ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

GRADUATE STUDIES PROGRAM

URBAN WATER SUPPLY PERFORMANCE ASSESSEMENT - THE CASE

OF HOSSANA TOWN IN HADIYA ZONE, SNNP REGIONAL STATE OF
ETHIOPIA

By
Mulatu Bufebo Adebo

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Civil & Environmental Engineering of

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology of Addis Ababa University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master’s of Science Degree in Civil
Engineering with Specialization in Hydraulic Engineering

Advisor
Dr.-Ing.Geremew Sahilu
Department of Civil Engineering
Addis Ababa

June, 2016
 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

GRADUATE STUDIES PROGRAM

URBAN WATER SUPPLY PERFORMANCE ASSESSEMENT - THE CASE

OF HOSSANA TOWN IN HADIYA ZONE, SNNP REGIONAL STATE OF
ETHIOPIA

By
Mulatu Bufebo Adebo

APPROVED BY BOARD OF EXAMINERS:

Dr.Agizew Nigussie _____________ ___________

Chairman, Department Signature Date

of Graduate Committee

Dr.-Ing.Geremew Sahilu _____________ ___________

Advisor Signature Date

Dr.Yenesew Mengiste _____________ ___________

Internal Examiner Signature Date

Dr.-Ing.Asie Kemal _____________ ___________

External Examiner Signature Date

i
ACKNOWELDGMENTS

I would like to give thanks and praise God for His provision, grace and mercy in all the paths of
my life who favoring me with health, knowledge, wisdom and courage to finalize my study and
do this research.
I am grateful to my supervisor, Dr. -Ing.Germew Sahilu for his support in guiding me during
research conduction. Also my salutation deserves Dr. Bikila for his positive response during
entrance exam.
I would like to express my unreserved appreciation to Ethiopian Road Authority, ERA for
creating this opportunity and sponsoring me to conduct postgraduate study on this subject-
unexpected but happened support in a time of need.
I am grateful to express my appreciation to the Manager of Hossana Town Water Supply
Service- Mulugeta Aleme and his staffs Tilahun Kebede, Bekelech Aga and Wondimu Hegana
for their support during data collection and water quality analysis.
It is my special thanks to my friend Lemma Ashebo (Ashe)-the Manager for the Construction of
Hossana Town Water Supply and Sanitation Project for his advice, guidance and cooperation in
all aspects. Haile Handiso who accompanied me in the customer satisfaction survey and Sources
GPS Location recording and also Solomon Kifle who supported me in GIS mapping of source
and reservoirs-both get my great thanks.
Let my appreciation goes to my friends Girma Amare, Kumela Hirpa and Ebsa Negesse for their
friendly heart in the journey of our study. We spent wonderful time -specially the break time
which was full of funny talk (Taju Ferenju)-unforgettable.
I want to say thank you to my brother Woldeyesus Bufebo (Babi)-Fatherly hearted elder brother
and his wife Meseret Simeon (Ami)- for their relentless prayer and provision of what I need, and
their children Rediet,Anet and Nehmiya Woldeyesus for their lovely and kind smile which
encourages me a lot, Meselech Bufebo and Kebede Abose-for your affectionate heart and prayer
that strengthen me, Kebebush Kassa and Meselech Matewos also thank you for all you did to me.
Last but not Least, I want to express my heartfelt thanks from the bottom of my heart to my
lovely and cheerful mom-Arase Egiso (Godise) for her double responsibility as mother and also
as a father (as I lost my lovely father-Bufebo Hagato Bishamo in my earliest childhood without
enjoying his parental love) and also for her earnest prayer and motherly provision in all the walks
of my life-wish her long live!!!

ii
TABLE OF CONTENT

ACKNOWELDGMENTS ......................................................................................................................................... ii
TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................................................................ iii
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................................ vii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER ONE ..........................................................................................................................................................1
1.0. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................1
1.1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ................................................................................................................1
1.2. SCOPE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................................................ 2
1.3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ..............................................................................................................2
1.4. OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH ............................................................................................................3
1.4.1. GENERAL OBJECTIVE ..........................................................................................................................3
1.4.2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................3
1.5. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................. 3
1.6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO .........................................................................................................................................................4
2.0. LITERATIURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................................................4
2.1. EXISTING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM .......................................................................................................4
2.2. PERFORMANCE INDICATORS FOR URBAN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS.......................................8
2.2.1. WATER LOSS ......................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.2 WATER QUALITY .................................................................................................................................. 14
2.2.3. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ................................................................................................... 15
2.2.4. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION .............................................................................................................. 16
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................................................... 18
3.0. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 18
3.1 .DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA .................................................................................................... 18
3.1.1. LOCATION ............................................................................................................................................. 18
3.1.2. CLIMATE AND HYDROLOGY ............................................................................................................. 19
3.1.3. GEOLOGY............................................................................................................................................... 19
3.1.4. HYDROGEOLOGY ................................................................................................................................. 19
3.1.5. POPULATION AND WATER DEMAND PROJECTION .................................................................... 21
3.2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................................. 23
3.3. MATERIALS ................................................................................................................................................. 23
3.4. METHODS ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
3.4.1. DATA COLLECTION................................................................................................................................ 24
3.4.1.1. DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES ................................................................................................. 24
3.4.1.2. SAMPLE SIZE ......................................................................................................................................... 25
3.4.1.3. SAMPLE SELECTION FOR WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS .......................................................... 25
3.4.2. SAMPLE HANDLING ............................................................................................................................... 26
3.4.2.1. SAMPLING TIME, STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION .............................................................. 26
3.5. DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................................................... 26

iii
CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
4.0. RESULT AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................... 27
4.1. WATER PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND WATER LOSS ANALYSIS ........................................ 27
4.1.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 27
4.1.2. WATER PRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 27
4.1.3. WATER CONSUMPTION AND WATER SUPPLY COVERAGE .......................................... 27
4.1.3.1. WATER CONSUMPTION ............................................................................................................ 27
4.1.3.2. WATER SUPPLY COVERAGE .......................................................................................................... 30
4.1.4. WATER LOSS...................................................................................................................................... 33
4.1.4.1. REASONS OF HIGH WATER LOSS .......................................................................................... 34
4.1.4.2. RECOMMENDATIONS TO REDUCE THE HIGH WATER LOSS ..................................... 35
4.2. WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................... 36
4.2.1. COLIFORM ......................................................................................................................................... 39
4.2.2. TURBIDITY ......................................................................................................................................... 42
4.2.3. RESIDUAL CHLORINE .................................................................................................................. 45
4.2.4. pH AND CORROSION ..................................................................................................................... 48
4.2.5. CONCLUSIONS...................................................................................................................................... 48
4.2.6. RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................... 48
4.3. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION SURVEY ANALYSIS AND RESULT .................................................... 49
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THE SURVEY ............................................................. 49
4.3.2. RESULTS ................................................................................................................................................ 50
4.3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 50
4.4. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ......................................................................................................... 51
4.4.1. INTRODUCTION ON OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ............................................................. 51
4.4.2. OBSERVED PROBLEMS ON THE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ...................................... 54
4.4.3. RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................................................................... 58
5.0. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................... 58
5.1. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 58
5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................................... 58
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................................... 60
ANNEXES .................................................................................................................................................................. 63

iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Existing Water Sources…………………………………………………………………..4
Table 2: Current tariff rates of Hossana town water supply service ............................................... 8
Table 3: List of Key Performance Indicators with their unit of measurement ............................. 10
Table 4: Water Quality Standard-WHO and Ethiopian ................................................................ 15
Table 5: Hydraulic properties of boreholes .................................................................................. 20
Table 6: Borehole yields ............................................................................................................... 20
Table 7: Population distribution by sub-cities as of 2008............................................................. 21
Table 8: Population Projection and Water Supply Demand Forecasting ..................................... 22
Table 9: Monthly Water Production (m3) for the Years 2011-2014 ............................................. 28
Table 10: Monthly Water Consumption (m3) for the Years 2011-2014 ....................................... 29
Table 11: Summarized Water Production and Consumption for the Years 2011-2014 .............. 30
Table 12: Water Supply Coverage of Hossana Town for the Years 2011-2014 .......................... 31
Table 13: Southern African Capital Cities of Water Production .................................................. 33
Table 14: Water Quality Test Result for Total Coliform .............................................................. 37
Table 15: Water Quality Test Result for Faecal Coliform ............................................................ 38
Table 16: Water Quality Test Result for Turbidity ....................................................................... 41
Table 17: Water Quality Test Result for Residual Chlorine ......................................................... 44
Table 18: Water Quality Test Result for pH ................................................................................. 47
Table 19:Customer Type vs Number for the year 2014 ............................................................... 49
Table 20: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2011 ........................................................................ 66
Table 21: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2012 ........................................................................ 68
Table 22: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2013 ........................................................................ 70
Table 23: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2014 ........................................................................ 72
Table 24: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2011 ....................... 74
Table 25: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2012 ....................... 76
Table 26: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2013 ....................... 78
Table 27: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2014 ....................... 80

v
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Location Map of Existing Water Supply Sources for Hossana Town ............................ 5
Figure 2: Location Map of Existing Water Supply Sources including Reservoirs for Hossana
Town ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 3: Water Balance Showing NRW Components................................................................. 12
Figure 4: Location Map of Hossana town..................................................................................... 18
Figure 5: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2011......................................................................... 67
Figure 6: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2012......................................................................... 69
Figure 7: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2013......................................................................... 71
Figure 8: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2014......................................................................... 73
Figure 9: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2011 ........................ 75
Figure 10: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2012 ...................... 77
Figure 11: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2013 ...................... 79
Figure 12: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2014 ...................... 81
Figure 13: Annual Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2011-2014 .............. 82
Figure 14: Percentage of Water Loss for the Year 2011 .............................................................. 83
Figure 15: Percentage of Water Loss for the Year 2012 .............................................................. 84
Figure 16: .Percentage of Water Loss for the Year 2013 ............................................................. 85
Figure 17: Percentage of Water Loss for the Year 2014 .............................................................. 86

vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAiT=Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

ADB=Africa Development Bank
AWWA=American Water Works Association
BH=Borehole
BS=Booster station
CCP=Circuit Control Panel
CSA= Central Statistics Authority
DCI =Ductile Cast Iron
DN=Nominal Diameter
EEPCo=Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
EWWCA=Ethiopian Water Works Construction Agency
Fig= Figure
GIS =Geographical Information System
GPS=Global Positioning System
HDR=Henningson Durham and Richardson (Architecture and Engineering
Firm)
HH=House Hold
HWSS=Hossana town Water Supply Service
LCB=Lahore Cantonment Board
Masl=meter above sea level
Mg/l=Milligram per litre
Ml=Mililitre
NB=Note
NRW=Non-Revenue Water
NTU=Nephelometric Turbidity Units
PLC=Private Limited Company
PVC =Polyvinyl Chloride
SNNP=Southern Nations Nationalities and People
SPSS=Statistical Package for Social Science
SWWCE=South Water Works Construction Enterprise
TP=Treatment Plant
UfW=Unaccounted for Water
WHO =World Health Organization

vii
ABSTRACT

The provision of adequate and reliable water supply in developing countries is becoming a
challenge for most water utilities especially public service providers. Water demand has been
increasing drastically in these countries due to many factors including population growth as a
result of rural to urban migration. As a consequence, in many countries public service utilities
have failed to provide consumers with adequate water supply and sanitation services. Apart from
service coverage, there are other problems that affect public service providers such as high
Unaccounted for Water (UfW) and poor services, poor consumer records and inefficient billing
practices.
This study tried to assess the performance of Hossana town water supply system based on four
main performance indicators namely water loss, water quality, customers satisfaction and operation
and maintenance. Poor water quality which is not in accordance with the national standard, high
water loss, presence of customer complaints and operation and maintenance problems indicates
that there are deficiencies on the quality of the service and contribute to low performance of the
water supply system. Methods used in the study included, previous studies and documentary
review, water production and consumption recording and analysis, household interviews, key
stakeholders interview, conducting water quality tests, and field observations.
The result of the research show that there are water quality problems and the water supply
accessibility and reliability is also inadequate. The operation and maintenance timely response
towards customers was also a matter of concern. Moreover, the UfW for the year 2014 was
found to be 50.55% which is very high loss and needs reduction.
In conclusion, the quality of service delivered by the HWSS for the customers was not found
satisfactory and also the UfW was higher than the generally accepted value of 25% suggested by
the World Bank. It is recommended that the reduction of UfW through appropriate water demand
management strategies should be given priority and HWSS should engage in environmental
conservation at main water sources of water supply. In order to improve the quality of services, the
HWSS should improve customer relation and care by expanding the branch offices in the town as
the town is currently expanding fast in every corner of the town.

Key Words: Water Supply, Water Loss, Water Quality, Operation and Maintenance,
Customer Satisfaction, Hossana, Ethiopia

viii
Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

CHAPTER ONE

1.0. INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Water is the primary need to sustain life; every citizen in the country has the right to have access to
potable water. Provision of safe and adequate water supply services is necessary components for
sustainable development. The estimated water supply service level of Ethiopia in terms of coverage,
quantity, quality and reliability is very low.

The provision of adequate and reliable water supply in developing countries is becoming a challenge for
most water utilities especially public service providers. Water demand has been increasing drastically in
these countries due to many factors including population growth as a result of rural to urban migration.
As a consequence, in many countries public service utilities have failed to provide consumers with
adequate water supply and sanitation services. Apart from service coverage, there are other problems that
affect public service providers such as high Unaccounted for Water (UfW) and financial problems due
to a combination of low tariff, poor services, poor consumer records and inefficient billing practices
(Victor Kimey, 2008).

The provision of adequate supplies potable water for use in urban areas in developing countries is
crucial for the well-being of the people. The demand for such supplies in the developing countries has
been on the increase over time as a result of rising standards of living that occur with economic progress
and population increase resulting from natural growth, and rural urban migration and rising per capital
income (Rewata and Sampath, 2000).

Access to safe and adequate water supply is a universally recognized human right, which has special
significance to the survival of humanity. Adequate water supply may be defined as having reasonable
access to safe water supply, Performance of water utilities can be assessed by many factors including
accessibility and reliability of water supply, affordability of services, and customer satisfaction. In many
developing countries, however, the public service providers have failed to provide consumers with
adequate water supply and sanitation services (Nickson, 2002). The existing problems of inadequate
service provision is exacerbated by the fact that population growth and mounting pressure of increasing
urbanization have offset much of the gains in service coverage (Gentry et al 1997). Service coverage can

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

be one of the indicators of accessibility of water supply that can have an effect on the performance of
water utilities. Apart from serving coverage there are other problems that affect the performance of the
public water utilities, for example, many public utilities in developing countries, experience high
unaccounted for water (UfW) rates, which often average between 40% - 60%, meaning that about half of
the potable water produced is lost somewhere in the supply process (Schwartz, 2007). Moreover the
public utilities often face financial challenges due to a combination of low tariffs, poor services, poor
consumer records and inefficient billing and collection practices (World Bank, 1994).

A well performing urban water supply system should provide water supply for human being and
livestock consumption, for industrial and other uses in terms of coverage, quantity, reliability and
acceptable quality taking the existing and future realities of the city in to consideration. This research
paper will assess and evaluate the performance of Hossana water supply system in terms of four main
performance indicators such as water supply coverage, water quality, water loss, operation and
maintenance and customer satisfaction and recommend solutions for improving the water supply
service.
1.2. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study is limited to existing water supply system and do not include the sanitation part. Besides the
assessment of the performance of the water supply system do not include tariff, billing system and
management and financial aspect of the Water Service.
1.3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Assessment of the performance of urban water supply system is important for identifying weakness and
strengths of the system and to improve the water supply service level. A best performing system should
provide safe, sufficient and affordable water supply service, with low water loss and good quality of
water which fulfills national and international standards. The major challenges of urban water supply
systems in developing countries are low water supply service coverage, unavailability sufficient water at
all times, very high amount of water loss which ranges up to 50% of amount of water produced (World
Bank, 2006) and absence of quality water which meets national or international drinking water
standards.

As there is shortage of water supply provision in the Hossana town and also a complaint regarding
service provision from customer side, knowing the real problem and dealing with it was what motivates
me to do this research. Hence in doing so suggesting what measures to be taken by the HWSS to
improve the quality of service was the focus of the research.

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

1.4. OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

1.4.1. GENERAL OBJECTIVE

The general objective of this research was to assess the performance of the Hossana town water supply
system and suggests appropriate measures to improve the water supply for the town population.

1.4.2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. To determine the factors contributing to the water loss, water quality, and operation and maintenance

2. To assess customer /consumer perception towards the service provided by the Water Supply Service.

3. To indicate and suggest corrective measures to the town Water Service on areas of service
improvements which leads to increased access to sustainable water supply service and doing so assure
the customer satisfaction.

1.5. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What is the amount of water produced, consumed and lost in the supply system?

2. What are the main causes of water loss? What measures to be taken to reduce or minimize it?

3. What is the present water supply coverage of the town?

4. How is the water quality compared with national and international standards?

5. What are the main operation and maintenance problems? What is the level of customer satisfaction?
1.6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
From the study it is expected that the deficiencies of the water supply system and causes for the high
water loss will be assessed and known, water supply coverage and water quality level will be
determined. The assessed and analyzed results and estimates will in turn contribute to know the overall
performance level of the system. Besides the results help decision makers and especially the town Water
Supply Service in planning of future expansions and to know areas of water loss and develop corrective
measures to reduce the high water loss, improve coverage and water quality so as to make the system
more efficient and increase water supply service level. It may also give a clue for further research.

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

CHAPTER TWO

2.0. LITERATIURE REVIEW

2.1. EXISTING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Construction of existing water supply was completed at the end of 1974 GC. It had two phases. Phase
one was designed for 10 years from 1975 –1985 GC and phase two for 10 years from 1985 – 1995 G. C.
However the second phase was not implemented. The existing water supply system comprised of 6 bore
holes, two springs ,a dam with the capacity of 460,000m3 and reservoirs with two 150m3 capacity
each,500 m3 and 2000 m3.
Table 1: Existing Water Sources
No. Source Location Yield Remark
Constructed in 1984 EC.
Working properly, Pump
0372842 N, 0836670 E @2280 replaced before eleven years.
1 BH-1 masl Elevation 5l/s Water meter not working
0371615 N, 0836364 E@2235 Constructed in 1984 EC.
2 BH-2 masl Elevation 5l/s Working properly
0371615 N, 0836364 E@2235 Drilled in 1993 EC. Abandoned
3 BH-3 masl Elevation 3l/s due to decrease in yield.
Constructed in 1998 EC. And
0370059 N, 0837058 E@2212 commissioned in
4 BH-4 masl Elevation 7l/s 2000EC.Working properly.
Constructed in 1998 EC. And
0375358 N, 0836966 commissioned in
5 BH-5 E@2260 masl Elevation 11l/s 2000EC.Working properly.
0369826 N, 0836593 E@2199 Constructed in 2000 EC. Not
6 BH-6 masl Elevation 12l/s connected to the system
Location of TP 0374615 N, Constructed in 1974 EC. Initial
0835160 E@2288 masl capacity of the treatment plant
7 Dam and TP Elevation ~ <5l/s was 6.27l/s
Sheshar 0394630 N, 0870251 E@2556
8 Spring masl Elevation 70l/s Constructed in 2005 EC.
Mosheshe 0393559 N, 0869377 E@2548
9 Spring masl Elevation 37.8l/s Constructed in 2005 EC.

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

The dam was designed to yield 627L/second (541.73m3/day). However as a result of encroaching
settlement and erosion, the catchments area of the dam and run off to the dam is decreasing there by
decreasing the capacity of the dam. Currently it is not in use and abandoned.

The water meters installed at BH-2, BH-4 and the combined measurement for BH-5 and the treatment
plant are working properly. During the site visit the yield of BH-4 was 11.4l/s, BH-2 was 10l/s and BH-
5 and the dam was 15.3 l/s (data obtained from the last 24 days daily records). BH-1 is estimated to have
a yield of 5l/s. BH-3 is abandoned because of the decrease in yield which has dropped to about 3l/s. BH-
6 is not working as there no pump is installed. The service has a plan to put it in to operation very soon.
Here below is shown the existing water supply sources of the town.

Figure 1: Location Map of Existing Water Supply Sources for Hossana Town

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Figure 2: Location Map of Existing Water Supply Sources including Reservoirs for
Hossana Town

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

The capacity of the water sources and their yields are not well known due to absence of raw water
meters. However, estimates of the operation section reveals annual capacity ranging from 310,000 to
360,000 M3 per year.

According to the last three years (2006-2008) data collected from Hossana Town Water Supply
Enterprise, the water production is 62.88 m³/hour for 18 hrs. Pumping or 1132 m³/day. The average
annual water production is calculated to be 413,228 m³ showing a per capita production of 16 l/c/d.

But currently the newly constructed water supply from the spring water source in the Silti Zone is
supplementing the above borehole yields and the total water supply from both springs is 91l/s. The
distribution system consists of PVC to DCI pipes of various sizes for about 45km from Hossana.

The disinfection with chlorine is done in such a way that powder chlorine is added to the chlorine
tankers placed at top of the reservoirs and mixed with water and the chlorine solution flows by gravity to
the reservoirs through a hose which extends from the chlorine tanker to the reservoirs through the
reservoir manholes. The liquid chlorine flows to the reservoirs continuously in form of droplets in
parallel with the water pumping to the reservoirs and is terminated when pumping stops. The chlorine
consumption per day of Hossana Town Water Treatment system can be seen in two ways depending on
the water quality from the various sources: Maximum and Minimum. The maximum amount is 50 litre
of chlorine in the form of Sodium hypochloride and the minimum one is half of the maximum which is
25litre of Sodium Hypochloride(NaOCl). Other than this disinfection of the line is done using 3kg of
Calcium Hypochlorite per week and this amount may increase depending on the water quality scenario
which can be identified through inspection by the utility or sometimes based on the information from
beneficiary customers .

Relating to tariff the existing water tariff of Hossana town is a four-band system tariff and it also full
cost recovery tariff as per the water resource policy for Urban Water Services. The current tariff for
Hossana town is presented in table 1 below

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Table 2: Current tariff rates of Hossana town water supply service

1st band 0-5m3 Birr 6.27

2nd band 5-10m3 Birr 7.83
3rd band 10-20m3 Birr 9.40
4th band >20m3 Birr 10.97

2.2. PERFORMANCE INDICATORS FOR URBAN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Performance indicators are measures of the efficiency and effectiveness of the Water Utilities with
regard to specific aspects of the Utility’s activity and of the system’s behavior.

Efficiency is a measure of the extent to which the resources of water Utility are utilized optimally to
produce the service,

Effectiveness is a measure of the extent to which the targeted objectives (specifically and realistically
defined) are achieved.

International Water Association (IWA) defined performance indicator as a ratio between variables of the
same nature (e.g., %) or of different natures (e.g., Birr/m3 or liters per service connection).

Before evaluating the performance of urban water supply system it is important to develop appropriate
performance indicators. The following are suggested performance indicators for evaluating urban
distribution systems (Water Utility Journal 1:31, 2011).

Water resources performance

 Inefficiency of use of water resources, Water resources availability, Own water resources
availability

Physical performance

 Raw water storage capacity, Transmission and distribution storage capacity, Standardized energy
consumption
 Energy recovery, Customer meter density, Metered customers

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Operational performance

 Network inspection, Leakage control, Active leakage control repairs, System flow meters
calibration
 Meter replacement, Vehicle availability, Mains rehabilitation, Mains renovation, Mains
replacement
 Replaced valves, Service connection rehabilitation, Water losses per connection, Water losses
per mains length
 Pump failures, Main failures, Service connection failures, Customer reading efficiency,
Residential customer connection efficiency, operational meters, and unmetered water.

Quality of service performance

 Households and business supply coverage, Building supply coverage, Population coverage,
Population coverage with service connections
 Pressure of supply adequacy, Continuity of supply, Water interruptions, Interruptions per
connection, Days with restrictions to water service
 Microbiological tests compliance, Physical-chemical tests compliance, New connection
efficiency
 Time to install a customer meter, Connection repair time, Service complaints per connection,
Service complaints per customer, Pressure complaints, Continuity complaints, Water quality complaints,
Interruption complaints,Billing complaints and queries, Other complaints and queries, Response to
written complaints.

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Table 3: List of Key Performance Indicators with their unit of measurement (WSP, 2012)

No. Category of Key Indicators Units

Indicators
1 Technical Indicators 1. Water Supply Coverage 1. %
2. Per Capita Consumption 2. l/c/d
3. Unaccounted For Water 3. % or l/d/km
4. Continuity piped water supply 4. Hr/day
2 Personnel Indicators 1. Number of staff per 1000 connection 1. #/1000
connection
2. labor cost as a proportion of operational costs
3. staff costs as a percentage of utility 2. %
expenditures 3. %
3 Operational 1. length of distribution piped water system 1. km
Indicators 2. number of pipe breaks 2. No.
3. Maintenance cost against total operating 3. %
cost
4 Financial Indicators 1. Water production cost per cubic meter 1. Birr/m3
2. Average Tariff (in to supply) 2. Birr/m3 sold
3. Operating ratio:[annual O&M cost (Birr)] / 3. %
[annual revenue (Birr)]
4. Revenue collection efficiency: [total annual 4. %
collections (Birr) / total annual billings
(Birr)] x 100
5. Energy vs O&M cost
5. %
6. Account receivable (month’s equivalent)
= [accounts receivable at end of the fiscal
year] / [total annual billings/12] 6. %
5 Customer 1. Annual Number of Complaints 1. No.
Management 2. Response time to complaints 2. No.
Indicators
A study set out to assess the performance of two urban water supply utilities in Tanzania shows there are
serious water supply problems in the districts under study. The assessment was based on two main
indicators which are the quality of service and unaccounted for water. The quality of the service and
UfW has been cited as some of the major factors which reflect the performance of many water utilities.
Poor service quality as measured by the water quality, billing efficiency and customer care, affects
consumer willingness to pay and consequently the performance of the water supply utility. Methods

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used in the study included documentary review, household questionnaires, key informant interviews and
field observations. The results show that accessibility and reliability of water supply in Muheza town is
inadequate compared to Korogwe town. On average customers receive water for 8 hours per day in
Korogwe and 5 hours per day in Muheza. Water supplied by the respective utilities in the two districts is
far below the total demand. More than 80% of customer complaints in both towns were about water
quality, water shortage and customer relations. Poor billing practices and old infrastructure have resulted
in high UfW of 42% in Korogwe and 47% in Muheza. The conclusion, therefore, was that the customers
were not satisfied with quality of services and that the UfW was higher than the generally accepted
value of 25% suggested by the World Bank (Victor Kimey, 2008).

The quality of service can also be assessed by assessing the accessibility of water, reliability of water
services, water quality, customer-operator relations and the affordability of the service provision.
Factors that should be considered in assessing the accessibility of water supply include supply coverage
and production capacity to meet consumer demand. The type of household main water source and per
capita water use are also needed to study. The reliability of the service can be studied by investigating
the duration of water supply and downtime period (Victor Kimey, 2008).

The performance of the Hossana town water supply conducted based on four main indicators which are
service coverage and water loss (unaccounted for water), water quality, Customer satisfaction and
operation and maintenance contextualizing the indicators in regard to data availability situation, i.e.
Financial indicator and other cost related criteria are not considered as these are out of the scope of the
study part stated earlier in this research.
2.2.1. WATER LOSS
Another factor to be considered to assess the performance of urban water supply systems is amount and
causes of water loss.

The general steps to be followed for understanding and managing Losses in Water Distribution
Networks the general steps to be followed are: Analysis of network characteristics and operating
practices, Quantification of water losses and Use of appropriate tools and mechanisms to suggest
appropriate solutions (Saroj Sharma, 2008).

Quantifying and characterizing water loss and leakage in a city water supply is by its nature a complex
task. Leakage identification needs detailed field investigation sometimes using sophisticated equipment
(Shimeles Kabeto, 2011).

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Non-Revenue Water: Non-revenue water (NRW) represents the difference between the volume of
water delivered into a network and billed authorized consumption.

NRW = “Net production” – “Revenue water”

= UfW + water which is accounted for, but no revenue is collected (unbilled authorized consumption)

Unaccounted for Water

Unaccounted-for water (UFW) represents the difference between "net production" (the volume of water
delivered into a network) and "consumption" (the volume of water that can be accounted for by
legitimate consumption, whether metered or not).

UFW = “net production” – “legitimate consumption” (Saroj Sharma,2008).

Billed Authorised Billed Metered Consumption Revenue

Consumption Billed Unmetered Consumption Water
Authorised
Consumption Unbilled Unbilled Metered Consumption
Authorised
Consumption Unbilled Unmetered Consumption
Unauthorised Consumption
System Commercial
Losses Customer meter Inaccuracies and Data
Input Handling Errors Non-
Volume Revenue
Leakage on Transmission and
Water Water
Distribution Mains
Losses
Leakage and Overflows from the
Physical Losses
Utilities Storage Tanks
Leakage on Service Connections up to
the Customer Meter

Figure.3: Water Balance Showing NRW Components(IWA,2000)

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Calculating Water Loss

Water loss is expressed as: a percentage of net water production (delivered to the distribution system)
and also as m3/day/km of water distribution pipe system network (specific water loss)

Other way of calculating water loss is m3/day/connection, m3/day/connection/m pressure. Of all the
above, water loss as % of net water production is the most common way of expressing it.

Magnitude of Water Losses

Water loss levels (UfW or NRW) vary widely per country and within one country per city. UfW values
ranging from 6% to 63% have been reported.

(Source: Water and Wastewater Utility Data, 1996)

A certain level of water losses cannot be avoided from a technical point of view and /or is considered
acceptable from an economic point of view.

What is an Acceptable Water Loss?

1. It is a compromise between the cost of reducing water loss and maintenance of distribution system
and the cost (of water) saved.

2. AWWA Leak Detection and Accountability Committee, (1996), recommended 10% as a benchmark
for UfW.

3. UfW levels and action needed :< 10% Acceptable, monitoring and control, 10-25% Intermediate,
could be reduced,> 25% Matter of concern, reduction needed

Controlling Water Loss

The controlling of water loss is very important task to be given due attention and in this regard measures
as per the specific situation can be taken. Among them some are: Meter testing and repair/replacement,
improving billing procedure, Leak detection and control program(Network evaluation, leak detection in
the field and repair),Rehabilitation and replacement program( Corrosion control, Pressure reduction),
Public education program(Legal provisions, Water pricing policies encouraging conservation, Human
resources development, Information system development).

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2.2.2 WATER QUALITY

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water. It is a measure of
the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human
need or purpose. It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance
can be assessed. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

To be safe for human consumption, drinking water must be free from microorganisms capable of
causing disease. It must not contain minerals and organic substances at concentrations that could
produce adverse effects. Drinking water should be aesthetically acceptable; it should be free from
apparent turbidity, color, and odor, and from any objectionable taste (HDR Engineering Inc., 2003).

Another performance indicator to be used for assessment of urban water supply system is water quality.
Water quality of urban water supply may affected by different factors like urban storm or urban runoff,
flood intrusion to water supply sources, intrusion of pollutants through pipe leaks, connection of faulty
sewerage line with water supply pipe line, industrial wastes etc. The water quality of urban drinking
water should satisfy standards set by WHO (world health organization) and National standards.

In this research the existing practices of the water utility to check the water quality of Hossana town
water supply and the treating system will be assessed. Besides water sample will be taken from sources,
reservoirs, distribution network pipe line and from house connection and water quality analysis will be
done for different water quality parameters and the results will be checked against international and
national guidelines and based on the result recommendation will be given to improve the water quality.
Water is essential to sustain life, and a satisfactory (adequate, safe and accessible) supply must be
available to all. Improving access to safe drinking-water can result in tangible benefits to health. Every
effort should be made to achieve drinking-water that is as safe as practicable. Safe drinking water, as
defined by the Guidelines, does not represent any significant risk to health over a lifetime of
consumption, including different sensitivities that may occur between life stages. In other direction, the
nature and form of drinking-water standards may vary among countries and regions and there is no
single approach that is universally applicable. In the development and implementation of standards it is
essential to consider the current or planned legislation relating to water, health and local government and
the capacity of regulators in the country. Additionally approaches that may work in one country or
region will not necessarily transfer to other countries or regions (WHO, 2011). For this work WHO and
Ethiopian guidelines values for drinking water are presented in the following table.

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Table 4: Water Quality Standard –WHO and Ethiopian

WHO Ethiopian
S/N Parameter Standard(1993) Standard(1998)

1 Total Coliform 0Col/100ml 0Col/100ml

2 Faecal Coliform <3Col/100ml <3Col/100ml

3 Turbidity(NTU) <5NTU Low Turbidity

4 Residual Chlorine(mg/l) 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

5 pH 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
Source: http://www.lenntech.com

2.2.3. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Operation and maintenance is the main challenge of urban water supply system.

Operation

Operation refers to the everyday running and handling of a water supply. This involves:

 Major operations required to convey safe drinking water to the users, e.g. starting and stopping a
motorized pump, the supply of fuel and the control of valves.
 The correct handling of facilities by users to ensure long component life (Jan Davis and Francois
Brikké,1995).

The proper operation of a supply results in its optimum use and contributes to a reduction in breakdowns
and maintenance needs

Maintenance

Maintenance refers to the activities required to sustain the water supply in a proper working condition.
Maintenance can be divided into:

 Preventive maintenance - regular inspection and servicing to preserve assets and minimize
breakdowns.

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 Corrective maintenance - minor repair and replacement of broken and worn out parts to sustain
reliable facilities.
 Crisis maintenance - unplanned responses to emergency breakdowns and user complaints to
restore a failed supply (Jan Davis and Francois Brikké, 1995).

Maintenance costs money and a policy of crisis maintenance alone may appear cheap in the short term.
However, continuing crisis maintenance leads to frequent breakdowns, an unreliable supply, poor
service levels, and a lack of user confidence. Reliance on crisis maintenance may ultimately lead to
complete system failure.

Rehabilitation entails the correction of major defects and the replacement of equipment to enable a
facility to function as originally intended. Rehabilitation becomes necessary when it is no longer
technically feasible or economically viable to maintain a facility in good working order. Maintenance
will become uneconomic if the long term cost of rehabilitation and subsequent operation is more
favorable than continued repair and maintenance.

Water supply statistics often give the number of people served by improved water supplies.
Unfortunately, the actual number of people served is far less because many supplies do not function
reliably due to the neglect of operation and maintenance. Unless operation and maintenance is properly
implemented then continued investment in the development of water supplies is not worthwhile. In this
study the existing operation and maintenance practice of Hossana town water supply system is assessed
and suggestions will be given to improve the operation and maintenance practice. Besides as stated
before there is very high water loss in water supply system and this can also be reduced by improving
the operation and maintenance system. In summary, the Technical performance (Water coverage, Water
Production and consumption and Non-Revenue water) evaluation will be highly assessed and other
performance indicators like human resource utilization and capacity building, Customer care and
Service Affordability will also be assessed.

2.2.4. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION

It is the very nature of this commodity that makes the customer satisfaction so important. Water is a
lifeline whose importance is felt only when people cannot get enough of it. It is keeping this in mind that
urban water distribution networks are designed to supply water for household customers as well as
industrial concerns twenty four hours a day, three sixty five days of the year. Any disruption or
inconsistency in this service even though for a short while has an unpleasant effect on all sorts of
customers. There is a great pressure on the water delivering agencies to ensure customer satisfaction.

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One of the most relevant aspects of water services therefore is the important role of customers. Water
supply agencies as well as their regulators are becoming increasingly sensitive to customer protection
issues and customers’ opinions about the service quality and performance (Omar Saeed, 2011). The
research made by Omar Saeed to check whether the residents are satisfied or not with clean drinking
water provided by Lahore (Pakistan) Cantonment Board (LCB) used main research questions that
summarize the main aspects of clean drinking water. The research questions were overall satisfaction of
people with the clean drinking water, aspects of the water that the customers have complaints against
such as quality, quantity, continuity and price and on the satisfaction of the customers with the
responsiveness of LCB to their complaints (Omar Saeed, 2011).

In this study of Hossana town existing water supply System performance assessment Sample Household
interviews using prepared questionnaires for the customers located in three different Sub cities is carried
out to collect information about customers’ satisfaction towards the water supply service.

The following indicators were considered for the satisfaction of customer survey: Availability of water,
quality of water, daily consumption amount, sufficiency of water pressure, maintenance response by the
Service, functionality of water meters, and availability of other sources of water, availability of home
water treatment and affordability of water tariff. The standard for the satisfaction depends as per the
perception of customers and in general it lies with the delivery of quality service to the customer by the
utility and the degree of customer –operator relations in responding to the customer complaints.

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CHAPTER THREE

3.0. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 .DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1.1. LOCATION
Hossana Town, capital of Hadya Zone is found in Southern Nations and Nationalities Regional
Government Administration Region of Ethiopia. Hossana town is located between 7º53’000’’N and
7º55’000’’N latitudes and 37º30’00’’E and 37º40’00’’E longitudes in UTM coordinates. The town is
located in between 2140m and 2380m elevated lands above mean sea level & 230 km away from the
Country's Capital city Addis Ababa to the southern direction via Alemgena&Butajira Road and 168km
from the Regional town Hawassa via Alaba-Angacha Road.

Figure 4: Location Map of Hossana town

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3.1.2. CLIMATE AND HYDROLOGY

The altitude of the town ranges from 2140m and 2380m above mean sea level. This shows that the study
area is mainly characterized by highland ('dega') climatic conditions. There is one rain gauge station in
Hossana at a specific location of 374900E, 832800N UTM coordinates. The annual average temperature
is 160 - 170 C

There are also other gauge stations at relatively closer proximities namely Durame, Gimbicho, Fonko
and Shone as well. Using the rainfall data collected for over 36 years at the Hossana meteorological
station, the mean annual rainfall at and around Hossana is 1179.27mm/year. The other nearest station is
Durame station which is located at about 36.9km South of Hossana, at a specific location of 38
º40’00’’E, 79º59’00’’N UTM has the mean annual rainfall of 1083mm/year. Shone station located at
124km South of Hossana at a specific location of 37º58’00’’E, 7º08’000’’N UTM has a mean annual
rainfall value of 1563.52mm/year.

3.1.3. GEOLOGY
Hossana is located on the edge of the western escarpment west of the Great Ethiopian Rift Valley. The rock
formation in the region is predominantly composed of volcanic rock known as the Magdala group. The
Magdla group unlike the Trap Series (pre-Rift Volcanic) is essentially composed of Acidic rocks such as
Ignimbrites, Rhyolites, Tuffs and Trachytes. These rocks are however intercalated or inter bedded with
basaltic rocks.The thickness of these rocks as inferred from the two boreholes (bore hole 1 & 2) drilled in
the town is over 200 meters. The well log exhibit an inter bedding of ignimbrites and volcanic sand for
over 200 meters.

Since Hossana town is located near the Rift margin it has suffered from tectonic activities. NE-SW
lineaments which most probably can be fault structures and which run parallel to the Great Ethiopian Rift
System are prevalent. This fault structures which runs parallel to the rift system which extends further to
Butajira is assumed to be the source of the two springs namely Sheshara and Mosheshe (fracture spring).
3.1.4. HYDROGEOLOGY
Groundwater occurring or reservoir characteristics of the rocks is governed by two factors; fracture and
Weathering. The Ignimbrites impound groundwater when they are fractured and/or weathered. The Tuff or
volcanic ashes in most cases have very poor permeability and thus are insignificant from groundwater point
of view. Thus the chance of striking groundwater or even the quantity available varies from place to place
depending on the degree of fracturing and weathering. This fact can vividly be proved from recently drilled
wells around Hossana town.

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Two wells which have been drilled in 1992 by EWWCA Central Region show the following characteristics.
The wells are located about 2-3 kms North of the town in a topographically depressed land. The distance
between the wells being less than 0.5 kms however the hydraulic properties of the aquifer show significant
variation.
Table 5: Hydraulic properties of boreholes

Well Well Depth S.W.L. D.W.L. Tested Aquifer Type

Name (meter) (meter) (meter) Yield

Well No. 208 124.34 157 5 l/sec Weathered and fractured

1 volcanic

Well No. 153 70.93 96.98 10 l/sec Fractured ignimbrites and

2 volcanic sand

Hossana town and its surrounding area obtain quite considerable amount of average rainfall (about
1195mm) per year. Since Hossana more or less lies on or very close to the water divide which separate the
Omo and Bilate-Lake Abaya catchments, major surface water (perennial) may not be expected. However
there are some smaller perennial streams like Bilate River in the closer vicinity.

The average transmissivity is calculated to be 17.6 and 98.8 m2/day for Well No. 1 and No.2 respectively.

Maximum yield of the wells are estimated based on the knowledge of specific capacity and available draw-
down. The available draw-down is taken to be two third of the water column and the specific capacity is
the ratio of the discharge and draw-down after 24 hours of pumping. Thus the maximum yield is the
product of the available draw-down and the specific capacity.
Table 6: Bore hole yields

Well Name Available Draw-down Specific Capacity Maximum Yield (l/sec)

Well No. 1 55.7 0.15 8.4

Well No.2 54.72 0.38 20.7

NB: Available draw-down = Water column x 2/3 and Specific capacity = l/sec/mt

Hydro-chemistry - Data of chemical analysis available for the two boreholes has been analyzed.

 The content of the cations and anions are within the limit of acceptable standard.

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 The respective total hardness as CaCO3 for Well No. 1 and 2 is 60 and 52 mg/l and thus fall in the
"Soft Water" group according to the standard classification made by Freeze and Cherry 1979. The pH of
water for Well No. 1 and No.2 is 7 and 7.3 respectively which shows that the groundwater in the region is
neutral or slightly basic.The General and Physical quality of water is satisfactorily fit for drinking and
household use (Hywas Engineering Consultants et al, 2009).
3.1.5. POPULATION AND WATER DEMAND PROJECTION

According to CSA population count of May 2007, the total number of Hossana town population was
69,959 for the year 2007/8. Out of this the male population were 35505 (50.75%) and the females were
34454 (49.25%).

Since the preliminary population count result is not more disaggregated, population distribution by sub-
cities and number of households as well as housing units in the town could not be shown.

The Municipality source show very consistent estimate to that of CSA count and well disaggregated by
sub-cities. According to this data source the total population of Hossana Town as of 2008 is estimated to
70,470 and as per the population projection done by the Hywas Engineering Consultants the total
population of the town for the year 2014 and 2015 is estimated to 91,341 and 95,269 and the distribution
by localities and gender as of 2008 is summarized below.

Hossana town comprises of three KifleKetema and eight sub kebeles. It is one of the economically and
Scio-politically dynamic towns in the region and supposed to have adequate supply and availability of
all development infrastructures including safe water supply
Table 7: Population distribution by sub-cities as of 2008

No Sub-City Head of households Family members Total population

M F T M F T M F T

1 SecheDuna 2162 2169 4331 11679 13602 25281 13841 15771 29612

2 Addis Ketema 941 725 1666 7244 8624 15868 8185 9349 17534

3 Gofer Meda 5322 728 6050 6102 11172 17274 11424 11900 23324

Total 8425 3622 12047 25025 33398 18423 33450 37020 70470

Source: Hossana Town Finance and Economic Development Office, 2008)

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Table 8: Population Projection and Water Supply Demand Forecasting

Year 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Growth rate 4.60% 4.30% 4.30% 4.30% 4.30%

Population, no 73,790 77,184 80,503 83,965 87,575 91,341

Proportion of Population Served

Public taps Urban 39% 36% 33% 29% 24% 20%

Private yard connection 26% 26% 27% 30% 34% 38%

Private house connection 4% 7% 10% 11% 12% 13%

Private yard shared 31% 31% 30% 30% 30% 29%

Domestic demand, m3/day 2416.6 2632.0 2845.80 3018.5 3205.3 3388.8

Demand of Animals, m3/day 123.0 128.6 134.2 139.9 146.0 152.2

Institutional + Commercial( 483.3 526.4 569.2 603.7 641.1 677.8

20% of Dom. D), m3/day

Industry, m3/day 146.5 175.8 205.1 732.5 820.4 908.3

Hadiya University Demand, 0 87.0 87.0 261.0 261.0 261.0

14500 community(60l/c/d),
m3/day

Total Daily Demand, m3/day 3169 3550 3841 4756 5074 5388

UfW %, * 30% 30% 38.13% 33.71% 55.44% 50.55%

UfW, m3/day * 951 1065 1465 1603 2813 2724

Total daily Demand, m3/day* 4,120 4615 5306 6359 7887 8112

Max Daily Demand, 4532 5077 5837 6995 8676 8923

m3/day(1.1xaverage demand) *

(Source: Hywas Engineering in association with AG Consult, & EDM Consultants 2009) ,*=amendment
made for % of the UfW for Year 2011 to 2014 which was 30%,29%,28% & 27% respectively and
replaced with %ages based on the finding of this research .

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3.2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Descriptive and Experimental study designs were applied for the completion of the research.
Descriptive study design was applied to examine the customer satisfaction regarding water availability,
affordability and pressure and response for customer complaint and operation and maintenance. While
Experimental study design was used for assessing physicochemical and bacteriological quality of
drinking water at sources, reservoirs and consumers tap. The water demand projection, water production
and consumption data was used to assess the coverage of demand and the amount of UfW of the
Hossana town.
3.3. MATERIALS
3.3.1. SOURCE OF DATA

The research was conducted various data and the source of data were both primary and secondary.The
primary data was obtained from field observation, checklists, questionnaires and laboratory results.
Water sample was taken at selected sampling site for microbiological and physico-chemical water
quality analysis. Water sample collected was analyzed for different parameters at the laboratory of
Hossana Town Water Supply Service (HWSS). After checking parameters which indicate quality status
of drinking water it was compared to the Ethiopian and WHO guideline values. Secondary data were
collected from published and unpublished literatures and from the sub-city reports.

3.3.2. EQUIPMENTS USED

The laboratory of Hossana town Water Supply Service was used to conduct water quality test. pH meter
were used for chemical water quality inspection. Microbiological analysis was also undertaken in the
same laboratory, using validated multiple tube fermentation technique. The main procedure was
incubating sample water in media which selectively promote growth of total coliform bacteria and fecal
coliform. Sampling bottle, taste tubes, Diurnal tubes , Knife/spoon, Distilled water, Incubation machine,
Sterilization machine, Refrigerator, pH meter, Pipet were used when microbiological and physico-
chemical water quality analysis were done.

For microbiological water quality assessment (total and feacal coliform) the following reagents were
used for each consecuitive stages: Lactose broth,used for analysis of total coliform at the presumptive
stage,BGB(Brilliant green bile) used for fecal coliform analysis at conformative stage and DPD(
Diethyl-Phenylene-Diamine) was used for physico chemical water quality determination-for
determination of free residual chlorine.

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Interview questionnaires were used for customer satisfaction survey and Water supply service
performance indicator checklist for Water Supply Service authorities, water production and consumption
data collected from the record of the HWSS for the past four years (2011-2014).
3.4. METHODS
3.4.1. DATA COLLECTION

3.4.1.1. DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

The data collections techniques used in order to achieve the objectives of this study were a collection of
comprehensive literature review from published and unpublished sources and the assessment of
customer perception regarding the quality of service through questionnaire and informal discussion by
enrolling three data collectors. Additionally, Household head means the person who plays the main role
in the decision-making process of a family were selected to answer the questionnaire and in absence of
the household head, the second important adult member of the family was selected. In doing so, the
study objectives were clearly explained to the households and each household was assured that the
information provided would be kept confidential. In addition laboratory analyses of water sample were
done to characterize the quality of drinking water in the town. The detail methodology is presented as
follows:

1. Sample Household interviews using prepared questionnaires for the customers is carried out to collect
information about customers’ satisfaction towards the water supply service. Site visits is conducted for
all water sources, transmission pipes, reservoirs, and distribution systems to collect information through
observations and measurements. Water meter readings are taken to estimate yield of boreholes.

2. Previously studied documents and the town’s water supply system layouts are reviewed

3. Customer records, water production and water consumption records are reviewed

4. In order to determine the total water loss and trend of the loss, daily water production records of all
sources for the past four years (2011-2014) are taken from the utility office records and monthly water
production is calculated for all sources. And monthly water consumption records of all kebeles’ private,
public, institutions, commercial and industrial customers of the past four years (2011-2014) are taken
from the utility office records and analysis is made for four years water production and consumption.
And also the four consecutive year’s water loss is calculated from the water production and consumption
data. For missing data of water production and consumption average of the available records is taken.

5. Water samples are collected from water sources, reservoirs and household connections and water

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quality tests are carried out for parameters such as Residual chlorine, pH, turbidity, total coliform and
faecal coliform. GPS reading of all water sources is taken and GIS map is produced accordingly.
3.4.1.2. SAMPLE SIZE
Total number of customers in the town for 2014 was 7232; from these beneficiary customers, sample
population was determined by using the following statistical formula (Cochran WG, 1977).

n (i) = (N*Z2*P*Q) /( (W2*(N-1)) +(Z2*P*Q))

Whereas n (i).....…sample household (Sample size)

N……total number of house hold

P…… proportion of population, (50%)

Q…….1-P

Z……..95% confidence interval (1.96)

W……..Absolute error or precision,5%

n (i) = (7232*1.962*0.5*0.5) /( (0.052*(7232-1)) +(1.962*0.5*0.5)) =365 household.

However due to the financial and time constraint, in this research only a total of 60 households were
used for interview. After sorting house-number in ascending order the first house were selected by
lottery means and the next were elected by interval of 25.

3.4.1.3. SAMPLE SELECTION FOR WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

For water quality analysis from a total sample 5% was taken as a representative sample. As the basic
assumption that Water quality may not vary at a nearby distance (WHO, 1999).

Sample size =5%*365 households=18.25 which is rounded to 19 sampling points.

Accordingly 15 household sampling points, 1treatment reservoir in connection with BH5, the newly
built spring source around Mugo, Borehole4 of Ajo area and Collection of Borehole 1 and Borehole2
which is a total of 19 sampling points were used for water quality assessment. The water quality analysis
was done following appropriate water quality sampling methods.

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

3.4.2. SAMPLE HANDLING

3.4.2.1. SAMPLING TIME, STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
Water samples were collected starting from mid of May-mid of June, during morning hours. Residual
chlorine analyses were taken at time of sampling by taking water sample directly from tap to the
sampling tubes in the comparator. For other parameters, water samples were collected by using water
sampling kit from HWSS for microbiological parameters and using plastic bottles for physico-chemical
water quality analysis. The collected samples were made to reach to laboratory within less than 8 hours.

3.5. DATA ANALYSIS

1. The water production and consumption data collected were analysed using Microsoft Excel.

2. Unaccounted for Water was calculated by taking the averaging of monthly total UfW for the past four
years (2011-2014).

3. Water quality laboratory results were summarized and compared with the local and international
(WHO) standard.

4. The customer satisfaction survey questionnaire was analysed using Microsoft Excel and Percentages
and frequency distributions were main analytical methods. The results of the questionnaires were
calculated in percentages according to the higher number of the same answer.

5. Tables and graphs were used to display the results.

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1. WATER PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND WATER LOSS ANALYSIS

4.1.1. INTRODUCTION
In order to determine the total water loss and trend of the loss, water production and consumption
records of the past four years (2011-2014) are taken from the utility office records and analysis is made
for four years water production and four years (2011-2014) consumption and four consecutive years
(2011-2014) water loss is calculated from the water production and consumption data. Water production,
consumption and loss analysis and findings are indicated on the tables and graphs mentioned below.
4.1.2. WATER PRODUCTION
The existing water supply for Hossana town is obtained from six boreholes located at the periphery of
the town (though one borehole is abandoned due to low yield and the other BH-6 is still not functional
due to relay system not installed) and two springs located around Mugo ,Siltie Zone, 45km away from
the Hossana town. The annual water production from the water supply service is collected on the monthly
base and then converted to yearly base for the evaluation purpose. The production of the water for
distribution purpose is from the boreholes and the newly constructed spring sources. Here below are
presented the production for the year 2011-2014 both in tabular and in chart form.
4.1.3. WATER CONSUMPTION AND WATER SUPPLY COVERAGE
4.1.3.1. WATER CONSUMPTION
The annual water consumption from the water supply service is collected on the monthly base and then
converted to yearly base for the evaluation purpose. The consumption of water is combined
consumption of private, commercial, Government & public and industry consumption. Here below are
presented the consumption for the year 2011-2014 both in tabular and in chart form and also refer
Tables 20-27 in the Annex III.Statistical analysis was used to evaluate the distribution of the supply
coverage in the town and the domestic water supply coverage is evaluated using the annual consumption
data and the result has been converted to average daily per capital consumption using the number of
population. The average daily per capital consumption calculated as:Capital consumption (l/person/day)
=(Annual consumption in m3*1000litre/m3 )/ (Population number * 365)

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Hossana Town Water Supply Production (m3) from Ethiopian Year 2003 Yekatit-2007 Tahisas (2011-2014
GC)
Table 9: Monthly Water Production (m3) for the Years 2011-2014

S/N Year 2011 2012 2013 2014

1 January 39,720.00 38,235.00 91,600.00 110,420.00

2 February 38,585.00 40,820.00 133,890.00 100,970.00

3 March 50,345.00 40,484.00 86,840.00 118,973.00

4 April 48,770.00 39,210.00 113,170.00 105,100.00

5 May 48,148.00 33,819.00 123,150.00 122,800.00

6 June 45,348.00 36,680.00 148,700.00 92,335.00

7 July 42,219.00 38,300.00 118,410.00 160,490.00

8 August 49,939.00 37,335.00 115,306.00 124,505.00

9 September 46,848.00 37,414.00 159,535.00 132,300.00

10 October 48,469.00 39,620.00 118,220.00 139,340.00

11 November 38,308.00 89,474.00 120,120.00 156,710.00

12 December 35,095.00 105,975.00 133,270.00 165,470.00

Total 531,794.00 577,366.00 1,462,211.00 1,529,413.00

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Hossana Town Water Supply Consumption from Ethiopian Year 2003 Yekatit-2007 Tahisas (2011-2014
GC)
Table 10: Monthly Water Consumption (m3) for the Years 2011-2014

S/No. Year 2011 2012 2013 2014

1 January 25627.34 38116.51 54989.00 61386.00

2 February 21244.90 30566.00 57235.00 58944.00

3 March 31515.97 32612.16 55721.00 74589.00

4 April 30593.42 30443.38 55621.00 64533.00

5 May 28436.21 28739.11 51274.00 62097.00

6 June 27444.61 30800.60 56413.00 55083.00

7 July 25020.75 26007.00 40361.00 63270.01

8 August 26842.89 24585.00 44966.00 63270.01

9 September 28425.89 27331.00 54388.12 63270.01

10 October 26371.00 27464.00 50874.00 63270.01

11 November 30078.00 39880.00 65841.72 63270.01

12 December 27418.16 46181.00 63827.50 63270.01

Total 329019.14 382725.76 651511.34 756252.06

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Table 11: Summarized Water Production and Consumption for the Years 2011-2014

Year Total Total Billed data Total Water Water

production ,Consumption(m3) population Production Consumption
3
(m ) l/person/day l/person/day

2011 531,794.00 329,019.14 80,503 18.10 11.20

2012 577,366.00 382,725.76 83,965 18.84 12.49

2013 1,462,211.00 651,511.34 87,575 45.74 20.38

2014 1,529,413.00 756,252.06 91,341 45.87 22.68

4.1.3.2. WATER SUPPLY COVERAGE

The distribution of the domestic water coverage has been evaluated using the above statistical tools. The
distribution of the production has been first reviewed using the descriptive statics. Taking the mean
production as shown in above the average domestic water Production of the town is found to be 45.87
l/person/day and the consumption of the town are 22.68 l/person/day in 2014. The average daily per capital
consumption of the town is low because from this production more than 50% are loss due to leakage from
corroded, old, defective and broken pipe lines, water loss caused by metering inaccuracies or non- functional
water meters and leakage from transmission and distribution pipes sudden breaks.

Water supply coverage can be defined as the percentage of people in access of water supply service in the
town. To address the need of highly rising water supply needs in the urban population, the water supply
service utilities has to manage the existing water supply systems in a manner to efficiently address the
need .It is observed that the financial constraint, poor management of the water supply system and the
low capacity of human resource has a great impact in the low coverage of water supply provision.
Moreover the problem is not only of the low supply coverage but also the supply variation existing in
various localities of the population.

The coverage of water supply can also be evaluated based on the quality, quantity, paying capacity of

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

the people, distance, etc. In this study effort is made to evaluate the coverage related to the quantity of
the supply and level of connection that are related to the water loss. In this part of the analysis, the
number of domestic connection per family and the average daily per capital consumption is used to
analysis the domestic water supply coverage for the town in relation to the water produced. The level of
coverage has been also compared with other towns/cities of developing countries.

The water supply coverage of the town has been evaluated based on the average per capital consumption
and level of connection per family. The average water production is taken from the record of the water
utility and the average per capital consumption has been derived from the yearly consumption
aggregated from the individual domestic water meters. Statistical analysis was used to evaluate the
supply coverage for the town. Number of population as forecasted to the year 2014 has been used to
evaluate the average per capital consumption and also of the water coverage.

Table 12: Water Supply Coverage of Hossana Town for the Years 2011-2014

Year Annual Water Total Annual Consumption Total Annual %of

Consumption Population Production l/person/day Demand(m3/yr) coverage **
3
(m /yr) (m3/yr) *
(No)

2011 329,019.14 80503 531,794.00 11.20 1,936,690.00 27.46

2012 382,725.76 83965 577,366.00 12.49 2,321,035.00 24.87

2013 651,511.34 87575 1,462,211.00 20.38 2,,878,756.00 50.79

2014 756,252.06 91341 1,529,413.00 22.68 2,960,880 51.65

* Annual Demand taken from Hywas Engineering Consultants Design Report for Hossana Town, 2009,
which is amended for its value of UfW based on this research result for years 2011-2014 (Refer Table 8:
Population Projection and Water Demand Forecasting).

** Percentage of Water Supply Coverage is computed as: (Annual Production/Annual Demand)*100

In 2010 the Ethiopian Government presented the equally ambitious Growth and Transformation Plan
(GTP) 2011-2015, which aims at increasing drinking water coverage, from 68.5% to 98.5%. In
comparison with this plan, the water supply coverage is behind the plan (Ministry of Finance and
Economic Development, 2010) and also in comparison, the Ethiopia’s capital city, Addis Ababa water

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

supply coverage during 2009 was found to be 60.67% (Shimelis Kabeto, 2011).

The above table shows that the annual production for the year 2013 is almost nearly tripled (2.5325
times the annual production for the year 2012) and as well the coverage also nearly doubled (2.04 times
the coverage for the year 2012) as compared to the production and coverage for the year 2012. This is
due to the newly built water supply from the two springs located around Mugo area in Silti zone with a
yield of 107.8l/s which was made to function in 2013

As clarified earlier the water supply coverage of the town, both in quantity and level of connection is low
while compared to the other towns and cities in Africa. The above table (Table12.) shows that the water
production per capita of Hossana town as of 2014 as per this research finding was 16.74m3/person /yr which
is equivalent to nearly 46 l/person/yr and the consumption was 22.68l/person/day. While that of African
cities like Maseru of Lesotho in which the water production and consumption in 2000 was found to be
81l/person/day and 67l/person/day respectively and the water production and consumption of Port Luis of
Mauritius Island in the same year was found to be 200 l/person/day and 135 l/person/day respectively which
clearly tells that a big effort is expected from utilities and government to address the demand in this regard
(HR Wallingford and DFID,2003).

In areas where water supply coverage is sufficient, volume of domestics water consumption is expected to be
linear related to the level connection. Areas having better level of connection are expected to consume more
water as they can easily get it within their building or compound. A detail demand study in Africa found that
average water carried was about 22 l/day per capital over a long distance rising to about 30 l/day per capital
where water was obtained from the consumer own stand pipe. Of course distance is not a big problem in
urban areas rather than rural areas (ADB, 1993) on the other hand in areas having insufficient supply, some
areas may have better level of connection but may not necessarily mean they are consuming more volume of
water as the possibility of getting the water does not depend only on the location. There are number of places
that get low volume of water due to their topographic location. As the town mainly uses gravitational supply
system, topography has a great impact on the per capital consumption.

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Table 13: Southern African Capital Cities of Water Production

Country Largest City Population of Water Production for the

largest largest city(l/person/day)
city(million)

Angola Luanda 4 30

Botsowana Gaborone 0.13 286

Democratic Republic of Kinshasa 5.7 86

Congo

Lesotho Maseru 0.27 81

Mauritius Port Luis 0.15 200

Tanzania Dar Es Salaam 3 150

Zambia Lusaka 1.21 225

Zimbabwe Harare 2.38 156

(Source: HR Wallingford and DFID, 2003)

4.1.4. WATER LOSS
Unaccounted-for water (UfW) represents the difference between "net production" (the volume of water
delivered into a network) and "consumption" (the volume of water that can be accounted for by
legitimate consumption, whether metered or not).

UfW = “net production” – “legitimate consumption” and it can be put in percentage as:UfW, %=(( net
production-Legitimate consumption)/net production)*100.

Accordingly, the averaged UfW, % for year 2011-2014 was found 38.13%, 33.71%, 55.44% and
50.55% respectively (refer: Annex III of this research for Tables 20 -27 and Figures 5-17). In
comparison the loss of other towns like Addis Ababa was 37% in 2009 (Shimelis Kabeto,2011), and the
loss (NRW as % of system input volume for the year 2001) record of developed countries/cities was as
follows Malaysia,36.4%,Korea 29.3%,Bangkok of Thailand, 38.8%,Taipei of Taiwan 41.8%, Denmark
7.6%,Norway 40%,Murcia of Spain 18% to 58% and France Urban 10% to 30%(A.O. Lambert
(UK),2001).

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

As per the analysis on Table 27 and Fig.12 the average water loss for the year 2014 is calculated to be
50.55% of the average water production which is very high and a matter of concern.

In other words, out of the average monthly water production in 2014 which was 127,451.08m 3 the
amount consumed was 63,021.01m3 and the water loss was 64,430.08m3. As per the analysis on Table
26 and Fig.11, the average water loss for the year 2013 is calculated to be 55.44% of the average water
production. Out of the average monthly water production in 2013 which was 121,850.92m3 the amount
consumed was 54,292.61 m3 and the water loss was 67,558.31m3. Similarly the water loss (UfW) for
year 2012 was 33.71% and for the year 2011 was 38.13% as per this research finding.

The Table 20, Table 21, Table 22 and Table 23 and also the corresponding charts in Fig 14, 15, 16 and 17
shows amount of water loss in the year 2011-2014 respectively in amount and percentages. In other
words, out of the average monthly water production in 2014 which was 127,451.08 m 3 the amount
consumed was 63,021.01 m3 and the water loss was 64,430.08 m3 which means UfW is 50.55%. Out of
the yearly 1,529,413 m3 water production in 2014 the amount consumed was 756,252.06 m3 and the
amount of water loss was 773,160.94 m3

To express daily water loss in terms of daily water production, out of the average daily water production
which was 4,248.37 m3 the water loss was 2,147.67 m3. Considering the average tariff of birr 8.62 per
m3 of water consumption the loss in monetary term can be calculated. Accordingly the water loss in
2014 is 773,160.94 m3 or it is equivalent to birr 6,664,647.30 which is huge amount of money. If loss is
minimized say by 50%, about birr 3,332,323.65 will be collected on average and this money can be used
for various purposes to address the demand of the population.

4.1.4.1. REASONS OF HIGH WATER LOSS

During the study of Hossana town water supply system, it was observed that leakages have been
observed and the main reasons among others were:

 Leakage from transmission and distribution pipes sudden breaks

 Water loss caused by metering inaccuracies

 Leakage on service connections up to point of customer metering

 Leakage due to high pressure at transmission and distribution pipes and leakage caused by
connecting distribution pipes on pressure lines

 Leakage due poor workmanship and using of nonstandard pipes and fittings.

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

4.1.4.2. RECOMMENDATIONS TO REDUCE THE HIGH WATER LOSS

In order to minimize the above water loss observed in the Hossana town water supply system, the
following measures has to be taken:

 Better data collection regarding the amount of non-revenue water due to technical losses
(leaking pipes, etc.) and administrative losses (illegal connections, etc.) to enable better targeting of
NRW reduction resources

 Development of an asset management plan that identifies the condition of assets and plans for
the operation, management and repairs needed to maintain the infrastructure annually and over the
longer term.

 Water meters should be installed at all sources, reservoirs and collection chambers inlet and
out let pipes main district or zonal distribution pipes and proper water production recording should be in
place.

 Old and corroded pipes should be replaced and faulty water meters need to be maintained or
replaced to minimize leaks from pipes and errors of water production recording

 There has to be planned and regular routine inspection for leakage from water supply system
components such as transmission and distribution pipes, reservoirs, collection chambers and pump
houses. And there should be immediate rehabilitation and maintenance when leaks are observed.

 Maintenance and rehabilitation needed to be done for pumping station collection chamber and
surface pumps and for inlet pipes from boreholes routine base and when leaks are observed. Immediate
Rehabilitation and replacement of old pipes is also to be done regularly.

 Float valves and water level indicators should be installed at all ground and elevated tanks, at
all reservoirs and collection chambers inlet pipes and those float valves which are not function should be
maintained

 There has to be regular water meter testing or functionality of all types of installed water
meters should be checked frequently and improvement of the billing system.

 Maintenance of the base and walls of the Masonry Sandwiched Reservoir near the Nigist
Eleni Hospital compound to reduce leakage and also the service life of the reservoir to get revenue from
unbilled metered consumptions and to minimize illegal connection and also to avoid further destruction

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

of the reservoir.

 Corrosion control and pressure reduction systems need to be developed

 Water audit or assessment of the capacity of total water produced by the water supply utility
and the actual quantity of water distributed through the area of service of the water utility, thus leading to
estimate the losses.
4.2. WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Water is essential to life and a nominal supply of clean-safe drinking water is required for the sustenance
of life. Concern regarding safe-clean drinking water commenced at the turn of the 20th century, when
science coupled with technology unraveled the implications associated with contaminated drinking water.
Today, in developed nations, it is standard practice to provide the populace with safe-reliable drinking
water, as safe drinking water in most industrialized countries is recognized as a basic human right and a
cost effective measure of reducing disease (i.e., preventative medicine). In developed countries, drinking
water quality guidelines and regulations are based on current, published-scientific research related to
health effects, aesthetic effects, and operational considerations. All these important parameters aim at
providing potable and palatable drinking water to reduce water borne diseases and foster healthy living.

Briefly, the purpose of having drinking water quality guidelines and regulations is to ensure that all human
beings within a country have access to safe drinking water. In developing countries, it is estimated that
over 80% of disease is caused by contaminated drinking water and as a consequence, over 30% of work
productivity is lost. Meaning, water is largely the cause of most disease and a considerable amount of
work potential is compromised because of this.

In order to say a water supply system is performing well the system should provide potable water supply
to the customers in addition to other factors like quantity , continuity etc. To check Hossana town water
supply water quality status, thirty eight water samples are taken from all existing water supply sources,
reservoirs, pumping stations and selected households. After the samples are taken water quality test is
carried out in the HTWSS laboratory for the parameters which are coliform (Total &Faecal), turbidity,
residual chlorine and pH. The results of the water quality tests are indicated in comparison with the
international (WHO) and national (Ethiopian) standards on Table 14, Table 15, Table 16, Table 17 and
Table 18 respectively here below.

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Table 14: Water Quality Test Result for Total Coliform

WHO Ethiopian
SN Sample Sites No.of Samples Average Result
Standard Standard
Treatment Reservoir
1 2 0/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml
+BH5
2 Mugo Spring 2 0/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

3 BH4-Ajo 2 0/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

4 BH1+BH2 2 2/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

5 Nigist Eleni Hospital 2 2/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

6 Gombora Hotel 2 3/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

Sidone Café Meliamba
7 2 0/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml
Kebele
Around Lemma
8 2 5/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml
International Hotel
AG Flour Factory –
9 2 0/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml
Wolaita Ber
10 Belay Flour Factory 2 0/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

11 Yekatit 25/67 School 2 1/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

Grime Bekele Kutir 5
12 2 0/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml
School
13 Bobicho Primary School 2 0/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

14 Heto High School 2 0/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

15 Heto Kebele6 HH 2 10/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

16 NaramoKebele HH 2 15/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml

Betel Kebele1-Z café
17 2 >50/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml
Near Heme Hotel HH
18 Bobicho Kebele HH 2 5/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml
Abera Sefer Public
19 2 0/100ml 0/100ml 0/100ml
Fountain-Village 19

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Table 15: Water Quality Test Result for Faecal Coliform

No.of Ethiopian
SN Sample Sites Average Result WHO Standard
Samples Standard
Treatment Reservoir
1 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli
+BH5
2 Mugo Spring 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli

3 BH4-Ajo 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli

4 BH1+BH2 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli

5 Nigist Eleni Hospital 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli

6 Gombora Hotel 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli

Sidone Café Meliamba
7 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli
Kebele
Around Lemma
8 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli
International Hotel
AG Flour Factory –
9 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli
Wolaita Ber
10 Belay Flour Factory 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli

11 Yekatit 25/67 School 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli

Grime Bekele Kutir 5
12 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli
School
Bobicho Primary
13 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli
School
14 Heto High School 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli

15 Heto Kebele6 HH 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli

16 Naramo Kebele HH 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli

Betel Kebele1-Z café
17 2 3/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli
Near Heme Hotel HH
18 Bobicho Kebele HH 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli
Abera Sefer Public
19 2 0/100ml <3Col/100ml/Coli <3Col/100ml/Coli
Fountain-Village 19

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4.2.1. COLIFORM
Total Coliforms

Total coliforms are a group of closely related bacteria (family Enterobacteriaceae) that has been used
for many decades as the indicator of choice for drinking water. The group is defined as aerobic and
facultatively anaerobic, gram-negative, nonspore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment the milk
sugar lactose to produce acid and gas within 48 h at 35°C. Few bacteria other than coliforms can
metabolize lactose; for this reason, lactose is used as the basis for identification (the hydrolysis of o-
nitrophenyl-β-d-galactopyranoside, or ONPG, is also used for identification in some coliform tests).

The total coliform group includes most species of the genera Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and
Escherichia coli. It also includes some species of Serratiaand other genera. Although all coliform genera
can be found in the gut of animals, most of these bacteria are widely distributed in the environment,
including water, and wastewaters. A major exception is E. coli, which usually does not survive long
outside the gut, except perhaps in the warm water associated with tropical climates. Total coliforms are
used to assess water treatment effectiveness and the integrity of the distribution system. They are also
used as a screening test for recent fecal contamination.

Treatment that provides coliform-free water should also reduce pathogens to minimal levels. A major
shortcoming to using total coliforms as an indicator is that they are only marginally adequate for
predicting the potential presence of pathogenic protozoan cysts/oocysts and some viruses, because total
coliforms are less resistant to disinfection than these other organisms. Another shortcoming is that
coliforms, under certain circumstances, may proliferate in the biofilms of water distribution systems,
clouding their use as an indicator of external contamination. Coliforms are also often not of fecal origin.
Despite these drawbacks, total coliforms remain a useful indicator of drinking water microbial quality,
and the group is regulated under USEPA’s Total Coliform Rule (USEPA, 1989e).

Fecal Coliforms and E. coli

Fecal coliforms are a subset of the total coliform group. E. coli is the major subset of the fecal coliform
group. They are distinguished in the laboratory by their ability to grow at elevated temperatures (44.5°C)
and by the ability of E. coli to produce the enzyme glucuronidase, which hydrolyzes 4-methyl-
umbelliferyl-β-D-glucuronide (MUG). Both fecal coliforms and E. coli are better indicators for the
presence of recent fecal contamination than are total coliforms, but they do not distinguish between
human and animal contamination. Moreover, fecal coliform and E. coli densities are typically much

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

lower than are those for total coliforms; thus, they are not used as an indicator for treatment
effectiveness and post treatment contamination. E. coli is a more specific indicator of fecal
contamination than is the fecal coliform group. Under the Total Coliform Rule, all total coliform-
positive samples must be tested for either fecal coliforms or E. coli (WHO, 2011).

As it is indicated on the above Table 14 and Table 15, water samples are taken from different household
connections, sources and reservoirs and checked for total Coliform bacteria, PH and turbidity and the
result shows that there is high turbidity and Coliform bacteria existence beyond allowable limit both
from WHO and National Standard around BH1+BH2, Lemma International Hotel,Heto HH, Nigist Eleni
Hospital, Gombora Hotel HH ,Naramo Keble 6 HH and Betel Kebele1-Z café near Heme Hotel HH. The
reason for this has been the leakage from old pipelines which pave the way for intrusion of contaminants
and also no or very low residual chlorine. Specifically during this research period, the latrine line around
the Betel Kebele1- Z café near Heme Hotel HH has joined the supply line and due to this high total
coliform count encountered. Later the problem was solved by disinfecting the distribution lines by
concentrated, 65% calcium hypochlorite(CaOCl). The possible reason of presence of coliform bacteria
in the existing sources is there is no sufficient dosage of chlorine added or absence of continuous
chlorination relative to the amount of water entering the reservoirs. The reason of no coliform on the
water samples of other sample sites is presence of enough residual chlorine which is near to the national
guideline. This shows that the reason for coliform bacteria existence on most water samples is due to
old pipe lines which allow leakages through which contaminants can enter the distribution line easily
and also due to lack of sufficient and continuous chlorination (disinfection with chlorine).

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Table 16: Water Quality Test Result for Turbidity

Average Ethiopian
SN Sample Sites No.of Samples WHO Standard
Result Standard
Treatment Reservoir
1 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity
+BH5
2 Mugo Spring 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

3 BH4-Ajo 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

4 BH1+BH2 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

5 Nigist Eleni Hospital 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

6 Gombora Hotel 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

Sidone Café Meliamba
7 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity
Kebele
Around Lemma
8 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity
International Hotel
AG Flour Factory –
9 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity
Wolaita Ber
10 Belay Flour Factory 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

11 Yekatit 25/67 School 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

Grime Bekele Kutir 5
12 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity
School
13 Bobicho Primary School 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

14 Heto High School 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

15 Heto Kebele6 HH 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

16 NaramoKebele HH 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity

Betel Kebele1-Z café
17 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity
Near Heme Hotel HH
18 Bobicho Kebele HH 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity
Abera Sefer Public
19 2 5NTU <5NTU Low Turbidity
Fountain-Village 19

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4.2.2. TURBIDITY
Turbidity is a general measure of water ‘cloudiness’ created by particles suspended in a water sample. It
has been used to assess drinking water quality for a century and is still the most widely used particle
measurement in water treatment. These particles may include clay, silt, finely divided inorganic and
organic matter, soluble colored organic compounds, and plankton and other microscopic organisms.
Excessive turbidity, or cloudiness, in drinking water is aesthetically unappealing, and may also represent
a health concern as it may provide food and shelter for pathogens.

The World Health Organization (WHO,2011) Guidelines for drinking-water quality states turbidity in
water is caused by colloidal matter or suspended particles that obstructs light transmission through the
water which may be caused by inorganic or organic matter or a combination of the two. Microorganisms
(bacteria, viruses and protozoa) are typically attached to particulates, and removal of turbidity by
filtration will significantly reduce microbial contamination in treated water. Turbidity in surface waters
may be the result of particulate matter of many types and is more likely to include attached
microorganisms that are a threat to health whereas turbidity in some groundwater sources is a
consequence of inert clay or chalk particles or the precipitation of non-soluble reduced iron and other
oxides when water is pumped from anaerobic waters.

Turbidity in distribution systems can occur as a result of the disturbance of sediments and biofilms but is
also from the ingress of dirty water from outside the system. In addition, turbidity can seriously interfere
with the efficiency of disinfection by providing protection for organisms, and much of water treatment is
directed at removal of particulate matter before disinfection. This not only will increase the efficacy of
disinfection by chemical disinfectants such as chlorine and ozone, but is an essential step in ensuring the
effectiveness of physical disinfection processes such as ultraviolet irradiation, because light transmission
through water is impaired by particulates. Removal of particulate matter by coagulation and sedimentation
and by filtration is an important barrier in achieving safe are emerging that show an increasing risk of
gastro intestinal infections that correlates with high turbidity and turbidity events in distribution.

This may be because turbidity is acting as an indicator of possible sources of microbial contamination.
Therefore, turbidity events should be investigated and the causes corrected, whereas turbidity should be
minimized as far as is possible within the constraints of the type of system and the resources available as
one part of the management of distribution to achieve water safety. Turbidity is also an important
consideration when investment decisions are made regarding sources and treatment for water supplies
and should be identified in the water safety plan as a hazard that needs to be controlled.

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Turbidity is measured by nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) and can be initially noticed by the naked
eye above approximately 4.0 NTU. However, to ensure effectiveness of disinfection, turbidity should be
no more than 1 NTU and preferably much lower. Large, well-run municipal supplies should be able to
achieve less than 0.5NTU before disinfection at all times and should be able to average 0.2 NTU or less.

The possible reasons for turbidity above the national standard may be contamination of the water
sources by surface water flooding, contamination by storm water from urban areas or may be absorption
of mud or soil particles during pumping and even due to over pumping.

The water quality test result is shown on Table 16. As it is clearly shown, there is high turbidity which is
almost near to exceed the minimum standard set. The main source of high turbidity is the turbid water
that is pumped from boreholes even though further detail study need to be conducted to identify the main
cause of the problem, the possible causes of high turbidity are contamination by surface water runoff
containing mud or silt during rainy season due to formation of pond around the boreholes area,
percolation of surface water containing silt due to over pumping as it is seen on the soil formation
surrounding borehole areas which is seen cracked during field observation. It may also due to problem
on the casing installation during construction of the well.

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Table 17: Water Quality Test Result for Residual Chlorine

Average Ethiopian
SN Sample Sites No.of Samples WHO Standard
Result Standard
Treatment Reservoir
1 2 1.36 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l
+BH5
2 Mugo Spring 2 1 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

3 BH4-Ajo 2 0 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

4 BH1+BH2 2 0 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

5 Nigist Eleni Hospital 2 0 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

6 Gombora Hotel 2 0.5 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

Sidone Café Meliamba
7 2 0.7 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l
Kebele
Around Lemma
8 2 0 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l
International Hotel
AG Flour Factory –
9 2 0 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l
Wolaita Ber
10 Belay Flour Factory 2 0 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

11 Yekatit 25/67 School 2 0.2 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

Grime Bekele Kutir 5
12 2 0.5 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l
School
13 Bobicho Primary School 2 0 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

14 Heto High School 2 0.2 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

15 Heto Kebele6 HH 2 0 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

16 Naramo Kebele HH 2 0 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l

Betel Kebele1-Z café
17 2 0 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l
Near Heme Hotel HH
18 Bobicho Kebele HH 2 1.36 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l
Abera Sefer Public
19 2 0.2 0.3-1.5mg/l 0.5mg/l
Fountain-Village 19

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4.2.3. RESIDUAL CHLORINE

Chemical Symbol or Formula: Cl2. Units Used for Analytical Results: mg/l Cl. Normal Method(s) of
Analysis: Colorimetric (DPD) [A; in-situ test Occurrence/Origin: Water treatment processes, industrial
effluents, chlorinated sewage and other effluents. Health/Sanitary Significance: No direct significance at
the relatively tiny levels used in water treatment processes.

Background Information: Water supplies are disinfected to destroy or deactivate microorganisms which
can produce diseases such as cholera, typhoid and so on, and the process is the most important in water
treatment. Disinfection maybe achieved in various ways but the vast majority of supplies are treated
with chlorine which is a powerful oxidizing agent and an extremely efficient disinfectant. It is relatively
easy to handle and is also cost-effective, hence its almost universal use. Chlorine is very reactive and
will only remain, as discussed below, in treated waters of high quality. It is not a constituent of
unpolluted natural waters.

The primary effects of chlorination are extremely beneficial and for many minor water supplies the
process may be the only treatment deemed necessary. Quite low levels are effective for disinfection in
normal circumstances, but should the ammonia or organic content of the water be high then the water
may have an appreciable "chlorine demand" and a higher chlorine input may be needed to achieve a
given degree of protection.

As in many cases the treatment works for a public water supply may be a considerable distance from the
ultimate consumers, it is essential that continuing protection be afforded along the distribution system,
particularly if it is old and prone to leaks and/ or infiltration of extraneous matter. The philosophy
underlying chlorination is therefore to ensure that there is chlorine residual which will protect against
recontamination. Dosage, contact time and other factors in the chlorination process will be adjusted so
that a concentration of 0.1-0.3 mg/l Cl remains after 30 minutes' contact. Chlorine reacts with water to
form hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). The former is a weak acid which
dissociates to give hypochlorite ions (OCl–) and there is a chemical equilibrium between the dissociated
and the undissociated forms (the latter actually effects the disinfection) but it is very common to add the
chlorine as hypochlorite solution. The free chlorine residual is taken to include chlorine, hypochlorous
acid and hypochlorite, irrespective of form.

Parameters of Water Quality - Interpretation and Standards: Because of the reactivity with reducing
agents and organic matter these free residual forms may not persist and there may not therefore be
continuing protection. Ammonia will also react with chlorine forms to give mono-chloramine (NH2Cl),

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di-chloramine (NHCl2) and tri-chloramine (NCl3), depending on relative concentrations and pH. The
mono- and di-chloramines have significant disinfection power which persists. Because of this it is
sometimes the practice to add ammonia in the chlorination stage to give a combined residual rather than
a free residual. The results of a complete analysis will therefore show from the relative proportions of
free and combined residuals the extent to which disinfection can be maintained during distribution of a
supply. Free chlorine is a more efficient disinfection agent than the chloramines but, being more
reactive, it is more likely to disappear fairly quickly from solution; the combined chlorine, on the other
hand, gives longer-lasting protection.

Two further points should be noted about the use of chlorine. First, if water is polluted by phenols or by
trace organic compounds released from decaying algal growths, chlorination can give rise to very severe
taste and odour problems, rendering the water unfit to drink. Second, it should also be noted about
chlorination that where a water contains even small amounts of organic (humic) colouring matter, the
reaction between it and the added chlorine will give rise to undesirable chlorinated by-products [e.g.
trihalomethanes; q.v.] which are also subject to restriction.. Comments: Although chlorine is a
poisonous gas, its toxicity to humans is not a consideration in drinking water supplies as water would be
unacceptable on organoleptic grounds long before the onset of directly toxic effects. There are, however,
strict limits on its concentration in fishery waters as its toxicity to aquatic life forms is much more
marked.

Chlorine: Recommended or Mandatory Limit Values: As per the publication by water research center,
the chlorine that does not combine with other components in the water is free (residual) chlorine, and the
break point is the point at which free chlorine is available for continuous disinfection. An ideal system
supplies free chlorine at a concentration of 0.3-0.5mg/l (WHO, 2011). As shown on the Table 17,the
reason for low amount of residual chlorine presence at most of the water samples is due to low amount of
chlorine dosage added to the sources and reservoirs. As previously discussed and indicated there no
coliform bacteria presence in the water samples taken in which residual chlorine from these samples are
not very far from the national standard. This shows that if there is sufficient chlorination and residual
chlorine amount of 0.3-0.5mg/l in the system, the chance of coliform existence will be zero.

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Table 18: Water Quality Test Result for pH

Average Ethiopian
SN Sample Sites No.of Samples WHO Standard
Result Standard
Treatment Reservoir
1 2 7.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
+BH5
2 Mugo Spring 2 7.1 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

3 BH4-Ajo 2 7.4 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

4 BH1+BH2 2 7.3 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

5 Nigist Eleni Hospital 2 6.7 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

6 Gombora Hotel 2 6.8 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

Sidone Café Meliamba
7 2 7.8 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
Kebele
Around Lemma
8 2 6.3 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
International Hotel
AG Flour Factory –
9 2 7.2 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
Wolaita Ber
10 Belay Flour Factory 2 7.4 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

11 Yekatit 25/67 School 2 6.8 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

Grime Bekele Kutir 5
12 2 7.3 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
School
13 Bobicho Primary School 2 6.9 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

14 Heto High School 2 7.4 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

15 Heto Kebele6 HH 2 6.95 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

16 Naramo Kebele HH 2 7.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

Betel Kebele1-Z café
17 2 7.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
Near Heme Hotel HH
18 Bobicho Kebele HH 2 7.3 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
Abera Sefer Public
19 2 7.4 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
Fountain-Village 19

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4.2.4. pH AND CORROSION

As per Guidelines for drinking-water quality by World Health Organization, although PH usually has no
direct impact on consumers, it is one of the most important operational water quality parameters. Careful
attention to pH control is necessary at all stages of water treatment to ensure satisfactory water
clarification and disinfection. For effective disinfection with chlorine, the pH should preferably be less
than 8; however, lower-pH water (approximately pH 7 or less) is more likely to be corrosive. The pH of
the water entering the distribution system must be controlled to minimize the corrosion of water mains
and pipes in household water systems. Alkalinity and calcium management also contribute to the
stability of water and control its aggressiveness to pipes and appliances. Failure to minimize corrosion
can result in the contamination of drinking-water and in adverse effects on its taste and appearance. The
optimum pH required will vary in different supplies according to the composition of the water and the
nature of the construction materials used in the distribution system, but it is usually in the range 6.5–8.5.
Extreme values of pH can result from accidental spills, treatment breakdowns and insufficiently cured
cement mortar pipe linings or cement mortar linings applied when the alkalinity of the water is low
(WHO,2011). As shown on Table 18 above, the pH value of all taken water samples is within the range
of the National(Ethiopian) and WHO Standard.
4.2.5. CONCLUSIONS
The presence of coliform bacteria in most of the water samples tested is due to lack of proper and continuous
chlorination and low amount of chlorine dosage added compared to water volume pumped and this has
resulted in low residual chlorine below the national standard.

Even though there is water quality laboratory at Hossana town water utility office compound bacteriological
and chemical water quality test is conducted biannually in which the frequency is not sufficient and
sanitary inspection for existing water supply system and newly developing sources is not carried out
periodically as per the Ethiopian Guideline for Drinking Water Quality.
4.2.6. RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that appropriate amount, dosage and continuous chlorination in accordance with the
quantity of water pumped to the reservoirs are used to avoid presence of coliform so as to meet the
national standard. The chlorination should be done in such a way that the residual chlorine in the
distribution system to be in the range of 0.3 -0 .5mg/ l. There should be continuous chlorination at each
reservoir in line with volume of water entering the reservoir so as to disinfect the water that is produced
and pumped from boreholes before it is distributed to consumers.

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To identify the main cause of high turbidity at boreholes further detail study should be conducted and to
alleviate the customers suffering from lack of potable water during summer other water source should be
developed(borehole should be drilled) or alternative measure has to be taken without delay.

As per Ethiopian Guideline for Drinking Water Quality, sanitary survey and water quality analysis are
complementary activities that should be conducted by both the water supply agency as well as
surveillance agency. Hence no new water supply should be approved without a sanitary inspection and
routine surveys of existing supplies should be undertaken periodically by the community, water supplier
and surveillance agency.

It is recommended that bacteriological and chemical water quality test be conducted periodically (at
least four times a year). And as it is indicated on the water quality guideline the bacteriological test
should be accompanied with turbidity and free residual chlorine and pH where chlorination is applied.

4.3. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION SURVEY ANALYSIS AND RESULT

4.3.1 INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF THE SURVEY

Any water supply service providers should strive to satisfy its customers in all aspects of service it provide. In
this regard customers have also a right to get appropriate service as they are also responsible to compensate in
return for the service delivered by the service providers.

Customers’ satisfaction regarding service in all its aspect is the aim to do this survey and accordingly
following the procedure described in the methodology part of this research, customers were selected for an
interview and an interview have been done about the water sources, quality, tariff, water availability including
the time travel to get water, maintenance service etc. The number of customers of HWSS in Hossana town in
2014 were 7232 and the below table (Table 19) shows customers number in 2014 by category.
Table 19: Customer Type vs Number for the year 2014
Number
of
S/N Customer Category Customers Percentage (%) by category
1 Private 6694 92.56
2 Commercial 351 4.85
3 Government & Public 163 2.25
4 Industry 24 0.33
6 Total 7232 100.00

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4.3.2. RESULTS
Out of the total 60 respondents asked for second source of water, 57 or 95% said they have no second
source of water and only 3 or 5% said that they have second source other than the pipe water.

Out of the total 60 respondents asked for sufficient pressure on their household taps, 44 or 73.3% said that they
get sufficient pressure at their taps while 16 or 26.7% said the pressure at the water tap is not enough.

Out of the total 60 respondents asked for satisfaction on the water quality, 50 or 83.33% said that they are
satisfied with the water quality and 5 or 8.35% said that they are not satisfied with the water quality
while 5 or 8.35% said that the quality depends on the season

Out of the total 60 respondents asked on home water treatment method,6 or10% said that they have home
water treatment method and 50 or 90% said that they have no any water treatment method at home.

Out of the total 60 respondents asked on water tariff, 42 or 70% said that the current water tariff is affordable
while 18 or 30% said that the current water tariff is not affordable.

Out of the total 60 respondents asked for functionality of their water meter, 59 or 98.33% said that their
water meter is functional and 1 or 1.77% said that their water meter is not functional

Out of the total 60 respondents asked for daily water consumption, 15 or 25% said that they use less than
50litre per day and 28 or 46.67% said that they use 5 1-100 liter per day and 14 or 23.33% said that they
use 101-500 liter per day and 3 or 5% said that they use greater than 500litre per day.

Out of the total 60 respondents asked for availability of water per day, 9 or 15% said that water available
less than 6 hours per day and 11 or 18.33% said that water available for 7-12 hours per day and 6 or
10% said that water is available for 13-18 hours per day and 34 or 56.77% said that water is available
more than 19 hours per day.

Out of the total 60 respondents asked for length of time taken to get maintenance, 30 or 50% said that
the water utility answer their request less than three days and 18 or 30% said they get maintenance
within 4-7 days and 12 or 20% said that they get maintenance after 8 days.
4.3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
The water utility need to respond immediately to maintenance requests of customers to avoid complaints from
customers

The water utility need to work towards increasing the pressure in the distribution system in the way that do

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not cause leakage and pipe damage but satisfies customers need. Detail study and surveying work need
to be conducted before distribution network expansion so as to avoid pressure reduction in the system

As per the conducted household survey, it is only about 57% of the total customers that are getting water
supply for 24 hours per day. Hence the water utility should work towards making water to be available
for the whole day by developing additional sources to increase the water production and by reducing the
high water loss and also as the current water supply is very reliable it is better to construct reservoirs at
peak elevation of the town and use relay system to reach very peak area like Arada area and its
surrounding.

The water utility need to have planned and regular discussions with the customers and should conduct a regular
survey to know customers satisfaction level and the service deficiencies and should make improvements
on its service to increase the customers satisfaction.

4.4. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

4.4.1. INTRODUCTION ON OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

The existing water supply source for Hossana town is from boreholes drilled around and Spring Sources
from Silti Zone namely Sheshar & Mosheshe Springs.

The rising main from these spring sources to reservoir site is 46.5 km which is gravity transmission line.
After joining the treatment plant in the Water Supply Enterprise office compound and collected and
disinfected in the 500m3 Reservoir located in this compound the water is pumped to the new 2000m3
Concrete circular reservoir located at an elevation of 2358masl near Hossana Kaleheyewot Church
compound on the way to Nigist Eleni Hospital to be distributed. The total length of the Pumped 300mm
DCI pipe is 1703m. The other boreholes BH4-Ajo pumped to Balewold Reservoir. Under the existing
system, a booster station, BS-2 with a deep well submersible pump installed in a collection tank boosts
the supply from BH-5, to the Hospital Reservoir, through a DN 100 transmission Pipe. The new
borehole, BH-6, also pumped to the collection tank (500m3 reservoir in the Water Supply office
compound).

Under the existing system, a booster station, BS-1, two surface pumps in a 1+1 configuration, boost the
supply from BH-1, 2&3, to the Balewold reservoir through a DN 150 transmission pipe. In general BH-
1, 2, 3& 4 are functioning with the existing equipments.

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The HWSS have got with about 49 km transmission lines and more than 36km distribution lines, four
pumping stations (old treatment,3ne treatment ,Bobicho collection chamber and Adjo collection
chamber).

The total number of staffs is 7232 and when this considered with performance indicator criteria, number
of staffs/1000 connections are around 1. This shows a big gap in operation and maintenance service.

The HWSS got with four band tariff and an average water tariff to be considered as an indicator can be
taken as the average value of the four bands which is around Birr8.62/m3 of water supply.

Pump Control

In regard to Pump control, the borehole & booster pumps are controlled from a CCP installed in the
borehole switch house /booster pump house. It will normally start and automatically controlled from
high and low level controlled probes installed in their sources and pressure switches installed on the
delivery line. The motor control panels are provided with a start stop switch as well as provision for the
installation of general fault and operation status.

The pumps are provided with the following automatic cut outs, to stop the pump and indicate a fault, at
the local panel. These are:

-Low Source level,-High delivery pressure (closed valve),-Phase failure,-Over Current,-Under voltage,
or,-Over Voltage.

The operating sequence of the pumping units is as shown below:

1. Source level…not low, discharge pressure switch…..closed (delivery line pressure below pressure
switch low setting)…Pump starts

2. Source level…not low, discharge pressure switch…..open (delivery line pressure above pressure
switch high setting)…Pump stops

3. Source level… low, discharge pressure switch…..any…Pump stops

Pump Control Panels

Starters capable of operating the relevant motor a minimum 15 times per hour and suitable for remote,
automatic and local button manual operation are provided. Star-delta type starters of a current limiting
type suitable for remote, automatic and local manual operation are provided.

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Power Sources

The equipment at the TP are operating from EEPCO’s grid. All motors above 7Kw are of the star/delta
starting type. A stand by generator sufficient to run one booster pump mat new TP booster house and TP
utility electrical loads is installed in the generator house constructed for this purpose. The diesel
generators installed include the following: Diesel generator pipe works, Fuel tanks and pipe work,
Switchgear, Cables, Earthling, All accessories and other necessary items.The primary source of power
for running the pumps is electric power from EEPCo grid and standby generators are installed where
they are necessary at the sources.

Disinfection

With regard to operation of the chlorination system which is the only water treatment method used as
mentioned before, there are chlorine mixing tanks installed at top of reservoirs. The disinfection with
chlorine is done in such a way that powder chlorine is added to the chlorine tankers placed at top of the
reservoirs and mixed with water and the chlorine solution flows by gravity to the reservoirs through a
hose which extends from the chlorine tanker to the reservoirs through the reservoir manholes. The liquid
chlorine flows to the reservoirs continuously in form of droplets in parallel with the water pumping to
the reservoirs and is terminated when pumping stops. The chlorine consumption per day of Hossana
Town Water Treatment system can be seen in two ways depending on the water quality from the various
sources: Maximum and Minimum. The maximum amount is 50 litre of chlorine in the form of Sodium
hypochloride and the minimum one is half of the maximum which is 25litre of Sodium
Hypochloride(NaOCl). Other than this disinfection of the line is done using 3kg of Calcium
Hypochlorite per week and this amount may increase depending on the water quality scenario which can
be identified through inspection by the utility or sometimes based on the information from beneficiary
customers .

Maintenance

Corrective maintenance is done for the different water supply system components by the water supply
service office. The common maintenance problems include leakage on pipes, damage of pumps and
control panel boards, malfunctioning of water meters installed at the sources.

Regarding maintenance of generators, surface pumps, submersible pumps and pump control panel
boards when damage is occurred maintenance work including replacement of pumps is done by the

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utility. The utility did replacement for submersible pumps by borrowing drilling (service) rig from
regional water bureau.

There is one branch office currently under operation except collecting bills. The enterprise planned to
open more in the near future to serve the need of the town appropriately which will do operation and
maintenance works like follow up the proper operation of different water supply system components
under their area, monthly water meter readings of private customers, bill collection, receiving
maintenance requests from customers and carry out maintenance, doing maintenance works for the
pipelines under their custody, distribution pipeline expansion works for new villages and house
connection for new customers.

The enterprise have currently around 72 employees(Master’s degree 1,Bachelor degree 7,Diploma 28,
Grade 10+2 are 3, Grade10 & 12 completed are 10 , Grade 8-10 are 19 and Grade 1-7 are 4
employees). Gender wise out of 72 employees 19.4% which is 14 of them are females (Bachelor degree
3, Diploma 8, Grade 10&12 complete 2 and Grade 8-10 complete 1).

4.4.2. OBSERVED PROBLEMS ON THE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

The following problems are observed on the operation and maintenance of the existing Hossana town
water supply.
There are no readily available updated maps showing location of sources, reservoirs, pumping stations,
transmission pipe routes and valves, distribution network pipes sizes, length, ages, location of fire
hydrants, and gate valves.
There are no district water meters or flow meters installed at the major distribution system pipelines and
because of this it is difficult to estimate the amount of leakage and locate the area of high leakage to take
corrective actions..
There are no water level indicators in almost all reservoirs and because of this it is difficult to know the
water level inside the reservoir.
In most of the reservoirs there are no float valves installed at inlet pipes. Hence the water pumped to reservoirs
may overflow and cause high leakage.
The water meters installed in almost all boreholes (specifically BH-1, 3 and 6) are not functional and hence
there is no water production recording at the boreholes.
Each source is not provided with standby generator hence the water production will be reduced and there
will be water supply shortage during main power failure.
There is no planned and regular routine inspection and preventive maintenance for the water supply system

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components.
Water production recording at most sources is not done on permanent ledger or book. Rather it recorded on
piece of paper and some of the hand writing of the operators is not visible and this may lead to difficulty
in knowing the exact water production from the sources.
Most of the transmission pipes that carries pumped water from the boreholes to reservoirs are not aligned
along a road and this creates difficulty on routine inspection of the systems for checking of leakages and
other problems and carry out the required maintenance.
There is no full, summarized and well organized readily available data of water production and
consumption. It is with great effort made that data of water production and consumption of some years is
found for this research work.
It is not possible to find borehole history of the existing six wells, feasibility studies, and detail designs
and as built drawings of reservoirs, and transmission and distribution pipelines.

4.4.3. RECOMMENDATIONS
The transmission pipes that carries pumped water from the boreholes to reservoirs are need to be aligned along
a road and to ease the difficulty on routine inspection of the systems, for checking of leakages and other
problems and carry out the required maintenance.
There should be permanent water production recording book at the sources and pumping stations
The utility should give immediate response to customers’ maintenance requests.
The installed water meters which are not functional should be maintained or replaced.
Periodic surveillance should be conducted for all water supply system components (sources, reservoirs,
and transmission and distribution pipes) to check for problems of leakage and to check for damage of
pipes
Routine inspection should also be done for transmission pipes and for main distribution pipes for
assessing damage of the transmission system after flooding along the alignment following a heavy
storm, unauthorized construction activity near or on the utility pipeline.
Pipeline bursts and breaks can occur at any time and the water utility shall have a plan for attending to such
events.
Flushing should be done on the transmission pipe lines to remove impurities or sediment that may be
present in the pipe.
The water utility has to establish procedures where by the population residing along the transmission mains
and distribution system pipes can notify the visible leaks, to the utility.
Preventive maintenance should be carried out by the utility before reporting of problems such as visible

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leaks and pipe breaks to the utility by the residents. The preventive maintenance need to include works
that are planned and carried out on a regular basis to maintain and keep the water supply system
components in a good condition. Some of the works are pressure lines and distribution network
inspection, cleansing and greasing of mechanical parts and replacement of equipment with limited life
span such as pumps, generators, switch boards, water meters, valves, pipes and fittings.
Connection of distribution pipe from the transmission mains should be avoided so as to reduce high leakage
and frequent pipe breaks.
All relevant documents, feasibility studies, borehole history, manufacturer manuals and detail designs, as built
drawings of all existing water supply system components(sources, collection chambers, reservoirs, pump
houses etc.) need to be find and documented in a well-organized way and should be available in the
water utility office for future reference.
Water level indicator used to read and control the water level in the reservoirs need to be installed on the
reservoirs so that whenever the reservoirs reach the maximum water level the operators working at the
reservoirs inform the operator at the pump house to stop pumping. In addition to this automatic float
valves should be fixed on the inlet pipes inside the reservoirs to stop flow to the reservoirs when the
reservoirs are full.
The age of pipes laid within the water supply transmission and distribution systems need to be registered and
old and corroded pipes need to be replaced with new pipes as age and corrosion cause reduction in
carrying capacity of the pipes.
Distribution pipeline expansion should not be done without knowing the pressure (head) in the distribution
system and doing surveying work.
Updated water supply system map which provide an overall view of the water supply system components
like distribution and transmission pipes layout, sizes and length, location of valves, flow meters, fire
hydrants ,reservoirs, pumping stations, sources should be prepared and be available in the water utility
office for proper operation and maintenance of the system
Skilled operators need to be assigned at all pumping stations and training program on a continuous basis need
to be given for those operators, mechanics plumbers and other water utility staffs who could eventually
get involved in the operation and maintenance activities
Manufacturer’s instructions on operation and maintenance of mechanical and electrical equipments should
be kept in an appropriate manner for reference purpose to be used when a need arise to do so.
Summarized and well organized data of water production and consumption should be available both in
soft and hard copy which can easily be referred when need arises.
Appropriate actions should be planned, included in the operation and maintenance plan and undertaken by

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the water utility to periodically check that Maintenance of Sources and Catchments protection is
effective (prevention of farming in the catchment areas, cutting grass and overgrowth in the vicinities of
structures, regular inspections at collection chambers of spring intakes, cleaning and greasing of locks,
repairs to cracked slabs or leaks, etc.). As periodical coliform bacteria counts provide the best indicators
on the evolution of bacteriological water quality, they should be performed on a regular basis,
appropriate actions should be immediately taken to locate and eliminate any source of pollution thus
detected.

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CHAPTER FIVE

5.0. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. CONCLUSIONS

High water loss , water quality problem, very high turbidity from boreholes especially during summer
time which leads to high complaint by customers show that there is operation and maintenance
problem.
Presence of water quality problem which shows existence of coliform, turbidity, low residual chlorine in
the tested water samples, very high water loss as compared to water production, customers’ complaints
towards water quality, availability, residual head etc. and mentioned operation and maintenance
problems in the previous sections of this research shows that Hossana Town Water Supply System
Performance is not satisfactory.
Lack or shortages of skilled man power regarding operation and maintenance, record keeping, Service
deliveries etc. are significant gaps observed.
A significant amount (50.55%) of the water produced and distributed is lost before reaching to residents.
Most of the customers are not satisfied in the delivery of the water supply service with regard to quality,
water pressure, availability time, and maintenance response.
There is gap between existing water supply and demand. Currently as per this research finding, the
existing water supply satisfies only 51.65 % of the demand.

5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS

As new water supply scheme is joining the existing system from the Silti zone travelling almost more
than 45 km, management of the Gravity line ,supply system in general should be given due
consideration. In this regard mutual understanding for mutual benefit between the people of the two
zones should be created and there should be bilateral agreement, laws and regulations in all aspects of
using the system in a sustainable manner is the primary assignment of both zones in a win-win approach
and keeping in mind that the people of the two zone’s share common border and have values shared in
common from the very long time.

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The 500m3 reservoir is situated in a low elevation than the peak elevation in the town. In this regard it is
also recommended that another sizable volume of reservoir can be built in a relatively high elevation
than this reservoir which can collect and distribute water from this reservoir to peak areas of the town
suffering water shortage or with no access to water.

Immediate actions and corrective measures which are recommended in previous sections should be
implemented to reduce water loss to acceptable level, improve the water quality, provide good quality
service to satisfy customers and to improve the operation and maintenance to raise the water supply
system performance to satisfactory level.

Pressure zoning with appropriate consideration should be done and implemented in ground.

Professionals in all aspects of the service required should be fulfilled or existing staffs’ capacity should
be upgraded by any means possible.

Additional branches should be opened so as to serve the town’s need as the population of the town
increasing and both government and private institutions are also expanding unexpectedly.

Further detail study should be conducted to identify measure causes of high water loss which is a matter
of concern and needs to be reduced to the intermediate level (below 25%) by taking immediate action.

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REFERENCES
American Water Works Association Leak Detection and Accountability Committee, (1996), Committee
Report-Accountability

A.O. Lambert (UK),(2001),Water Loss Management and Techniques, International Report, International
Water Association (IWA) Congress, Berlin.

Asian Development Bank (ADB), (1993), Water Utilities Data Book for the Asian and Pacific Region

Cochran WG, (1997), Sampling Techniques, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Gentry, B., Fernandez, L., (1997), Evolving Public-Private partnerships: General Themes and urban
water Examples’ OECD workshop on globalization and environmental: New challenge for Public and
Private Sectors, November 13 & 14 1997, OECD.

HDR Engineering Inc., (2002), Handbook of Public Water Systems.

Hossana Town Finance and Economic Development Office, (2008), Population Distribution by Sub-
Cities, Unpublished, Hossana

HR Wallingford and DFID, (2003), Handbook for the Assessment of Catchment Water Demand and
Use,UK

Hywas Engineering Consultants in Association with AG Consult and EDM Consultants (2009), Design
Review, Contract Administration & Construction Supervision Work of Hossana Water Supply &
Sanitation Project, Final Design Report, Hossana Town Water Supply and Sewerage Enterprise

International Water Association (IWA), (2000), Performance Indicator for water Supply Services

Jan Davis and François Brikké,(1995),Making your water supply work -Operation and Maintenance of
small water supply systems

Ministry of Finance and Economic Development,(2010),Growth and Transformation Plan, 2010, Addis
Ababa

Nickson, A., (2002), The Limitations of Water Regulation: The Failure of the Cochabamba Concession
in Bolivia, Bulletin of Latin America Research, 21(1) p. 1128-149

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Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Omar Saeed, (2011), Customers’ Satisfaction with Clean Drinking Water Provided by the Lahore
Cantonment Board (LCB).

Rewata, J., Sampath, R., (2000), Performance Evaluation of Urban Water Supply in Tanzania: The case
study of Dar es salaam, Tanzania. Water Resource Development, Vol.16, No. 3, 407 – 423

Saroj Sharma (2008), Performance Indicators of Water Losses in Distribution System.

Schwartz, K., (2007), Water service management, Lecture Notes. Polytechnic of Namibia, Unpublished

Shimelis Kabeto,(2011),Water Supply Coverage and Water Loss in Distribution Systems with
Modelling: The case of Addis Ababa

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia-Ministry of Water Resources, (2002), Ethiopian

Guidelines Specification for Drinking Water Quality.

USEPA,(1989e),Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund:VolumeI—Human Health Evaluation

Manual(Part A),EPA/540/1-89/002,Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington

Victor Kimey, (2008), Assessment of the Performance of Urban Water Supply Utilities: A case study of
Korogwe and Muheza towns, TanzaniaBy. MSc Thesis, University of Zimbabwe.

V.Kanakoudis,S.Tsitsifli,P.Samaras,A.Zouboulis and G.Demetriou, (2011), Developing appropriate

performance indicators for urban water distribution systems evaluation at Mediterranean countries,
Water Utility Journal 1:31.

Weldaye Berhae Desalegne, (2005), Water Supply Coverage and Water Loss in Distribution Systems
the case of Addis Ababa. MSc Thesis, International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth
observation ENSCHEDE, The Netherlands.

WHO/EU drinking water standards comparative table, (2011), http://wwwlenntechcom/drinking water

standard.htm

World Bank,(1994), World development Report1994: Infrastructure for Development ,World Bank,
Washington, DC.

World Bank,(2006),The Challenge of Reducing Non-Revenue Water(NRW) in Developing Countries,

Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Board Discussion Paper Series, Paper No.8,World Bank

World Health Organization, (2005), Manual on Operation and Maintenance of Water Supply Systems

61 Mulatu Bufebo Adebo: AAU MSc. Thesis : June 2016

Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

World Health Organization, (2011), Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Fourth Edition.

World Bank, (1996), Water and Waste Water Utilities: Indicators, World Bank, Washington, DC.

WSP, (2012), Training Manual and Guideline for Performance Indicators and Benchmarking for Water
Utilities in Ethiopia

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ANNEXES

ANNEX–I INTERVIEW QUESTIONNARIES FOR CUSTOMER SATISFACTION

SURVEY
1. From where do you get water?

2. For which purposes you use the water from the household tap?

3. Do you have other water source rather than the household tap?

4. How many liters of water you consume per day?

5. How many hours per day is water supplied?

6. Does the water you get from tap have sufficient pressure?

7. Is the water you get from tap clean? (colour,odour,taste)

8. Are you satisfied with the water quality?

9. How do you report for maintenance?

10. Does the utility respond for maintenance request immediately? Within what time or day?

11. Do you have household water treatment method?

12. Is the water tariff affordable? How many birr per liter are you willing to pay?

13. How often is water meter reading taken? Is the water meter functional? Do you have any complain
on the amount of water you consumed and pay for it?

14. What do you suggest for improvement of the water supply service? Or what things should be
improved on the water supply service?

15. Is there any other problem you want to state?

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ANNEX-II WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM PERFORMANCE INDICATOR CHECKLIST

1. Is the Capacity of the source sufficient for current and future demands?

2. What is the Amount of water produced and sold for the past five years?

3. What are the different current Demand amounts and types and (domestic, industrial, commercial,
public institutions, fire hydrants etc.)

4. Is there water quality problem and how is the monitoring done?

5. What is current water treatment method?

6. How old are the old system pipes and total length?

7. What is the magnitude of Unaccounted for water for the past five years?

8. What are the total no of different types of household connections?

9. Is the water supply available for 24 hours?

10. What is the current tariff? Is the tariff affordable?

11. How the Operation and maintenance condition is looks like? Is there scheduled preventive
maintenance?

12. Are there Villages without water supply?

13. Does the Distribution system cover all part of the town?

14. Are all bills paid?

15. How is the Sanitation condition of the sources?

16. Is there regular routine inspection for the water supply system from source to distribution?

17. How is Leakage detected and controlled?

18. What is the average available head in the distribution system?

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19. Is water meter installed at all the sources and reservoirs and are all functional?

20. How old are the water meters? Are all household water meters functional?

21. Are there any connections without installed water meters?

22. Are there regular recordings at all the sources and reservoirs?

23. Are there standby generators at the pumping stations and boreholes?

24. Is leakage observed at storage tanks?

25. How is overflow controlled? Are float valves or automatic closing valves installed at service
reservoirs?

26. How is maintenance carried out? Are there sufficient equipments, experts and vehicles for
maintenance for the system in times of damage?

27. Are there sufficient spare parts in the stock for different electromechanical equipments?

28. For how many hours is the electromechanical equipments (pumps and generators) working per
day?

29. Are there industries or institutions which develop their own water source and not paying for the
water?

30. What are the possible causes of water loss and which part of the system has high loss?

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ANNEX III Tables & Figures related with Water production, Consumption and Loss
Table 20: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2011

Year Production(m3) Consumption Water

Loss(m3)
(m3)

S/No. 2011 2011 2011

1 January 39720.00 25627.34 14092.66

2 February 38585.00 21244.90 17340.10

3 March 50345.00 31515.97 18829.03

4 April 48770.00 30593.42 18176.58

5 May 48148.00 28436.21 19711.79

6 June 45348.00 27444.61 17903.39

7 July 42219.00 25020.75 17198.25

8 August 49939.00 26842.89 23096.11

9 September 46848.00 28425.89 18422.11

10 October 48469.00 26371.00 22098.00

11 November 38308.00 30078.00 8230.00

12 December 35095.00 27418.16 7676.84

Total 531,794.00 329,019.14 202774.86

Average 44,316.17 27,418.26 16,897.91

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Figure 5: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2011

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Table 21: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2012

Production(m3) Consumption(m3) Water Loss(m3)

S/No. Year 2012 2012 2012

1 January 38235.00 38116.51 118.49

2 February 40820.00 30566.00 10254.00

3 March 40484.00 32612.16 7871.84

4 April 39210.00 30443.38 8766.62

5 May 33819.00 28739.11 5079.89

6 June 36680.00 30800.60 5879.40

7 July 38,300.00 26,007.00 12293.00

8 August 37,335.00 24,585.00 12750.00

9 September 37,414.00 27,331.00 10083.00

10 October 39,620.00 27,464.00 12156.00

11 November 89,474.00 39,880.00 49594.00

12 December 105,975.00 46,181.00 59794.00

Total 577,366.00 382,725.76 194640.24

Average 48,113.83 31,893.81 16,220.02

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Figure 6: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2012

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Table 22: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2013

Production(m3) Consumption(m3) Water Loss(m3)

S/No. Year 2013 2013 2013

1 January 91,600.00 54,989.00 36611.00

2 February 133,890.00 57,235.00 76655.00

3 March 86,840.00 55,721.00 31119.00

4 April 113,170.00 55,621.00 57549.00

5 May 123,150.00 51,274.00 71876.00

6 June 148,700.00 56,413.00 92287.00

7 July 118,410.00 40361.00 78049.00

8 August 115,306.00 44966.00 70340.00

9 September 159,535.00 54388.12 105146.88

10 October 118,220.00 50874.00 67346.00

11 November 120,120.00 65841.72 54278.28

12 December 133,270.00 63827.50 69442.50

Total 1,462,211.00 651,511.34 810699.66

Average 121,850.92 54,292.61 67,558.31

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Figure 7: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2013

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Table 23: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2014

Production(m3) Consumption(m3) Water Loss(m3)

S/No. Year 2014 2014 2014

1 January 110,420.00 61386.00 49034.00

2 February 100,970.00 58944.00 42026.00

3 March 118,973.00 74589.00 44384.00

4 April 105,100.00 64533.00 40567.00

5 May 122,800.00 62097.00 60703.00

6 June 92,335.00 55083.00 37252.00

7 July 160,490.00 63270.01 97219.99

8 August 124,505.00 63270.01 61234.99

9 September 132,300.00 63270.01 69029.99

10 October 139,340.00 63270.01 76069.99

11 November 156,710.00 63270.01 93439.99

12 December 165,470.00 63270.01 102199.99

Total 1,529,413.00 756,252.06 773160.94

Average 127,451.08 63,021.01 64,430.08

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Figure 8: Monthly Water Loss for the Year 2014

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Table 24: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2011

Production(m3) Consumption(m3) Water Loss(m3)

S/No. Year 2011 2011 2011

1 January 39720.00 25627.34 14092.66

2 February 38585.00 21244.90 17340.10

3 March 50345.00 31515.97 18829.03

4 April 48770.00 30593.42 18176.58

5 May 48148.00 28436.21 19711.79

6 June 45348.00 27444.61 17903.39

7 July 42219.00 25020.75 17198.25

8 August 49939.00 26842.89 23096.11

9 September 46848.00 28425.89 18422.11

10 October 48469.00 26371.00 22098.00

11 November 38308.00 30078.00 8230.00

12 December 35095.00 27418.16 7676.84

Total 531,794.00 329,019.14 202774.86

Average 44,316.17 27,418.26 16,897.91

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Figure 9: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2011

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Table 25: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2012

Production(m3) Consumption(m3) Water Loss(m3)

S/No. Year 2012 2012 2012

1 January 38235.00 38116.51 118.49

2 February 40820.00 30566.00 10254.00

3 March 40484.00 32612.16 7871.84

4 April 39210.00 30443.38 8766.62

5 May 33819.00 28739.11 5079.89

6 June 36680.00 30800.60 5879.40

7 July 38,300.00 26,007.00 12293.00

8 August 37,335.00 24,585.00 12750.00

9 September 37,414.00 27,331.00 10083.00

10 October 39,620.00 27,464.00 12156.00

11 November 89,474.00 39,880.00 49594.00

12 December 105,975.00 46,181.00 59794.00

Total 577,366.00 382,725.76 194640.24

Average 48,113.83 31,893.81 16,220.02

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Figure 10: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2012

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Table 26: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2013

Production(m3) Consumption(m3) Water Loss(m3)

S/No. Year 2013 2013 2013

1 January 91,600.00 54,989.00 36611.00

2 February 133,890.00 57,235.00 76655.00

3 March 86,840.00 55,721.00 31119.00

4 April 113,170.00 55,621.00 57549.00

5 May 123,150.00 51,274.00 71876.00

6 June 148,700.00 56,413.00 92287.00

7 July 118,410.00 40361.00 78049.00

8 August 115,306.00 44966.00 70340.00

9 September 159,535.00 54388.12 105146.88

10 October 118,220.00 50874.00 67346.00

11 November 120,120.00 65841.72 54278.28

12 December 133,270.00 63827.50 69442.50

Total 1,462,211.00 651,511.34 810699.66

Average 121,850.92 54,292.61 67,558.31

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Figure11: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2013

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Table 27: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2014

Production(m3) Consumption(m3) Water Loss(m3)

S/No. Year 2014 2014 2014

1 January 110,420.00 61386.00 49034.00

2 February 100,970.00 58944.00 42026.00

3 March 118,973.00 74589.00 44384.00

4 April 105,100.00 64533.00 40567.00

5 May 122,800.00 62097.00 60703.00

6 June 92,335.00 55083.00 37252.00

7 July 160,490.00 63270.01 97219.99

8 August 124,505.00 63270.01 61234.99

9 September 132,300.00 63270.01 69029.99

10 October 139,340.00 63270.01 76069.99

11 November 156,710.00 63270.01 93439.99

12 December 165,470.00 63270.01 102199.99

Total 1,529,413.00 756,252.06 773160.94

Average 127,451.08 63,021.01 64,430.08

80 Mulatu Bufebo Adebo: AAU MSc. Thesis : June 2016

Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Figure 12: Monthly Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2014

81 Mulatu Bufebo Adebo: AAU MSc. Thesis : June 2016

Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Figure 13: Annual Water Production, Consumption and Loss for the Year 2011-2014

82 Mulatu Bufebo Adebo: AAU MSc. Thesis : June 2016

Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Figure 14: Percentage of Water Loss for the Year 2011

83 Mulatu Bufebo Adebo: AAU MSc. Thesis : June 2016

Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Figure 15: Percentage of Water Loss for the Year 2012

84 Mulatu Bufebo Adebo: AAU MSc. Thesis : June 2016

Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Figure 16: .Percentage of Water Loss for the Year 2013

85 Mulatu Bufebo Adebo: AAU MSc. Thesis : June 2016

Thesis Paper on Urban Water Supply Performance Assessment: The case of Hossana Town,Ethiopia

Figure 17: Percentage of Water Loss for the Year 2014

86 Mulatu Bufebo Adebo: AAU MSc. Thesis : June 2016