Let’s Read!

Module 9
Principles and Frameworks behind our Moral Disposition

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. discuss Aristotle’s ethical principles and beliefs;
2. explain the concept of Telos according to Aristotle.

1. Virtue Ethics According to Aristotle

 It is the quest to understand and live a life of moral character.

What is the meaning of Telos by Aristotle?

Do you believe that everything has a purpose? Aristotle, the ancient Greek father of
western philosophy, thought so, and he called that purpose, telos (pronounced ‘TELL-os’ or
‘TAY-los’). The word can mean ‘purpose,’ ‘intent,’ ‘end,’ or ‘goal,’ but as usual, Aristotle used it
in a more specific and subtle sense—the inherent purpose of each thing, the ultimate reason for
each thing being the way it is, whether created that way by human beings or nature.

Examples
Man-made objects
Take my coffee mug as an example. If asked to define it, you might say something like,
“it’s a kind of container from which to drink hot beverages”; nearly everything about the mug
reveals its purpose. It is too small and open to hold anything but a drink or pencils; you wouldn’t
want to carry gasoline in it! It’s too big for drinking shots of liquor. Mine is ceramic and heavy,
with a handle, which protects my hands from the heat of the coffee. You could of course,
describe the mug without mentioning hot beverages, just describing its shape and materials in
technical terms; but doing so would miss the most important thing about it, it’s very reason for
existing – it’s telos.
The mug was made by humans for the drinking of coffee, and every human artifact is
made for some purpose—chairs for sitting, cars for driving, television shows for entertaining.
You can try to create something with no purpose, which a lot people would call “art,” except
that it would then have a purpose—to make an artistic or philosophical statement.

Natural Objects
But what about natural objects? Do trees and people have inherent purposes? And how
can we define them without reference to religious beliefs? According to Aristotle, the telos of a
plant or animal is also ‘what it was made for’—which can be observed.
For example, trees seem to be made to grow, branch, produce fruit, nuts, or flowers,
provide shade, and reproduce. So, that is all part of their telos. More importantly, each of these

1
 elements of a tree’s telos is something that the tree only does if healthy and thriving – only if it
lives long enough and under the right conditions to fulfill its potential. You might try to argue
that, according to these criteria, the telos of a tree is to eventually decay and die, and perhaps
that is part of it, but Aristotle could disagree by saying that the telos of a thing is that which
it does when it fulfills its full potential.

Humans
What about humans? According to Aristotle, the telos of a human being is happiness, or
eudemonia actually, which means something more like “fulfillment.” Fulfillment of what? Our
potential for excellence, or “virtues” in English translations of Aristotle.
The word “virtue” in Aristotle, refers to artistic, scientific, athletic, or any other kind of
excellence. They are the things human beings can do when they fulfill their potential, such as
paint a picture, win a race, or write philosophy.

Aristotle on Virtue “as habit”.

 We acquire virtue through practice. By practicing being honest, brave, just, generous, and so
on, a person develops an honorable and moral character.

 According to Aristotle, by honing virtuous habits, people will likely make the right choice when
faced with ethical challenges.

To illustrate the difference among three key moral philosophies, ethicists Mark White and Robert
Arp refer to the film The Dark Knight where Batman has the opportunity to kill the Joker.
Utilitarians, White and Arp suggest, would endorse killing the Joker. By taking this one
life, Batman could save multitudes.
Deontologists, on the other hand, would reject killing the Joker simply because it’s
wrong to kill.
But a virtue ethicist “would highlight the character of the person who kills the Joker.
Does Batman want to be the kind of person who takes his enemies’ lives?” No, in fact,
he doesn’t.
So, virtue ethics helps us understand what it means to be a virtuous human being. And, it gives us a
guide for living life without giving us specific rules for resolving ethical dilemmas.

Aristotle on Ethics:

Aristotle prescribed a moral code of conduct for what he called “good living.” He asserted that
good living to some degree defied the more restrictive laws of logic, since the real world poses
circumstances that can present a conflict of personal values. That said, it was up to the individual to
reason cautiously while developing his or her own judgment.

Aristotle on Happiness “as virtue”

2
 On happiness: In his treatises on ethics, Aristotle aimed to discover the best way to live life and
give it meaning — “the supreme good for man,” in his words — which he determined was the pursuit
of happiness. Our happiness is not a state but an activity, and it’s determined by our ability to live a life
that enables us to use and develop our reason. While bad luck can affect happiness, a truly happy
person, he believed, learns to cultivate habits and behaviors that help him (or her) to keep bad luck in
perspective.

3
 Let’s Read!

Module 10
St. Thomas Aquinas-Natural Law

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. discuss St. Thomas Aquinas’ ethical principles and beliefs;
2. explain the law of nature and its guiding principles.

A. The Natural law and its Tenets (religious principles)

Aquinas on Good and Evil.

 The natural law is comprised of those precepts of the eternal law that govern the behavior
of beings possessing reason and free will.
 The first precept of the natural law, according to Aquinas, is to do good and avoid evil.
Here it is worth noting that Aquinas holds a natural law theory of morality: what is good
and evil, according to Aquinas, is derived from the rational nature of human beings.
 On his view, a human law (that is, that which is promulgated by human beings) is valid
only insofar as its content conforms to the content of the natural law.

“[E]very human law has just so much of the nature of law as is derived from the law of nature.
But if in any point it deflects from the law of nature, it is no longer a law but a perversion of
law”.

 To paraphrase Augustine’s famous remark, an unjust law is really no law at all.

 The master principle of natural law, wrote Aquinas, was that "good is to be done and
pursued and evil avoided." Aquinas stated that reason reveals particular natural laws
that are good for humans such as self-preservation, marriage and family, and the desire
to know God.

 Reason, he taught, also enables humans to understand things that are evil such as
adultery, suicide, and lying.

 Aquinas went on to say that God created nature and rules the world by "divine reason."
B. Aquinas on the Pursuit of Happiness
 Aquinas had taken a position similar to St. Augustine’s, that perfect happiness is not
possible in this lifetime.
 This world is too plagued with unsatisfied desires to achieve that ultimate good which we
all seek by nature.

4
  Furthermore, God has basically created us with a desire to come to perfect knowledge of
Him, but this is hidden from us while in our mortal bodies.
 True knowledge of God would require being able to see him directly, but this is only
possible by a completely purified soul. When this occurs, we will experience the
ultimate pleasure—a pure and everlasting bliss that will be the satisfaction of every
human desire and the obliteration of every sadness or worry.

C. The Argument from Evil

• One of the chief problems with the notion of a perfectly good and powerful God is how
evil can exist.

• Aquinas formulates the problem in this way:

1. If God exists, then goodness is infinite, and there is no evil in the world.
2. There is evil in the world.
3. So, God does not exist. [1,2]

• One response, given by followers of Plato, is to deny the second premise.

– Evil has no being, but instead is a “privation” or lack of being.

• Aquinas allows that the second premise is true, so he denies the truth of the first
premise.

• Aquinas claims that God allows evil in order to produce the good.
– This strategy in philosophy is called “compatibilism.”
– In this case, the existence of God and of evil are claimed to be compatible with
each other.

Assignment. Read/Research on Immanuel Kant's Theory of Rights.

5
 Alert!

Short Quiz
Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas’ Ethical Doctrines

Test I. Modified True or False

Direction. Read the statements carefully. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and if it is not, change
the underlined word to make it correct.
_____1. According to Aristotle, the telos of a human being is truthfulness and charity.
_____2. According to Aristotle, the means is determined by a practically wise person would determine
it.
_____3. According to Aristotle, the end goal always justifies the means.
_____4. If we take Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean seriously, it would imply that the right act would be
a mean between the extremes of too good and too bad.
_____5. According to Aristotle, to attain virtue, excellence, and happiness, one must find the proper
means through experience and practical reason.
_____6. We acquire virtue through practice.
_____7. Ethics helps us understand what it means to be a virtuous human being.
_____8. According to Aristotle, it was up to the individual to reason cautiously while developing his or
her own judgment.
_____9. According to Aristotle, the best way to live life and give meaning to it is to achieve happiness.
_____10. Virtue ethics is, according to Aristotle-the quest to understand and live a life of moral
character.
_____11. According to Aristotle, "The existence of God can be proved in many ways."
_____12. Aristotle believes that a person can have pleasures and still not be happy.
_____13. The thing which everyone seeks is pleasure, according to Aristotle. Everything else is
secondary.
_____14. Aristotle points out that if you wish to change your life, you should first try to change your
habits and character, not a specific act or state of mind.
_____15. The doctrine of the mean states that we should always decide in advance what our mean is;
our mean cannot be known through experience.
_____16. According to St. Thomas, “good is to be done and pursued and evil avoided”.
_____17. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, reason also enables humans to understand things that
are evil such as adultery, suicide, and lying.
_____18. Aquinas believed that God created nature and rules the world by "divine reason”.
_____19. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, perfect happiness is not possible in this lifetime.
_____20. Aquinas claims that God allows evil in order to produce the good.

Test II. Essay (10 points each)

Answer Briefly.
1. Aristotle’s Ethical Philosophy.

6
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.

2. Who is the truly happy person according to Aristotle?

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.

3. The essential part of any theodicy is to account for the problem of evil. State the problem of evil
as a dilemma.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________.

4. State Aquinas' argument to a Perfect Being and give at least one objection to it.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.

7
 Let’s Read!

Module 11
Immanuel Kant and rights Theorists

Objectives. At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. define Kant’s moral philosophy;
2. give meaning and interpretations to the concepts hypothetical
imperative, categorical imperative and maxim;
3. appreciate Kant’s ethical and moral view and influences.

Kant’s Moral Philosophy

The Categorical Imperative

 Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued that the supreme principle of morality is a standard of
rationality that he dubbed the “Categorical Imperative” (CI).
 Characterized the CI as an objective, rationally necessary and unconditional principle that we
must always follow despite any natural desires or inclinations we may have to the contrary.
 His theory is an example of a deontological moral theory–according to these theories, the
rightness or wrongness of actions does not depend on their consequences but on whether they
fulfill our duty.
 Believed that there was a supreme principle of morality, and he referred to it as The Categorical
Imperative. The CI determines what our moral duties are.

What is an imperative?
An imperative is a command. Example: So, "Pay your taxes!" is an imperative, as are "Stop
kicking me!" and "Don't kill animals!"

Why Imperative?
It is an imperative because it is a command addressed to agents who could follow it but might not
(e.g., “Leave the gun. Take the cannoli.”).
 All specific moral requirements, according to Kant, are justified by this principle, which means
that all immoral actions are irrational because they violate the CI.
 Kant holds that the fundamental principle of our moral duties is a categorical imperative. It is an
imperative because it is a command addressed to agents who could follow it but might not (e.g.,
“Leave the gun. Take the cannoli.”). It is categorical in virtue of applying to us unconditionally,
or simply because we possess rational wills, without reference to any ends that we might or
might not have.
 The categorical imperative is something that a person must do, no matter what the
circumstances.
 Kant said that the moral choices are governed by a categorical imperative.

8
  It is imperative to an ethical person that they make choices based on the categorical imperative.
Another way of saying that, is that an ethical person follows a "universal law" regardless of their
situation.
 Categorical Imperatives: These command unconditionally. Example, “Don’t cheat on your
taxes.” Even if you want to cheat and doing so would serve your interests, you may not cheat.
Hypothetical Imperatives
These imperatives command conditionally on your having a relevant desire.
Example, “If you want to go to medical school, study biology in college.” If you don’t want to go to
medical school, this command doesn’t apply to you.
Another example, your father says, "If you are hungry, then go eat something!" - If you aren't hungry,
then you are free to ignore the command.

What is the connection between morality and categorical imperatives?

Morality must be based on the categorical imperative because morality is such that you are
commanded by it, and is such that you cannot opt out of it or claim that it does not apply to you.

The Maxim
Kant explained his ideas about following the categorical imperative by introducing one more idea
he called a "maxim." A maxim is another way of saying what we want to do and why we want to do it
in one sentence. We can learn ethical maxims by applying the test of the categorical imperative. And
he said we can live ethical lives if we use these maxims whenever we make decisions.
A maxim is the rule or principle on which you act. For example, I might make it my maxim
to give at least as much to charity each year as I spend on eating out, or I might make it my maxim only
to do what will benefit some member of my family.

How does the categorical imperative work?

The categorical imperative has three different formulations.

First Formulation (The Formula of Universal Law) "Act only on that maxim through which you can
at the same time will that it should become a universal law [of nature]."
Example: For example, if you expect other people to keep their promises, then you are obligated
to keep your own promises.
 Kant also has something to say about what makes someone a good person.
 According to Kant a good person is someone who always does their duty because it is their duty.
It is fine if they enjoy doing it, but it must be the case that they would do it even if they did not
enjoy it. The overall theme is that to be a good person you must be good for goodness sake.
 It commands that every maxim you act on must be such that you are willing to make it the case
that everyone always act on that maxim when in a similar situation.
For example, if I wanted to lie to get something I wanted, I would have to be willing to make it the
case that everyone always lied to get what they wanted - but if this were to happen no one would
ever believe you, so the lie would not work and you would not get what you wanted.

9
 So, if you willed that such a maxim (of lying) should become a universal law, then you would thwart
your goal - thus, it is impermissible to lie, according to the categorical imperative. It is impermissible
because the only way to lie is to make an exception for yourself.

Second Formulation (The Humanity Formulation of the CI)

 This formulation states that we should never act in such a way that we treat humanity, whether
in ourselves or in others, as a means only but always as an end in itself. This is often seen as
introducing the idea of “respect” for persons, for whatever it is that is essential to our humanity.
Kant was clearly right that this and the other formulations bring the CI “closer to intuition” than
the Universal Law formula.
 Kant’s Humanity Formula requires “respect” for the humanity in persons. Proper regard for
something with absolute value or worth requires respect for it.
Example; I may respect you as a rebounder but not a scorer, or as a researcher but not as a teacher.
When I respect you in this way, I am positively appraising you in light of some achievement or virtue
you possess relative to some standard of success.

Third Formulation (The Autonomy Formula)

 “The Idea of the will of every rational being as a will that legislates universal law.”
 Act so that through your maxims you could be a legislator of universal laws.
 This sounds very similar to the first formulation. However, in this case we focus on our status as
universal law gives rather than universal law followers. This is of course the source of the very
dignity of humanity.
 The Autonomy Formula presumably does this by putting on display the source of our dignity and
worth, our status as free rational agents who are the source of the authority behind the very
moral laws that bind us.

10
 Let’s Read!

The Thirsty Man

Follow up discussion:
There are many philosophies of ethics, and many philosophers who have very different opinions.
Some philosophers might say that it would have been ethical if Thirsty Man had kept the bottle for
himself to drink. It was his bottle to begin with and he could do whatever he wanted with it.
Other philosophers might say that Thirsty Man was ethically wrong to give the bottle to Dying Man
because the water ended up choking the Dying Man to death.
Kant's idea of the categorical imperative would say that Thirsty Man made the right choice, for the right
reasons, and he made those ethical decisions in a logical way.
An important part of Kant's idea is that the morality of a choice is based on why we make the choice
(intention), and not based on what happens after we make it (consequence). Another important part of
Kant's idea is that these ethical decisions are not rules or laws handed down to us (universal law or
objectively true ethical statement). Kant thought that ethical decisions needed to be based in
logic and reason (correct reasoning or deductive reasoning).
Kant elaborated on these ideas by saying that we should treat other persons as persons and not as
tools who can help us in some way. He said we should do this based on the ethical duty that all persons
have to each other, an ethical duty which could be called a universal law.

11
 Learner’s Activity
Corner The Thirsty Man

Direction. Read the passage thoroughly. Based on our previous module on Kant’s moral
philosophy (Module 11). Identify the categorical imperative, hypothetical imperative, and the
maxim can all be seen in the passage.

A man locked alone in a room for one night, and he brought nothing with him except a bottle of
water. The man has had nothing to drink all day and is very thirsty. We can call this man, "Thirsty Man."
A few minutes later a second man is brought into the room. Both men are told that they will be
in the room all night, and that no one else will be back to see them until morning. Thirsty Man has not
yet opened the water bottle. The new man has not had anything to drink for many days. The second
man is clearly dying of dehydration. If he is not given water soon, he will die. We can call this second
man, "Dying Man."
Thirsty Man now has a decision to make, will he share the water or drink it himself?
Thirsty Man does not live by the maxim of "I will drink water when I am thirsty," because that
maxim fails the test of being universally fulfilling the categorical imperative. Thirsty Man believes that
the categorical imperative is the Golden Rule. To be an ethical person, Thirsty Man believes he must
at all times treat others the way he would want them to treat him. From the categorical imperative of
the Golden Rule, Thirsty Man has adopted a maxim of "I will give anything I can to anyone I meet, if
that person needs what I have much more than I need it."
Thirsty Man prepares to decide if he will drink the water that he wants to drink, or if he will give it
to Dying Man. Thirsty Man tests both choices by comparing them to his maxim. He sees that it is
imperative that he give the water to Dying Man.
Thirsty Man gives the water to Dying Man. Dying Man drinks nearly the entire bottle, but then he
chokes on the last sip. There is nothing Thirsty Man can do to stop the choking, and Dying Man dies.

Categorical Imperative Hypothetical Imperative Maxim

12
13
14
 Let’s Read!

Module 12
The Good Will
&
The different Kinds of Rights
(Moral and legal rights)

Objectives. At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. know and understand Kant’s position on to his theory of good will;
2. differentiate legal and moral rights.
3. understand how moral rights influence legal rights (law)

Who is a Good Person?

 Kant ideas begins with the thought that the only thing good without qualification is a “good will”.
While the phrases “he’s good hearted”, “she’s good natured” and “she means well” are common,
“the good will” as Kant thinks of it is not the same as any of these ordinary notions.
 The idea of a good will is closer to the idea of a “good person”, or, more archaically, a “person
of good will”. This use of the term “will” early on in analyzing ordinary moral thought prefigures
later and more technical discussions concerning the nature of rational agency.
 The basic idea, as Kant describes it in the Groundwork, is that what makes a good person good
is his possession of a will that is in a certain way “determined” by, or makes its decisions on the
basis of, the moral law.
 In Kant’s terms, a good will is a will whose decisions are wholly determined by moral demands
or, as he often refers to this, by the Moral Law.

The Different Kinds of Rights

It’s especially important to differentiate morality and law, inasmuch as discussion of the moral and
legal often conflate. On the one hand, the two differ since we believe some legal acts to be immoral,
and some laws to be unjust. And even if the law didn’t prohibit murder, stealing, and the like, we would
probably still consider them wrong. This suggests that the two aren’t co-extensive. On the other hand,
the two are connected because the law embodies many moral precepts. Legal prohibitions incorporate
most of our ordinary moral rules such as those against lying, killing, cheating, raping, and stealing. This
suggests there is some connection between the moral and the legal.
 Morality- rules of right conduct concerning matters of greater importance. Violations of such can
bring disturbance to individual conscience and social sanctions.
 Law- rules which are enforced by society. Violations may bring a loss of or reduction in freedom
and possessions.

What is the relation of law to morality?

15
  They are not the same.
 You cannot equate the two.
 Just because something is immoral does not make it illegal and just because something is illegal
it does not make it immoral.
Not all immoral acts are illegal.
Some immoral acts are legally permissible.
Example: Cheating on your spouse.
Breaking a promise to a friend.
Using contraceptive pill as a birth control measure.
Not all illegal acts are immoral.
Things that are illegal but are thought to be moral. (For many)
Example: Drinking under age.
Driving over the speed limit.
Smoking marijuana.
Splitting a cable signal to send it to more than one television.
People do not think of themselves or of others as being immoral for breaking these laws.

Though it’s possible to have morality without law, or law without morality, the two usually go
together. Therefore, we suggest that law codifies morality. In other words, the law formulates the
culture’s morality into legal codes. Again, not every legal code refers to a moral issue, but most laws
do have some moral significance. Though a connection between the moral and legal exists, they clearly
aren’t the same things.

1. Moral Rights
Along with the concepts of benefit and harm, one of concepts most commonly used in
discussions of ethics is that of a moral right.
 A right is a justified claim, entitlement or assertion of what a rights-holder is due. For a person
to have the moral right, there must be a moral basis or justification for the claim.
 These bases or justifications are different for different categories of rights.
Example, we see that "human rights" is a name given to those rights that all people have because
they are people.
 Rights possessed by only by some are called "special rights."
Example, if I have promised that I will drive our car pool in February, then you have a moral right to
be driven by me in February. Being driven by me in February is a special right you have. Special rights
may be acquired through agreements or contracts.
 Moral rights, along with moral obligations and moral responsibilities, constrain how far a person
may go in seeking to improve an outcome.
For example, suppose you find yourself in some sort of emergency where you can act to save
one person's life or to save four people's lives. You ought to save the four people, rather than one.
However, the greater value of four lives as compared with one would not allow you to violate another's
right to life in order to save four others.
 Thus, it would not be morally permissible to kill one person in order to let the four persons to
survive.
16
2. Legal rights
Liberties or protections individuals have because some law says they do.
For example, Filipinos eighteen years of age or older have a legal right to vote. For obvious reasons,
legal rights do not come into being on their own; they have to be created through law. So, one defining
characteristic of legal rights is that they are made by human beings; as such, humans can unmake
them too.

17
 Learner’s Activity
Corner

Mechanics.

1. Collect pictures of yourselves applying virtues acts.

2. Compile it on a simple scrapbook, photo album or paste it on a ¼ size illustration board or any of
your choice. Be creative.
3. Provide short caption each, location and date.

Rubrics
Total: 40 points
Criteria Excellent Very Good Fair Needs Improvement
20/20 16/20 12/20 8/20
Creativity Scrapbook Scrapbook Scrapbook is Scrapbook is like many
is unique, is mostly similar to others; layout is
appealing, unique, others, unappealing and
and takes organized, layout is unorganized.
advantage and shows unorganized.
of the some use of
design tools design tools
available.
Content Accurate Accurate Some Many inaccuracies, or
content content, but inaccuracies incomplete information.
explained in not very in content, or
detail. detailed. lack of any
detail.
Self- 
assessment
Teacher’s
assessment
Total: ______/40

18
 Alert!

Post-Test

Test I. Multiple Choice.

Direction: Select the best answer. Write the letter of your choice at the space provided before the
number.

For items 1-5. Identify the most appropriate description, ceteris paribus, for the following statements.

_____1. Intentionally relating a falsehood to another person is, ceteris paribus.

A. moral C. immoral
B. amoral D. nonmoral
_____2. Studying the interaction of molecules in gas is, ceteris paribus.
A. moral C. immoral
B. amoral D. nonmoral
_____3. A serial killer, ceteris paribus, is generally thought to exhibit _____ behavior.
A. moral C. immoral
B. amoral D. nonmoral
_____4. Although many persons would not initially think so, drinking a soft drink is of _____ concern.
A. moral C. immoral
B. amoral D. nonmoral
_____5. Choosing which tie to wear to work is, ceteris paribus, a __________ issue.
A. moral C. immoral
B. amoral D. nonmoral
_____6. Which statement is true of ethics?
A. Ethics is knowing what is right and wrong.
B. It holds that self-interest determines morality.
C. Moral principles that govern a person's behavior or the conducting of an activity.
D. None of the above
_____7. Which of the following supports the argument for humans to be moral?
A. Moral life and living a good life.
B. I love the things that are good to me and hate those are bad.
C. Killing terrorist is ok.
D. all of the foregoing
_____8. Lance is writing an essay in which she has no citations. He uses the ideas of
another writer, but changes the words. Which of the following statements is true regarding Lance’s
act?
A. Lance is reasonable.
B. Lance must indicate any words or ideas that are not his own otherwise she has
committed plagiarism.
19
 C. Its ok no one can see him anyway.
D. all of the above
_____9. Ethics is about:
A. What we ought to do.
B. Concerned with what is good for individuals and society and is also described as moral
philosophy.
C. Dictated by the society and personal choices.
D. Doing all what we wanted regardless of the circumstances.
_____10. Which of the following statements is true?
A. Law is influenced by ethics.
B. The reasons law governs human beings are predominantly ethical.
C. Law is a public expression of a society’s morality.
D. all of the above
E. none of the above
11-15. How to be ethical in the following situation/places. (2points each)

a. restaurants

b. conference/meeting

c. dealing with gossip

20
 d. market

e. colleagues/coworkers/classmates

Test II. Essay

Direction: Answer the following questions briefly.

1. “Why should I be moral?” (10points)

___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________.
2. Am I totally free? (10 points)
___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________.

3. The church as a moral agent. I’m not affiliated to any moral institutions, am I bad? (10 points)
21
 ___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________.

Sources:

https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/morals
https://managementhelp.org/blogs/business-ethics/2012/01/02/what-are-values-morals-and-
ethics/#:~:text=What%20are%20Morals%3F,or%20life%20enhancing%20for%20all.
https://www.softschools.com/examples/fallacies/false_dilemma_examples/491/
https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-making/ethics-and-virtue/
http://www.lionswhiskers.com/p/six-types-of-courage.html

22