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ELECTRICAL MACHINES – II
IV SEM (IARE-R18)
 MODULE - I
PULSATING AND REVOLVING
MAGNETIC FIELDS
Rotating Magnetic Field
 Balanced three phase windings, i.e. mechanically displaced 120
degrees form each other, fed by balanced three phase source

 A rotating magnetic field with constant magnitude is produced,

rotating with a speed

3
 Contd..
• Where fe is the supply frequency and

P is the no. of poles and nsync is called the synchronous speed in

rpm (revolutions per minute)

• Synchronous speed:
P 50 Hz 60 Hz
2 3000 3600
4 1500 1800
6 1000 1200
8 750 900
4
Contd..

5
 Contd..
Bnet (t )  Ba (t )  Bb (t )  Bc (t )
 BM sin(t )0  BM sin(t  120)120  BM sin(t  240)240
 BM sin(t )xˆ
3
[0.5BM sin(t  120)]xˆ  [ BM sin(t  120)]yˆ
2
3
[0.5BM sin(t  240)]xˆ  [ BM sin(t  240)]yˆ
2
1 3 1 3
Bnet (t )  [ BM sin(t )  BM sin(t )  BM cos(t )  BM sin(t )  BM cos(t )]xˆ
4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3
[ BM sin(t )  BM cos(t )  BM sin(t )  BM cos(t )]yˆ
4 4 4 4

 [1.5BM sin(t )]xˆ  [1.5BM cos(t )]yˆ

 MODULE - II
INDUCTION MACHINES
Construction
• An induction motor has two main parts
• stator
• consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow, cylindrical core
• core, constructed from stacked laminations (why?), having a
number of evenly spaced slots, providing the space for the stator
winding
 Contd…
Rotor
 composed of punched laminations, stacked to create a series of
rotor slots, providing space for the rotor winding
 one of two types of rotor windings
 conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire (wound-
rotor) » similar to the winding on the stator
 aluminum bus bars shorted together at the ends by two aluminum
rings, forming a squirrel-cage shaped circuit (squirrel-cage)
 Two basic design types depending on the rotor design
 squirrel-cage: conducting bars laid into slots and shorted at both ends by
shorting rings.
 wound-rotor: complete set of three-phase windings exactly as the stator.
Usually Y-connected, the ends of the three rotor wires are connected to
3 slip rings on the rotor shaft. In this way, the rotor circuit is accessible
Contd…
Cage and Wound rotor
Squirrel cage rotor

Wound rotor

Notice the
slip rings
Principle of operation
 This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an
induced voltage in the rotor windings
 Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both
squirrel cage and wound-rotor, and induced current flows in the rotor
windings
 The rotor current produces another magnetic field
 A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic
fields

 ind  kBR  Bs
Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic flux
densities of the rotor and the stator respectively
Induction motor speed
• At what speed will the IM run?

 Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?

 If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is the same speed of the
rotating magnetic field, then the rotor will appear stationary to the rotating
magnetic field and the rotating magnetic field will not cut the rotor. So, no
induced current will flow in the rotor and no rotor magnetic flux will be
produced so no torque is generated and the rotor speed will fall below the
synchronous speed

 When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will cut the rotor windings
and a torque is produced
 Contd...
• So, the IM will always run at a speed lower than the synchronous
speed
• The difference between the motor speed and the synchronous speed
is called the Slip
nslip  nsync  nm

Where nslip= slip speed

nsync= speed of the magnetic field
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor
Slip
nsync  nm
s 
nsync

Where s is the slip

Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above eq. by 100,
notice that the slip is a ratio and doesn’t have units
Rotor Frequency
• The frequency of the voltage induced in the rotor is given by

Pn
fr 
120

Where fr = the rotor frequency (Hz)

P = number of stator poles
n = slip speed (rpm)
P  ( ns  nm )
fr 
120
P  sns
  sf e
120
 Contd…
• What would be the frequency of the rotor’s induced voltage at any speed
nm?

fr  s fe

When the rotor is blocked (s=1) , the frequency of the induced voltage is
equal to the supply frequency
On the other hand, if the rotor runs at synchronous speed (s = 0), the
frequency will be zero
Equivalent Circuit
• The induction motor is similar to the transformer with the exception that
its secondary windings are free to rotate
 Contd…
• When the rotor is locked (or blocked), i.e. s =1, the largest voltage and rotor
frequency are induced in the rotor, Why?

• On the other side, if the rotor rotates at synchronous speed, i.e. s = 0, the
induced voltage and frequency in the rotor will be equal to zero, Why?

ER  sER 0
Where ER0 is the largest value of the rotor’s induced voltage obtained at s =
1(locked rotor)
 Contd…
• The same is true for the frequency, i.e.
fr  s fe
It is known that
X   L  2 f L
So, as the frequency of the induced voltage in the rotor changes, the
reactance of the rotor circuit also changes
Where Xr0 is the rotor reactance at the supply frequency (at blocked rotor)

X r  r Lr  2 f r Lr
 2 sf e Lr
 sX r 0
 Contd...

• Then, we can draw the rotor equivalent circuit as follows

Where ER is the induced voltage in the rotor and RR is the

rotor resistance
 Contd…
• Now we can calculate the rotor current as

ER
IR 
( RR  jX R )
sER 0

( RR  jsX R 0 )

Dividing both the numerator and denominator by s so nothing changes

we get
ER 0
IR 
RR
(  jX R 0 )
s

Where ER0 is the induced voltage and XR0 is the rotor reactance at
blocked rotor condition (s = 1)
 Contd...
• Now we can have the rotor equivalent circuit

Now as we managed to solve the induced voltage and different

frequency problems, we can combine the stator and rotor circuits in
one equivalent circuit
 Contd...

• Where

X 2  aeff
2
X R0
R2  aeff
2
RR
IR
I2 
aeff
E1  aeff ER 0
NS
aeff 
NR
Numerical Problems
1. The EMF in the stator of an 8 pole induction motor has a
frequency of 50 Hz and that in the rotor is 1.5Hz. At what speed
the motor is running and what Isc the slip?

2. In case of an 8-pole induction motor the supply frequency was 50

Hz and the shaft speed was 735 rpm. Compute (i) Synchronous
speed (ii) Slip speed per unit slip (iii) Percentage slip.
 Contd…
3. An 8 pole, 3phase alternator is coupled to a prime mover running at 750
rpm. It supplies an induction motor which has a full load speed of 960 rpm.
Find the number of poles of induction motor and slip.

4. The frequency of stator EMF is 50 Hz for an 8-pole induction motor. If the

rotor frequency is 2.5 Hz, calculate the slip and the actual speed of rotor.
Power losses
• Copper losses

• Copper loss in the stator (PSCL) = I12R1

• Copper loss in the rotor (PRCL) = I22R2

• Core loss (Pcore)

Mechanical power loss due to friction and windage

How this power flow in the motor?

Power relations
Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 Vph I ph cos 

PSCL  3 I12 R1

PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )

Pconv  PAG  PRCL

Pconv
 ind 
m
 Contd..

Pin  3 VL I L cos   3 Vph I ph cos 

PSCL  3 I12 R1
R2 PRCL
PAG  Pin  ( PSCL  Pcore )  Pconv  PRCL  3I 2
2 
s s
PRCL  3I 22 R2
R2 (1  s) PRCL (1  s)
Pconv  PAG  PRCL  3I 22 
s s
Pconv  (1  s) PAG
Pconv (1  s) PAG
Pout  Pconv  ( Pf  w  Pstray )  ind  
m (1  s)s
Numerical problems
1. The power input to a 500V, 50Hz, 6-pole, 3-phase induction motor
running at 975 rpm is 40 KW. The stator losses are 1KW and the friction
and wind age losses total to 2KW, Calculate i) The slip ii) Rotor copper
loss iii) Shaft power.

2. A 4 pole, 400 V, 3phase IM has a standstill rotor EMF of 100 V per phase.
The rotor has resistance of 50 Ώ/ph and standstill reactance of 0.5 Ώ/ph.
Calculate the maximum torque & slip at which it occurs. Neglect stator
impedance.
 Contd..
3. An 8-pole, 50 Hz, 3 phase slip ring IM has effective resistance of 0.08
/phase the speed corresponding to maximum torque is 650 rpm. What is
the value of resistance to be inserted in rotor circuit to obtain maximum
torque at starting?

4. 500HP, 30, 440V, 50Hz induction motor has a speed of 950 rpm on full load.
The machine has 6 poles. Calculate

a) Slip and Speed of rotor field with respect to rotor.

b) Speed of rotor field with respect to stator

c) Complete alternations of rotor voltage per minute.

Relative speed between stator field with respect to rotors

Torque, power and Thevenin’s Theorem

 Thevenin’s theorem can be used to transform the network to the left

of points ‘a’ and ‘b’ into an equivalent voltage source VTH in series

with equivalent resistance

 Contd..

jX M XM
VTH  V | VTH || V |
R1  j ( X 1  X M ) R12  ( X 1  X M )2
RTH  jX TH  ( R1  jX1 ) // jX M
 Contd..

• Since XM>>X1 and XM>>R1

XM
VTH  V
X1  X M

Because XM>>X1 and XM+X1>>R1

2
 XM 
RTH  R1  
 X1  X M 
X TH  X 1
 Contd..
VTH VTH
I2  
ZT  R2 
2

 RTH    ( X TH  X 2 )
2

 s 

Then the power converted to mechanical (Pconv)

R2 (1  s)
Pconv  3I 2
2
s
And the internal mechanical torque (Tconv)
R2
Pconv Pconv 3I 22
 ind    s  PAG
m (1  s)s s s
 Contd..
2
 
 
3  VTH   R2 
 ind     s 
s 
  
2

 R  2  ( X  X )2
R
  TH s  TH 2 
 

R 
3VTH2  2 
 ind 
1  s 
s  R 
2

 RTH  2   ( X TH  X 2 ) 2
 s 
Torque-speed characteristics
 Contd..
1. The induced torque is zero at synchronous speed. Discussed earlier.
2. The curve is nearly linear between no-load and full load. In this range, the
rotor resistance is much greater than the reactance, so the rotor current,
torque increase linearly with the slip.
3. There is a maximum possible torque that can’t be exceeded. This torque is
called pullout torque and is 2 to 3 times the rated full-load torque.
4. The starting torque of the motor is slightly higher than its full-load torque,
so the motor will start carrying any load it can supply at full load.
5. The torque of the motor for a given slip varies as the square of the applied
voltage.
6. If the rotor is driven faster than synchronous speed it will run as a
generator, converting mechanical power to electric power.
Torque- Speed Characteristics
Contd..
Numerical Problems on Torque
1. A 25 hp, 6 poles, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor has stator/ rotor ratio of 6/5.
The stator and rotor impedances per phase are (0.25+ j0.75) ohms and
(0.173+j0.52) ohms respectively. Find the starting torque exerted by the motor
when an external resistance of 1 ohm is inserted in each phase, the motor being
started directly on the 400 V supply system. Assume star connection

2. A 40 kw, 3-phase slip-ring induction motor of negligible stator impedance runs at

a speed of 0.96 time’s synchronous speed at rated torque. The slip at maximum
torque is 4 times the full load value. If the rotor resistance of the motor is
increased by 5 times, determine: a) the speed, power output and rotor copper
loss at rated torque b) The speed corresponding o maximum torque
 Contd..
3. The power input to a 6-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor is 700 W at no
load and 10 kw at full load. The no load copper loss may be assumed
negligible whiles the full load stator and rotor copper losses are 295 W and
310 W respectively. Find the full load speed, shaft torque and efficiency of
the motor assuming rotational and core losses to be equal.
No-load test

1. The motor is allowed to spin freely

2. The only load on the motor is the friction and windage losses,
so all Pconv is consumed by mechanical losses
3. The slip is very small
 Contd..

4. At this small slip

R2 (1  s) R 2 (1  s)
 R2 &  X2
s s

The equivalent circuit reduces to…

 Contd..

5. Combining Rc & RF+W we get……

 Contd..
6. At the no-load conditions, the input power measured
by meters must equal the losses in the motor.
7. The PRCL is negligible because I2 is extremely small
because R2(1-s)/s is very large.
8. The input power equals
Pin  PSCL  Pcore  PF &W
 3I12 R1  Prot

Prot  Pcore  PF &W

 Contd..
9. The equivalent input impedance is thus approximately
V
Z eq   X1  X M
I1,nl
If X1 can be found, in some other fashion, the magnetizing
impedance XM will be known
Blocked rotor test
• In this test, the rotor is locked or blocked so that it cannot move, a voltage
is applied to the motor, and the resulting voltage, current and power are
measured.
 Contd..
• The AC voltage applied to the stator is adjusted so that the current flow is
approximately full-load value.
• The locked-rotor power factor can be found as

Pin
PF  cos  
3Vl I l

The magnitude of the total impedance

V
Z LR 
I
 Contd..

Z LR  RLR  jX LR
'

 Z LR cos   j Z LR sin 

RLR  R1  R2
'
X LR  X 1'  X 2'
Where X’1 and X’2 are the stator and rotor reactances at the
test frequency respectively

R2  RLR  R1

f rated '
X LR  X LR  X 1  X 2
ftest
Numerical Problems on Circle diagram
1. Draw the circle diagram of a 20 hp, 400 V, 50 Hz, 3- phase star- connected
induction motor from the following test data (line values)

No load 400 V 9A Pf 0.2

Blocked rotor 200 V 50 A Pf 0.4

From the circle diagram find (i) line current and power factor at full load (ii)

Maximum power output

 Contd..
2. Draw the circle diagram for a 5 hp, 200 V, 50 Hz, 4 pole, 3 – phase, star
connected induction motor from the following data: (i) 200 V, 5A, 350 W
(ii) 100 V, 26 A, 1700 W (iii) Rotor copper loss at standstill = half of the
total copper loss. Estimate there from the full load current, power factor,
speed and torque.

3. A 400 V, 3-Phase, 50 Hz, star connected induction motor has the following
test results: No load test 400 V 8.5 A 1100 W
Blocked rotor 180 V 45 A 5799 W
test

Calculate the line current and power factor when operating at 4%

slip. The stator resistance per phase is 0.5 Ω
Numerical problems on circle diagram
1. Draw the circle diagram of a 100 hp, 400 V, 50 Hz, 3- phase star-
connected induction motor from the following test data (line values)
No load test 400 V 9A Pf 0.3

Blocked rotor 200 V 100 A Pf 0.45

test
From the circle diagram find (i) line current and power factor at full load
(ii)Maximum power output

2. Draw the circle diagram for a 20 hp, 200 V, 50 Hz, 4 pole, 3 – phase, star
connected induction motor from the following data: (i) 200 V, 9A, 425 W
(ii) 100 V, 59 A, 2100 W (iii) Rotor copper loss at standstill = Quarter of
the total copper loss. Estimate there from the full load current, power
factor, speed and torque
 Contd..
3. A 400 V, 3-Phase, 50 Hz, star connected induction motor has the
following test results:
No load test 400 V 9.5 A 1150 W

Blocked rotor 195 V 63A 6899 W

test

Calculate the line current and power factor when operating at 5% slip.
The stator resistance per phase is 0.5 Ω
Starting methods
Full Voltage Starting Method for Squirrel Cage Induction Motor:

Direct on Line Starting Method

• This method is also known as the DOL method for starting the three
phase squirrel cage induction motor. In this method we directly switch the
stator of the three phase squirrel cage induction motor on to the supply
mains. The motor at the time of starting draws very high starting current
(about 5 to 7 times the full load current) for the very short duration. The
amount of current drawn by the motor depends upon its design and size.
But such a high value of current does not harm the motor because of
rugged construction of the squirrel cage induction motor.
 Contd..
Reduced voltage method for starting squirrel cage induction motor:
In reduced voltage method we have three different type of starting method
and these are written below:

 Stator resistor starting method

 Auto transformer staring method

 Star delta starting method

 Now let us discuss each of these methods in detail.

 Stator Resistor Starting Method

Stator resistor starting method
Auto Transformer Starting Method
Star-Delta Starting Method
Addition of External Resistances in Rotor Circuit
• This will decrease the starting current, increases the starting torque and
also improves the power factor. The circuit diagram is shown below: In the
circuit diagram, the three slip rings shown are connected to the rotor
terminals of the wound rotor motor. At the time of starting of the motor,
the entire external resistance is added in the rotor circuit. Then the external
rotor resistance is decreased in steps as the rotor speeds up, however the
motor torque remain maximum during the acceleration period of the
motor.

• Induction motor always operates at lagging power factor while the

synchronous motor can operate at both lagging and leading power factor.
 Contd..
• In an induction motor the value of maximum torque is directly proportional to
the square of the supply voltage while in case of synchronous machine the
maximum torque is directly proportional to the supply voltage.

• In an induction motor we can easily control speed while with synchronous motor,
in normal condition we cannot control speed of the motor. (d) Induction motor
has inherent self starting torque while the synchronous motor has no inherent
self starting torque

• We cannot use induction motor to improve the power factor of the

supply system while with the use of synchronous motor we can improve
the power factor of the supply system.
 Contd..
• It is a singly excited machine means there is no requirement of dc excitation
while the synchronous motor is doubly excited motor means there is
requirement of separate dc excitation.

• In case of induction motor on increasing the load the speed of the motor
decreases while with the speed of the synchronous motor remains

constant.
Induction Generator
 Induction machine is sometimes used as a generator. It is also called
Asynchronous Generator. What are the conditions when the poly phase
(here three phase) induction machine will behave as an induction
generator? The following are conditions when the induction machine will
behave as an induction generator are written below:

 Slip becomes negative due to this the rotor current and rotor emf attains
negative value.

 The prime mover torque becomes opposite to electric torque. Now let us
discuss how we can achieve these conditions. Suppose that an induction
machine is coupled with the prime mover whose speed can be controlled.
If the speed of the prime mover is increased such that the slip becomes
negative (i.e. speed of the prime mover becomes greater than the
synchronous speed).
Isolated Induction Generator
 Contd..
 This type of generator is also known as self excited generator. Now
why it is called self excited? It is because it uses capacitor bank which
is connected across its stator terminals

 The function of the capacitor bank is to provide the lagging reactive

power to the induction generator as well as load.

 The cumulative process of voltage generation continues till the

saturation curve of the induction generator cuts the capacitor load
line at some point. This point is marked as f in the given curve.
 Contd..
iii) Number of stator slots and conductors per slot
Considering the guide lines for selection of number of slots
Selecting the number of slots/pole/phase = 3
Total number of slots = 3 x 12 x 3 =108
Slot pitch = πD/S
= π x 132/ 108
= 2.84 cm (quite satisfactory)
Number of conductors per slot = 2472/108 ≈ 24
Hence total number of conductors = 24 x 108 = 2592
Turns per phase = 2592/6 = 432
• Slot loading:
• Full load current = 500 x 103 / (√3 x 6600) = 43.7 amps
• Slot loading = current per conductor x number of conductors/ slot
• = 43.7 x 24
• = 1048.8 ( satisfactory)
Contd..
Speed control of Induction Machines
 Speed control by changing applied voltage
• From the torque equation of the induction machine given in eqn.17, we can
see that the torque depends on the square of the applied voltage. The
variation of speed torque curves with respect to the applied voltage is
shown in fig. 18. These curves show that the slip at maximum torque sˆ
remains same, while the value of stall torque comes down with decrease in
applied voltage. The speed range for stable operation remains the same.
 Rotor resistance control
• For all its advantages, the scheme has two serious drawbacks. Firstly, in
order to vary the rotor resistance, it is necessary to connect external
variable resistors (winding resistance itself cannot be changed). This
therefore necessitates a slip-ring machine, since only in that case rotor
terminals are available outside. For cage rotor machines, there are no rotor
terminals. Secondly, the method is not very efficient since the additional
resistance and operation at high slips entails dissipation.
 Contd..
 Cascade control

• The power drawn from the rotor terminals could be spent more usefully.
Apart from using the heat generated in meaning full ways, the slip ring
output could be connected to another induction machine. The stator of the
second machine would carry slip frequency currents of the first machine
which would generate some useful mechanical power. A still better option
would be to mechanically couple the shafts of the two machines together.
This sort of a connection is called cascade connection
 Contd..
 Pole changing schemes
• Sometimes induction machines have a special stator winding capable of
being externally connected to form two different number of pole numbers.
Since the synchronous speed of the induction machine is given by ns = fs/p
(in rev./s) where p is the number of pole pairs, this would correspond to
changing the synchronous speed. With the slip now corresponding to the
new synchronous speed, the operating speed is changed
MODULE – III
ALTERNATORS
Types of synchronous machines
• According to the arrangement of armature and field winding, the
synchronous machines are classified as rotating armature type or rotating
field type.
• In rotating armature type the armature winding is on the rotor and the
field winding is on the stator. The generated emf or current is brought to
the load via the slip rings. These type of generators are built only in small
units.
• In case of rotating field type generators field windings are on the rotor
and the armature windings are on the stator. Here the field current is
supplied through a pair of slip rings and the induced emf or current is
supplied to the load via the stationary terminals.
 Contd..
• Based on the type of the prime movers employed the synchronous
generators are classified as
• Hydro generators : The generators which are driven by hydraulic
turbines are called hydro generators. These are run at lower speeds
less than 1000 rpm.
• Turbo generators: These are the generators driven by steam
turbines. These generators are run at very high speed of 1500rpm or
above.
• Engine driven Generators: These are driven by IC engines. These are
run at a speed less than 1500 rpm.
Construction of synchronous machines
• Salient pole Machines:

These type of machines have salient pole or projecting poles with

concentrated field windings. This type of construction is for the
machines which are driven by hydraulic turbines or Diesel engines

• Non salient pole or cylindrical rotor or Round rotor Machines:

These machines are having cylindrical smooth rotor construction with

distributed field winding in slots. This type of rotor construction is
employed for the machine driven by steam turbines
Contd..
Operation of Alternators
• Similar to the case of DC generator, the behavior of a Synchronous
generator connected to an external load is different than that at no-load. In
order to understand the performance of the Synchronous generator when it
is loaded, consider the flux distributions in the machine when the armature
also carries a current. Unlike in the DC machine in alternators the emf peak
and the current peak will not occur in the same coil due to the effect of the
power factor of the load
• The current and the induced emf will be at their peaks in the same coil only
for UPF loads. For zero power factor lagging loads, the current reaches its
peak in a coil which falls behind that coil wherein the induced emf is at its
peak by 90 electrical degrees or half a pole-pitch.
 Contd..
• Likewise for zero power factor leading loads, the current reaches its peak in
a coil which is ahead of that coil wherein the induced emf is at its peak by
90 electrical degrees or half a pole-pitch. For simplicity, assume the
resistance and leakage reactance of the stator windings to be negligible.
• Also assume the magnetic circuit to be linear i.e. the flux in the magnetic
circuit is deemed to be proportional to the resultant ampere-turns - in other
words the machine is operating in the linear portion of the magnetization
characteristics. Thus the emf induced is the same as the terminal voltage,
and the phase-angle between current and emf is determined only by the
power factor (P.f) of the external load connected to the synchronous
generator.
Armature windings
Windings in Alternators:
In case of three phase alternators the following types of windings are
employed.
• Lap winding,
• wave winding and
• Mush winding.
Based on pitch of the coil
• full pitched
• short pitched windings
Based on number of layers
• Single layer
• Double layer
 Contd..

Figure: 23. Single layer winding

 Contd..

Figure: 24. Double layer winding

EMF Equation
Consider the following
• Φ = flux per pole in wb
• P = Number of poles
• Ns = Synchronous speed in rpm
• f = frequency of induced EMF in Hz
• Z = total number of stator conductors
• Zph = conductors per phase connected in series
• Tph = Number of turns per phase
• Assuming concentrated winding, considering one conductor placed in a slot
According to Faradays Law electromagnetic induction,
• The average value of EMF induced per conductor in one revolution
• eavg = d /dt eavg = Change of Flux in one revolution/ Time taken for one
revolution
• Change of Flux in one revolution = P
• Time taken for one revolution = 60/Ns seconds
 Contd..
• Hence eavg = (p) / (60/Ns) = PNs / 60
• We know f = PNs /120
• Hence PNs /60 = 2f
• Hence eavg = 2f volts
• Hence average EMF per turn = 2 x 2f volts = 4f volts
• If there are Tph, number of turns per phase connected in series, then average EMF induced in Tph
turns is
• Eph, avg = Tph x eavg = 4 fΦTph volts
• Hence RMS value of EMF induced E = 1.11 x Eph,avg
= 1.11 x 4 f ΦTph volts
= 4.44 f ΦTph volts
• This is the general EMF equation for the machine having concentrated and full pitched winding.
• In practice, alternators will have short pitched winding and hence coil span will not be 180 0, but
one or two slots short than the full pitch.
Distribution and Pitch Factor
Pitch Factor:
• Pitch factor Kp= EMF induced in a short pitched coil/ EMF induced in
a full pitched coil = (2E cos α/2)/ 2E
• Kp = cos α/2
• Where α is called chording angle.
Distribution Factor: Even though we assumed concentrated winding in
deriving EMF equation, in practice an attempt is made to distribute
the winding in all the slots coming under a pole. Such a winding is
called distributed winding.
 Contd..
• In concentrated winding the EMF induced in all the coil sides
will be same in magnitude and in phase with each other. In case
of distributed winding the magnitude of EMF will be same but
the EMF s induced in each coil side will not be in phase with
each other as they are distributed in the slots under a pole.
• Hence the total EMF will not be same as that in concentrated
winding but will be equal to the vector sum of the EMF s
induced. Hence it will be less than that in the concentrated
winding
 Contd..
• Distribution factor Kd = EMF induced in a distributed winding/ EMF
induced in a concentrated winding = vector sum of the EMF /
arithmetic sum of the EMF

• The EMF induced in concentrated winding with m slots per pole per
phase = mE volts.

• Fig below shows the method of calculating the vector sum of the
voltages in a distributed winding having a mutual phase difference of
β. When m is large curve ACEN will form the arc of a circle of radius r.

• From the figure below AC = 2rsin β/2

 Contd..
• Hence arithmetic sum = m2r sinβ/2

• Now the vector sum of the EMF s = 2rsin mβ/2

• Hence the distribution factor Kd = vector sum of the EMF /

arithmetic sum of the EMF = (2r sin mβ/2) / (m x 2r sin β/2)

• Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)

 Contd..
In practical machines the windings will be generally short
pitched and distributed over the periphery of the machine.
Hence in deducing the EMF equation both pitch factor and
distribution factor has to be considered.

Hence the general EMF equation including pitch factor and

distribution factor can be given as EMF induced per phase =
4.44 f Tph x KpKd volts

Eph = 4.44 KpKd f Tph vlolts

Hence the line Voltage EL = √3 x phase voltage = √3 Eph

Harmonics
• When the uniformly sinusoidal distributed air gap flux is cut by either the
stationary or rotating armature sinusoidal EMF is induced in the alternator.
Hence the nature of the waveform of induced EMF and current is
sinusoidal. But when the alternator is loaded waveform will not continue to
be sinusoidal or becomes non sinusoidal. Such non sinusoidal wave form is
called complex wave form. By using Fourier series representation it is
possible to represent complex non sinusoidal waveform in terms of series of
sinusoidal components called harmonics, whose frequencies are integral
multiples of fundamental wave. The fundamental wave form is one which is
having the frequency same as that of complex wave.
• The waveform which is of the frequency twice that of the fundamental is
called second order harmonic.
 Contd..
• These harmonic components can be represented as follows.
Fundamental: e1 = Em1 Sin (ωt ± θ1)
2nd Harmonic e2 = Em2 Sin (2ωt ± θ2)
3rd Harmonic e3 = Em3 Sin (3ωt ± θ3)
5th Harmonic e5 = Em5 Sin (5ωt ± θ5) etc.
• In case of alternators as the field system and the stator coils are
symmetrical the induced EMF will also be symmetrical and
hence the generated EMF in an alternator will not contain any
even harmonics.
Slot Harmonics
 As the armature or stator of an alternator is slotted, some harmonics are
induced into the EMF which is called slot harmonics. The presence of slot in
the stator makes the air gap reluctance at the surface of the stator non
uniform. Since in case of alternators the poles are moving or there is a
relative motion between the stator and rotor, the slots and the teeth
alternately occupy any point in the air gap. Due to this the reluctance or the
air gap will be continuously varying.

 Due to this variation of reluctance ripples will be formed in the air gap
between the rotor and stator slots and teeth. This ripple formed in the air
gap will induce ripple EMF called slot harmonics.
 Contd..
Minimization of Harmonics:

To minimize the harmonics in the induced waveforms following methods are

employed:

• Distribution of stator winding.

• Short Chording

• Fractional slot winding

• Skewing

• Larger air gap length.

 Contd..
Effect of Harmonics on induced EMF:

• The harmonics will affect both pitch factor and distribution

factor and hence the induced EMF. In a well designed alternator
the air gap flux density distribution will be symmetrical and
hence can be represented in Fourier series as follows.

• B = Bm1sin ωt + Bm3 sin 3ωt + Bm5sin 5ωt +...................

• The EMF induced by the above flux density distribution is given

by e = Em1sin ωt + Em3 sin 3ωt + Em5sin 5ωt +...................
 Cont...
• The RMS value of the resultant voltage induced can be given as

Eph = √ *(E1)2 + (E3)2 + (E5)2 + …………… (En)2]

And line voltage ELine = √3 x Eph

Effect of Harmonics of pitch and distribution Factor:

• The pitch factor is given by Kp = cos α/2, where α is the chording angle.

• For any harmonic say nth harmonic the pitch factor is given by Kpn = cos α/2

• The distribution factor is given by Kd = (sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)

• For any harmonic say nth harmonic the distribution factor is given by

Kdn = (sin m nβ/2) / (m sin nβ/2)

Armature Reaction
• The useful flux which links with both windings is due to combined
MMF of the armature winding and field winding. When the armature
winding of an alternator carries current then an MMF sets in
armature. This armature MMF reacts with field MMF producing the
resultant flux, which differs from flux of field winding alone.

• The effect of armature reaction depends on nature of load (power

factor of load). At no load condition, the armature has no reaction
due to absence of armature flux. When armature delivers current at
unity power factor load, then the resultant flux is displaced along the
air gap towards the trailing pole tip.
 Contd..
• Under this condition, armature reaction has distorting effect on MMF wave
as shown in Figure. At zero lagging power factor loads the armature current
is lagging by 90° with armature voltage.

• Under this condition, the position of armature conductor when inducing

maximum EMF is the centre line of field MMF. Since there is no distortion
but the two MMF are in opposition, the armature reaction is now purely
demagnetizing as shown in Figure. Now at zero power factors leading, the
armature current leads armature voltage by 90°.

• Under this condition, the MMF of armature as well as the field winding is in
same phase and additive
 Contd..
(a) Unity Power Factor
Contd..
Cont..
Phasor diagram

Under unity power factor load: Eph = (V + IRa) + j (IXS)

Eph = √* (V + IRa)2 + (IXS)2]
 Contd..
Zero power factor lagging

Under zero power factor lagging: Eph = V + (IRa + j IXS) = V +

I(Ra + j XS)
The above expression can also be written as Eph = √* (V cos
+ IRa)2 + (V sin + IXS)2]
 Contd..
Zero power factor leading
Numerical problems on windings
1. A 3Φ, 50 Hz, star connected salient pole alternator has 216 slots with 5 conductors per
slot. All the conductors of each phase are connected in series; the winding is
distributed and full pitched. The flux per pole is 30 mwb and the alternator runs at
250 rpm. Determine the phase and line voltages of EMF induced.
Slon: Ns = 250 rpm, f = 50 Hz,
P = 120 x f/Ns = 120 x 50/250 = 24 poles
m = number of slots/pole/phase = 216/(24 x 3) = 3
β = 1800 / number of slots/pole = 1800 / (216/24) = 200 Hence distribution factor
Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)
= ( sin 3 x 20 / 2) / (3 sin 20/2)
= 0.9597
Pitch factor Kp = 1 for full pitched winding. We have EMF induced per conductor
Tph= Zph/2 ; Zph= Z/3
Z = conductor/ slot x number of slots Tph= Z/6 = 216 x 5 /6 = 180
Therefore Eph = 4.44 KpKd f 8 Tph vlolts
= 4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x 50 x 30 x 10-3 x 180 = 1150.488 volts
Hence the line Voltage EL = √3 x phase voltage = √3 Eph = √3 x1150.488 = 1992.65 volts
 Contd..
• A 3Φ, 16 pole, star connected salient pole alternator has 144
slots with 10 conductors per slot. The alternator is run at 375
rpm. The terminal voltage of the generator found to be 2.657
KV. Determine the frequency of the induced EMF and the flux
per pole

• A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has 60 slots

with 4 conductors per slot. The coils are short pitched by 3 slots.
If the phase spread is 600, find the line voltage induced for a
flux per pole of 0.943 wb.
Numerical problems on Windings
1. In a 3 phase star connected alternator, there are 2 coil sides per slot and
16 turns per coil. The stator has 288 slots. When run at 250 rpm the line
voltage is 6600 volts at 50 Hz. The coils are shot pitched by 2 slots.
Calculate the flux per pole.
Slon: Ns = 250 rpm, f = 50 Hz, slots = 288, EL= 6600 volts, 2 coil sides/slot,
• 16 turns /coil Short pitched by 2 slots
• Number of poles = 120f/ Ns = 120 x 50/250 = 24
• Number of slots /pole/phase m = 288 / ( 24 x 3) = 4
• Number of slots /pole = 288 / 24 = 12
• Slot angle β = 180/ number of slots per pole = 180 / 12 = 150
• Distribution factor kd = (sin mβ/2) / (m sinβ/2)
• = sin ( 4 x 15/2) / 4 sin(15/2)
• = 0.9576
• Coils are short chorded by 2 slots Slot angle = 15
 Contd..
Therefore coil is short pitched by α = 2 x slot angle = 2 x 15 = 300
Hence pitch factor Kp = cos α/2 = cos 30/2 = 0.9659
Two coil sides per slot and 16 turns per coil
Total number of conductors per slot = 2 x 16 = 32 turns Total conductors =
32 x 288
Turns per phase = 32 x 288 / 6 = 1536
Eph = 6600 / √3 = 3810.51 volts,
We have EMF induced per phase Eph = 4.44 kp kd f Φ Tph volts
3810.51 = 4.44 x 0.9659 x 0.9576 x 50 x Φ x 1536
Φ = 0.02 wb
 Contd..
2. A 10 pole, 600 rpm, 50Hz, alternator has the following sinusoidal flux
density distribution. B = sin θ + 0.4 sin 3θ + 0.2 sin 5θ wb/m2. The
alternator has 180 slots with 2 layer 3 turn coils with a coil span of 15 slots.
The coils are connected in 600 groups. If the armature diameter is 1.2 m
and core length is 0.4 m, calculate (a) the expression for instantaneous
EMF/conductor (b) the expression for instantaneous EMF/coil (c) the phase
and line voltages if the machine is star connected.

3. A three phase 600 kVA, 400 volts, delta connected alternator is reconnected
in star. Calculate its new ratings in terms of voltage, current and volt-
ampere.
Voltage Regulation
• Voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in terminal voltage
from no load to full load expressed as a percentage of rated voltage when the
load at a given power factor is removed with out change in speed and excitation.
% Regulation = (Eph – Vph / Vph ) x 100
where Eph = induced EMF /phase, Vph = rated terminal voltage/phase
different methods used for predetermination of regulation of alternators.
• Direct loading method
• EMF method or Synchronous impedance method
• MMF method or Ampere turns method
• ASA modified MMF method
• ZPF method or Potier triangle method
•
EMF method
• This method is also known as synchronous impedance method. Here the
magnetic circuit is assumed to be unsaturated. In this method the MMFs
(fluxes) produced by rotor and stator are replaced by their equivalent EMF,
and hence called EMF method.

• To predetermine the regulation by this method the following information’s

are to be determined. Armature resistance /phase of the alternator, open
circuit and short circuit characteristics of the alternator.
 Contd..
OC & SC test on alternator
 Contd..
Procedure to conduct OC test:
• Start the prime mover and adjust the speed to the synchronous
speed of the alternator.
• Keep the field circuit rheostat in cut in position and switch on
DC supply.
• Keep the TPST switch of the stator circuit in open position.
• Vary the field current from minimum in steps and take the
readings of field current and stator terminal voltage, till the
voltage read by the voltmeter reaches up to 110% of rated
voltage. Reduce the field current and stop the machine.
• Plot of terminal voltage/ phase vs field current gives the OC
curve.
 Contd..
Short Circuit Characteristic (S.C.C.):
 The short-circuit characteristic, as its name implies, refers to the behavior of
the alternator when its armature is short-circuited. In a single-phase
machine the armature terminals are short-circuited through an ammeter,
but in a three-phase machine all three phases must be short-circuited. An
ammeter is connected in series with each armature terminal, the three
remaining ammeter terminals being short-circuited. The machine is run at
rated speed and field current is increased gradually to If2 till armature
current reaches rated value. The armature short-circuit current and the field
current are found to be proportional to each other over a wide range
 Contd..

Short-Circuit Ratio:
The short-circuit ratio is defined as the ratio of the field current required to
produce rated volts on open circuit to field current required to circulate full-
load current with the armature short-circuited.
Short-circuit ratio = Ιf1/If2
Determination of synchronous impedance
• Synchronous impedance Zs = (open circuit voltage per phase)/(short circuit
current per phase) for same If

• Hence Zs = (Voc) / (Isc) for same If

• From figure 33 synchronous impedance Zs = V/Isc

• Armature resistance Ra of the stator can be measured using Voltmeter –
Ammeter method. Using synchronous impedance and armature resistance
synchronous reactance and hence regulation can be calculated as follows using
EMF method
• Zs = √(Ra)2 + (XS)2 and Synchronous reactance Xs = √( Zs)2 - (Ra)2
Hence induced EMF per phase can be found as
Eph = √* (V cos + IRa)2 + (V sin ± IXS)2]
where V = phase voltage per phase = Vph , I = load current per phase
 Contd..
• In the above expression in second term + sign is for lagging pwer
factor ans – sign is for leading power factor.
• % Regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
• Where Eph = induced EMF /phase, Vph = rated terminal voltage/phase
• Synchronous impedance method is easy but it gives approximate
results. This method gives the value of regulation which is greater
(poor) than the actual value and hence this method is called
pessimistic method. The complete phasor diagram for the EMF
method is shown in figure
Contd..
Numerical Problems on EMF method
1. 1A 1200 kVA, 3300 volts, 50 Hz, three phase star connected alternator has
an armature resistance of 0.25 Ω per phase. A field current of 40 Amps
produces a short circuit current of 200 Amps and an open circuit EMF of
1100 volts line to line. Find the % regulation at full load 0.8 P.F lagging and
leading by using EMF method.
2. A 10 MVA 6.6 kV, 3phase star connected alternator gave open circuit and
short circuit data as follows.
Field current 25 50 75 100 125 150
in amps:
OC voltage in 2.4 4.8 6.1 7.1 7.6 7.9
kV (L-L):
SC Current in 288 528 875 - - -
Amps:

Find the voltage regulation at full load 0.8 pf lagging by emf method.
Armature resistance per phase =0.13 Ω.
MMF Method
 For any synchronous generator i.e. alternator, it requires MMF
which is product of field current and turns of field winding for two
separate purposes.
1. It must have an MMF necessary to induce the rated terminal
voltage on open circuit.
2. It must have an MMF equal and opposite to that of armature
reaction MMF
Note : In most of the cases as number of turns on the field winding is
not known, the MMF is calculate and expressed i terms of the field
current itself.
The field MMF required to induce the rated terminal voltage on open
circuit can be obtained from open circuit test results and open
circuit characteristics. This is denoted as FO.
 Contd..
• Under short circuit condition as resistance and leakage reactance of
armature do not play any significant role, the armature reaction reactance
is dominating and hence the power factor of such purely reactive circuit is
zero lagging. Hence FAR gives demagnetizing ampere turns. Thus the field
MMF is entirely used to overcome the armature reaction which is wholly
demagnetizing in nature
• The two components of total field MMF which are FO and FAR are indicated
in O.C.C. (open circuit characteristics) and S.C.C. (short circuit
characteristics) as shown in the Fig.36
 Contd..
• If the alternator is supplying full load, then total field MMF is the vector
sum of its two components FO and FAR. This depends on the power factor of
the load which alternator is supplying. The resultant field MMF is denoted
as FR. Let us consider the various power factors and the resultant FR.

Zero lagging P.f: As long as power factor is zero lagging, the armature reaction
is completely demagnetizing. Hence the resultant FR is the algebraic sum of
the two components FO and FAR. Field MMF is not only required to produce
rated terminal voltage but also required to overcome completely
demagnetizing armature reaction effect.
OA = FO
AB = FAR demagnetizing
OB = FR = FO + FAR
Total field MMF is greater than FO.
 Contd..
Zero leading P.f: When the power factor is zero leading then the armature
reaction is totally magnetizing and helps main flux to induce rated terminal
voltage. Hence net field MMF required is less than that required to induce
rated voltage normally, as part of its function is done by magnetizing
armature reaction component. The net field MMF is the algebraic
difference between the two components FO and FAR.

OA = FO
AB = FAR magnetizing
OB = FO - FAR = FR
Total MMF is less than FO
 Contd..
Unity P.f: Under unity power factor condition, the armature reaction

is cross magnetizing and its effect is to distort the main flux.

Thus and F are at right angles to each other and hence resultant
MMF is the vector sum of FO and FAR.

OA = FO
AB = FAR cross magnetizing
 Contd..
• General Case: Now consider that the load power factor is cos Φ. In such case, the
resultant MMF is to be determined by vector addition of FO and FAR.

• Lagging P.f: When the load P.f. is cosΦ lagging, the phase current Iaph lags Vph by
angle Φ. The component FO is at right angles to Vph while FAR is in phase with the
current Iaph.

• This is because the armature current Iaph decides the armature reaction. The
armature reaction FAR due to current Iaph is to be overcome by field MMF. Hence
while finding resultant field MMF, - FAR should be added to vectorially.

• This is because resultant field MMF tries to counterbalance armature reaction to

produce rated terminal voltage. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.
 Contd..
From the phasor diagram the various magnitude are,
OA = FO , AB = FAR , OB = FR
Consider triangle OCB which is right angle triangle. The FAR
is split into two parts as,
AC = FAR sinΦ and BC = FAR cosΦ

... ( FR)2 = (FO + FAR sinΦ )2 + (FAR cosΦ)2 ................ (1)

From this relation (1), FR can be determined.
Numerical Problems ASA Method
1. The following data pertains to a 15000 KVA, 11KV ,3-phase,50hz,star

connected turbo-alternator :
Voc line
4.9 8.4 10.1 11.5 12.8 13.3 13.65
(KV)

I f (A) 10 18 24 30 40 45 50

ZPF full load

- 0 - - - 102 -
line KV

Determine percentage regulation for full-load at 0.8 p.f. lagging by ASA

method.
 Contd..
2. A 1000kVA, 11kV, 3 phase Y connected alternator has an effective resistance
of 2 Ω per phase. The OCC and ZPF lag characteristics for FL current are
given below. Pre-determine the FL voltage regulation at 0.8p.f lag by ASA
method

IF (A) 20 25 55 70 90

OC Volt 6 7 12 13 14
(kV)

V (kV) for ZPF 0 2 9 11 13

PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATORS
 The operation of connecting two alternators in parallel is known as
synchronizing. Certain conditions must be fulfilled before this can be
affected.

 Reasons for operating in parallel:

i) Handling larger loads.

ii) Maintenance can be done without power disruption.

iii) Increasing system reliability.

iv) Increased efficiency.

 Contd..
 Conditions required for Paralleling:

i)RMS line voltages must be equal.

ii)The generators to be paralleled must have the same phase sequence.

iii)The oncoming generator (the new generator) must have the same operating
frequency as compared to the system frequency.

 Advantages of Parallel Operating Alternators

i)When there is maintenance or an inspection, one machine can be taken out from
service and the other alternators can keep up for the continuity of supply.

ii)Load supply can be increased.

 Contd..
iii) During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut down while the
other will operate in nearly full load.

iv)High efficiency.

v)The operating cost is reduced

vi)Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.

vii)The generation cost is reduced.

viii)Break down of a generator does not cause any interruption in the

supply.

ix)Reliability of the whole power system increases.

 Contd..
 General Procedure for Paralleling Generators:
Consider the figure shown below. Suppose that generator G2 is to be connected to the
running system as shown below:
1. Using Voltmeters, the field current of the oncoming generator should be adjusted
until its terminal voltage is equal to the line voltage of the running system.
2. Check and verify phase sequence to be identical to the system phase sequence.
There are 2 methods to do this:
i) One way is using the 3 lamp method, where the lamps are stretched
across the open terminals of the switch connecting the generator to the
system (as shown in the figure below). As the phase changes between the 2
systems, the lamps first get bright (large phase difference) and then get dim
(small phase difference).
 Contd..
ii) If all 3 lamps get bright and dark together, then the systems have the
same phase sequence. If the lamps brighten in succession, then the systems
have the opposite phase sequence, and one of the sequences must be
reversed

iii) Using a Synchroscope – a meter that measures the difference in phase

angles (it does not check phase sequences only phase angles).

3. Check and verify generator frequency is same as that of the system

frequency. This is done by watching a frequency of brightening and
dimming of the lamps until the frequencies are close by making them to
change very slowly
 Contd..
4. Once the frequencies are nearly equal, the voltages in the 2 systems will
change phase with respect to each other very slowly. The phase changes
are observed, and when the phase angles are equal, the switch connecting
the 2 systems is closed.
THREE DARK LAMPS METHOD
 Contd..
• The following describes the method of synchronizing two alternators using
the three-dark method.

• When both machines are operating, one of two effects will be observed:

• 1. The three lamps will light and go out in unison at a rate which depends
on the difference in frequency between the two alternators.

• The three lamps will light and go out at a rate which depends on the
difference in frequency between the two machines, but not in unison. In
this case, the machines are not connected in the proper phase sequence
and are said to be out of phase. To correct this, it's necessary to interchange
any two leads to alternator G1.
 Contd..
The machines are not paralleled until all lamps light and go out in unison.
The lamp method is shown for greater simplicity of operation.
By making slight adjustments in the speed of alternator G1 the frequency of
the machines can be equalized so that the synchronizing lamps will light and go
out at the lowest possible rate. When the three lamps are out, the
instantaneous electrical polarity of the three leads from G1 is the same as that
of G2 At this instant, the voltage of G1 is equal to and in phase with that of G2
Now the paralleling switch can be closed so that both alternators supply power
to the load. The two alternators are in synchronism, according to the three
dark lamps method
Two Bright, One Dark Lamp Method
• Another method of synchronizing alternators is the two bright, one dark
method. In this method, any two connections from the synchronizing lamps
are crossed after the alternators are connected and tested for the proper
phase rotation. (The alternators are tested by the three dark method Fig.
3.9(A) shows the connections for establishing the proper phase rotation by
the three dark method. Fig. 3.9(B) shows the lamp connections required to
synchronize the alternator by the two bright, one dark method.
 Contd..
• When the alternators are synchronized, lamps 1 and 2 are bright
and lamp 3 is dark. Since two of the lamps are becoming
brighter as one is dimming, it's easier to determine the moment
when the paralleling switch can be closed. Furthermore, by
observing the sequence of lamp brightness, it's possible to tell
whether the speed of the alternator being synchronized is too
slow or too fast.
Synchronizing Power and Torque Coefficient

 Definition: – Synchronizing Power is defined as the varying of the

synchronous power P on varying in the load angle δ. It is also called

Stiffness of Coupling, Stability or Rigidity factor. It i represented as Psyn .

 The measure of effectiveness is given by Synchronizing Power Coefficient
Psyn = -------------- (1)

Power output per phase of the cylindrical rotor generator

P = [E cos (θz - δ) V cos θz] -------------- (2)

Psyn = sin (θz ) ---------------- (3)

Synchronizing Torque Coefficient
The synchronizing torque coefficient
Tsyn = ---------------- (4)

Tsyn = sin (θz ) ------------------------- (5)

• Synchronizing Torque Coefficient gives rise to the synchronizing torque

coefficient at synchronous speed. That is, the Synchronizing Torque is the
torque which at synchronous speed gives the synchronizing power. If Ʈsyn is
the synchronizing torque coefficient than the equation is given as shown
below
 Contd..
Tsyn = Nm/ Electrical radian ------------------- (6)

Tsyn = Nm/ Electrical radian --------------- (7)

• Where,

m is the number of phases of the machine

ω s = 2 π ns

ns is the synchronous speed in revolution per second

Load Sharing of Alternators
• When several alternators are required to run in parallel, it probably
happens that their rated outputs differ. In such cases it is usual to divide the
total load between them in such a way that each alternator takes the load
in the same proportion of its rated load in total rated outputs. The total
load is not divided equally. Alternatively, it may be desired to run one large
alternator permanently on full load, the fluctuations in load being borne by

one or more of the others.

• If the alternators are sharing the load equally the power triangles are as
shown in figure below
 Contd..

.
Contd..
 Contd..
• Consider two alternators with identical speed load characteristics
connected in parallel as shown in figure above.

• Let E1, E2 be the induced EMF per phase,

• Z1, Z2 be the impedances per phase

• I1, I2 be the current supplied by each machine per phase

• Z be the load impedance per phase,

• V be the terminal voltage per phase

• From the circuit we have V = E1 - I1Z1 = E2 – I2Z2 and hence

 Contd..
I1

And also V = (I1 + I2 ) Z = IZ solving above equations

I1

I2

Then total current is given by

I = I1 + I2

And the circulating current or synchronizing current

Numerical Problems on Load sharing
1. Two alternators working in parallel supply following loads i) Lighting load of
500 KW ii) 1000 KW at 0.9 p.f. lagging iii) 500 KW at 0.95 p.f. lead iv) 800
KW at 0.8 lagging. One alternator is supplying 1500 KW at 0.95 p.f. lagging.
Calculate the load on the other machine.

Sol: The KW and KVAR components of each load are as follows. For lagging
loads KVAR is considered positive whereas for leading loads KVAR is
considered negative
Load KW cos tan KVAR = KW tan

1 500 1 0 0

2 1000 0.9 lag 0.4843 100 0.4843 484.30

3 500 0.9 lead 0.4843 500 0.4843 - 242.15

4 800 0.8 lab 0.75 8000.75 600

 Contd..
• Total KW = 500 + 1000 + 500 + 800 = 2800

• Total KVAR = 0 + 484.30 – 242.15 + 600 = 842.15

• If Φsc is total p.f. angle of combined load

• tanΦsc = =
• One alternator is supplying 1500 KW at 0.95 p.f. lagging
• cosΦ1 = 0.95, tanΦ1 = 0.3286
• Reactive component (KVAR) of machine 1 = KW tan Φ1= 1500 0.3286
• = 492.9 KVAR
Active component of machine 2 = Total KW component Active component
of machine 1 = 2800 1500
= 1300 KW
 Contd..
• Reactive component of machine 2 = Total KVAR component Reactive
component of machine 1
• = 842.15 492.9
• = 349.25 KVAR
• The p.f. of machine 2 can be calculated as,
• tanΦ1 =
• Φ2 = 15.03-0
• Power factor = cos Φ2 = 0.9657 lag
• Output of machine 2 = 1300 KW
• Power factor of machine 2 = 0.9657 lagging
 Contd..
2. Two exactly similar turbo alternators are rated at 25 MW each. They are
running in parallel. The speed load characteristics of the driving turbines are
such that the frequency of alternator 1 drops uniformly from 50 Hz on no
load to 48 Hz on full load and that of alternator 2 from 50 Hz to 48.5 Hz.
How will they share a total load of 30 MW
3. Two identical 400 KVA alternators operate in parallel. The governor of the
prime mover of first machine is such that the frequency drops uniformly
from 50Hz on no load to 48 Hz on full load. The corresponding speed drop
of the second machine is 50 Hz to 47.5 Hz. Find i) how will the two
machines share a load of 6000 KW? ii) What is the maximum load of unity
power factor that can be delivered without overloading either machine?
Numerical Problems on Load sharing
1. Two single phase alternators operating in parallel have induced EMFs on
open circuit of 220 V and 220 V and respective reactance’s of j3Ω and j4Ω.
Calculate i) Terminal voltage ii) Currents and iii) Power delivered by each
of the alternators to a load of resistance 6Ω.
• Sol: Impedance of alternators 1, Z1 = j3Ω
• Impedance of alternator 2, Z2 = j4Ω
• E1 = 0V

• E2 = 0V

• Current I1 is given by
• I1

• I2
 Contd..
• I2 = 20.36∠-7.230 A

• I = I1+ I2

= (14.19- j 4.53) + (20.19- j 2.56)

= 35.10 ∠-11.650

• Now Voltage V = IZ = (35.10∠-11.650 ) (6 ∠00)

= 210.6∠ -11.650

• P1 = VI1 CosΦ1= 210.6 14.90 cos 7.230

= 2989.22 Watts

• P2 = VI2 CosΦ2 = 210.620.36 cos 17.710 = 4253.72 Watts

 Contd..
2. Two alternators running in parallel supply lighting load of 2500 KW
and a motor load of 5000 KW at 0.707 P.F. one machine is loaded to
4000 KW at a P.F. of 0.8 lagging. What is the KW output and P.F. of the
other machine?
3.Two single phase alternators operate in parallel and supply a load impedance
of (3+ j4) Ω. If the impedance of the machine is (0.2 + j2) and EMFs are
(220+j0) and (220+j0) volts respectively determine for each machine. i)
Terminal voltage ii) Power factor and iii) Output
Numerical Problems on Load sharing
1. Two single phase alternators operating in parallel have induced EMFs on
open circuit of 0 V and 0 V and respective reactance’s of j3Ω and j4Ω.
Calculate i) Terminal voltage ii) Currents and iii) Power delivered by each
of the alternators to a load of resistance 6Ω.
• Sol: Impedance of alternators 1, Z1 = j3Ω
Impedance of alternator 2, Z2 = j4Ω
E1 = 0 V
E2 = 0 V
Current I1 is given by, I1

I1
 Contd..
I2

I2
20.36∠-7.230 A
I = I1+ I2
= (14.19- j 4.53) + (20.19- j 2.56)
= 35.10 ∠-11.650
Now Voltage V = IZ = (35.10∠-11.650(6) ∠00)
= 210.6∠ -11.650
P1 = VI1 CosΦ1= 210.6 14.90 cos 7.230
= 2989.22 Watts
P2 = VI2 CosΦ2 = 210.6
20.3 cos 17.710
6
= 4253.72 Watts
 Contd..
2. Two alternators running in parallel supply lighting load of 2500

KW and a motor load of 5000 KW at 0.707 P.F. one machine is

loaded to 4000 KW at a P.F. of 0.8 lagging. What is the KW
output and P.F. of the other machine?

3. Two single phase alternators operate in parallel and supply a

load impedance of (3+ j4) Ω. If the impedance of the machine is
(0.2 + j2) and EMFs are (220+j0) and (220+j0) volts respectively
determine for each machine. i) Terminal voltage ii) Power
factor and iii) Output
 MODULE - IV
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Synchronous motor Principle of operation
 The stator is wound for the similar number of poles as that of rotor, and
fed with three phase AC supply. The 3 phase AC supply produces rotating
magnetic field in stator. The rotor winding is fed with DC supply which
magnetizes the rotor.

 Now, the stator poles are revolving with synchronous speed (let’s say
clockwise). If the rotor position is such that, N pole of the rotor is near the
N pole of the stator (as shown in first schematic of above figure), then the
poles of the stator and rotor will repel each other, and the torque
produced will be anticlockwise.
 Contd..
 The stator poles are rotating with synchronous speed, and they

rotate around very fast and interchange their position. But at

this very soon, rotor cannot rotate with the same angle (due to
inertia), and the next position will be likely the second
schematic in above figure. In this case, poles of the stator will
attract the poles of rotor, and the torque produced will be
clockwise.

 Hence, the rotor will undergo to a rapidly reversing torque, and

the motor will not start.
 Contd..
 But, if the rotor is rotated up to the synchronous speed of the
stator by means of an external force (in the direction of
revolving field of the stator), and the rotor field is excited near
the synchronous speed, the poles of stator will keep attracting
the opposite poles of the rotor (as the rotor is also, now,
rotating with it and the position of the poles will be similar
throughout the cycle). Now, the rotor will undergo
unidirectional torque. The opposite poles of the stator and rotor
will get locked with each other, and the rotor will rotate at the
synchronous speed.
Characteristic features of a synchronous motor
 Synchronous motor will run either at synchronous speed or will
not run at all.
 The only way to change its speed is to change its supply
frequency. (As Ns = 120f / P)
 Synchronous motors are not self starting. They need some
external force to bring them near to the synchronous speed.
 They can operate under any power factor, lagging as well as
leading. Hence, synchronous motors can be used for power
factor improvement.
Synchronous motor starting methods
The various methods to start the synchronous motor are,
1. Using pony motors
2. Using damper winding
3. As a slip ring induction motor
4. Using small DC. Machine coupled to it.
1. Using pony motors
In this method, the rotor is brought to the synchronous speed with the help of
some external device like small induction motor. Such an external device is called
'pony motor'.
Once the rotor attains the synchronous speed, the d.c. excitation to the rotor is
switched on. Once the synchronism is established pony motor is decoupled. The
motor then continues to rotate as synchronous motor.
 Contd..
2. Using Damper Winding
In a synchronous motor, in addition to the normal field winding, the
additional winding consisting of copper bars placed in the slots in the pole
faces. The bars are short circuited with the help of end rings. Such an
additional winding on the rotor is called damper winding. This winding as
short circuited, acts as a squirrel cage rotor winding of an induction motor.
The schematic representation of such damper winding is shown in the
Fig.48.
 Contd..
• Once the rotor is excited by a three phase supply, the motors starts
rotating as an induction motor at sub synchronous speed. Then DC
supply is given to the field winding. At a particular instant motor gets
pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at a synchronous speed.
As rotor rotates at synchronous speed, the relative motion between
damper winding and the rotating magnetic field is zero. Hence when

• motor is running as synchronous motor, there cannot be any induced

EMF in the damper winding. So damper winding is active only at
start, to run the motor as an induction motor at start. Afterwards it is
out of the circuit. As damper winding is short circuited and motor
gets started as induction motor, it draws high current at start so
induction motor starters like star-delta, autotransformer etc. used to
start the synchronous motor as an induction motor.
Characteristic features of a synchronous motor
 Synchronous motor will run either at synchronous speed or will not run at
all.

 The only way to change its speed is to change its supply frequency. (As Ns =
120f / P)

 Synchronous motors are not self starting. They need some external force to
bring them near to the synchronous speed.

 They can operate under any power factor, lagging as well as leading. Hence,
synchronous motors can be used for power factor improvement.
 Contd..
3. As a Slip Ring Induction Motor

• The above method of starting synchronous motor as a squirrel cage induction motor

does not provide high starting torque. So to achieve this, instead of shorting the
damper winding, it is designed to a form a three phase star or delta connected winding.
The three ends of this winding are brought out through slip rings. An external rheostat
then can be introduced in series with the rotor circuit. So when stator is excited, the
motor starts as a slip ring induction motor and due to resistance added in the rotor
provides high starting torque. The resistance is then gradually cut off, as motor gathers
speed. When motor attains speed near synchronous.

• DC excitation is provided to the rotor, then motors gets pulled into synchronism and
starts rotating at synchronous speed. The damper winding is shorted by shorting the
slip rings.
 Contd..
•The initial resistance added in the rotor not only provides high
starting torque but also limits high inrush of starting current.
Hence it acts as a motor resistance starter.
•The synchronous motor started by this method is called a slip
ring induction motor is shown in the Fig.49.
 Contd..
4. Using Small D.C. Machine

Many a times a large synchronous motor is provided with a

coupled DC machine. This machine is used as a DC motor to
rotate the synchronous motor at a synchronous speed. Then the
excitation to the rotor is provided. Once motor starts running as
a synchronous motor, the same DC machine acts as a DC
generator called exciter. The field of the synchronous motor is
then excited by this exciter itself.
Effect of changes in load on, Ia, δ, and p. f. of
synchronous motor
• The effects of changes in mechanical or shaft load on armature current, power
angle, and power factor can be seen from the phasor diagram shown in Figure
below;
• As already stated, the applied stator voltage, frequency, and field excitation are
assumed, constant. The initial load conditions are represented by the thick lines.
The effect of increasing the shaft load to twice its initial value is represented by
the light lines indicating the new steady state conditions.
• While drawing the phasor diagrams to show new steady-state conditions, the
line of action of the new jIaXs phasor must be perpendicular to the new Ia phasor.
Furthermore, as shown in figure if the excitation is not changed, increasing the
shaft load causes the locus of the Ef phasor to follow a circular arc, thereby
increasing its phase angle with increasing shaft load.
 Contd..

Figure: 50. Effect of changes in load on, Ia, δ, and p. f

Effect of changes in excitation on the performance synchronous
motor

• Increasing the strength of the magnets will increase the magnetic

attraction, and thereby cause the rotor magnets to have a closer alignment
with the corresponding opposite poles of the rotating magnetic poles of the
stator. This will obviously result in a smaller power angle.

• This fact can also be seen from power angle equation. When the shaft load
is assumed to be constant, the steady-state value of Ef sinδ must also be
constant. An increase in Ef will cause a transient increase in Ef sinδ, and the
rotor will accelerate. As the rotor changes its angular position, δ decreases
until Ef sinδ has the same steady-state value as before, at which time the
rotor is again operating at synchronous speed, as it should run only at the
synchronous speed.
 ontd..
• This change in angular position of the rotor magnets relative to the poles of
rotating magnetic field of the stator occurs in a fraction of a second. The effect of
changes in field excitation on armature current, power angle, and power factor of a
synchronous motor operating with a constant shaft load, from a constant voltage,
constant frequency supply, is illustrated in figure below

• Ef1 sin δ1 = Ef2 sin δ 2 = Ef3 sin δ 3 = Ef sin δ

• This is shown in Figure below, where the locus of the tip of the Ef phasor is
a straight line parallel to the VT phasor. Similarly,
• Ia1 cos Φi1 = Ia2 cos Φi2 = Ia3 cos Φi3 = Ia cos Φi
• This is also shown in Figure below, where the locus of the tip of the Ia
phasor is a line perpendicular to the phasor VT.
 Contd..

Figure: 51. Phasor diagram showing effect of changes in field excitation on armature current, power angle and
power factor of a synchronous motor
Constant-power Lines
• In below fig, OA represents applied voltage / phase of the motor and AB is
the back EMF./ phase, Eb. OB is their resultant voltage ER. The
armature B current is OI lagging behind ER by an angle q = ER or
vector OB represents (to some suitable scale) the main current I.

• OY is drawn at an angle f with OB (or at an angle q with C A). BL is drawn

perpendicular to OX which is at right angles to O Y. Vector OB, when
referred to O Y, also represents, on a different scale, the current both in
magnitude and phase
 Contd..
• As V is constant, power input is dependent on B L. If motor is working with a
constant intake, then locus of B is a straight line || to OX and ^ to OY i.e. line EF for
which BL is constant. Hence, EF represents a constant-power input line for a given
voltage but varying excitation. Similarly, a series of such parallel lines can be drawn
each representing a definite power intake of the motor. As regards these constant-
power lines, it is to be noted that

1. For equal increase in intake, the power lines are parallel and equally-spaced

2. Zero power line runs along OX

3. The perpendicular distance from B to OX (or zero power line) represents the
motor intake
 Contd..
• If excitation is fixed i.e. AB is constant in length, then as the load on motor is
increased, increases. In other words, locus of B is a circle with radius = AB and
centre at A. With increasing load, B goes on to lines of higher power till point B1 is
reached.

• Any further increase in load on the motor will bring point B down to a lower
line. It means that as load increases beyond the value corresponding to
point B1, the motor intake decreases which is impossible.

• The area to the right of AY 1 represents unstable conditions. For a given

voltage and excitation, the maximum power the motor can develop, is
determined by the location of point B1 beyond which the motor pulls out of
synchronism.
 Contd..
• The circle represented by equation (1) has a centre at some point O’ on the line OY. The
circle drawn with centre as O’ and radius as O’B represents circle of constant power.
This is called Blondel diagram, shown in the Fig. 2.
• Thus if excitation is varied while the power is kept constant, then working point B while
move along the circle of constant power.
Let O’B = Radius of circle = r
OO’ = Distant d
Applying cosine rule to triangle OBO’,
• Now OB represents resultant ER which is Ia Zs. Thus OB is proportional to current and
when referred to OY represents the current in both magnitude and phase.
OB = Ia = I say
Substituting various values in equation (2) we get,
r2 = I2 + d2 – 2dI cos?

Comparing equations (1) and (3) we get,

Thus the point O’ is independent of power Pm and is a constant for a give motor
operating at a fixed applied voltage V.
 Contd..
• Thus the point O’ is independent of power Pm and is a constant for a
give motor operating at a fixed applied voltage V.
• Comparing last term of equations (1) and (3),

The equation shows that as power Pm must be real, then 4Pm Ra ? V2 . The maximum
possible power per phase is
 Contd..

And the radius of the circle for maximum power is zero. Thus at the time of
maximum power, the circles becomes a point O’. While when the power Pm = O,
then r = V/2Ra = OO’
This shows that the circle of zero power passes through the points O and A.
The radius for any power Pm is given by,
Power flow i synchronous motor
 Contd..
Where
• Pin = Power input to the motor
• Pscl = Power loss as stator copper loss Pcore= Power loss as core loss
• Pgap= Power in the air gap
• Pfcl = Power loss as field copper loss
• Pfw= Power loss as friction and windage loss Pstray = Power loss as stray
loss
• Pshaft = Shaft output of the machine
• Power input to a synchronous motor is given by P = 3VphIphcosΦ =
√3VLILcosΦ. In stator as per the diagram there will be core loss and
copper losses taking place. The remaining power will be converted to
gross mechanical power.
• Hence Pm= Power input to the motor – Total losses in stator.
 Contd..

From the phasor diagram we can write Power input /phase Pi = VphIphcosΦ
Mechanical power developed by the motor Pm= EbIa cos ∟ Eb & Ia= EbIa
cos(δ – Φ) Assuming iron losses as negligible stator cu losses = Pi - Pm
Power output /phase = Pm – (field cu loss + friction & windage loss +stray
loss)
Torque developed in Motor
• Mechanical power is given by Pm = 2πNsTg/60 where Ns is the
synchronous speed and the Tg is the gross torque developed.

• Pm = 2πNs Tg /60

• Hence Tg = 60 Pm/2πNs

• Tg = 9.55 Pm/Ns N-m

• Shaft output torque Tsh = 60 x Pout/2πNs

• Tsh = 9.55 Pout/Ns N-m

Numerical problems
• A 75 KW 3phase Y connected, 50 Hz, 440V cylindrical rotor synchronous
motor operates at rated condition with 0.8pf leading. The motor
efficiency excluding field and stator losses, is 95% and Xs=2.5Ω calculate
(i) mechanical power developed (ii) armature current (iii) back EMF (iv)
power angle and (v)max or pull out toque of the motor.
• A 50 Hz, 6-pole, 3-Ф, and star-connected synchronous motor has a
synchronous reactance of 12.2Ω/phase and negligible armature
resistance. The excitation is such as to give an open-circuit voltage of
13.4kv.the motor is connected to 11.9KV, 50 Hz supply. What maximum
load can the motor supply before losing synchronism? What is the
corresponding motor torque, line current and power factor?
 Contd..
• A 50 Hz, 8-pole, 3-Ф, and star-connected synchronous motor has a
synchronous reactance of 10Ω/phase and negligible armature resistance.
The excitation is such as to give an open-circuit voltage of 14 KV the motor
is connected to 12.5 KV, 50 Hz supply. What maximum load can the motor
supply before losing synchronism? What is the corresponding motor torque,
line current and power factor?
V and inverted V curve of synchronous motor
• Graphs of armature current vs. field current of synchronous motors are called
V curves and are shown in Figure below for typical values of synchronous
motor loads. The curves are related to the phasor diagram shown in figure
below, and illustrate the effect of the variation of field excitation on armature
current and power factor. It can be easily noted from these curves that an
increase in shaft loads require an increase in field excitation in order to
maintain the power factor at unity.
• The points marked a, b, and c on the upper curve corresponds to the
operating conditions of the phasor diagrams shown. Note that for P = 0, the
lagging power factor operation is electrically equivalent to an inductor and
the leading power factor operation is electrically equivalent to a capacitor.
Leading power factor operation with P = 0 is sometimes referred to as
synchronous condenser or synchronous capacitor operation. Typically, the
synchronous machine V-curves are provided by the manufacturer so that the
user can determine the resulting operation under a given set of conditions.
Contd..
Numerical problems
• The excitation of a 415V, 3-phase, and mesh connected synchronous
motor is such that the induced EMF is520 V.the impedance per phase is
(0.5+j4.0) Ω. If the friction and iron losses are constant at 1000watts,
calculate the power output, line current, power factor and efficiency for
maximum power output?

• The excitation of a 415 V, 3-phase, and mesh connected synchronous

motor is such that the induced EMF is520V.the impedance per phase is
(0.5+j4.0) Ω. If the friction and iron losses are constant at 1000watts,
calculate the power output, line current, power factor and efficiency for
maximum power output?
 Contd..
• The excitation of a 415V, 3-phase, and mesh connected synchronous motor
is such that the induced EMF is520V.the impedance per phase is (0.85+j6.0)
Ω. If the friction and iron losses are constant at 800 watts, calculate the
power output, line current, power factor and efficiency for maximum power
output?
Hunting
• Sudden changes of load on synchronous motors may sometimes set
up oscillations that are superimposed upon the normal rotation,
resulting in periodic variations of a very low frequency in speed.
This effect is known as hunting or phase-swinging. Occasionally, the
trouble is aggravated by the motor having a natural period of
oscillation approximately equal to the hunting period. When the
synchronous motor phase-swings into the unstable region, the
motor may fall out of synchronism
Damper winding
• The tendency of hunting can be minimized by the use of a damper winding.
Damper windings are placed in the pole faces. No EMFs are induced in the damper
bars and no current flows in the damper winding, which is not operative.
• Whenever any irregularity takes place in the speed of rotation, however, the polar
flux moves from side to side of the pole, this movement causing the flux to move
backwards and forwards across the damper bars. EMFs are induced in the damper
bars forwards across the damper winding.
• These tend to damp out the superimposed oscillatory motion by absorbing its
energy. The damper winding, thus, has no effect upon the normal average speed, it
merely tends to damp out the oscillations in the speed, acting as a kind of electrical
flywheel. In the case of a three-phase synchronous motor the stator currents set up
a rotating MMF rotating at uniform speed and if the rotor is rotating at uniform
speed, no EMFs are induced in the damper bars.
Synchronous condenser
• An over excited synchronous motor operates at unity or leading power
factor. Generally, in large industrial plants the load power factor will be
lagging. The specially designed synchronous motor running at zero load,
taking leading current, approximately equal to 90o. When it is connected in
parallel with inductive loads to improve power factor, it is known as
synchronous condenser. Compared to static capacitor the power factor can
improve easily by variation of field excitation of motor. Phasor diagram of a
synchronous condenser connected in parallel with an inductive load is given
below.
 Contd..

Figure:53 Synchronous condenser and phasor diagram

Bolden's two reaction theory
 In case salient pole machines the air gap is non uniform and it is
smaller along pole axis and is larger along the inter polar axis.

 These axes are called direct axis or d-axis and quadrature axis or
q-axis. Hence the effect of MMF when acting along direct axis
will be different than that when it is acting along quadrature
axis.

 Hence the reactance of the stator cannot be same when the

MMF is acting along d – axis and q- axis.
 Contd..

 As the length of the air gap is small along direct axis reluctance of the
magnetic circuit is less and the air gap along the q – axis is larger and
hence the along the quadrature axis will be comparatively higher.

 Hence along d-axis more flux is produced than q-axis. Therefore the
reactance due to armature reaction will be different along d-axis and
q-axis. This reactance’s are

 Xad = direct axis reactance; Xaq = quadrature axis reactance

 Contd..
 Blondel’s two-reaction theory considers the effects of the quadrature
and direct-axis components of the armature reaction separately.

 Neglecting saturation, their different effects are considered by assigning

to each an appropriate value of armature-reaction “reactance,”
respectively Xaq and Xaq.

 The effects of armature resistance and true leakage reactance (XL) may
be treated separately, or may be added to the armature reaction
coefficients on the assumption that they are the same, for either the
direct-axis or quadrature-axis components of the armature current
 Contd..
 Thus the combined reactance values can be expressed as:
Xsd = Xaq + XL and Xaq = Xaq + XL for the direct- and cross-reaction axes
respectively.
 In a salient-pole machine, Xaq, the quadrature-axis reactance is smaller
than Xad, the direct-axis reactance, since the flux produced by a given
current component in that axis is smaller as the reluctance of the
magnetic path consists mostly of the inter polar spaces.
 It is essential to clearly note the difference between the quadrature and
direct-axis components Iaq, and Iad of the armature current Ia, and the
reactive and active components Iaa and Iar.
Phasor diagrams
Slip test
 MODULE - V
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR
Single phase induction motor Principle of operation

 The single phase induction motor in its simplest form is structurally the
same as a poly- phase induction motor having a squirrel cage rotor, the
only difference is that the single phase induction motor has single
winding on the stator which produces MMF stationary in space but
alternating in time, a poly phase stator winding carrying balanced
currents produces MMF rotating in space around the air gap and constant
in time with respect to an observer moving with the MMF. The stator
winding of the single phase motor is disposed in slots around the inner
periphery of a laminated ring similar to the 3-phase motor.
 Contd..

Figure: 54. Elementary single phase induction motor

 Contd..
• Suppose the rotor is at rest and 1-phase supply is given to stator winding. The
current flowing in the stator winding gives rise to an MMF whose axis is along the
winding and it is a pulsating MMF, stationary in space and varying in magnitude, as
a function of time, varying from positive maxi- mum to zero to negative maximum
and this pulsating MMF induces currents in the short-circuited rotor of the motor
which gives rise to an MMF. The currents in the rotor are induced due to
transformer action and the direction of the currents is such that the MMF so
developed opposes the stator MMF. The axis of the rotor MMF is same as that of
the stator MMF. Since the torque developed is proportional to sine of the angle
between the two MMF and since the angle is zero, the net torque acting on the
rotor is zero and hence the rotor remains stationary.
 Contd..
• For analytical purposes a pulsating field can be resolved into two revolving
fields of constant magnitude and rotating in opposite directions as shown in
Fig. 55 and each field has a magnitude equal to half the maximum length of

the original pulsating phasor.

Figure: 55. Representation of the pulsating field by space phasor

 Contd..
• The resultant torque-speed characteristic which is the algebraic sum of the
two component curves shows that if the motor were started by auxiliary
means it would produce torque in what- ever direction it was started.

Figure: 56. Torque-speed characteristic of a 1-phase induction motor based on constant forward and backward flux waves.