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Journey to the world

of elementary
particles

Palash B. Pal
Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics
Calcutta
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The concept of elementary constituents

There are two ways in which the concept of elementarity is used.

1. The elementary objects mix in varying proportions to produce compound

objects.

• Example 1: Primary colors red, green, blue mix to produce sensation of

other colors.
• Example 2: Early theories of elementary constituents of matter
adopted this viewpoint: Fire, Water, Air, Earth were the fundamental
constituents.

2. The elementary objects bind with one another to produce compound objects.
• Note: This is the modern viewpoint. It originated with the atomic theory
of Democritus and others.
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The concept of elementary constituents

There are two ways in which the concept of elementarity is used.

1. The elementary objects mix in varying proportions to produce compound

objects.

• Example 1: Primary colors red, green, blue mix to produce sensation of

other colors.
• Example 2: Early theories of elementary constituents of matter
adopted this viewpoint: Fire, Water, Air, Earth were the fundamental
constituents.
2. The elementary objects bind with one another to produce compound objects.
• Note: This is the modern viewpoint. It originated with the atomic theory
of Democritus and others.
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Atoms and ions

Atoms were established through the study of chemisty in the 18th and 19th
centuries. They were thought to be indivisible. Hence the name.

We now know that atoms are bound states of electrons (negatively charged) and
a nucleus (positively charged).

Binding energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV.

So, if you can put a hydrogen atom in a potential difference larger than 13.6 eV,
you can free the electron from the atom and form hydrogen ion.

For other elements, the amount of the energy needed is different.

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Atoms and ions

Atoms were established through the study of chemisty in the 18th and 19th
centuries. They were thought to be indivisible. Hence the name.

We now know that atoms are bound states of electrons (negatively charged) and
a nucleus (positively charged).

Binding energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV.

So, if you can put a hydrogen atom in a potential difference larger than 13.6 eV,
you can free the electron from the atom and form hydrogen ion.

For other elements, the amount of the energy needed is different.

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Atoms and ions

Atoms were established through the study of chemisty in the 18th and 19th
centuries. They were thought to be indivisible. Hence the name.

We now know that atoms are bound states of electrons (negatively charged) and
a nucleus (positively charged).

Binding energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV.

So, if you can put a hydrogen atom in a potential difference larger than 13.6 eV,
you can free the electron from the atom and form hydrogen ion.

For other elements, the amount of the energy needed is different.

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Discovery of the electron

Take a solution. Put two electrodes in it. Apply an

EMF.

If the EMF is high enough, it will strip the atoms of

their electrons. The electrons will move towards the
positive electrode.

The nature of the particles moving towards the

electrodes was not known until the end of the 19th
century.

Thomson (1897) made a hole through the electrode and measured the q/m ratio
of particles coming out. Result: the ratio was much larger than that of any ion.

He argued that these are particles of very small mass, carrying electric charge,
and called them electrons.
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Discovery of the electron

Take a solution. Put two electrodes in it. Apply an

EMF.

If the EMF is high enough, it will strip the atoms of

their electrons. The electrons will move towards the
positive electrode.

The nature of the particles moving towards the

electrodes was not known until the end of the 19th
century.

Thomson (1897) made a hole through the electrode and measured the q/m ratio
of particles coming out. Result: the ratio was much larger than that of any ion.

He argued that these are particles of very small mass, carrying electric charge,
and called them electrons.
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Discovery of the nucleus

Radioactivity was discovered around 1900. The typical energies of alpha

particles coming out in a radioactive decay was found to be of the order of MeV.
MeV = Mega (106) electron-volt

Rutherford and his associates bombarded atoms with alpha particles with MeV
scale energies.

They “saw” the nucleus. The size of the nucleus is of order 10−13 cm, down by a
factor of 105 compared to the atom.
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The uncertainty principle

If we shine an object with some kind of waves and want to see substructures
smaller than a length ℓ, the wavelength of the wave must satisfy the relation
λ . ℓ.
de-Broglie relation between the wave and particle natures:
2π~
p= ,
λ
where p is the momentum of the particles that correspond to the waves. Then,
~
p& .
ℓ
Moral: In order to know about smaller and smaller structures, we need to use
more and more energetic probes.
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The uncertainty principle

If we shine an object with some kind of waves and want to see substructures
smaller than a length ℓ, the wavelength of the wave must satisfy the relation
λ . ℓ.
de-Broglie relation between the wave and particle natures:
2π~
p= ,
λ
where p is the momentum of the particles that correspond to the waves. Then,
~
p& .
ℓ
Moral: In order to know about smaller and smaller structures, we need to use
more and more energetic probes.
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Another look

Suppose we have some objects whose lengths are of order ℓ, and we want to
know whether they are made up of some building blocks.

The building blocks are somehow confined within a distance of order of ℓ. So,
∆x . ℓ .

Heisenberg uncertainty relation:

1
∆x · ∆p & ~ .
2
So
~
∆p & , .
ℓ
The momentum itself must be greater than its uncertainty. So,
~
p & ,.
ℓ
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Smaller the object, bigger the momentum of its constituents. Kinetic energy is
accordingly bigger.

The particles must also possess an overall attractive potential energy. In order
that the composite system is bound, the total energy must be negative, i.e.,
|Epotential| > Ekinetic .
Virial theorem: The two magnitudes do not differ by huge factors. Hence,
|Etotal| = |Ekin + Epot| = |Epot| − Ekin ∼ Ekin .

We need to supply the energy |Etotal| to make the constituents free. This energy
increases as ℓ decreases.

Moral, once again: To see more and more elementary particles, one needs
higher and higher energies.

The basic problem for elementary particle physics: How to achieve high
energies?
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Smaller the object, bigger the momentum of its constituents. Kinetic energy is
accordingly bigger.

The particles must also possess an overall attractive potential energy. In order
that the composite system is bound, the total energy must be negative, i.e.,
|Epotential| > Ekinetic .
Virial theorem: The two magnitudes do not differ by huge factors. Hence,
|Etotal| = |Ekin + Epot| = |Epot| − Ekin ∼ Ekin .

We need to supply the energy |Etotal| to make the constituents free. This energy
increases as ℓ decreases.

Moral, once again: To see more and more elementary particles, one needs
higher and higher energies.

The basic problem for elementary particle physics: How to achieve high
energies?
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Smaller the object, bigger the momentum of its constituents. Kinetic energy is
accordingly bigger.

The particles must also possess an overall attractive potential energy. In order
that the composite system is bound, the total energy must be negative, i.e.,
|Epotential| > Ekinetic .
Virial theorem: The two magnitudes do not differ by huge factors. Hence,
|Etotal| = |Ekin + Epot| = |Epot| − Ekin ∼ Ekin .

We need to supply the energy |Etotal| to make the constituents free. This energy
increases as ℓ decreases.

Moral, once again: To see more and more elementary particles, one needs
higher and higher energies.

The basic problem for elementary particle physics: How to achieve high
energies?
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Smaller the object, bigger the momentum of its constituents. Kinetic energy is
accordingly bigger.

The particles must also possess an overall attractive potential energy. In order
that the composite system is bound, the total energy must be negative, i.e.,
|Epotential| > Ekinetic .
Virial theorem: The two magnitudes do not differ by huge factors. Hence,
|Etotal| = |Ekin + Epot| = |Epot| − Ekin ∼ Ekin .

We need to supply the energy |Etotal| to make the constituents free. This energy
increases as ℓ decreases.

Moral, once again: To see more and more elementary particles, one needs
higher and higher energies.

The basic problem for elementary particle physics: How to achieve high
energies?
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Smaller the object, bigger the momentum of its constituents. Kinetic energy is
accordingly bigger.

The particles must also possess an overall attractive potential energy. In order
that the composite system is bound, the total energy must be negative, i.e.,
|Epotential| > Ekinetic .
Virial theorem: The two magnitudes do not differ by huge factors. Hence,
|Etotal| = |Ekin + Epot| = |Epot| − Ekin ∼ Ekin .

We need to supply the energy |Etotal| to make the constituents free. This energy
increases as ℓ decreases.

Moral, once again: To see more and more elementary particles, one needs
higher and higher energies.

The basic problem for elementary particle physics: How to achieve high
energies?
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Big batteries

Can we use bigger sources of static electricity?

Examples: Cockcroft-Walton generator, van de Graaf generator.

Basic idea:

Particle in Region with Particle out

Energy E potential difference V Energy E + qV

Problem: It is difficult to maintain huge voltages. Even the best insulators

break down beyond the megavolt range, sparks and breakdowns occur.
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Big batteries

Can we use bigger sources of static electricity?

Examples: Cockcroft-Walton generator, van de Graaf generator.

Basic idea:

Particle in Region with Particle out

Energy E potential difference V Energy E + qV

Problem: It is difficult to maintain huge voltages. Even the best insulators

break down beyond the megavolt range, sparks and breakdowns occur.
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Cosmic rays

What are cosmic rays?

In the beginning of twentieth century, it was observed that various detectors for
charged particles, like the gold-leaf electroscope, give a small but non-vanishing
signal even when it is not put near any known source of charged particles.

The flux was seen to increase in balloon-borne experiments.

Conclusion: The signals came from processes taking place outside the earth:
cosmic rays. In various astronomical environments, processes involving very
high energies take place and produce particles. These particles, on hitting our
atmosphere, produces secondary particles.

Opportunity: Free supply of high energy particles. Use it.

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Detecting cosmic rays

One just needs detectors. Various kinds of detectors were developed in the first
half of the twentieth century.

Cloud chamber A chamber of supersaturated vapor of water or alcohol. The

vapor cannot condense into liquid because there is nothing like a dust
particle that will provide a seed for condensation. If a charged particle
passes through it, it ionizes the atoms along the path, and these ions can
act as seeds. Condensation of the vapor occurs along the path, and the
path has a foggy appearance. This can be photographed and the paths
analyzed later.
bubble chamber Roughly the same, except a superheated liquid is used.
scintillation counter Produces light when hit by a particle.
photographic emulsions Photographic plates darken with high energy
particle impact.
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Achievements

Lots of new particles were discovered through cosmic ray studies. Examples:

♣ Positron: antiparticle of the electron. Same mass, opposite charge.

♣ Muon: Properties similar to those of the electron, but is much heavier.

♣ Pion: Particle conjectured by Yukawa to explain strong interaction

between neutrons and protons which bind the nucleus together.
♣ Kaon: Particles carrying a new property called strangeness.

Limitations

No control over energies and fluxes of the particles.

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Elementary vs subatomic

Pions, muons etc are not constituents of the atom. So these are not subatomic.

Two definitions of elementary particles:

1. Elementary particles are constituents of larger conglomerates.

2. Elementary particles do not have any constituents.

Important: Only the second property is necessary.

The first property is not satisfied if:

1. the particle is unstable (e.g., pions, muons);

2. the particle cannot bind (e.g., photons, neutrinos).
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Elementary vs subatomic

Pions, muons etc are not constituents of the atom. So these are not subatomic.

Two definitions of elementary particles:

1. Elementary particles are constituents of larger conglomerates.

2. Elementary particles do not have any constituents.

Important: Only the second property is necessary.

The first property is not satisfied if:

1. the particle is unstable (e.g., pions, muons);

2. the particle cannot bind (e.g., photons, neutrinos).
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Elementary vs subatomic

Pions, muons etc are not constituents of the atom. So these are not subatomic.

Two definitions of elementary particles:

1. Elementary particles are constituents of larger conglomerates.

2. Elementary particles do not have any constituents.

Important: Only the second property is necessary.

The first property is not satisfied if:

1. the particle is unstable (e.g., pions, muons);

2. the particle cannot bind (e.g., photons, neutrinos).
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Accelerating particles

Question: Can we build machines where we can accelerate particles and study
their behavior at high energies?

Technique: Acceleration not by one big kick, but rather by many small kicks.

How far can we go up in this dictionary:

Greek Latin English symbol

103 kilo mille thousand keV
106 mega million MeV
109 giga billio billion GeV
1012 tera trillion TeV
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Accelerating particles

Question: Can we build machines where we can accelerate particles and study
their behavior at high energies?

Technique: Acceleration not by one big kick, but rather by many small kicks.

How far can we go up in this dictionary:

Greek Latin English symbol

103 kilo mille thousand keV
106 mega million MeV
109 giga billio billion GeV
1012 tera trillion TeV
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Accelerating particles

Question: Can we build machines where we can accelerate particles and study
their behavior at high energies?

Technique: Acceleration not by one big kick, but rather by many small kicks.

How far can we go up in this dictionary:

Greek Latin English symbol

103 kilo mille thousand keV
106 mega million MeV
109 giga billio billion GeV
1012 tera trillion TeV
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Cyclotron

Magnetic field perpendicular to the

plane of drawing.

Circular path in magnetic field:

mv 2 πR πm
= |q|vB ⇒ = .
R v |q| B

An alternating electric field between

the two D’s.

Every time the particle goes from one

D to the other, it gets a kick.

Radius of the path keeps on increasing.

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Cyclotron

Magnetic field perpendicular to the

plane of drawing.

Circular path in magnetic field:

mv 2 πR πm
= |q|vB ⇒ = .
R v |q| B

An alternating electric field between

the two D’s.

Every time the particle goes from one

D to the other, it gets a kick.

Radius of the path keeps on increasing.

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Cyclotron

Magnetic field perpendicular to the

plane of drawing.

Circular path in magnetic field:

mv 2 πR πm
= |q|vB ⇒ = .
R v |q| B

An alternating electric field between

the two D’s.

Every time the particle goes from one

D to the other, it gets a kick.

Radius of the path keeps on increasing.

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Linear accelerators

Alternating cylinders of opposite potentials.

A charged particle is subject to an electric force when it crosses over from one
cylinder to the next.

Alternating current source ensures that the direction of the electric field is such
that it accelerates the particle.
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Synchrotron

Working principle: opposite to that of cyclotron.

Type of machine Magnetic field Radius of path

Cyclotron constant increases with energy

Synchrotron increases with energy constant

Advantages of the synchrotron over the cyclotron:

1. A single tube at the circumference of a circle determines the path.

Construction of the ‘D’ for the full circle is not needed.
2. Maintaing a constant magnetic field over a large region is difficult.
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Synchrotron

Working principle: opposite to that of cyclotron.

Type of machine Magnetic field Radius of path

Cyclotron constant increases with energy

Synchrotron increases with energy constant

Advantages of the synchrotron over the cyclotron:

1. A single tube at the circumference of a circle determines the path.

Construction of the ‘D’ for the full circle is not needed.
2. Maintaing a constant magnetic field over a large region is difficult.
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Discoveries of the 1950s and 1960s

Particles could be accelerated to several GeVs.

1. Many many hadronic states.

(Hadrons are particles which have strong interactions.)
2. Antiparticles of several of them, e.g., antiproton.
3. Substructure of the proton in a Rutherford-type experiment.
Constituents of the proton came to be known as quarks.
4. All other hadrons can be thought of as made of quarks.
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Problem with synchrotrons

A particle moving in a circular path is always accelerating. Hence,

Problem 1 Some force has to be applied all the time to keep it in orbit. This
force increases with energy. If this is done by applying a magnetic field, high
magnetic fields are required. Recall the formula
R m
= .
v |q| B

Problem 2 The particle always radiates and loses energy. This is called
synchrotron radiation. For a particle of mass m and energy E moving in
a circular path of radius R,
E4
energy radiated per unit time ∝ 4 2 .
mR
Solution To obtain larger values of E, build machines with bigger R.
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Problem with synchrotrons

A particle moving in a circular path is always accelerating. Hence,

Problem 1 Some force has to be applied all the time to keep it in orbit. This
force increases with energy. If this is done by applying a magnetic field, high
magnetic fields are required. Recall the formula
R m
= .
v |q| B
Problem 2 The particle always radiates and loses energy. This is called
synchrotron radiation. For a particle of mass m and energy E moving in
a circular path of radius R,
E4
energy radiated per unit time ∝ 4 2 .
mR
Solution To obtain larger values of E, build machines with bigger R.
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Problem with synchrotrons

A particle moving in a circular path is always accelerating. Hence,

Problem 1 Some force has to be applied all the time to keep it in orbit. This
force increases with energy. If this is done by applying a magnetic field, high
magnetic fields are required. Recall the formula
R m
= .
v |q| B
Problem 2 The particle always radiates and loses energy. This is called
synchrotron radiation. For a particle of mass m and energy E moving in
a circular path of radius R,
E4
energy radiated per unit time ∝ 4 2 .
mR
Solution To obtain larger values of E, build machines with bigger R.
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Fixed-target machines vs Colliders

Older machines were fixed target machines. One particle beam was accelerated
and dumped onto another particle at rest.

That is a big waste of energy. Consider production of a heavy particle C from

lighter particles A and B:
A+B → C +D.
For A at rest, one needs (simplified form for small mB and mD )
 2
mC − m2A 2

EB > c .
2mA
Define mC = rmA:
1 2
EB > (r − 1)mAc2 .
2
So, to produce a particle 10 times heavier than A, one needs roughly 50 times
the mass-energy of A.
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Fixed-target machines vs Colliders

Older machines were fixed target machines. One particle beam was accelerated
and dumped onto another particle at rest.

That is a big waste of energy. Consider production of a heavy particle C from

lighter particles A and B:
A+B → C +D.
For A at rest, one needs (simplified form for small mB and mD )
 2
mC − m2A 2

EB > c .
2mA
Define mC = rmA:
1 2
EB > (r − 1)mAc2 .
2
So, to produce a particle 10 times heavier than A, one needs roughly 50 times
the mass-energy of A.
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Problem occurs because the two initial particles have a net momentum.

In a collider (or storage ring), two beams with equal and opposite momenta are
collided. So there is no net momentum in the initial state.

If the two beams have opposite charge, same set-up can accelerate both beams.
So e+-e− colliders, or pp̄ colliders came up.

Comparison of e+-e− and hadronic colliders:

e+-e− hadronic reason

Synchrotron radiation worse better me ≪ mp
reaching high energy difficult easier me ≪ mp
precision test yes no proton has
substructure
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Problem occurs because the two initial particles have a net momentum.

In a collider (or storage ring), two beams with equal and opposite momenta are
collided. So there is no net momentum in the initial state.

If the two beams have opposite charge, same set-up can accelerate both beams.
So e+-e− colliders, or pp̄ colliders came up.

Comparison of e+-e− and hadronic colliders:

e+-e− hadronic reason

Synchrotron radiation worse better me ≪ mp
reaching high energy difficult easier me ≪ mp
precision test yes no proton has
substructure
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Bigger and bigger colliders

Machine length energy beams discovery

Full Name Short Location (km) (GeV)
Super proton SpS CERN 6.9 300 pp̄ W, Z
Synchrotron
Tevatron — Fermilab 6.3 1000 pp̄ t
Large Electron- LEP CERN 27 45 e+e−
Positron Collider
Higgs
Large Hadron LHC CERN 27 7000 pp boson
Collider
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A modern detector
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The present list of elementary particles

Fermions

Name Symbol Charge Name Symbol Charge

Electron e −1 Up u 2/3
Electron-neutrino νe 0 Down d −1/3
Leptons

Quarks
Muon µ −1 Charm c 2/3
Muon-neutrino νµ 0 Strange s −1/3
Tau τ −1 Top t 2/3
Tau-neutrino ντ 0 Bottom b −1/3
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Bosons

Spin Name Number Symbol

Photon 1 γ
W bosons 2 W +, W −
1
Z boson 1 Z
Gluons 8 G
0 Higgs boson 1 H
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Non-accelerator experiments

Many properties of elementary particles can be tested without accelerators.

Examples:

Testing proton stability: Huge underground experiments. No instability

detected so far.
Solar neutrino detection: Detects neutrinos from the sun. Derived important
information about neutrino masses.
Neutrino observatories: Detecting cosmic neutrinos. The experiments have just
begun!
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Indian neutrino observatory (INO)

News item, 07 Jan 2015

The Indian government has given the go-ahead for a huge underground
observatory that researchers hope will provide crucial insights into neutrino
physics. Construction will now begin on the Rs15bn ($236m) Indian Neutrino
Observatory (INO) at Pottipuram, which lies 110 km from the temple city of
Madurai in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Madurai will also host
a new Inter Institutional Centre for High Energy Physics that will be used to
train scientists and carry out R&D for the new lab.

Detection of atomospheric neutrinos. Aim: resolving neutrino mass hierarchies.

Huge project, big opportunities.

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Indian neutrino observatory (INO)

News item, 07 Jan 2015

The Indian government has given the go-ahead for a huge underground
observatory that researchers hope will provide crucial insights into neutrino
physics. Construction will now begin on the Rs15bn ($236m) Indian Neutrino
Observatory (INO) at Pottipuram, which lies 110 km from the temple city of
Madurai in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Madurai will also host
a new Inter Institutional Centre for High Energy Physics that will be used to
train scientists and carry out R&D for the new lab.

Detection of atomospheric neutrinos. Aim: resolving neutrino mass hierarchies.

Huge project, big opportunities.