ATA 31A

INSTRUMENTATION
Introduction
In large commercial aircraft you can find many
instruments. They are used to monitor and control the
flight, the engines and the aircraft systems.
The engine indications are located on the center
instrument panel and the airframe system indications is
usually found on the overhead panel.
 CONTENT
1. AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS
2. FAILURES OF PITOT STATIC SYSTEM
3. WARNING AND RECORDING SYSTEMS
4. GYROSCOPES
5. ATTITUDE REFERENCE SYSTEM & HEADING
REFERENCE SYSTEM
 Lesson 1

AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS

 CONTENT

1. Pitot - Static pressure description

2. Static pressure and Dynamic pressure receiving
devices
3. Altimeter
4. Airspeed indicator
5. Vertical speed indicator
6. Machmeter
7. Temperature indicator
8. Air data computer (ADC)
9. Review
1.Pitot - Static pressure description
Static pressure
Dynamic pressure
Ram air (total pressure)
These combined pressures are utilized for the operation
of the airspeed indicator (ASI), altimeter, and vertical
speed indicator (VSI).
2. Static pressure and Dynamic pressure receiving
devices
a. Pitot tube
The pitot tube allows the total pressure to enter the
pressure chamber.
b. Static chamber
The static chamber is vented through small holes to the
free undisturbed air on the side(s) of the aircraft.
An alternate static source is provided in some aircraft to
provide static pressure should the primary static source
become blocked.
3. ALTIMETER
The altimeter is a very important indicator because it
shows the pilot if the aircraft is flying at the required
altitude (feet).
a. Atmosphere general
With increasing altitude the pressure decreases.
Standard Atmosphere
Standard Atmosphere is combined: air pressure, density,
temperature.
relationship b/w altitude & pressure
b. Altimeter structure
A pneumatic altimeter has
- Aneroid (sealed bellow)
- Mechanism link system (gear, rod…)
- Pointers and scale
- Line supplies Static pressure into the indicator case
c. Altimeter operation principle
The altimeter is a pressure gauge calibrated according to
standard atmosphere and graduated in ft.
All altimeters have the same basic function: Measure the
static pressure of the atmosphere and indicate it in feet or
meters.
When aircraft change altitude, static pressure affect on
aneroid will also change, aneroid will be expanded or
compressed. By mechanism system, Movement of
aneroid will be converted into rotary movement of
pointers.
The main altimeters of large aircraft do not have
aneroid (bellows). They are driven by an air data
computer.
d. Altimeter setting
QFE is air pressure at the current ground level
QNH is sea-level pressure
QNE is indicated altitude when air pressure is set with
1013.25 mb or 29.92 in.Hg
The standard setting of 1013 hPa must be selected
during climb and landing at a certain altitude, called the
transition altitude.
Fly from Hamburg (1013 mb) to Lulea (1013 mb) with
reference pressure in Kollsman window is 1013 mb.
The altimeter readings are correct
Fly from Hamburg (1013 mb) to London (1000 mb)
with reference pressure in Kollsman window is 1013
mb.
The altimeter readings are incorrect
4. AIRSPEED INDICATOR
a. General
b. Structure of Airspeed indicator
Airspeed indicator consists of:
- Diaphragm ( open bellow)
- Mechanism link system
- Pointer
- Pitot tube supplies ram air into the diaphragm. Static
line supplies static pressure into the indicator case.
c. Airspeed indicator operation principle
Airspeed indicator measure the dynamic pressure as the
difference between total and static pressure then
convert this value into Knots.
d. Types of Airspeed
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
IAS is shown on the dial of the instrument,
uncorrected for instrument or system errors.
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
CAS is the speed at which the aircraft is moving through
the air, which is found by correcting IAS for instrument
and position errors.
True Airspeed (TAS)
TAS is CAS corrected for nonstandard pressure and
temperature.
Ground speed
The relationship between ground speed, airspeed, and
wind speed can be written in the following form: GS =
TAS + Vwind
5. VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
a. General
The vertical speed indicator shows the pilot the rate of
climb or descent in feet per minute.
b. Structure of Vertical Speed Indicator
VSI consists of:
- Diaphragm ( open bellow)
- Mechanism link system
- Pointer
- Capillary tube
- The static pressure line is connected to a differential
pressure bellows and to the sealed instrument case via a
calibrated metering unit, also called capillary tube or orifice.
c. VSI operation principle
When aircraft climb or descend, altitude will change, it
means that static pressure will also change.
The pressure difference between inside and outside the
bellows acts on the instrument mechanism and moves the
vertical speed pointer.
When the aircraft is in a level flight the static pressure is
stable. Therefore the pressure inside the bellows and in
the case is equal so the pointer shows 0 ft/min.
When the aircraft climbs decreasing static pressure
contracts the bellows and the pointer indicates the actual
climb rate.
When the aircraft descends increasing static pressure
expands the bellow and the pointer indicates the
actual sink rate.
6. MACH METER
General
The indicated airspeed VI (IAS) is enough to fly the aircraft
at conventional speeds. As soon as we approach the velocity
of sound, the airflow around a wing profile is deeply
modified.
 TAS
M=
a
The operation principle
The Mach meter basically measures the airspeed with a
differential bellows. The speed of sound is a function of the
temperature so the speed of sound is also a function of the
altitude.

a  39 T
The maximum allowed mach number is marked with a
red line.
7. TEMPERATURE INDICATIONS
Two different temperatures are defined:
The static air temperature , or SAT in short.
The total air temperature or TAT in short.
The total temperature can be measured directly by the
TAT probe.

R = f (T)
The TAT from the probe can be used directly for
engine thrust calculations because the ram rise inside
the probe is the same as on the engine inlet.
The SAT cannot be measured directly. The air data
computer calculates it from the TAT by subtracting the
effect of the ram rise.

V 2
SAT = TAT − ( )
100
8. AIR DATA COMPUTER (ADC)

ADC perform the following tasks:

- To measure and convert the temperature
- To measure the pitot/static pressure.
- To calculate the necessary output signals for the
indicators and aircraft systems.
- ADC also calculate correction signals for the static
source error and determine values that are not directly
measurable, like density.
Air data computer
Three types of ADC are used in aircraft.
- Analog air data computer:
- Digital Air Data Computer