CHAPTER TWO

FLUID STATICS AND PRESSURE

INTRODUCTION

Fluid statics
Fluid Statics is the area of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at rest. It also extends to fluids in motion when there
is no relative motion between adjacent fluid particles(rigid body motion) Many fluid problems do not involve
motion rather concerned with the pressure distribution in a static fluid. When the fluid velocity is zero, known as
hydrostatic condition, the pressure variation is due to weight
of the fluid. The important areas of fluid statics include:

 Pressure distribution in atmospheres and oceans

 Design of manometer pressure instruments
 Forces on submerged flat and curved surfaces
 Buoyancy on a submerged body
 Behavior of floating bodies

Concept of Pressure and Pressure Gradient

When the fluid velocity is zero it is called hydrostatic condition. If the fluid is moving in rigid-body motion, such
as a tank of liquid that has been spinning for a long time, the pressure also can be easily calculated because the fluid
is free of shear stress.

Pressure and Pressure Gradient

Fluid at rest cannot support shear stress. The normal stress on any plane through a fluid element at rest is a point
property called the fluid pressure p, taken positive for compression by common convention.

Fgure 2.1 small fluid at rest of size ∆x by ∆z by ∆s and depth b into the paper
The above figure shows a small fluid at rest of size ∆x by ∆z by ∆s and depth b into the paper. There is no shear by
definition, but we postulate that the pressures px, pz, and pn may be different on each face. The weight of the element

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also may be important. The element is assumed small, so the pressure is constant on each face. Summation of forces
must equal zero (no acceleration) in both the x and z directions. weight of the element also may be important.

(2.1)
But the geometry of the wedge(element) is such that

(2.2)
Substitution into Eq. (2.1) and rearrangement gives:

(2.3)
These relations illustrate two important principles of the hydrostatic, or shear-free, condition: (1) There is no
pressure change in the horizontal direction, and (2) there is a vertical change in pressure proportional to the density,
gravity, and depth change.

In the limit as the fluid wedge shrinks to a “point,’’ ∆z 0 and Eqs. (2.3) becomes

(2.4)

Since θ is arbitrary, we conclude that the pressure p in a static fluid is a point property, independent of orientation.

Pressure Force on a Fluid Element

Pressure (or any other stress, for that matter) causes a net force on a fluid element when it varies spatially. To see
this, consider the pressure acting on the two x faces in Fig. 2.2. Let the pressure vary arbitrarily.

 When a uniform pressure acts on a flat plate of area A and a force P pushes the plate, then
P = F/A
 When the pressure is not uniform, the pressure acting on the small area ∆A is expressed by the
following equation:

Net force in the x direction on the element in Fig. 2.2 is given by

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Fig. 2.2 Net x force on an element due to pressure variation.
In like manner the net force dFy involves -∂p/∂y, and the net force dFz concerns -∂p/∂z. The total net-force vector
on the element due to pressure is:

(2.5)
The term in parentheses recognized as the negative vector gradient of p. Denoting f as the net force per unit element
volume, rewriting it Eq. (2.5) as:

(2.6)

Where

Thus it is not the pressure but the pressure gradient causing a net force that must be balanced by gravity or
acceleration or some other effect in the fluid.

2.1 EQUILIBRIUM OF A FLUID ELEMENT

The pressure gradient is a surface force(contact force) that acts on the sides of the element. There may also be a
body force(distance force), due to electromagnetic or gravitational potentials, acting on the entire mass of the
element. Here we consider only the gravity force, or weight of the element:

Or

(2.7)

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In addition to gravity, a fluid in motion will have surface forces due to viscous stresses. By Newton’s law, the sum
of these per-unit-volume forces equals the mass per unit volume (density) times the acceleration a of the fluid
element:

(2.8)
Note that Eq. (2.8) is a vector relation, and the acceleration may not be in the same vector direction as the velocity.
For this topic(hydrostatics), the viscous stresses and the acceleration are zero.

Gage Pressure and Vacuum Pressure

There are two cases,
1. absolute or total magnitude
2. value relative to the local ambient atmosphere.
The second case occurs because many pressure instruments are of differential type and record, not an absolute
magnitude, but the difference between the fluid pressure and the atmosphere. The measured pressure may be
either higher or lower than the local atmosphere, and each case is given a name as follows:

OR

1) Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + surrounding pressure

2) Absolute pressure = surrounding pressure – gauge reading

Where p = absolute pressure, pg = gage pressure, pv = vacuum pressure, pa = atmospheric pressure

A typical situation is shown in Fig. 2.3(following). The local atmosphere is at, say, 90,000 Pa, which might reflect
a storm condition in a sea-level location or normal conditions at an altitude of 1000 m. Thus, on this day, pa =
90,000 Pa absolute = 0 Pa gage = 0 Pa vacuum. Suppose gage 1 in a laboratory reads p1 = 120,000 Pa absolute.
This value may be reported as a gage pressure, p1 = 120,000 - 90,000 = 30,000 Pa gage. (One must also record the
atmospheric pressure in the laboratory, since pa changes gradually.) Suppose gage 2 reads p2 = 50,000 Pa absolute.
Locally, this is a vacuum pressure and might be reported as p2 = 90,000 - 50,000 = 40,000 Pa vacuum. If a pressure
is listed without the modifier gage or vacuum, we assume it is absolute pressure.

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 Fig 2.3 relationship between gauge, absolute and atmospheric pressures

Example 2.1
A gauge indicates 12 kPa as the fluid pressure while, the outside pressure is 150 kPa. Determine the absolute
pressure of the fluid.

SOLUTION
Absolute pressure = Outside pressure - Gauge pressure

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= 150 - 12 = 138 kPa

Hydrostatic Pressure Distributions

Pascal’s law
In fluids under static conditions pressure is found to be independent of the orientation of the area. This concept is
explained by Pascal’s law which states that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is equal in magnitude in
all directions.
Pascal’s law፡ Any two points at the same elevation in a continuous mass of the same static fluid will be at the
same pressure.

If the fluid is at rest or at constant velocity, a = 0 and fvisc = 0. Equation (2.8) for the pressure distribution reduces
to
(2.9)

 This is a hydrostatic distribution and is correct for all fluids at rest, regardless of their viscosity, because
the viscous term vanishes identically.
 The maximum pressure increase will be in the direction of gravity, that is, “down.”
 If the fluid is a liquid, its free surface, being at atmospheric pressure, will be normal to local gravity, or
“horizontal.”
 In our customary coordinate system z is “up.” Thus the local-gravity vector for small-scale problems is
(2.10)
 For these coordinates Eq. (2.9) has the components

(2.11)
the first two of which tell us that p is independent of x and y. Hence ∂p/∂z can be replaced by the total derivative
dp/dz, and the hydrostatic condition reduces to:

or (2.12)

Equation (2.12) is the solution to the hydrostatic problem.

conclusions about a hydrostatic condition:

 Pressure in a continuously distributed uniform static fluid varies only with vertical distance and is
independent of the shape of the container
 The pressure is the same at all points on a given horizontal plane in the fluid.
 The pressure increases with depth in the fluid.
An illustration of this is shown in Fig. 2.4. The free surface of the container is atmospheric and forms a horizontal
plane. Points a, b, c, and d are at equal depth in a horizontal plane and are interconnected by the same fluid, water;
therefore all points have the same pressure. The same is true of points A, B, and C on the bottom, which all have
the same higher pressure than at a, b, c, and d. However, point D, although at the same depth as A, B, and C, has a
different pressure because it lies beneath a different fluid, mercury.

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 Fig. 2.4 Hydrostatic-pressure distribution.

Effect of Variable Gravity

For a spherical planet of uniform density, the acceleration of gravity varies inversely as the square of the radius
from its center.

(3.13)
where r0 is the planet radius and g0 is the surface value of g. For earth, r0 ~ 3960.
 In typical engineering problems the deviation from r0 extends from the deepest ocean, about 11 km, to the
atmospheric height of supersonic transport operation, about 20 km.
 This gives a maximum variation in g of (6400/6420)2, or 0.6 percent.
 But the variation of g is neglected in most problems.

2.2 The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics Manometers

Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids

Liquids are so nearly incompressible that we can neglect their density variation in hydrostatics. Its effect on
hydrostatics is very small. Thus we assume constant density in liquid hydrostatic calculations, for which Eq. (2.12)
integrates to:

or (2.14)
The first form used in most problems. The quantity γ(γ=ρg) is called the specific weight of the fluid, with
dimensions of weight per unit volume; some values are tabulated in Table 2.1. The quantity p/γ is a length called
the pressure head of the fluid.

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Table 2.1 Specific Weight of Some Common Fluids

Fig. 2.5 Hydrostatic-pressure distribution in oceans and atmospheres

For lakes and oceans, the coordinate system is usually chosen as in Fig. 2.5, with z = 0 at the free surface, where p
equals the surface atmospheric pressure pa. When we introduce the reference value (p1, z1) = (pa, 0), Eq. (2.14)
becomes, for p at any (negative) depth z(Lakes and oceans):

(2.15)

where γ is the average specific weight of the lake or ocean.

EXAMPLE 2.2
Lake Tana has a maximum depth of 60 m, and the mean atmospheric pressure is 91 kPa. Estimate the absolute
pressure in kPa at this maximum depth.

 System sketch: Imagine that Fig. 2.5 is Tana Lake, with h = 60 m and z = 0 at the surface.
 Property values: From Table 2.1, γwater = 9790 N/m3, patmos = 91 kPa.
 Solution steps: Apply Eq. (2.15) to the deepest point. Use SI units, pascals, not kilopascals:
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  Ans.

Mercury Barometer
The simplest practical application of the hydrostatic formula (2.14) is the barometer (Fig. 2.6), which measures
atmospheric pressure. A tube is filled with mercury and inverted while submerged in a reservoir. This causes a
near vacuum in the closed upper end because mercury has an extremely small vapor pressure at room temperatures

Fig. 2.6 A barometer measures local absolute atmospheric pressure: (a) the height of a mercury column is
proportional to patm; (b) a modern portable barometer, with digital readout, uses the resonating silicon element

Since atmospheric pressure forces a mercury column to rise a distance h into the tube, the upper mercury surface is
at zero pressure. From Fig. 2.6, with p1 = 0 at z1 = h and p2 = pa at z2 = 0:

or (2.16)

At sea-level standard, with pa = 101,350 Pa and γm = 133,100 N/m3 from Table 2.1, the barometric height is h =
101,350/133,100 = 0.761 m or 761 mm. Mercury is used because it is the heaviest common liquid. A water
barometer would be 34 ft high.

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 Fig 2.7 Barometer

 PA = PB
 PA = ρgh
 Therefore PATM = PB = ρgh

EXAMPLE 2.3
Considering the fact that 1 atm = 101325Pa calculate the corresponding height of the mercury column in a barometer
if density of mercury is 13590kg/m3.

Use of hydraulic pressure

Fig 2.8 hydraulic jack

Pascal’s law of hydraulics

A pressure change in one part of a fluid at rest in a closed container is transmitted without a loss to all parts of the
fluids and the walls of the container. Consider two pistons with different surface areas confining a fluid in a u-

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shaped cavity as shown in the figure and they are at the same level, suppose the area AA << AB. piston A exerts a
pressure FA/AA and piston B exerts a pressure FB/AB.

FA FB
(AA) = (AB) (2.17)
𝐴𝐵
𝐹𝐵 = ( )(𝐹𝐴)
𝐴𝐴

Measurement of pressure

Manometer pressure instruments

Manometer is a device to measure pressure or mostly difference in pressure using a column of liquid to balance the
pressure. It is a basic instrument and is used extensively in flow measurement. It needs no calibration. Very low
pressures can be measured using micromanometers. The basic principle of operation of manometers is that at the
same level in contigues fluid at rest, the pressure is the same. Therefore generally:
 A change in elevation of a liquid is equivalent to the change in pressure
 Static column of one/more liquids/gases used to measure the pressure difference between two points.
 Such a device is called a manometer(the simplest type is U-tube manometer)
 In the case of open U-tube manometer, one end connected to a reservoir and other end is open to atmosphere.

P = Pa + ρgh
where pa is atmospheric pressure but When the pressure p is large, this is inconvenient because h is too high. So
a U-tube manometer is used.

(2.18)

Where ρ’ and H’ are density and height of the heavy liquid(example mercury). There are many types of
manometers. For example:-
 Differential manometer
 Inclined manometer
 U-tube manometer

Application to Manometry
 If multiple fluids are used, we must change the density in the formula as we move from one fluid to
another.
 Pressure Increases Downward

Application: A Simple Manometer

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Fig. 2.9 Simple open manometer for measuring pA relative to atmospheric pressure pa.

 The chamber fluid ρ1 is separated from the atmosphere by a second heavier fluid ρ2, perhaps because
fluid A is corrosive, or more likely because a heavier fluid ρ2 will keep Z2 small and the open tube can be
shorter.
 First apply the hydrostatic formula (2.14) from A down to z1.
 then go down to the bottom of the U-tube and back up on the right side to z1, and the pressure will be the
same, p = p1.
 Thus we can “jump across” and then up to level z2 (Any two points at the same elevation in a continuous
mass of the same static fluid will be at the same pressure)
 This idea of jumping across to equal pressures facilitates multiple-fluid problems but, inaccurate however
if there are bubbles in the fluid(discontinuity).

(2.19)

EXAMPLE 2.4
A manometer is fitted as shown in Fig 2.10. Determine the pressure at point A. Assume pa = 0

Fig 2.10

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SOLUTION
With respect to datum at B, pressure at left hand side = pressure at right hand side
PC = PB Consider the left limb
PC = Pa + 0.125 × 900 × 9.81 + 0.9 × 13600 × 9.81 = Pa + 121178 N/m2
Consider the right limb PA = PB – 0.9 × 1000 × 9.81 = Pa + 121178 – 0.9 × 1000 × 9.81 = Pa + 112349 N/m2
Expressed as gauge pressure
PA = 112349 N/m2
= 112.35 kPa gauge

EXAMPLE 2.5
An inverted U-tube manometer is fitted between two pipes as shown in Fig 2.11. Determine the pressure at E if
PA = 0.4 bar (gauge)

Fig 2.11

SOLUTION
PB = PA – [(0.9 × 1000) × 9.81 × 1.2] = 40000 – [(0.9 × 1000) × 9.81 × 1.2] = 29,405.2 N/m2
PC = PB – [(0.9 × 1000) × 9.81 × 0.8] = 22342 N/m2
PC = PD = 22342 N/m2
PE = PD + [1000 × 9.81 × 0.8] = 30190 N/m2 = 30.19 kPa (gauge)

EXAMPLE 2.6
A multiple U-tube manometer is fitted to a pipe with centre at A as shown in Fig 2.12. Determine the pressure at
A. Pressure at E = atmospheric pressure, (Patm=0)

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 Fig 2.12

SOLUTION

PD = Patm + (1000 × 9.81 × 0.6) = Patm + 5886 Pa, As PC = PD

PB = PC – [0.9 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.3] = Patm + 5886 – 2648.7 = Patm + 3237.3 Pa
PA = PB + [1000 × 9.81 × 0.4] = Patm + 7161.3 = Patm + 7161.3 N/m2 or 7161.3Pa (gauge)

EXAMPLE 2.7
The classic use of a manometer is when two U-tube legs are of equal length(see figure below), and the measurement
involves a pressure difference across two horizontal points. The typical application is to measure pressure change
across a flow device, as shown. Derive a formula for the pressure difference pa- pb in terms of the system parameters
in in the figure 2.13.

figure 2.13

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Solution
Using Eq. (2.14), start at (a), evaluate pressure changes around the U-tube, and end up at (b):

or (also called “manometer formula,”)

Note that, measurement only includes h, the manometer reading. Terms involving L drop out.

complicated multiplefluid manometer

 The following figure illustrates a multiple-fluid manometer problem for finding the difference in pressure
between two chambers A and B.
 Repeatedly apply Eq. (2.14), jumping across at equal pressures when come to a continuous mass of the
same fluid.
 Thus, compute four pressure differences while making three jumps

(2.20)

The intermediate pressures p1,2,3 cancel. It looks complicated, but really it is merely sequential. One starts at A, goes
down to 1, jumps across, goes up to 2, jumps across, goes down to 3, jumps across, and finally goes up to B.

Fig. 2.14 A complicated multiplefluid manometer to relate pA to pB.

EXAMPLE 2.8
Pressure gage B is to measure the pressure at point A in a water flow. If the pressure at B is 87 kPa, estimate the
pressure at A in kPa. Assume all fluids are at 20OC.

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 Fig. 2.15
Solution
• Assumptions: Hydrostatic fluids, no mixing, vertical “up”
• Approach: Sequential use of Eq. (2.14) to go from A to B.
• Property values: From property table: γwater = 9790 N/m3, γmercury = 133,100 N/m3; γoil = 8720 N/m3
Solution steps: Proceed from A to B, “down” then “up,” jumping across at the left mercury meniscus(fluid interface)

2.3 Forces on Submerged Surfaces

Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

fig. 2.16(see below) Hydrostatic force and center of pressure on an arbitrary plane surface of area A inclined at an
angle θ below the free surface(Force acting on a dam)
NB: C is centroid, CG is center of gravity, CP is center of pressure
 The design of containment structures requires computation of the hydrostatic forces on various solid
surfaces adjacent to the fluid.
 These forces relate to the weight of fluid bearing on the surface.
 For example, a container with a flat, horizontal bottom of area Ab and water depth H will experience a
downward bottom force (resultant force Fr = pA = γhA which implies that Fb = γHAb.
 If the surface is not horizontal, additional computations are needed to find the horizontal components of the
hydrostatic force.
 If we neglect density changes in the fluid, Eq. (2.14) applies and the pressure on any submerged surface
varies linearly with depth.

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Figure 2.16

Figure 2.16 shows a plane panel of arbitrary shape completely submerged in a liquid. The panel plane makes an
arbitrary angle θ with the horizontal free surface, so that the depth varies over the panel surface. If h is the depth
to any element area Da of the plate, from Eq. (2.14) the pressure there is p = pa - γh. To derive formulas involving
the plate shape, establish an xy coordinate system in the plane of the plate with the origin at its centroid, plus a
dummy coordinate ξ down from the surface in the plane of the plate. Then the total hydrostatic force on one side of
the plate is given by:

(2.21)
 Where from the figure,

 Centroidal slant distance from the surface to the plate is:

 Therefore, since θ is constant along the plate, Eq. (2.19) becomes:

 Finally, unravel this by noticing that ξCG sin θ = hcg(the depth straight down from the surface to the plate
centroid.) Thus:

(2.22)

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  The force on one side of any plane submerged surface in a uniform fluid equals the pressure at the plate
centroid times the plate area, independent of the shape of the plate or the angle θ at which it is slante.

Fig. 2.17 The hydrostatic pressure force on a plane surface is equal, regardless of its shape, to the resultant of the
three-dimensional linear pressure distribution on that surface F = pCGA.

EXAMPLE 2.9
The gate in the following figure is 5 ft wide, is hinged at point B, and rests against a smooth wall at point A.
Compute the force on the gate due to seawater pressure.

Fig. 2.18

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 Solution
By geometry the gate is 10 ft long from A to B, and its centroid is halfway between, or at elevation 3 ft above point
B. The depth hCG is thus 15 - 3 = 12 ft. The gate area is 5(10) = 50 ft2. Neglect pa as acting on both sides of the
gate. From Eq. (2.22)the hydrostatic force on the gate is

ANS

Buoyancy and Stability

Why does a ship float?

Fluid pressure acts all over the wetted surface of a body floating in a fluid, and the resultant pressure acts in a
vertical upward direction. This force is called buoyancy.

Fig. 2.19

Suppose that a cube is located in a liquid of density ρ, pressure acting on the cube due to the liquid in the horizontal
direction is balanced right and left. For the vertical direction, where the atmospheric pressure is po, the force F1
acting on the upper surface A is expressed by the following equation:
F1 = (Po + ρgh1)A (2.23)
The force F2 acting on the lower surface is
F2 = (Po + ρgh2)A (2.24)
when the volume of the body in the liquid is V, the resultant force F from the pressure acting on the whole surface of the body is
F = F2 - Fl = ρg(h2 – h1)A = ρghA = ρgv
 The same applies to the case where a cube is floating as shown in Fig(b). From this equation, the body in the liquid
experiences a buoyancy equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body. This result is known as Archimedes’

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 principle. The centre of gravity of the displaced liquid is called ‘centre of buoyancy’ and is the point of action of the
buoyancy force.
 If an object with weight W floating in the water with an inclination of small angle θ, The location of the center of gravity
CG does not change with the inclination of the ship.
 But since the centre of buoyancy CB moves to the new point, a couple of forces Ws = Fs is produced and this couple
restores the object position to stability.
 The forces of the couple Ws are called restoring forces. The intersecting point M on the vertical line passing through the
centre of buoyancy C’ (action line of the buoyancy F) and the centre line of the ship is called the metacentre, and GM is
called the metacentric height.
Bouyancy:
 When a body is either wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, a lift is generated due to
 the net vertical component of hydrostatic pressure forces experienced by the body.
 This lift is called the buoyant force and the phenomenon is called buoyancy
 The same principles used to compute hydrostatic forces on surfaces can be applied to the net pressure force
on a completely submerged or floating body.
 The results are the two laws of buoyancy discovered by Archimedes
1) A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical buoyant force equal to the weight of the
fluid it displaces.
2) A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which it floats.
Aarchimedes Principle
1) The buoyant force on a submerged body
 The Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force on a submerged body is equal to the weight of liquid
displaced by the body, and acts vertically upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
 Thus the net weight of the submerged body, (the net vertical downward force experienced by it) is reduced
from its actual weight by an amount that equals the buoyant force.

2) The buoyant force on a partially immersed body

 According to Archimedes principle, the buoyant force of a partially immersed body is equal to the
weight of the displaced liquid.
 Therefore the buoyant force depends upon the density of the fluid and the submerged volume of the body.
 For a floating body in static equilibrium and in the absence of any other external force, the buoyant
force must balance the weight of the body

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Fig. 2.20 Two different approaches to the buoyant force on an arbitrary immersed body: (a) forces on upper and
lower curved surfaces; (b) summation of elemental vertical-pressure forces.

Archimedes’ two laws are easily derived by referring to Fig. 2.20. In Fig. 2.20 a, the body lies between an upper
curved surface 1 and a lower curved surface 2. From Eq. (2.30) for vertical force, the body experiences a net upward
force


= (fluid weight above 2) - (fluid weight above 1)
= weight of fluid equivalent to body volume (2.25)

 Alternatively, from Fig b, we can sum the vertical forces on elemental vertical slices through the
immersed body:

(2.26)
 These are identical results and equivalent to Archimedes’ law 1.
 Equation (2.26) assumes that the fluid has uniform specific weight.
 The line of action of the buoyant force passes through the center of volume of the displaced body; that
is, its center of mass computed as if it had uniform density.
 This point through which FB acts is called the center of buoyancy, commonly labeled B or CB on a
drawing.
 Of course, the point B may or may not correspond to the actual center of mass of the body’s own
material, which may have variable density.

Fig. 2.21 Static equilibrium of a floating body.

Equation (2.34) can be generalized to a layered fluid (LF) by summing the weights of each layer of density ρi
displaced by the immersed body:

(2.27)
 Each displaced layer would have its own center of volume

 NOTE THAT፡ FB = (γ)(displaced volume) = floating-body weight

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 EXAMPLE 2.10
A block of concrete weighs 100 lbf in air and “weighs” only 60 lbf when immersed in fresh water (62.4 lbf/ft3).
What is the average specific weight of the block?

Solution

Fig. 2.22
A free-body diagram of the submerged block shows a balance between the apparent weight(buoyant force), and
the actual weight:
or
Solving gives the volume of the block as 40/62.4 = 0.641 ft3. Therefore the specific weight is

2.4 Fluid Masses in Rigid-Body Motions

Pressure Distribution in Rigid-Body Motion

 In rigid-body motion, all particles are in combined translation and rotation

 There is no relative motion between particles.
 With no relative motion, there are no strains or strain rates, so that the viscous term in Eq

vanishes, leaving a balance between pressure, gravity, and particle acceleration:

(2.28)
 The pressure gradient acts in the direction g - a, and lines of constant pressure (including the free surface,
if any) are perpendicular to this direction.
 Fluids can rarely move in rigid-body motion unless restrained by confining walls for a long time.

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  For example, suppose a tank of water is in a car that starts a constant acceleration.
 The water in the tank would begin to slosh about, and that sloshing

THE END

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