes, therefore they are less
likely to attempt to do so.
What can managers do to promote positive self-efficacy beliefs among
employees? The following four techniques are commonly used:
1. Enactive mastery
Repeated successful performance is the most powerful determinant of
strong self-efficacy beliefs. Mastering that skills and knowledge Strong
performance beliefs can be created by providing employees with the
opportunities to master the skills and knowledge needed for successful
performance gradually, for instance through incremental experiential
training initiatives and coaching.

2. Modelling
Self-efficacy beliefs can be fostered through vicarious experience.
Observing someone else performing a task effectively may lead us to
feel that we too would be capable of successful performance, especially
if that person is similar to us in terms of age, experience and
demographic characteristics.

3. Verbal persuasion
People frequently become more confident about their ability to perform
a task if others (such as work colleagues or a supervisor) tell them that
they believe that they are capable of it and provide verbal
encouragement.

4. Physiological and affective arousal

People rely on physiological signals in order to interpret how well they
are coping with demanding situations, and the presence of physiological
arousal or anxiety may be interpreted as signalling an inability to cope,
thereby reducing self-efficacy. Hence, any intervention that reduces
stress levels and promotes a positive state of physiological arousal (that
is, excitement as opposed to anxiety) will have a positive effect on
efficacy beliefs.

There are a number of theoretical and practical issues associated

with self-efficacy as a motivational concept. First, is the impact of
efficacy beliefs on motivation task-specific(‘I can do this task, but am not
so confident about that one’), or do people develop general beliefs
about their performance capability that affect the way they approach all
task? While task-specific self-efficacy appears to be the strongest
predictor of motivation and performance in relation to specific tasks,
evidence does exist that some people are generally more confident in
their performance capabilities, no matter what task they tackle (general
self-efficacy). Judge and colleagues (1997) have proposed that
generalised self-efficacy (‘one’s estimate of one’s fundamental ability to
cope, perform and be successful’, as define by Judge & Bono 2001, p.80)
is one of specific traits that indicate a positive self-concept. Gilad Chen &
Richard Klimoski (2003) found that new employees’ general self-efficacy
influenced their role performance expectations and subsequent
motivational processes. Second, when is self-efficacy most important in
influencing performance? Some studies would suggest that relative to
other motivational constructs such as goal-setting, self-efficacy is most
important in the early stages of learning a task. Terence Mitchell (1997)
also suggest that it may have heightened significance when the person is
attempting to achieve a difficult short term goal that is important to the
person. Third, is it possible to be too confident? Possibly yes. For
example, self-efficacy has been found to affect the extent to which
people escalate their commitment to a losing course of action, such as a
failing investment strategy (Whyte et al. 1997). Studies that have
mapped self-efficacy over time have also sometimes shown increased
self-efficacy to have a negative effect on subsequent performance. One
explaination for this is that good performance leads a person to believe
that they will achieve future performance goals more readily (higher self
efficacy), which then causes them to allocate fewer resources towards
achieving that goal; hence performance may drop off following a
mastery-induced rise in self efficacy (Vancouver at. Al. 2002). Finally,
how can we practically assess self-efficacy? Jobs comprise multiple
(frequently changing) tasks, and each task will have associated efficacy
beliefs. In theory, in order to promote self-efficacy, managers needs to
be able to measure and monitor it for each individual and task. The
default option is to treat every person as potentially benefiting from
self-efficacy-enhancing initiatives. Transformational leadership (Bass
1985), for example, has been promoted as a useful generic way of
bolstering follower self-efficacy (Kirkpatrick & Locke 1996). However,
evidence that this approach works in relation to specific tasks is
somewhat mixed (Van Knippenberg at al. 2004). This may reflect the
difficulty leaders experience in matching their efficacy –enhancing
efforts to both the individual and the specific task.

Social influences
A rather neglected, though important, source of employee motivation is
the social context. In the first instance, it seems that simply being
around other people increases physiological arousal levels and energises
individual behaviour, a phenomenon that is termed ‘social facilitation’
(Ferris & Rowland 1983). In part, this arousal results from evaluation
apprehension – the desire to avoid looking bad in-front of others. One
way in which groups generate collective expectations for behaviour, or
‘norms’. Norms are expected role behaviours, unwritten rules that
define how the group expects individual to behave in a work context.
These expectations motivate an employee to engage in the sorts of
behaviours that will be rewarded by the group and therefore generate
greater social acceptance. Group performance beliefs ( for example, ‘we
belief that together we can achieve this’) have also been found to
influence individual motivation, in the same way that individual self-
efficacy beliefs do (Gibson 1999; Gully et al. 2002; Jung & Sosik 2003).
Note that groups do not always channel performance motivation in
desirable directions (see, for example, Barker 1993; Levy 2001). Norms
interact with cohesiveness to have an impact on motivation that arises
from group cohesiveness will bring about improved performance levels
only where norms are supportive of organisational goals. Also, some
people appear to take advantage of being part of a social group,
exerting less effort than other group members or taking less than their
share of responsibility – a phenomenon called ‘free-riding’ or ‘social
loafing’ (Liden et al. 2004).

Emotion
A final source of work motivation relates to a person’s feelings and
emotional state. When we get angry or worked up. We some times act
first and think later. Strong emotional states carry with them their own
presisposition to act, such that we sometimes do things impulsively,
without consciously having formed an intention to behave like that.
These positive and negative emotional states may gradually build up
over time, as a result of the accumulated effect of the daily hassels and
encouragements which are experienced at work (Weiss & Cropanzano
1996). According to Myeong-Gu Seo and colleagues (2004), when people
are experiencing strong positive or negative affect (such as feeling
excited, happy, nervous or up set), they are more likely to expand
energy on task performance then when such feelings are only weak.
Also, when people are feeling happy or in a positive mood, they are
experiencing negative or unpleasant feelings, they will be motivated to
take actions that will result in those feelings being reduced.
So far, we have discussed the impact that variations in a person’s
emotional states has on motivation. However, some people have
relatively stable predispositions towards being in either a positive or
negative mood; in other words, their mood acts like a personality trait,
shaping their typical thoughts and behaviours. Studies have consistently
shown that dispositional positive effect is associated with improved
motivation and increased persistence, while dispositional negative effect
has been associated with employee absence and turnover.

Process approaches
While an understanding of the factors that initiate or energise
motivation is useful, it only tells us part of the story about what makes
people choose to expand effort in a particular direction. Attention now
shifts to the “how” factor in work motivation, and a consideration of
how the motivational energy created by such factors in work motivation,
and a consideration of how the motivational energy created by such
factors as needs, beliefs and personality dispositions is translated into
actual effort and commitment to a course of action. In general, process
theories are concerned with ‘how beliefs about one’s future activities
(and one’s interpretations of past activities) influence one’s actions in
the present” (Mitchell 1997, P.71); we have already discussed the role of
performance beliefs in affecting motivated behaviours, and there are
three main approaches to motivation that seek to explain the dynamics
of how people make choice concerning their behaviour.

Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory seeks to explain the way we choose between
different courses of action in terms of what we believe is likely to
happen in the future as a consequence of choosing a particular course
of action, and in terms of the value we attach to those consequences.
According to this approach, we make an initial decision to expand effort
on performing a task based on our assessment that expand effort on
performing a task based on our assessment that expanding effort will
lead to good performance (P). Such assessments are termed ‘effort-
performance expectancies’ (E>P) and are usually expressed as a
probability ranging from 0 (‘It is almost certain that, even if I tried my
hardest, I would not be able to achieve a good level of performance’).
E>P beliefs are thus closely related to self efficiency beliefs. However,
expectancy theory further proposes that we are also guided in our
actions by what we believe will flow as a consequences of that
performance: ‘If I work hard and performed well (P), what will be the
outcome (0)? Will I get a bonus, the recognition of my pears, or perhaps
greater job security? Or is it unlikely that my good performance will be
noticed and /or rewarded?” The perceived probability that performance
will lead to certain outcomes (P>O) is termed a ‘performance-outcome
expectancy’ and can also range in value from 0 to 1. Initially, the extent
to which our beliefs about effort expenditure and performance
consequences lead to actual motivated behaviour is dependant on the
value (V) we attach to the probable outcomes: ‘I know that if I work hard
I will do a good job and will be paid extra, but money is less important to
me than job security. Hence, my motivation to perform is reduced
 somewhat. In this respect, expectancy theory can accommodate the
ideas raised by needs theorists about the sorts of outcomes people
generally value.

Involve in the motivation structure and motivation function.

There is a framework for answering the meaning of the term motivation,

as well as for understanding how motivation is linked to work performance. At
its core is the idea that motivated behaviour (what we do, how we do it, how
hard we try and how long we perservere) is the net result of a member of
psychological processes that take place within individuals (Kanfer 1995). These
motivational processes are responsible for getting people energised for action
(arousal), for focusing their attention on particular goals (attention and
direction) and for regulating the amount of effort and commitment that is
associated with their pursuits of these goals (intensity and persistence). Two
main factors of these motivational processes help to explain the variability we
frequently observe in the choices people make about what they do at work, the
energy they expand and how committed they are to seeing things through
(Mitchell 1997).

Understand motivation model and motivation theory development.

Organisational justice theory

Motivational theory concerns fairly or unfairly treated of a person in the workplace.

A person with manager position find salaries is less than the average for someone fresh out
of the university. In addition, some of the MBA intake at the person’s working firm have
started on salaries that are equivalent to his, and are receiving side benefit that he never
received when he began work there. Suddenly, he no longer feels as good about his work
and himself casually flicking through the ‘situations vacant’ pages of the newspaper.

In general terms, organisational justice theories which reduce the psychological

tension when someone perceives that they have been treated unfairly to hold that
behaviour is motivated. There are range of the important motivational outcomes such as
organisational citizenship behaviours, job performance, absenteeism and employee theft
(Colquiit el al. 2001); that are predictive with perception of the justice in organisations.
Three form has been used in the organisational justice describe in distributive, procedural
and interactional.

Distributive justice: Appropriateness of outcomes. Equity: Rewarding employees

based on their contributions, like some other people. Is useful to consider one’s strategic
goals that equity tends to provide individual rewards for high performance. Equality: All
employees like to be treated as other employees. It tend to build esprit de corps among
teammates. If one desires to stimulate individual motivation, do wrong towards equality.
Need, like no other, providing the benefit base on one’s personal requirements. If manager
desires to build group cohesion, err toward equality. We shall return to this issue later when
we discuss reward systems.

Second, organisations can balance these considerations by equality and equity

togather. It need not be either-or. Experiments with work groups suggest that it is often best
to provide team members with a basic minimum of benefit. This is analogous to equity. This
sort of hybrid approach has been adopted by many organizations. Their compensation
systems contained a “fixed” base; everyone in a particular job class and with a particular
tenure receives this base. []第二节. Employees are also are encouraged to go beyond this
minimum, earning additional pay through the allocation of merit bonuses ( Milkovich &
New-man, 2005).

Third, different rewards should be provided in accordance with different rules.

Equity works well for some things, such as money, but less well for others, such as status
symbols. Among American managers, it is often seen as money, but less well for others, such
as status symbols. Among American managers, it is often seen as fair to allocate economic
benefits in accordance with equity (i.e., those who perform better might earn more). On the
other hand, social-emotional benefits, such as reserved parking places, are best allocated
equally (Martin & Harder, 1994). Employees often see themselves and their peers as
belonging to a group or, in the most beneficial case, a community. Allocating social-
emotional rewards equally signals that everyone in the organisation matters and is worthy of
respect.

,
http://www.wku.edu/cebs/doctorate/documents/readings/cropanzano_etal_2007_organiza
tional_justice.pdf

Procedural Justice

With procedural justice judgements typically outpacing the influence of outcomes in

shaping a wide variety of reactions to authorities and groups.

But what do people mean when they say a a process is fair or unfair? What concerns
are incorporated in these evaluations? Despite many impressive demonstrations that
people’s? Despite many impressive demonstrations that people’s procedural justice
judgements matter, the meaning of procedural fairness is less clear. Relatively little research
has examine what comprises these potent fairness judgments, and significant
inconsistencies between researchers and studies have emerged. Such inconsistencies
hamper an understanding of the psychology of procedural justice and limit the ability to
apply the insights of justice research in actual group settings.

In this article, we address this shortcoming by elaborating and empirically testing

the four-component model of procedural justice (Blader & Tyler, in press; Tyler & Blader,
2000), a theoretical model specifying the concerns people focus on when evaluating
procedural justice. The model identifies two dimensions, procedural function and the source
of the procedure, which combine to develop the component that give procedural justice
judgements their meaning. These components result in an innovative organization of the
elements of procedural justice, one that is directly linked to the broader groups literature.
We argue that the four components model is more complete and conceptually rigorous than
previous approaches to understanding what people consider when evaluating process
fairness.

Early efforts to understand the concerns people have when evaluating procedural
justice were focused on stipulating specific standards of process fairness. For instance,
Leventhal (1980) specified six criteria of fair procedure: bias suppression, accuracy,
correctability, representativeness, and ethicality. These characteristics of fair procedures,
however, did not grow out of a strong theoretical tradition ( Lind & Tyler, 1988, p.131), have
been subject to little empirical scrutiny (for a recent exception, Colquitt, 2001), and are
regarded as not representing the breadth of procedural concerns ( Cropanzano &
Greenberg. 1997; Lind & Tyler (1998) proposed an alternative model of procedural justice
that links procedural justice reactions to relational concerns. (Cropanzano & Greenberg,
1997; Lind & Tyler,1988). Consequently, Leventhal’s criteria were not a primary influence on
subsequent procedural justice research (Tyler et al., 1997).

http://www.psy.tcu.edu/justice.pdf

Conversely, Thibaut and Walker’s (1975) control model of procedural justice has
had a dominant influence on procedural justice work. Their approach links people’s concern
with procedures to their desire to influence their outcomes, and thus defines procedural
fairness as the level of input or participation that procedures allow (often referred to as
voice). Lind and Tyler (1988) proposed an alternative model of procedural justice that links
procedural justice is defined by criteria that are relational in nature, such as status
recognition, trust in the benevolence of authorities, and neutrality (Tyler, Degoey & Smith,
1996).

Although each of these early efforts suggest different ways in which procedural
justice may be defined, the primary goal of these models is to explained why procedural
justice matters, not the range of concerns that it encompasses or its definition. More
generally, there has been a paucity of empirical research investigating the range of process
fairness concerns and how people naturally group procedural justice’s constituent elements.
This had led to considerable debate regarding how to best conceptualize the scope and
content of procedural justice evaluations , leading to disagreement about issues such as
whether procedural justice can and should be distinguished from “interactional” justice
(Bobocel & Holmvall, 2001). Leaving such controversies unresolved stifles the progress of
justice research and leaves unanswered the theoretical question of what people consider
when making procedural justice judgements. We argue that a theoretical framework that
organizes people’s procedural justice considerations represents the most appropriate
approach to resolving these issues. The four component model represents just such a
theoretical framework.

Procedural Function

http://www.insead.edu/facultyresearch/research/doc.cfm?did=46420
 In their seminar work, Thibaut and Walker (1975) proposed that perceptions of
procedural fairness were crucially influence d by participant control such as freedom to
control either their work inputs, their outcomes, or both. They defined procedural justice as
the extent to which those affected by a decision are able to present information relevant to
it (Korsgaard and Roberson, 1995). Leading which employee commit and attach to the
decision and group, and trust in its leader. Kim and Mauborgne (2005) explained why such
define happen. Cooperating that voluntary strategy execution has occurs with intellectual
and emotional recognition in hamper the trust and commitment. Otherwise, distrusting
which reduces cooperation in strategic execution because of the intellectual and emotional
indignation.

Laventhal, Kruza and Fry explored just process have been used to all to mitigate the
ill effect which comprise free of bias, accurate, representative of relevant stakeholders, and
consistent with ethical norms. For further is the believes of the worker on the outcome of
the job performed that affect satisfaction with the decision made from the organisation as a
whole. Worker will less likely to betray the organisation and its leaders by showing greater
loyalty and more willingness to behave in an organization’s best interest.

Interactional Justice

According to Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter, & Ng, (2001), there are two part for
these kind of justice, that one refers to whether one is truthful and provides adequate
justifications when things go badly. While another part called interpersonal justice, refers to
the respect and dignity with which one treats another. Both are important.

At its ultimate release this justice presenting opportunities for organization by

emphasizes 1 on 1 transaction, employees often seek it from their supervisors. Behaving
whose Skarlicki and Latham’s quasi experimental study trained union leaders to behave
more justly. (1996). Handling who taught to provide explanations and apologizes and to
treat their reports with courtesy and respect. It is obvious that work groups were examined
3 months later, individuals who reported to trained leaders can be seen more helpful
citizenship behaviours than individuals who reported to untrained leaders.

Reinforcement

Striving that manager will provide praise to people perform well at work so they will
continue to work excellence. Shaping that behaviour and performance among employees
motivated by rewards conditional upon performance is grounded in reinforcement theory.
Leading which positive outcomes produce from the past action and repeated. At the same
time the negative outcome will tend to reduce. It appears that the ‘reinforcers’ are events
that increase the frequency of a behaviour, such as working hard. Meanwhile, those that
reduce its frequency are called ‘punishers’. It is suggested that, employees learn the
relationships termed contingencies after some time which exist between behaviour with
their voluntary control and its consequences, and this contingencies then shape future
behaviours. This is indicated the important ‘If I do this, it tends to happen’.

For instance, Luthans & Stajkovic 1999[]Contemporary issues in management and

organisational behaviour, Peter Murray, David Poole, Grant ones.

said the reinforcement has been influence the direction, intensity and persistence of a
person’s work behaviour based on the timing or scheduling of reinforcement. Occurring
that desired behaviours are effective rely on the affiliate of the actual behaviour and the
reinforcement. Moreover there are included financial, non-financial and social reinforcers.
The relational case of the power of the reinforcement, receive commission every time make
a sale or praise every time hand in a completed assignment, this is called ‘continuous
reinforcement’. For fix interval or variable interval, an employee will received recognition for
continued attendance at work in the form of a fortnightly pay cheque or occasional praised
from a manager. On the other hand, fixed ratio reinforcement will give a service
representative a bonus pertaining to the number of customers called or to the number of
successful called made that imply variable-ratio reinforcement..

Application of motivation theory

Content, process, expectancy, reinforcement and goal setting theories find their way
of applied motivational approaches used within organisations. These are now briefly
reviewed and discussed.

Recruitment and selection

For staffing selection process, personality testing are used. All applicant for officer
jobs need to be assessed against the big five personality framework, with value,
conscientiousness and emotional stability dimensions. For instance, BHP-Billiton recruit
people who possess a particular values set that includes cooperation, respect for others, a
concern for safety and the environment, and a strong performance orientation. For
applicant taking up a job from an organisation with value congruence is a factor of
motivating decision making.

Job design and empowerment

Designing that task and job received by employee earn more growth can improve
motivation in the workplace. Satisfying which adopt five core features of a job determine its
potential to be intrinsically motivating, providing the employees the opportunities of higher
order growth needs.

These core features are

1. Skill variety – the degree to which the job requires a variety of different
activities. Engaging a number of different skills and talents of the employee.
2. Task identity- the degree to which the job involves producing an identifiable
complete piece of work.
3. Task significance- the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the
lives and work of others, both inside and outside the organisation.
4. Autonomy-the amount of discretion the employee has to make decisions about
how and when the job is performed.
5. Feedback- the degree to which an employee is able to judge directly how well he
or she is performing the required tasks.

The Job Characteristic Model JCM proposes that jobs that rate highly in terms of
these five features satisfy employee growth needs such as the needs for
competence, autonomy and relatedness, and hence are intrinsically motivating.
Motivating which exhibit greater level of job satisfaction to the employee, employee
will be more strongly motivated to attend work, will tend to stay in the job longer
and will also take greater care in producing quality work.

Goal setting and feedback

Goal setting theory finds its principal application for the coming review
period, systems devised for monitoring progress towards those goals, information
on progress fed back to the individual manager and, finally, performance reviewed
to those goals.

Settings that goals require by employees need some ways of prioritising

goals, and also of dealing with apparent conflicts. Non goal areas are likely to be
neglected to key aspect when goals are not set in relation to all key aspects of
performance. For example, targeted relating only to the quantity of production likely
affect the aspect of performance relate to quality and safety. Goals are analogues as
inputs such as resources or processes such as techniques used.
 Generating whose employees had the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities
to achieve goals, and also need to adjust goal difficulty to suit each employee. There
also comes a point where the setting of multiple difficult goals can result in an
excessive workload for the employee, so managers need to ensure that goal
attainment is supported by a reasonable workload, adding staff where they are
clearly needed. The obstacle for these stretch goals are involves the variety of the
people in term of the self-efficacy and ability. Stress can arise when a task’s difficulty
is too high, or when goal-related activities generate excessive workloads. Ensuring
the goal attainment is supported by a reasonable workload, adding staff where they
are clearly needed. In order to similar with as said, reducing the excessive workload
for the employee comes a point setting of multiple difficult goals.

Providing by the manager, subordinates , customers and peers as well as

supervisors about the information accurately how well the person is doing. That
enable the creation of best work goals and sub goals.

Contingencies with managing:

1. Excessive risk taking. Employees excessive risks in performing work happen

with significant reward for goal attainment. Employees likely determine not
to follow standard operating procedures with respect to safety because to
do so would slow progress towards achieving a production targets.
2. Reacting inappropriately to failure. Solution that used by the manager to
encounter the situation of an employee fails to achieve a difficult goals, this
may result in feelings of inadequacy and ultimately lowered self efficacy,
affecting the employee’s willingness to commit to future difficult goals. This
is a non punitive response to goal failure and also to offer rewards for
partial goal attainment.
3. Treating goals as ceilings. Setting of the subsequent goals with employee
participation which can achieve above the desired standard. Together with
this performance that additional rewards flow can be used to counteract
the people believe that higher levels of performance will result in even
more difficult and unattainable levels of performance being set as ceiling
standards.
4. Cheating the system. Working of the action plans in advance and if
managers show themselves willing to renegotiate goals that turn out to
have been inappropriately set in the first instance. An
5. Ignoring the long term. The performance appraisal system are the limit for
the employee to perform, thus this may encourage them to set only goals
that are achievable within that timeframe instead of the long term aspects
of performance.
6. Inflexible process. Changing that organization’s performance need are to
encounter the employees and technologies change situation.
 Increasing that motivation and performance appropriately designed and
implemented programs of goal setting and feedback hamper increased motivation
and performance for jobs at all levels of the organisation and across all occupational
settings.

Reward systems

This system is in organisations are using expectancy, organisational justice,

reinforcement and even content theories motivation of framework. Potential of pay,
Its suggest that the potential of pay, praise and advancement to motivate will
depend on how much those extrinsic rewards are valued by different individuals
over time, and it encourages the individualisation of rewards systems such as
‘cafeteria-style’ payment schemes). On the other hand, it also mention “clear line of
sight” between individual employees’ behaviour and the rewards they receive is
important for motivating work performance, and the unintended pay. In addition,
how people perceived they will be treated with reward system that certain value
affected on it. There will be a support to maintain internal and external equity in the
administration of the rewards at a company.

[]http://books.google.com.my/books?
id=B3jLCYTl8GIC&pg=PR15&lpg=PR15&dq=issues+and+organization+behaviour+ma
nagement&source=bl&ots=TH-CqaBltF&sig=6IaTS-
9zLzVZros81g_qxUL1S08&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3MtYVOS8I8qzuASYyIDQAQ&ved=0CFcQ
6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=issues%20and%20organization%20behaviour
%20management&f=false

Manager have to maximise performance and productivity with individual

differences of psychological process that comprises values, personalities, performance
beliefs and emotional states which vary over time and between individuals.

Actual behaviour with motivational energy will be modified by how people

evaluate the consequences.

Rewarding that is evaluated by people about consequences both past and

future effort expenditure which processes of social comparison generate positive benefits
by motivated behaviour. Whether the rewards for effort and performance are seen as fair
bound to those being received by others although the intrinsically task of diagnose the
specific motivations relating a particular behaviour.

Nevertheless, manager will use specific recruitment and selection

techniques, via the design of complexity motivating jobs, to goal-setting and feedback
interventions and pay-for-performance schemes, all these can increase motivation generally
among employees and to manage it appropriately.
 []http://books.google.com.my/books?
id=B3jLCYTl8GIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ebook+google+MBA+Organisation+B
ehaviour+Management&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dvknVPLsF4SUuASn2oLAAQ&ved=0CD
cQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false

7.0 Group behaviour

This is insight understand main factor of the group behaviour and work
performance.
A Group is “a collection of two or more interaction individuals with a stable
pattern of relationships between them, who share common goals and who
perceive themselves as being a group.”[]
http://www.slideshare.net/birubiru/organizational-behaviour-unit-iii-new
The main factor influence the group behaviour are group characteristics that
comprises the interaction among members, shared goals, people see themselves
as members , two or more people, etc.

For understanding of group concept, type, individual and group interrelation and
development stage.
Type of group
Formal and informal groups
Organisation’s structure defined a designated work group. Specified
member regulations and rules by hierarchy of authority constitute a distinctive
stature of formal groups.
There are two main types :
a) COMMAND GROUPS: The manager and his or her immediate team.
b) TASK GROUPS: People working together to finish a job task AND
INFORMAL GROUP, also called a clique, it is deal to natural formations
in the work environment which play out across to the need for social
contract.

Interacting, Coacting and Counter Acting Groups:

Interacting groups: The work of one group member is contingent as that of
the others. Ex: ASSEMBLY LINE WORKERS.
 Co-acting groups: work of individual group members is independent, such as
job in shop operations.
Counter acting groups: Negotiating used techniques of labour management
will restore mutual differences along with interactive.

Open and closed groups:

These are two extreme points at one end is open group, which is in a
constant state of change while in closed group, it is quite stable.

Membership and reference groups:

Membership groups are those to which the individual actually belongs, while
reference groups are the one with which one identifies or would like to belong.

In groups and out groups

The group to which one belongs are in groups, and groups to which they do
not are out groups, especially if they look upon them with certain amount of
antagonism.

Group growth
There are different attractions towards individuals belong to different
groups. Most popular reasons are included factors proximity, interaction and
influence. Also satisfaction factors of individual social needs of security, esteem,
affiliation, power, identity and huddling.

Determinants of Group Behaviour

External
conditions
Imposed
on Groups
 Group Group
member structure
resources

Group
processes

Group task

Performance
and
satisfaction

Several variables influence Group

Performance and satisfaction

External conditions: A group is a Subsystem of a formal organization. All

elements of the organisation will have their influence on a group such elements
include organization strategy, authority structures, formal regulations,
organizational resources, procurement of personnel, performance appraisal with
reward system, organizational culture and physical work setting.
Group Member Resources
Group performance depends to a considerable extent on the meber
rsources. It comprises: abilities of managers and personality characteristics.
Group structure
Work groups are organized systems they have a structure that shapes the
behaviour of members and makes it possible to explain and predict a large
portion of individual behaviour within a group as well as of group’s
performance.
It included leadership, interpersonal compatibility, roles, status congruence
and group size.

Group process
 This process variable in the group behaviour model refer to the
communication patterns used by members for information exchanges, group
decision processes, leader behaviour etc.
Group tasks
Groups facilitate organizational task accomplishment. Group performance
depends on the type of task it is involved in types of task:
1) On the basis of time frame: Short term and long term

2） Task requirements: routine and complex

3) Task Objectives.

Group development

Groups are formed and developed through several stages. The process of
developing a group form a group of strangers to a unit of cohesive and well
co-ordinated teaur members requires time and a great deal of intersection
among group members.

Stages of group development

Pre-Stage

Forming 1

Storming 2

Norming 3

Performing 4

Adjourning 5

There is an alternative theory of group development

New Task New Mutual

Members Acceptance

Control and Communication and

organization Decision Making

Motivation and
productivity
Figure. Stages of group development

Group Norms
 Beliefs, feelings and attitudes commonly shared by group members
is called Group Norms. These are also referred to as rules and standards of
behaviour that apply to group members. Rules and standards of behaviour are
utilise to group members. Norms serve three functions in groups:
-Predictive
-Control
-Rational

http://www.slideshare.net/birubiru/organizational-behaviour-unit-iii-new

As first, norms provide a basis for understanding behaviour of others

Second, norms regulate the behaviour of remembers
Finally, some norms define relationships among roles.
Norms develop with carry-over from other experiences. In addition, earlier
behaviour utilise for the development. Moreover, clearly define statements
from leaders or members. Ultimately, there are critical events in group’s history.
Performing that help group meet their twin aims with enforcement on their
members. The enforcement are to achived the group success, reflect
preferences of supervisor, predict behaviour expected and avoid embarrassing
interpersonal. The feature of groups which is particularly important for the
behaviour of their members is COHESIVENESS Exten
Group cohesiveness
Attracting that have the particularly important for the behaviour of their
members are the cohesiveness extent to each other of the member. It is the
degree to which members are attached to and motivated to remain a part of a
group.
Sources of cohesiveness
Group cohesiveness can be affected by factors:
Interaction
Threat
Severity of initiation
Co-operation
Shared Goals
Attitudes vs values
Size

Consequences of group cohesiveness

These are both positive and negative. Positive: Increase morale in cohesive
groups.
positive
Next is, its effect on productivity.
Easy is, its effect on productivity.
Easy communication flow in such a group.
Conformity and Influence are the benefits of cohesive groups.
Negative
 Group think is a biggest problem
Lower productivity is crucial when performance norms are low.

Decision Making In Groups:

One of the Key activities in which group members engage is the making of
decisions.

Find relative factor which cause conflict and negotiation of the group. Find
the sources and method to handle conflict.

Study principle in the interpersonal relationship and method to improve

interpersonal skills. Expose cause of the less capable and affordable group
likewise how to concern these groups. Involve in the realization of the concept,
content and type in interpersonal relationship for group establishment.

8.0. Leadership Behaviour

Discover and insight understand the concept of the leadership.

Function of the leadership.

Acknowledge the leadership theory research.

Promote efficiency of the leadership.

[]http://books.google.com.my/books?
id=VR3QgnNaAFAC&q=organization&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4#v=snippet&q=organ
ization&f=false