GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY

Arts, Education, & Law

School of Education and Professional Studies

POSITIVE BEHAVIOURAL SUPPORT

4204EDN

Study Guide
Module 2

FBA

Convenor: Dr Wendi Beamish

Phone: 07 3735 5636
Fax: 07 3735 5910
Email: w.beamish@griffith.edu.au
Contents

Module 2: FBA...................................................................................................................30

Introduction to the module ............................................................................... 30

Topic 1: Understanding casework and getting started.........................................33

Orientation to the FBA process ........................................................................ 34

Value of interviews .......................................................................................... 35

Topic 2: Background information............................................................................37

Data gathering considerations ......................................................................... 37

Topic 3: Measurement of behaviour........................................................................39

Description of the problem behaviour .............................................................. 39

Measuring the problem behaviour ................................................................... 41

Visual analysis of graphed data ....................................................................... 44

Topic 4: Function of the behaviour .........................................................................47

Communication analysis .................................................................................. 47

Ecological analysis .......................................................................................... 48

ABC analysis ................................................................................................... 49

Putting it all together ........................................................................................ 50

Hypothesis building and testing ....................................................................... 51

Topic 5: Intervention considerations ......................................................................59

Cost/benefit analysis of intervention ................................................................ 59

Ethical and policy considerations ..................................................................... 60

Module summary ..............................................................................................................61

Module 2 Evaluation ........................................................................................ 62

Module 2: FBA process
Introduction to the module
Education systems in many countries now subscribe a continuum of behavioural
support for students that emphasises a systems approach, preventative
perspectives, and specialised interventions. To view a video about the PBS
continuum in general, go to PBIS homepage http://pbis.org/default.aspx. For
students with or at risk for problem behaviour (i.e., secondary and tertiary
prevention levels in the continuum), a Functional Behavioural Assessment (FBA)
is undertaken in order to understand the problem behavior and guide the
selection of intervention strategies to directly address the problem behavior. In
this module, we examine in detail the functional behavioural assessment (FBA)
process and the literature supporting this type of assessment.

Crone and Horner (2003) have recommended three types of FBAs:

simple functional behavioural assessment, full functional behavioural
assessment, and functional analysis (see Figure 2.1).
 Build an accurate
Functional
understanding of when,
analysis how, and why problem
Specialised based on behaviour occurs and
individual  interviews
confirm understanding
intervention  direct
 Includes gathering
observations
 record review
background information,
 systematic
building an operational
experimental definition of problem
manipulations behaviour, completing
ecological and ABC
analyses, and building and
testing hypothesis re
function of problem
behaviour

 Build an accurate
Full
understanding of when,
functional how, and why problem
Specialised behavioural behaviour occurs
individual assessment  Includes gathering
intervention based on background information,
 interviews
building an operational
 direct
definition of problem
observations behaviour, completing
 record review
ecological and ABC
analyses, and building a
testable hypothesis re
function of problem
behaviour

 Build operational definition

Simple
of problem behaviour
functional
 Identify antecedents and
Specialised behavioural
consequences of problem
group assessment behaviour
interventions based on
 Generate a testable
 Interview with
teacher hypothesis re function of
problem behaviour

Figure 2.1. Continuum of effective function-based behavioural assessment

(adapted from Crone & Horner, 2003, p. 19).

30 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 This course requires you to complete the third (top tier) type of FBA, which
includes not only gathering background information about the student, defining
measuring, and analysing the problem behavior, but also building and testing of
hypothesis about the function of the behavior. Figure 2.2 presents an overview of
the FBA process employed in this course.

Phase 1 Functional Behavioural Assessment (FBA)

Background Information
 Nature & complexity of student’s special needs
 Family history & living arrangements
 Student competencies and priorities across the curriculum
 Student preferences
 Student behavioural history
Measurement of Behaviour
 Description of problem behaviour
 Measurement of key dimensions of behavior (baseline)
Function of the Behaviour
 Communication analysis
 Ecological analysis
 ABC analysis
 Hypothesis building & testing
Intervention Considerations
 Cost/benefit analysis
 Ethical & policy considerations
Figure 2.2. The FBA process.

Before proceeding with Topic 1 with its focus on getting started, it is important to
review some of the philosophical assumptions that underpin the positive
behavioural support process and FBAs. Anderson, Freeman, Mullen, and Scotti
(1999, p. 320) have identified 5 fundamental assumptions that are worthy of
consideration. These are:
 Behaviour is maintained by environmental consequences that reinforce it.
 Environmental variables serve as antecedents that set the occasion for the
behaviour to occur.
 A functional assessment that identifies environmental variables (e.g.,
antecedents, consequences) that are related to the problem behaviour should
be conducted prior to developing an intervention.
 The hypothesis generated from the functional assessment should be used to
guide the design of the intervention strategies.
 Intervention should focus not just on decreasing the problem behaviour but
on increasing an individual’s competency in active community participation.

By comparison, Pratt (2008, pp. 164-5) advises that we need to change our
perspective and be aware of six assumptions or beliefs about behaviour when we
are working with individuals with ASDs. These are:
 Behaviour is influenced by or governed by context.
This simply means that environments provide clues about expected
behaviours and set an individual up for behavioural challenges or successes.

31 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 It also means that students’ behaviour will improve or deteriorate in various
settings.
 Behaviour is functional, purposeful, and meaningful to the individual.
It may not hold meaning for us, but for the individual with ASD there may be a
sound reason for a given behaviour. Our challenge is to understand his or her
perspective.
 Behaviour is affected by internal events, including emotional states (e.g.,
anxiety, depression) and biological conditions (e.g., gastrointestinal
difficulties, seizures, ear infection). Students cannot perform at their very best
when they are not healthy. Likewise, many students on the autism spectrum
suffer from poor self-esteem, anxiety, and/or depression. These emotional
states also have a dramatic impact on behaviour, and hence, learning.
 Behaviour is influenced by factors outside the immediate environment,
including relationships, opportunities for engaging in various activities, and
lifestyle issues. Students on the autism spectrum who have a better over-all
quality of life are less prone to problematic behaviours (Carr, 2007).
 Behaviour will change as people mature and develop new competencies.
With various ages and grade levels, certain behavioural difficulties may occur
or disappear.
 Behavioural supports are guided by a strong value base. Our values about
behaviour and how we were raised will impact our response. Each of us
needs to engage in self-examination to determine how our values impact our
reactions. Are we more focused on quality-of-life issues and teaching the
person self-control, or are we more punitive in our approach and focused on
controlling the situation?
Keep both sets of assumptions in mind as you complete the assessment items
associated with this course. Also, don’t feel daunted by the complex assessment-
intervention process. Remember that the first time is the worst time!

What can you expect from this module?

When you complete this module and the associated assessment item 1, you
should have begun to:
 develop a conceptual framework related to undertaking an FBA for students
with special needs;
 understand the theoretical and practical bases for a number of practices,
principles, and procedures embedded within this process;
 display basic competence in completing an FBA.

What will you need to do?

As you work through this module you will need to:
 familiarise yourself with the FBA literature;
 learn about FBAs through practical application and the completion of
assessment item 1;
 tailor the FBA process to suit not only student need and classroom context
but also your own personal style and approach to teaching, learning, and
behavioural support.

How long should you spend on this module?

Suggested study time for this module = 4-5 weeks.

32 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

Topic 1: Understanding casework and getting started
According to Crimmins, Farrell, Smith, and Bailey (2007), an FBA is a problem
solving process that enables the team to understand a student’s problem
behavior:
 When, how, and why it persists;
 How to decrease the likelihood of its occurrence (prevent);
 Which alternative replacement behavior/s (teach) might better serve the
student in the future.
The FBA, therefore, provides critical data for plan development, implementation,
and evaluation.

This course requires you to a comprehensive

FBA in order to develop basic understanding
and competency at this level of intervention.
However, when identifying a student for
casework, it is not recommended that you
select a student with dangerous and/or
extreme behavioural difficulties. You need to
collaborate with a teacher and identify a
student with persistent difficulties. Common
problem behaviours in general education
classrooms are related to distractibility,
disruptiveness, not obeying instructions, and
worrying (Harrison, Vannest, Davis, &
Reynolds, 2012).

It is important to recap on the comprehensive FBA you are to conduct and report
on. In order to build an accurate understanding of when, how, and why the
problem behaviour occurs and confirm these understandings (with data), you
need to:
 gather background information
(about the student and the problem behaviour);
 measure the problem behaviour
(including operational definition and baseline data);
 complete ecological and ABC analyses
(plus communication analysis if relevant);
 build and test hypothesis regarding the function of problem behaviour.

In addition, you are asked to:

 complete a cost/benefit analyses of intervention and report any other
considerations related to intervention
(e.g., ethical or administrative).

However, because you will not be completing this all-embracing FBA with a
student who exhibits dangerous and/or extreme behaviour problems, it is
recommended that you “scale down” the intensity of your practical application in
order to “scale up” your understandings and competencies. Scott, Alter, and
McQuillan (2010) assert that “scaling down” to “scale up” is a necessary condition
for today’s teachers. They argue that “highly technical terminology and a poorly
defined process have turned a valuable technology [FBA] into more unnecessary

33 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 bureaucratic paperwork in its widespread implementation” (p. 87). Hence, they
contend that FBA practice needs to realistic, authentic, and teacher-friendly.

These descriptors align well with the criteria put forward by Meyer and Park
(1999, p. 41) for guiding PBS interventions and its related process. Criteria are:
 Interventions must be doable in context.
 Interventions must be doable with available resources.
 Interventions must be sustainable over time.
 Interventions must be constituency owned and operated.
 Interventions must be culturally inclusive.
 Interventions must be intuitively appealing – that is, be understandable to and
seen as sensible not only to staff who undertake the intervention but also by
wider school community.

So, Instead of generating “elegantly detailed assessments and plans” (Meyer,

2003, p. 33), you are encouraged to generate practical assessment and plans
that have a goodness of fit with the focus student, with your school, and with your
developing approach to collaborative behavioural intervention.

Orientation to the FBA process

The conduct of a FBA involves thoughtful and systematic “detective” work on the
part of you and your team. “You will need current and accurate data, and the
more sources you have, the more accurate the information is likely to be” (Kaiser
& Rasminsky, 2003, p. 199). Data gathering activities do not typically follow a
strict linear sequence, but are usually actioned concurrently across the four areas
of FBA focus:
1. Background Information,
2. Measurement of the problem behaviour,
3. Function of the problem behaviour,
4. Considerations for intervention.

In this module, the FBA process is examined in a part-by-part manner.

So, where to from here? There are many ways to gain an understanding of the
FBA process and its related practices.

One way is to selectively read about the FBA process in this module of the Study
Guide (before going back and systematically using the Study Guide to direct you
to relevant readings and on-line resources).
Another way is to read the introductory chapters in
your Riffel text.
Textbook
pp. 1-11 (Chapter 1, Overview of Functional
Behavior Assessment)
pp. 13-20 (Chapter 2, Function-based Support)

34 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 A third way to commence your
FBA inquiry is to sit back, go to
Learning@Griffith (under Course
Content, Module 2, Powerpoint
Presentations), and watch the
engaging powerpoint developed
by University of South Florida’s
Positive Behaviour Support
Project, Individual PBS Module 2:
Functional Behavior Assessment.

Value of interviews
Interviews and discussions, rating scales, document review, and direct
observation are the key procedures used to gather information across the FBA
process, with data being keenly and objectively analysed for meaning and
associations. It is important to remember that these “methods of analysis and
assessment should ask questions, not dictate answers” (Favell, 1999, p. xiv).

In most casework, interviews and discussions with staff (well-acquainted with the
student) and families are preliminary tools for data gathering in the school
context. Together with surveys and rating scales, they constitute what is termed
informant methods. Interviews (with discussion) are invaluable because they
allow data to be collected concurrently across more than one focus area or part
of the FBA process. Moreover, Brown, Anderson, and De Pry (2015) advise us
that school-age students should be involved in their own behavioural assessment
and analysis process. This emerging practice in PBS is already well established
in regard to IEPs (e.g., Heward & Orlansky, 1992; Mason, McGahee-Kovac, &
Johnson, 2004).

Some relevant interview tools are available at the course Learning@Griffith

website (under Resources) for your immediate inspection. Examples include:
- Preliminary Functional Assessment Survey from Umbreit et al. text.
- Student-Assisted Functional Assessment Interview from Umbreit et al. text.
- Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS).
- Functional Assessment Interview Tool (FAIT).

Perhaps before making a choice you should read the next chapter in your text.
Following that, options are up to you! However, please ensure that your FBA
casework and practice are practical, yet theory-based.

Textbook

Riffel (2011)

pp. 21-26 (Chapter 3, Indirect Methods for

Determining Function of Behavior).

Options are up to you! However, please ensure that your FBA casework and
practice are practical, yet theory-based.

35 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Resources (WWW)

Gable, Quinn, Rutherford, Howell, & Hoffman, 1998, pp. 15-18 & Appendix C
(Addressing student problem behavior – Part II: Conducting a functional
behavioral assessment). Available from the World Wide Web:
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED430363

Hieneman et al. (1999). Facilitator’s guide on positive behavioral support

(Developing hypotheses, pp. 37-50).
http://www.apbs.org/files/PBSwhole.pdf

IRIS Center module on FBA

Available from the World Wide Web:
http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/fba/chalcycle.htm

Positive Behavioural Interventions And Support Newsletter,

Volume 1, issue 3: FBA as a Collaborative Team Process
Volume 2, issue 1: PBS through Person-Centered Planning
Available from the World Wide Web:
http://pbis.org/pbis_newsletter/default.aspx

Additional reading in Texts

Consider only for theory in FBA report
Artesani, 2001, pp. 7-18 (3 Sections on What, Why, & When of FBA).
McConnell et al., 2001, pp. 3-10 (Chapter 2, Function of FBA).
McDougal, Chafouleas, & Waterman, 2006,
pp. 1-8 (Chapter 1, Intro to FBA),
pp. 169-175 (Chapter 11, Concluding Thoughts on FBA).
Scott, Anderson, & Alter, 2012,
pp. 14-28 (Chapter 2, Understanding Behavior),
pp. 29-42 (Chapter 3, Overview of a Functional Approach to Intervention).
Sigafoos et al., 2003, pp. 63-73 (Chapter 6, Functional Assessment).
Umbreit et al., 2007, (Chapter 1, A Functional Approach to Problem Behavior).
Watson & Steege, 2003,
pp. 1-15 (Chapter 1, Introduction to FBA),
pp. 16-23 (Chapter 2, Genesis of FBA),
pp. 34-50 (Chapter 4, Basic Principles of FBA).

36 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

Topic 2: Background information
This part of the process involves the collection of background information about
the student that provides a backdrop for analysing and interpreting data related to
the problem behaviour. This information should include:
 nature and complexity of the student’s special needs,
including health and medical status if relevant,
 family history and living arrangements,
 student competencies and priorities across the curriculum,
 student preferences (likes and dislikes, interests, learning style),
 student behavioural history.

Document review, together with interview and discussion, are the prime
procedures used to gather this student-focused information.

Data gathering considerations

A starting point for collecting this information should be the student’s school file
and records. Typically, a review of school documents will need to be augmented
with data gathered from relevant staff, family member/s, and the focus student
(e.g., interviews and discussions). Initially attempt to summarise only the most
pertinent information. As you gather data in other parts of the process, you may
wish to come back and delve more comprehensively into some aspects as the
FBA progresses and a hypothesis is built.

Moreover, do not collect copious information on aspects that you feel bear little
relevance to why the student exhibits the problem behaviour. For example, health
and medical status may not be important in many cases. However, as Gunsett,
Mulick, and Martin (1999) recommend, a small number students with more
significant disabilities should undergo medical screening and drug review prior to
behavioural intervention. Likewise, family history may only be pertinent in some
cases. Family and the home setting should be examined only when the student’s
teacher indicates that family and home circumstances warrant investigation.

Schools records such as report cards and individual plans (e.g., Individual
Education/Support Plans, Education Adjustment Profiles, Senior Education
and Training SET Plans) usually provide valuable information about student
competencies and priorities across the curriculum. Reports by therapists
(Occupational, Physio, and Speech & Language) and guidance officers may
also prove to be useful. Wherever possible, probe into both the student’s long
and short-term school history.

As positive reinforcement is a crucial component of this approach, the

importance of gathering quality information on student preferences ((likes and
dislikes, interests, learning style) cannot be overemphasized. Fortunately, a
strong body of literature and an assortment of data gathering tools support
these activities. For example, Kern, Dunlap, Clarke, and Childs (1994) supply
a Student-Assisted Functional Assessment Interview form for soliciting
information directly from students about their preferences at school and their
behaviour. Charlop-Christy and Haymes (1998) furnish data on using
obsessions as reinforcers for students with autism. Hughes, Pitkin, and Lorden
(1998) provide a useful review and analysis of the literature on assessing
preferences and choices.

37 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Wheeler and Richey (2010) recommend that reinforcement, wherever
possible, should be functional (not artificial) and, during intervention,
reinforcement should be built into the student’s daily routine. This is
important to remember when determining activities and reinforcers most
preferred by student.

Inquiry into the history of the problem behaviour should include treatment
history related specific behavioural, educational, psychiatric, or
psychological interventions where relevant. For example, it is important to
check to see if a previous behaviour support plan has been put in place
(what & when) or if behavioural incident records exist of the student (when
& why). Wherever possible, establish both the long and short-term history
of the problem behaviour at school (and home when relevant). Material in
the Behavior Assessment Guide (Willis, LaVigna, & Donnellan, 1993) may
be used as a guide for questions.

Finally, it is important to triangulate data wherever possible. While document

review is a valuable procedure for gathering background information about the
student, so too, is self reporting. Interacting with and/or interviewing the student
and important others (e.g., teachers, teacher aides, parents) often yields rich
data. However, it is important to differentiate between reporting that can actually
be substantiated and triangulated across people and circumstances (objective in
nature) and that which appears to be based on hearsay (more
subjective/emotional in nature).

Resources (Resource folder)

Reinforcement inventories available at the course Learning@Griffith website

Reinforcement Assessment for Individuals with Severe Disabilities (RAISD).
Reinforcement Inventory (Willis et al., 1993).
Reinforcement Inventory (LISS).
Forced-Choice Reinforcement Menu (CECP, for more competent students).

38 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

Topic 3: Measurement of behaviour
This part of the FBA process involves:
 describing the problem behaviour (operational definition);
 measuring the key dimension/s of the behaviour (e.g., frequency or duration);
 graphing and visually analysing the data.

These activities are sequential in nature and rely heavily on discussion, direct
observation, and analysis.

Description of the problem behaviour

Data collection at this point is aimed to identify, define, clarify, and measure the
important parameters of the problem behaviour prior to intervention. Baseline
establishes the “preintervention levels” of the behaviour (Bell, Clancy, & Gaddes,
2004, p. 103). If several behaviours are identified during the gathering of
background information, Bell and Carr (2004) advise the team to concentrate on
the behaviour or set of related behaviours that “cause the most concern” (p. 131).
Crimmins et al. (2007, p. 96) recommend that each behaviour should be checked
of according to impact statements in order to identify the focus behaviour/s. Table
2.1 presents an example illustrating this approach to identifying a focus problem
behaviour for an FBA.

Table 2.1. Defining and Prioritising Behaviour Form (Crimmins et al., 2007,
p. 96)

Student: Nathan Date:

Behaviour: Using behavioural terms, describe the behaviours of concern.

Provide actual or estimated frequency for a given unit of time). Frequency
1 Yelling at teacher and cursing—raises voice, makes
rude comments, and then mutters “course words” 4-6 times per day
2 Running out of the classroom 3 times per week
3 Hitting peers 2 times per month
Behaviour
Impact: For each of the behaviours (as numbered above),
check off the impact statements that apply. 1 2 3
Poses a physical or health risk to the individual X
Places others at risk for injury X
Causes property damage
Is a significant concern to student’s parents X X
Interferes with learning X X X
Interferes with participation in school X X X
Interferes with participation in community
Disrupts classroom or other school routines X X X
Precludes participation in less restrictive environment X X
Has recently escalated in frequency or intensity X
Is an antecedent to other behaviour problems X
Others:

39 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Conclusions: Based on this review of frequency and impact for each behaviour,
indicate priority of target behaviours. As needed, provide a brief rationale.
First priority behaviour: Yelling at teacher and cursing
This was identified as a top priority because of its high frequency, and the fact
that is frequently serves as a precursor to the other behaviours, Nathan tends to
run out of the class or begin hitting after an episode of cursing which has not
resulted in his being sent out of the classroom.
Second priority behaviours: Running and hitting
As noted above, these two behaviours tend to follow yelling and cursing, so
team plans to conduct a functional behaviour assessment and a behaviour
support plan regarding target behaviour 1; will monitor leaving classroom and
hitting.

Richey and Wheeler (2000) recommend that the team spends time reaching
“agreement as to what the target behaviour is and how it is operationally defined”
(p. 87). An operational definition is a necessary prerequisite for baseline
measurement (i.e., it provides parameters which enable the behaviour to be
described, observed, and measured with some consistency). When identifying
the target behaviour, Umbreit et al. (2007) advise that the definition (a) focuses
on actual behaviour rather than the outcome of the behaviour and (b) describes
an observable, measurable, and repeatable behaviour. These researchers also
recommend that the replacement behaviour (for the problem behaviour) be
identified at this stage.

Activities at this stage should provide:

 a description of the actual behaviour
(i.e., exactly what the person does when exhibiting the problem behaviour);
 measurements of the behaviour prior to intervention
(rate is often a useful measure);
 a picture of behaviours which may be linked; whether they occur together or
in a chain or cycle; if one behaviour is the keystone or pivotal behaviour;
 justification for the initiation of a formal behavioural intervention
 information to assist in the setting of realistic intervention goals;
 data that can be compared with subsequent intervention data to measure
behaviour change and intervention effectiveness.

Above all, care needs to be taken to ensure data are collected on relevant
dimensions of the problem behaviour. Dubos, cited by Sprague and Horner
(1999, p. 98), provides a timely reminder: “Sometimes the more measurable
drives out the most important.”

Dimensions of behaviour that warrant consideration are:

 topography
a description of the physical form of the behaviour including the precise motor
movements involved,
 frequency (f)
a measurement of how often a behaviour occurs,
 duration (d)
a measurement of the length of time the behaviour occurs,

40 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

  latency
a measurement of the length of time that lapses before the behaviour is
exhibited,
 intensity (i)
a measurement of the strength or magnitude of the behaviour.

A problem behaviour is often comprised of smaller behavioural components that

interconnect in some way. Some related key terms, defined by Evans and Meyer
(1985, p. 31), may assist with descriptions of behavioural components if present
in casework.

 cluster
Cluster refers to a number of separate responses that seem to typically occur
simultaneously or closely together in time, such as tapping with pencil,
rocking on chair, grabbing nearby material belonging to peer.
 sequence
Sequence refers to a succession of discrete responses in which it is likely that
the presence of one response becomes the cue (discriminative stimulus) for
the occurrence of the next. For example, leaning back on chair, standing up,
walking to door.
 keystone behavior
When describing the organisation among a number of responses in an
individual’s repertoire, the keystone behavior is the one on which all the
others appear to depend, rather like a pivotal or prerequisite skill.
 response class
Response class refers to a number of topographically different behaviours
that are under one common source of environmental control; usually because
they all fulfil the minimum criterion for a particular reinforcement. Pushing,
kicking, and spitting might all form a response class for aggression against
peers. If one member of the response class is reinforced, all members of the
class potentially increase in probability.

Measuring the problem behaviour

Two key strategies are recommended for collecting descriptive information about
the problem behaviour: informant method and direct observation (Miltenberger,
1998; O’Neill et al., 1997; Westling & Fox, 2004). Both strategies must be kept
practical and tailored to the nature of the behaviour and context.

The first strategy, informant method, involves gathering information from those
people (e.g., staff, parents) who have direct contact with and knowledge of the
individual and from the individual with the problem behaviour (where relevant).
Materials such as interviews and rating scales are available for this purpose. On-
line interview material for use with parents and staff and more competent
individuals with problem behaviour (Appendix C) have been developed by staff at
the Centre for Effective Collaboration and Practice (Gable, Quinn, Rutherford,
Howell, & Hoffman, 1998). These proforma are highly recommended as is the
functional assessment interview (FAI), the Functional Assessment Checklist for

41 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Teachers and Staff (FACTS), and the Functional Assessment Interview Tool
(FAIT). Parent/carer and student interview forms also may be valuable.

The second strategy involves systematically observing the individual with the
problem behaviour in typical daily routines (across environments where possible).
According to Umbreit et al. (2007), interviews are typically completed before
collecting these data.
A number of data collection procedures are discussed in your text. Remember to
choose procedures appropriate to the specific dimensions of behaviour
warranting examination.
Key procedures recommended for consideration when baselining problem
behaviours are:

anecdotal recording

qualitative information provided through more

informal observation and comment; descriptive
measure.

frequency or event recording

quantitative data (exact count of the number of times

the behaviour occurs) provided through formal
observation; precise measure.

interval and time sampling recording

quantitative data (occurrence of the behaviour

within, across, or at the end of a designated interval;
for example 15 seconds or 30 minutes) provided
through formal observation; approximate measure.

duration (and latency) recording

quantitative data (total time for which the behaviour

occurs) provided through formal observation;
precise measure.

scatter plot recording

quantitative data (patterns of occurrence and non-

occurrence of the behaviour across part or total day)
provided through formal and informal observation.

42 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Also, the guidelines developed by Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007), Foxx
(1982), and Schloss and Smith (1998) are worthy of attention when conducting
baseline. Guidelines are:
 Collect data over at least 5 observational sessions.
 Collect data in environments and under situations/conditions that are as
natural as possible.
 Continue collecting data if behaviour improves during baseline period
(downward trend in data path); don’t initiate intervention as it may not be
warranted.
 Ensure valid data through consideration to student reactivity, observer drift,
and interobserver reliability checks.

Take time now to reading more about describing and measuring the problem
behaviour.

Textbook

Riffel (2011)

pp. 27-38 (Chapter 4, Direct Methods for

data collection).

pp. 39-48 (Chapter 5, Observing and recording

behaviour).

Optional reading (Readings folder, Module 2)

Read if you need to consolidate your knowledge on data collection

Donnellan LaVigna, Negri-Shoultz, & Fassbender, 1988, pp. 62-70 (Chapter

detailing data recording methods).

Stephenson, 1997, pp. 71-80 (Australian article detailing data collection

methods).

Resources (Resource folder or WWW)

Gable, Quinn, Rutherford, Howell, & Hoffman, 1998, pp. 1-14 & Appendices A-D
(Addressing student problem behavior – Part II: Conducting a functional
behavioral assessment). Available from the World Wide Web:
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED430363

Hieneman et al. (1999). Facilitator’s guide on positive behavioral support

(Gathering information, pp. 21-36).
http://www.apbs.org/files/PBSwhole.pdf

Family Involvement in Functional Assessment

Family FBA forms and School FBA forms
http://fifa.fmhi.usf.edu/
University of Delaware Positive Behavior Support Project
http://wh1.oet.udel.edu/pbs/tier-3-forms-and-tools/

43 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Tools available at course Learning@Griffith website.
Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS).
Functional Assessment Interview Tool (FAIT).

Additional reading (Texts)

Consider only for theory in FBA report

Alberto & Troutman, 2009, pp. 169-209 (Chapter 6, Developing a hypothesis for
behavior change: Functional assessment & analysis).

Bentzen, 2009,
pp. 3-18 (Chapter 1 on Why observation is important),
pp. 55-90 (Chapter 3 on General guidelines for observing children),
pp. 93-100 (Chapter 4 on Methods, behaviour, plans, and context),
pp. 101-108 (Chapter 5 on Intro to observation & recording methods),
pp. 130-153 (Chapter 7 on Time sampling),
pp. 154-165 (Chapter 8 on Event sampling),
pp. 177-1871 (Chapter 10 on Anecdotal records),
pp. 188-1961 (Chapter 11 on Frequency counts or duration records),
pp. 230-246 (Chapter 13 on Interpretation of observations).

Glasberg, 2006,
pp. 49-64 (Chapter 4, Measuring behavior),
pp. 65-82 (Chapter 5, Finding out who knows what),
pp. 83-88 (Chapter 6, Observation time).

McDougal et al., 2006,

pp. 23-33 (Chapter 3, Problem identification),
pp. 49-68 (Chapter 5, Assessment, monitoring, & evaluation strategies).

Watson & Steege, 2003,

pp. 51-64 (Chapter 5, Observing and recording behavior),
pp. 65-95 (Chapter 6, Indirect FBA),
pp. 96-124 (Chapter 7, Direct Descriptive FBA).

Visual analysis of graphed data

Graphing and analysis of “measured” problem behaviour/s is now recommended
practice (Janney & Snell, 2008; Crone & Horner, 2003). The graphing-and-
analysis process provides a mechanism for (a) initially sharing baseline data with
team members and subsequently (b) deeming if the intervention was effective by
examining the difference or change in the targeted behavior from baseline to
intervention.

44 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 A 2-step process is recommended at baseline. First, a simple line graph should
be constructed using the collected time-series baseline data (i.e., gathered on
different dates prior to intervention). Basic concepts related to axes, legends, and
data paths are discussed in the Reading by Alberto and Troutman (2003) or
Alberto and Troutman (2009) if you are not familiar with these fundamentals.
Second, specific elements of analysis related to the graphed data are then used
to describe baseline performance. These elements are trend, variability, and
mean level.
 trend
 refers to the overall direction taken by the data path during a phase;
is the slope of the “best fit” line; the line of progress;
 is described in terms of direction - either decreasing (going
downwards; indicating a reduction (i.e., improvement) in the problem
behaviour, zero (running parallel to the X axis; indicating no
improvement), or increasing (going upwards; indicating escalation in
the problem behaviour);
 is also described in terms of degree - from gradual to steep according
to the angle;
 is determined by a) the freehand method, or b) the split-middle
method as per Figure 5.30 in Alberto and Troutman (2003) and Figure
12.7 in Schloss and Smith (1998). A minimum of 5 data points is
recommended for trend estimation.
 variability
 refers to the extent to which the measures of behaviour, under the
same conditions, vary from one another during a phase;
 is the degree to which data points are similar to, or on, the trend line;
 signals predictability and inconsistency of occurrence i.e., how stable.
 mean level
 is the average value of the behaviour during a phase;
 is drawn as a line running parallel to the X axis.

A sound and stable baseline is one that displays minimal variability and a trend
as close as possible to zero. If trend is decreasing during baseline, the problem
behaviour is decreasing without intervention and baseline should continue to be
taken until things become stable or the problem behaviour increases. Intervention
cannot be argued to be effective if baseline shows a continuing decreasing trend.

45 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Figure 2.3 displays time-series data for the baseline conducted for Ben, a student
who is featured throughout this module (see Table 2.2 Preliminary Hypothesis
Building and Table 2.6 Cost/Benefit Analysis). Visual analysis of the graphed
data reveals a slightly upward trend with some variability in the occurrence of
hitting in the classroom. The mean level of hitting from 4-12 August was 7.4
(8+6+7+8+8 divided by 5) and is often drawn on graph.

You may be interested in briefly reviewing the graphed baseline and intervention
data for Ben G. If so, go to Module 4).

Figure 2.3. Graphed baseline data for Ben G (4-12 August, 2008).

Graphing and visual analysis of data are not required for your FBA report as the
lecture in this area cannot be accommodated within the trimester timeline.
However, as a beginning teacher, you may be required to undertake this work.
You may therefore be interested in having a quick review of the two readings
below and saving them for future reference.

Optional reading (Readings folder, Module 2)

Hojnoski, Gischlar, & Missall, 2009b, pp. 15-30 (Article on Improving child
outcomes with data-based decision making: Graphing data)
Gischlar, Hojnoski, & Missall, 2009, pp. 2-18 (Article on Improving child outcomes
with data-based decision making: Interpreting and using data).

Recommended WWW reading

Applied Behaviour Analysis Modules (Course Content Folder)
#7: Data collection and visual representation and analysis of data
Overview and readings

46 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

Topic 4: Function of the behaviour
This part of the FBA process is concerned with the gathering and interpretation of
specific data about the behaviour and behaviour patterns in order to generate a
hypothesis that is tested and verified through systematic manipulations within the
environment. Cone (1997) sees activities as comprising three distinct parts: (a)
descriptive, (b) interpretive, and (c) verification.

In the literature, the terms functional assessment and functional analysis are
sometimes used interchangeably. Functional analysis of behaviour, in its purest
form, is the process of determining the relationship between an individual’s
behaviour and factors that may cause or maintain it by systematically altering
factors in an environment to see if behaviour changes in an expected way.

As Horner, O’Neill, and Flannery (1993, p. 190) point out, functional analysis is
but one part of the FBA process:
The term functional analysis typically has been reserved for procedures
that involve explicit manipulation of relevant variables and direct
observation of corresponding changes in behavior. Functional
assessment has been used to refer to the process of gathering a broader
range of information by more indirect procedures, such as interviews,
rating scales, and direct observations in natural settings. Functional
analysis may be one part in a comprehensive functional assessment
(Iwata, Vollmer, & Zarcone, 1990; Lennox & Miltenberger, 1989; Mace &
Shea, 1990).

This part of the FBA process involves:

 analysing behaviours used to communicate;
 analysing contextual factors in relation to the problem behaviour;
 analysing antecedents and consequences for the problem behaviour;
 writing an hypothesis regarding the function/s of this problem behaviour and
test suppositions;
 completing a cost/benefit analysis in relation to intervention;
 considering any ethical and policy related issues in relation to intervention.

These activities are sequential in nature and data are collected using interview
and discussion, direct observation, analysis, and systematic manipulation.

Communication analysis
Data about communication may very well have been collected while reviewing
student competencies during the background information phase. Regardless of
sequence in the process, it is critical to document as part of an FBA, how the
student typically:
 indicates needs/wants,
 expresses emotions.

This is an area that may need extended focus when assessing the behaviour of
the student with ASD or other significant disabilities related to speech and
language disorders or intellectual impairment. For these students, it may not be
clear from document review or discussions how the individual actually indicates
needs or wants and expresses emotions. Moreover, some students with special
needs who demonstrate good verbal skills may have difficulty expressing and

47 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 regulating their emotions. Material in the Behavior Assessment Guide (Willis,
LaVigna, & Donnellan, 1993) may be used as a guide for questions in this area.

Ecological analysis
All behaviour has a context and this step seeks to systematically identify and
analyse observable factors within the environment/s that appear to influence the
problem behaviour. The purpose of the ecological analysis is to identify the
ecological events or setting events (aspects of the person’s internal and external
environment) that do not happen just before or just after the person’s problem
behaviour but have an effect on whether the behaviour is performed. “Setting
events are typically seen as antecedent contextual variables that influence
behaviour” (Carter & Driscoll, 2007, p. 1).

Elements warranting investigation within this analysis include factors with a

biological, learner, physical environment, grouping and staffing, social, and
programmatic and instructional basis. Information relating to the individual’s
overall quality of life (e.g., relationships, contentment, choice and control,
access to preferred activities, participation at school, home, and in the
community) should be embedded within these factors.

Examples of elements to be investigated include:

 Student biological factors (internal setting events)
 general health and medical problems (e.g., seizure activity),
 medication,
 sleeping pattern and tiredness,
 thirst, hunger, and diet,
 hormones and menstrual pain,
 behaviours related to specific disabilities/learning difficulties.

 Learner factors (internal setting events)

 level of frustration (e.g., in communication),
 level of happiness and contentment
 expectations and motivation,
 sudden changes in the learner’s life,
 cognitive beliefs (e.g., those associated with mental illness).

 Physical environment factors (external setting events)

 the role of space, personal space, and crowding,
 noise, temperature, lighting, weather,
 the physical layout of rooms and buildings,
 adjustments for specific disabilities/learning difficulties.

 Grouping and staffing factors (external setting events)

 group composition,
 student/student and student/staff dynamics,
 student/staff ratios,
 staff competence and stability,

48 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

  staff supervision.
 Social factors (external setting events)
 expectations and attitudes of others in the environment,
 opportunities for interactions and relationships,
 quality of interactions and relationships,
 degree of inclusion,
 stress/tension/conflict.
 General programmatic factors (external setting events)
 level of stimulation,
 level of assistance,
 level of structure and predicability,
 density of reinforcement,
 level of choice/control,
 access to preferred activities.
 Factors relating to instructional activities (external setting events)
 functional and age-appropriate,
 elements of student choice,
 preference value of materials,
 level of difficulty,
 instructional methods.

When completing an ecological analysis for a student with special needs,

remember the student may be stressed and experiences difficulties processing
sensory information. Analyses concerning the influence of noise, large groups,
and the delivered curriculum on problem behaviour may yield valuable insights.
So too, do analyses of the quality of relationships (rapport) between the student
with problem behaviour and staff. In addition, Salend and Taylor (2002) draw
attention to the fact that cultural perspectives are frequently overlooked when
undertaking an FBA.

ABC analysis
The ABC analysis (LaVigna & Willis, 1995; Watson & Steege, 2003), as its name
suggests, is divided into two discrete areas:
 antecedent analysis,
 consequence analysis.

Antecedent analysis

The purpose of the antecedent analysis is to identify situations or events in the

external environment that set off (trigger) the problem behaviour. Both school and
home environments should be investigated from two perspectives - the
occurrence and non-occurrence (absence) of the behaviour. Analysis of
conditions associated with both high rates and low rates of problem behaviour
may be used directly in designing interventions (LaVigna & Willis, 1992; Tucker,
Sigafoos, & Bushell, 1998; Umbreit et al., 2007).

49 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Questions about the occurrence of the problem behaviour include:
 WHERE is the behaviour MORE likely to occur? (settings, situations, places)
 With WHOM is the behaviour MORE likely to occur? (people)
 WHEN is the behaviour MORE likely to occur? (time of day, week, month)
 WHAT activity, event, or interaction is MOST likely to produce the behaviour?
 WHAT occurs immediately before the occurrence of the behaviour?
 WHAT would be the one thing you could do that would most likely make the
problem behaviour occur?

Parallel questions about the non-occurrence of the problem behaviour include:

 WHERE is the behaviour LESS likely to occur? (settings, situations, places)
 With WHOM is the behaviour LESS likely to occur? (people)
 WHEN is the behaviour LESS likely to occur? (time of day, week, month)
 WHAT activity, event, or interaction is LEAST likely to produce the
behaviour?

Consequence analysis

The purpose of the consequence analysis is to identify events that

may or may not:
 maintain the behaviour (possible reinforcers),
 prevent or reduce the occurrence of a behaviour (possible punishers).

Therefore, when establishing what happens immediately after the occurrence of

the behaviour, gather data about people’s reactions to and immediately after the
episode? Remember, this analysis aims to uncover reactions that may
exacerbate or ameliorate the situation?
Questions that may assist with this analysis include:
 HOW is the problem behaviour managed? By WHOM?
 WHAT is the effect of the problem behaviour and management method on the
person controlling the situation?
 WHAT is the effect of the management method on the student?
 WHAT is the effect of the problem behaviour and management method on
others?
 WHAT is the effect of the episode on the environment?

Putting it all together

As previously stated, the primary purpose of this part of the FBA process is to
gather sufficient information to accurately determine the function of the problem
behaviour. For some students, the hypothesised function of his/her problem
behaviour is readily apparent following a simple functional assessment. For
others, however, understanding “why” a student uses a certain behaviour
unravels slowly as modes of communicate are examined, contextual factors are
considered, and antecedents and consequences are carefully analysed.

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 To save time and energy during this part of the process, keep focused on the
need to determine the function of the problem behaviour. As in background
information, do not collect a wealth of information on aspects that appear not to
be linked to why the student exhibits the problem behaviour. Moreover,
summarise and table critical data as you proceed through the steps of the
process (see Table 2.2 that follows). There is no one way to document these
data. Information in Table 2.2 relates to a thirteen-year-old boy with dual
diagnosis autism/intellectual impairment. The table illustrates how (a) information
can be organised, and (b) a hypothesis can be initially expressed.

Table 2.2. Analysis to Establish Preliminary Hypothesis

PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS FORM

Name: Ben G Date: March, 2008
Setting Antecedent/ Behaviour/ Consequence/
Events Trigger Action Result
HPE Repeated requests Hit peers Continued behaviours
working in pairs to participate in Falling to ground for total session
morning activity Crying Did not participate in
activities
Lunch break No particular trigger Pushed peer away Isolated from group
seated eating observed Hit another peer Sent to Responsible
lunch Thinking Room
Maths Teacher away Hit peer Ignored
change of staff Did not have to
afternoon complete worksheet
Ecological Factors
 Two working professional parents and older sister:
Demands are typically met at home;
Plays games on computer/iPad and watches TV.

 Does not clearly communicate wants/needs;

 History of aggression and tantrums at Primary school.

Preliminary Hypothesis
Data point to Ben using hitting to avoid tasks he does not wish to participate in and to
gain some sense of control at school. Behaviour appears to have an “escape
“function.

Hypothesis building and testing

Hypothesis building and testing follows analyses about the “when” and “how” of
the problem behaviour. In fact, hypothesis building often accompanies the
conduct of these analyses (i.e., hypothesis building is a concurrent activity).
Hypothesis testing is undertaken when a testable hypothesis is constructed and
formally stated. Hypothesis formulation, therefore, is the final step in the
functional assessment and analysis process and is considered to be a pivotal
step in intervention planning because “understanding the function of a target
behavior leads to the selection of appropriate intervention components and the
creation of interventions that are likely to be effective” (Umbreit et al., 2007, p.
92).

51 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Westling and Fox (2004) define hypotheses as "informed guesses about why the
student engages in the behavior. They are generated through an analysis of the
information generated from the functional assessment process and should be
developed about the antecedents that predict the behaviour and the
consequences that maintain the behavior" (p. 302).

Johnson, Baumgart, Helmstetter, and Curry (1996) provide more specific

guidelines for generating hypotheses about problem behaviour.
Hypotheses about problem behaviour should focus on three aspects:
1) the purpose of the behavior from the individual’s perspective (e.g.,
protest), 2) the context in which the behavior occurs (e.g., when asked to
change activities), and 3) what it is about the context that precipitates the
behavior (e.g., it is a favorite activity, it is a result of the commotion that
accompanies the transition, it is the result of a lack of understanding of
what is to occur next). Throughout the assessment phase, it is important
to begin formulating hypotheses that take all three aspects into
consideration. (p. 25)

Moreover, Evans and Meyer (1985) recommend the following concerning the
entire hypothesis building and testing process:
The most straightforward way to do a functional analysis is to use your
technical knowledge of behavior and your special knowledge of the
individual student to formulate an idea - a hypothesis - regarding the
factors that might be influencing the behavior of concern. You would then
try to observe any systematic relationship between variation in these
factors and variation in the student’s behavior. (p. 27)

Hypothesis statement
when X occurs, the student does Y, in order to achieve Z

This step in the FBA process, therefore, uses all information previously collected
to hypothesise relationships between the problem behaviour and other variables,
and seeks through additional procedures to confirm the variable/s that control the
problem behaviour. Analysis is clearly the focus at this stage. It is not surprising
to find that LaVigna and Willis (1995) have referred to this step as the analysis
of the meaning of behaviour.

Hypothesis building and testing is therefore a difficult step that must reflect
considerable variation according to behaviours, the nature of the impairment,
specific contextual influences, and consistency of data. Note that this step can
become very complex in the ASD area, as the behaviours of many of these
individuals do not follow the typical cause and effect pattern (Jordan & Powell,
1995; Hall, 2009). It is imperative, therefore, that you combine your knowledge of
the individual and the way ASD impacts on the individual’s life with behavioural
theory, realising that the least likely hypothesis may in fact be the accurate one.

A number of procedures have been recommended in the

literature and these have been incorporated into the
following sub-steps for consideration when completing
this crucial analysis. A tested hypothesis (or summary
statement) is the targeted outcome.

52 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 A number of procedures have been recommended in the literature and these
have been incorporated into the following sub-steps for consideration when
completing this crucial analysis. A tested hypothesis (or summary statement) is
the targeted outcome.
1. Organise information gathered in such a way that it can be analysed.
2. Form a preliminary hypothesis regarding:
 function of the problem behaviour,
 antecedents (setting events and triggers) that influence the occurrence of
the problem behaviour,
 consequences (reinforcers, payoffs, or events) that maintain the problem
behaviour,
 events or ecological factors that may be suppressing alternative, more
acceptable behaviour.
3. Consolidate this hypothesis:
For example by using,
 Functional Assessment Screening Tool
(Iwata & DeLoeon, 1996).
 Motivational Assessment Scale
(Durand, 1990; Durand & Crimmins, 1992).
 Problem Behavior Questionnaire
(Lewis, Scott, & Sugai, 1994 in Gable et al., 1998).
 Student-Assisted Functional Assessment Interview
(Kern, Dunlap, Clarke, & Childs, 1994).
 Functional Analysis Observation form
(O’Neill et al., 1990, 1997).
 Function Summary form
(Glasberg, 2006).
Note. Functional Analysis Observation form, Motivational Assessment Scale, and
Problem Behavior Questionnaire available at University of Delaware website.

4. Test hypothesis by conducting systematic environmental manipulations

using:
 antecedent and/or consequential strategies (Donnellan et al., 1984),
 the discrete trial approach (Sigafoos & Saggers, 1995).

5. Rework hypothesis if necessary.

Horner and colleagues (e.g., 1990, 1993, 1997, 2000) have advised that
generated hypotheses are primarily related to the two major functions:
 obtaining  escaping
 social attention,  demand/request,
 tangibles (desired item/activity),  activity,
 sensory feedback.  person.

Umbreit et al. (2007) employ this dichotomy (viz., access/obtain and escape)
within their tool, The Function Matrix. The matrix is aimed to determine function
by conceptually organising “the underlying concepts involved in determining the
relationships between antecedents, consequences, and a target behavior. It also
provides a structure for considering the six combinations resulting from the two
functions of behavior and the three categories of reinforcers. Finally, application
of the Functional Matrix ensures the possibility of multiple functions is fully
considered” (pp. 83-84).

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 Johnson, Baumgart, Helmstetter, and Curry (1996, pp. 25-26) provide a
complimentary schema for hypothesis building across six categories.
 emotional response
Problem behaviour may be in response to fear, anger, frustration, pain,
confusion, or excitement.
 self regulation
Problem behaviour may be exhibited in order to increase the level of arousal
because the environment is unstimulating.
 sensory reinforcement
Problem behaviour may produce input that is reinforcing.
 social or tangible reinforcement
Problem behaviour may elicit attention or obtain a desired object, activity, etc.
 self-entertainment or play
Problem behaviour may be exhibited as the individual knows no other way to
play when alone or with others.
 protest or avoidance of a situation
Problem behaviour may be exhibited in order to escape or avoid a situation.

A similar schema is provided by Ruef, Poston, and Humphrey (1999). However,

these developers embed five categories of function into a checklist in order to
facilitate hypothesis-building.

Table 2.3. Checklist for Developing Hypothesis (Ruef et al., 1999, p. 95)
Purpose Response
The purpose of the behaviour may be ATTENTION if
It occurs when you are not paying attention to the child (e.g., you are talking to NSO
someone else in the room, talking on the phone).
It occurs when you stop paying attention to the child. NSO
The purpose of the behaviour may be ESCAPE/AVOIDANCE if
It occurs when you ASK the child to do something (e.g., household chore, getting NSO
ready for school) that he/she doesn’t seem to like or want to do.
It stops after you stop “making demands”. NSO
The purpose of the behaviour may be GETTING SOMETHING if
It occurs when you take away a favourite toy, food, or activity. NSO
It stops soon after you give the child a toy, food, or activity that he/she seems to like, NSO
or has recently requested.
It occurs when the child can’t have a toy, food, or activity that he/she has requested. NSO
The purpose of the behaviour may be SELF REGULATION if
It tends to be performed over and over again, in a rhythmic or cyclical manner. NSO
It tends to happen when there is either a lot going on in the area or very little (e.g., NSO
noise, movement, people, activity).
The child can still do other things while performing the behaviour. NSO
The purpose of the behaviour may be PLAY if
It occurs over and over again in a rhythmic or cyclical manner. NSO
It would occur repeatedly when no one else is around. NSO
Seems to enjoy performing the behaviour (e.g., smiles, laughs). NSO
The child seems to be in his/her “own world” when performing the behaviour and NSO
he/she can’t do other things at the same time.
N - Never S - Sometimes O - Often

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 When completing hypothesis building and testing in relation to your casework:
 Remember that problem behaviour can serve multiple functions (Chandler &
Dahlquist, 2010; Horner, O’Neill, & Flannery, 1993; Umbreit et al., 2007).
 Use frameworks documented in the literature (e.g., Umbreit et al., 2007;
O’Neill et al., 1990, 1997; Johnson et al., 1996; Ruef et al., 1999) as guides
for hypothesis-building.
 Refer to the On-line Chapter (Horner et al., 2000) for suggestions regarding
the expression of hypotheses.

At this stage, pause for a moment to compare the hypothesis provided in Table
2.2 with the following statement provided by Knoster (2003, p. 330). Note the
difference in specificity.
When Joshua is presented with instructions of more than a few words
that are not paired with pictures/symbols, passive and/or independent
tasks that last for more than three minutes, and/or he did not get an
ample amount of sleep the night before (i.e., less than six hours), he
disrupts the class through verbal outbursts (e.g., making shrieking
sounds), destroying property (e.g., flipping desk at the workstation), or
leaving his work area and invading the physical space of the teaching
staff (e.g., sometimes grabbing the teacher’s arm when ignored) in order
to stop the task and/or activity (i.e., get a break).

As indicated previously, hypothesis testing or functional analysis is a critical

component that follows hypothesis building. Testing involves systematic
manipulation of conditions that confirm or not confirm the hypothesis. If
confirmation is not clearly demonstrated, data and hypothesis will need to be
reexamined. Glasberg (2006) explains hypothesis testing in the following way
and provides a tabular listing of antecedents and consequences for the most
common functional analysis conditions (see Table 2.4).
To conduct a functional analysis, you set up specific environmental
conditions, as with the antecedent manipulation strategy. Then, when a
behavior occurs, instead of responding in your typical manner, you
deliberately attempt to reinforce the problem behavior. In other words,
when the problem behavior occurs, you give the child what you think she
wants, reversing the antecedent conditions. (Glasberg, 2006, p. 99)

Table 2.4. Antecedents and Consequences for Common Functional

Analysis Conditions (Glasberg, 2006, p. 100)
Antecedent Condition Consequence for Problem Behaviour

Low attention Provide attention

Restricted access to preferred objects Provide access to objects and/or

and/or activities activities

High level of demands Allow escape from demands

Repp (1999) advises that these important manipulations must be as natural as

possible and should be conducted within the everyday context. O’Neill et al.
(1990, p. 55) provide some additional guidelines. These are:
 conduct manipulations only when situations can be readily controlled;
 determine the level of potential risk involved for students and staff;
 obtain appropriate approval for systematic manipulation procedures;
 employ protective procedures/equipment as necessary for safety;

55 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

  consider assessment of “precursor” behavior as alternative strategy;
 use manipulations to evaluate ideas or hypotheses about the situation that
are related to difficult behaviours and the functions those behaviours serve.

Moreover, LaRue et al. (2010) recommend using a trial-based method for

carrying out these manipulations, which involves the student engaging in
hypothesis testing conditions for only 1-2 minute sessions. This method has
proven to be as effective as the traditional functional analysis method, does
require the repeated reinforcement of the problem behaviour, reduces the safety
risks for all involved, and results are obtained in much less time.

Consistent functions
Glasberg (2006) provides a useful form (see Table 2.5) for determining whether
the function/s of the problem behaviour is consistent or inconsistent across tools
and/or settings. If the function is found to be inconsistent across tools, but
consistent within each setting, the problem behaviour probably serves a different
function in each setting. If the function is found to be inconsistent across tools,
and inconsistent across settings, the problem behaviour probably serves multiple
functions in each setting.

Table 2.5. Function Summary Form (Glasberg, 2006, pp. 109-110)

Function of Behaviour Summary Form
Definition of behaviour:
________________________________________________________________________
Did you suspect any particular function/s before completing the assessment? If yes, please list:
1. ________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
After reviewing the interview data, what are the most likely function/s?
1. ________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
Based on unstructured observation, what are the most likely function/s?
1. ________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
Based on structured observation, what are the most likely function/s?
1. ________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
Based on hypothesis testing, what are the most likely function/s?
1. ________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
Any consistent predominant function/s?
1. ________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________

56 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Textbook

Riffel (2011)

pp. 59-75 (Chapter 7, Data don’t lie; using data to

determine and test hypothesis).
also in Readings
pp. 77-87 (Chapter 8, Analysis of the data).

Core reading (Readings folder, Module 2)

Brown, 1996, pp. 19-20 (Article on Variables to consider in the assessment of

problem behaviours).

Iovannone et al., 2017, pp. 105-112 (Article on Understanding setting events:

What they are and how to identify them.

Umbreit et al., 2007, pp. 77-92 (Chapter on Determining the function of the
behavior: using the function matrix).

Glasberg, 2006, pp. 99-106 (Chapter on Testing your hypothesis).

Hirsh et al., 2017, pp. 369-379 (Article on FBAs and BIPs: Avoiding and
addressing four common challenges related to fidelity).

Optional reading (Readings folder, Module 2)

LaVigna & Willis, 1997, pp. 1, 4-18 (Article on Antecedent analysis).

Durand, 1990, pp. 41-56. (Chapter on Motivational Assessment Scale).

Foster-Johnson & Dunlap, 1993, pp. 44-50 (Article on Using functional

assessment to develop effective, individualized interventions for
challenging behaviors).

Horner, Albin, Sprague, & Todd, 2000, pp. 207-228 only (Chapter 6, Positive
Behavior Support).

Larson & Maag, 1998, pp. 338-349 (Article on Hypothesis development and
testing).

Lohrmann-O’Rourke, Knoster, & Llewellyn, 1999, pp. 35-42 (Article on Guidelines

for conducting socially valid systematic preference assessments).

O’Neill, Horner, Albin, Storey, & Sprague, 1990, pp. 36-46 (Chapter about
Functional Analysis Observation form).

Recommended WWW

Gable, Quinn, Rutherford, Howell, & Hoffman, 1998, pp. 15-18 & Appendix C
(Addressing student problem behavior – Part II: Conducting a functional
behavioral assessment). Available from the World Wide Web:
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED430363

57 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Hieneman et al. (1999). Facilitator’s guide on positive behavioral support
(Developing hypotheses, pp. 37-50).
http://www.apbs.org/files/PBSwhole.pdf

University of Delaware Positive Behavior Support Project

http://wh1.oet.udel.edu/pbs/tier-3-forms-and-tools/
Tools available at course Learning@Griffith website.
Functional Analysis Screening Tool (FAST).
Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS).
Functional Assessment Interview Tool (FAIT).
Family & teacher FBA forms (FIFA).

Additional reading (Texts)

Consider only for theory in FBA report
Glasberg, 2006,
pp. 83-88 (Chapter 7, Hypothesis testing)
pp. 107-110 (Chapter 8, A summary of assessment process).
Hieneman et al., 2006, pp. 31-45 (Chapter 4 on Gathering & analyzing
information).
Janzen, 2003,
p. 82 (Form 5.3, Checklist for assessing environmental demands),
p. 100 (Form 5.9, Assessment of daily life activities: Informant Interview).
pp. 452-454 (Form 24.1, FBA: Problem Review Worksheet),
p. 458 (Form 24.4, FA Summary).
Umbreit et al., 2007,
pp. 15-26 (Chapter 2, Identifying the problem),
pp. 27-55 (Chapter 3, FBA: Interviews),
pp. 57-75 (Chapter 4, FBA: Direct Observation),
pp. 77-92 (Chapter 5, Determining the function of the behavior: Using the
Function Matrix in Core readings).
Watson & Steege, 2003,
pp. 125-142 (Chapter 8, Supporting documentation),
pp. 143-172 (Chapter 9, Putting it together: Linking assessment-intervention),
pp. 173-182 (Chapter 10, Extraenvironmental variables)
pp. 183-228 (Chapter 11, Training school personnel to implement FBA),
pp. 229-236 (Chapter 12, Frequently asked questions about FBA).

58 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

Topic 5: Intervention considerations
This part of the FBA process is concerned with:

 completing a cost/benefit analysis of intervention;

 considering ethical and policy/administration issues that may influence the
intervention.
Analysis is the prime procedure used to undertake this final part of the process.

Cost/benefit analysis of intervention

A cost/benefit analysis should be completed at this stage to clarify if intervention
should proceed in relation to the problem behaviour. This type of analysis is
integral to the outcome-based evaluation model and focuses on issues
associated with equity and efficiency (Schalock, 1995).

Such a cost/benefit analysis is achieved by identifying the benefits (pros) and

costs (cons) for intervening in relation to a structured perspective, estimating the
expected impacts (benefits and costs) in relation to these perspectives, and
making a decision to proceed or not proceed based on the interpretation of data.
The analysis should be completed in relation to three perspectives:

 the student,
 the school (other students and staff),
 the family.

Current recommended practice would indicate that intervention planning and

implementation should only take place if there are substantial benefits for the
student. Horner et al. (1990) has strongly argued the case.
...any behavioral intervention must be justified in balance with the benefit
anticipated for the person with disabilities (Irvin & Singer, 1984). Any
intervention, no matter how benign, intrudes into a person’s life to some
degree. The level of intrusiveness should be in proportion to the
magnitude of the anticipated gain. (pp. 128-129)

If these benefits cannot be substantiated, or if the costs are seen to be too great
at this point in time, informal plans should be put into place to minimise the
effects of the problem behaviour on the child, his/her learning, and others in the
environment (Evans & Meyer, 1985). In addition, the problem behaviour should
be monitored on a regular basis.

You are required to complete a cost/benefit analysis within assignment 1 for this
course. Table 2.6 relates to the previous example of practice detailed in Table
2.6 concerning an adolescent who hits peers in order to avoid participating in
some school activities. The example may further clarify notions concerning this
type of analysis.

59 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 Table 2.6. Cost/Benefit Analysis of Intervention

COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS
Name: Ben G Date: April, 2008

Benefits
Ben School
To learn more socially acceptable ways to To focus on teaching class rather than
express objection reacting to Ben’s behaviour
To increase learning opportunities at To not have peers disturbed by Ben’s
school and in the community behaviour
To obtain positive rather than negative
attention from significant others
To increase interaction with and
acceptance by peers and teachers
To avoid potential confrontational
situations in later life
Costs
Ben School
To experience increased frustration when To invest time and energy in a school-wide
problem behaviours cease to work at PBS process (will involve time taken from
school and at home other students
To develop potential replacement
behaviours that also are not socially
acceptable

Ethical and policy considerations

While ethics is certainly involved within the context of completing the above
cost/benefit analysis, additional issues should be addressed before proceeding to
the next phase. These can be approached from the political, legal, professional,
and research points of view.

The most common guidelines found in the literature include:

 gaining consent to intervene from the student (where possible) and the family
or caregivers;
 planning the intervention within the context of the student’s IEP/ISP and with
input from core team members, including parents;
 selecting intervention strategies that respect the dignity and worth of the
individual, have social validity, and satisfy legal and administrative
requirements;
 ensuring that individuals administering the intervention are trained and
comfortable with the procedures;
 adhering to administrative and professional obligations relating to
documentation, implementation, monitoring, and review.

Many of these aspects have been identified previously in Module 1 and

highlighted again at the beginning of Chapter 1 in your text.

60 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

Module summary
This module has provided a comprehensive overview of FBA process for
behavioural intervention. Time, effort, and collaboration are clearly required if
tasks identified as integral to this process are to be effectively and efficiently
completed by the busy practitioner. We will now recapitulate the major points.

 The FBA process involves:

 gathering background information
(about the student and the problem behaviour);
 measuring the problem behaviour
(including operational definition and baseline data);
 completing ecological and ABC analyses
(plus communication analysis if relevant);
 building and testing hypothesis regarding the function of problem
behaviour.
 completing a cost/benefit analyses of intervention and report any other
considerations related to intervention (e.g., ethical or administrative).
 An FBA is a conducted so that a targeted intervention plan be developed
which not only reduces the problem behaviour but also builds meaningful
replacement and adaptive behaviours.

 Interviews and discussions, rating scales, document review, and direct

observation are the key procedures used to gather information across the
FBA process.

To consolidate key understandings in this module, please view and download:

 Practical Functional Behavioral Assessment Training Manual for School-

Based Personnel (Loman & Borgmeier, 2010)
powerpoint and manual
http://pbis.org/pbis_resource_detail_page.aspx?PBIS_ResourceID=887

 IRIS Center module on FBA

http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/fba/chalcycle.htm

61 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University

 4204EDN, Positive Behavioural Support
Module 2 Evaluation
1. What were the most useful concepts and readings associated with this module?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

2. What aspects and readings were least useful in this module?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

3. What improvements would you suggest to this module?

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

4. Please recommend material from the World Wide Web that you feel should
be included in this module.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

5. Please feel free to make any other comment about this module.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Thankyou
Please return to: Dr Wendi Beamish
School of Education and Professional Studies
Mt Gravatt campus Griffith University
176 Messines Ridge Road MT GRAVATT QLD 4122

62 4204EDN Module 2 Griffith University