121 3

Mineral Resource
Exploration
3.1 Introduction – 122

3.2 Mineral Resource Exploration Stages – 125

3.2.1 Program Design – 125
3.2.2 Reconnaissance Exploration – 126
3.2.3 Detailed Exploration – 127
3.2.4 Pre-feasibility/Feasibility Study – 129

3.3 Mineral Deposit Models – 130

3.3.1 Types of Models – 131
3.3.2 Maturity of Descriptive-­Genetic Models – 136

3.4 Exploration Methods – 137

3.4.1 Remote Sensing – 137
3.4.2 Photogeology – 139
3.4.3 Geological Mapping – 141
3.4.4 Geophysical Exploration – 144
3.4.5 Geochemical Exploration – 161
3.4.6 Drilling – 182

3.5 Case Studies – 197

3.6 Questions – 219
References – 220

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

M. Bustillo Revuelta, Mineral Resources, Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and
Environment, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-58760-8_3
 122 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

BHP Billiton, Rio Tinto, Anglo American, or De

Summary Beers with operations on several continents (the
This chapter is concerned with the process so-called majors). A junior exploration company
of analyzing an area to find mineral deposits, can be defined as a company that focuses solely on
which is termed mineral resource explora- the exploration and discovery of mineral depos-
tion. The information collected during its and does not operate a mine (Stevens 2010).
3 exploration is utilized to evaluate the size Although the mining industry includes about
and quality of an ore deposit and to estab- 6000 companies, the majority are the 4000–5000
lish there is an option for it to be mined. junior exploration companies that do not have a
Two main phases can be broadly outlined mine in operation.
in mineral resource exploration: reconnais- Junior companies, registered principally
sance exploration and detailed exploration. on stock exchanges in Canada, Australia, and
The geological, geophysical, and geochemi- London, carry out most of exploration, especially
cal methods applied at different stages of metals. They have made almost all of the major
mineral resource exploration are described. new discoveries in the past several decades. These
The methods are organized in order of scale junior do not present any cash flow and mainly
and stage, from remote sensing to drilling, depend on funding from the stock exchanges. On
through photogeology, geophysical, and the opposite, the majors are those companies with
geochemical surveys. Previously, mineral annual revenue over USD 500 million and the
deposit models are applied to predict how financial strength to develop a new mine on their
and where mineral deposits might occur. own (SNL Metals & Mining). They are often more
Since large databases are generated in geo- selective in their choice of exploration properties.
chemical exploration, the main statistical Where a junior company can be happy to discover
techniques (univariate, bivariate, and mul- a relatively small deposit, majors are interested in
tivariate methods) are commented in this the world-class deposits that could be developed
heading. Finally, several exploration case into a large mining operation. Although majors
studies are summarized to show the main have the largest exploration budgets, they tend to
items of mineral resource exploration. be less successful than juniors at discovering new
deposits. Some of the reasons for this include the
following: (1) majors spend many of their explo-
ration budgets drilling around deposits that have
3.1 Introduction already been discovered with the aim of expand-
ing the reserves; (2) majors become too focused
Mineral exploration can be defined as the process on the search for large deposits and thus miss
of analyzing an area of land to find mineral depos- opportunities; and (3) majors buy into deposits
its (. Fig.  3.1). Therefore, mineral exploration
 
or junior companies after the discovery has been
covers all the processes that reflect information made; they leave the high-risk discovery stage to
about the presence of ore deposits. The informa- the junior (Stevens 2010). The federal state gov-
tion collected during exploration is utilized to ernment, Bureau of Mines, and geological surveys
evaluate the size and quality of an ore deposit and also participate in exploration. In general, the
to establish there is an option for it to be mined. role of the geological surveys commonly includes
Metal prices mainly define exploration expendi- some mineral exploration information to the
tures and, in the long run, by demand of metals. government, and the private sector presented as a
Where metal’s demand peaks so does exploration reconnaissance work.
expenditure. Most mineral exploration is car- The main features of the mineral exploration
ried out by companies with a capital base pro- process can be summarized as follows:
duced either from existing mineral production or 1. It is a time-consuming process, ranging from
from investors. The company size can vary from 2 years up to 5 years or more.
small venture capital companies (the so-called 2. It is also expensive (2 or 3 millions of dollars
juniors) with one or two geologists to great mul- per year) and high-risk investment, unlike
tinational mining companies such as Glencore, ordinary businesses investments.
3.1 · Introduction
123 3
..      Fig. 3.1 Electromag-
netic survey in the field for
mineral exploration (Image
courtesy of Alrosa)

3. It is undertaken in various stages of investiga- means unknown territories where ore deposits
tion, each phase conditioned by the results of are not already known to be present (. Fig. 3.2).
 

the previous step. On the contrary, brownfield exploration refers

4. It starts at the broad scale and narrows down to prospecting in areas where mineral deposits
the work area to settle on a target or a set of were previously discovered. Obviously, the risk in
targets. brownfield exploration is considerably lower than
5. The methods used vary in the different phases in greenfield exploration because of the lack of
of the process, and this variation is defined by geological information available in the latter.
the size of the prospect as well as the type Historically, discoveries have taken place in
density of information needed. waves, after the introduction of new methods
6. Rarely results in a mine are being developed; or advances in the understanding of ore gen-
the rate for finding new profitable mining esis (Paterson 2003). For instance, discovery rates
operations commonly ranges from a high of jumped sharply between 1950 and 1975, following
4% to less than 1% and even sometimes as the development of new methods and instruments
low as 1‰. in exploration geophysics and geochemistry.
Very often, the terms prospection and explo-
Exploration field activities take place as part of ration are used in a misleading way. For some
strategies to locate and define a particular eco- authors, exploration sounds similar to prospect-
nomically mineable mineral commodity in a ing, but other authors consider prospecting simply
mineral province. In this sense, the prospect could as the search for ores or other valuable minerals
be an ancient mine, an outcrop including min- (first stage) while exploration (second stage) esti-
eralization, an area elected based on geological mates as faithfully as possible the size and value of
items, or simply some anomalous feature of the an ore deposit, by using techniques very similar to
environment such as a geophysical or geochemi- but more intensive than those used in the previous
cal result that can be interpreted as showing close phase of prospecting. Thus, the line to differenti-
spatial relation to a mineralization. Thus, mineral ate between prospecting and exploration usually is
exploration companies usually classify exploration not possible. In this chapter, with the exception of
programs into two categories: greenfield or brown- the section devoted to mineral exploration stages,
field, a terminology originally used in construc- the terms prospection and exploration are used
tion and development. Greenfield exploration indistinctly to avoid problems of interpretation.
 124 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.2  Amulsar region

(Armenia): example of a
greenfield mineral explora-
tion territory (epithermal-­
style gold mineralization)
(Image courtesy of Lydian
International)
3

The mineral deposits to explore now for the of the mineral deposit. The target is later drilled
mining companies are mainly hidden by leached to study the mineralization in depth; drilling is
and weathered outcrops, with soil or other cover. undertaken only in advanced mineral explora-
For this reason, very sophisticated exploration tion. In increasing order of cost per km2, the main
techniques are actually needed to find them since methods used in mineral exploration are remote
most mineral deposits located at or near the sensing, geological mapping, geophysical surveys,
Earth’s surface have probably been discovered. geochemical surveys, and drilling.
As a general rule, the first stage of prospection/ Regarding the exploration trends in the world,
exploration involves locating prospective deposits mining companies reacted to the poor market
using knowledge of ore genesis and occurrence conditions of the last years with a strong decrease
models. Thus, geological environments associated in their exploration expenditures. The result was a
with the wanted type of mineral deposit are tar- 19% decline in worldwide nonferrous metal explo-
get of investigation. Methods such as geological ration budgets in 2015, compared with the previ-
mapping and sampling, geophysical surveys, and ous year, with final investment of about USD 9.2
geochemical analysis are commonly used at an billion (SNL Metals &Mining). . Figure 3.3 shows
 

early stage of exploration to define potential ore the main destinations for nonferrous exploration
deposits. Thus, the goal of geophysical/geochemi- in 2015. Nonferrous exploration means to look
cal exploration is to find an anomaly something for precious and base metals, uranium, diamonds,
different from the normal or expected; anomalies and several industrial minerals; it particularly pre-
can indicate the presence of minerals and could cludes exploration for commodities such as iron
be a target for drilling. An anomaly is a geological ore, coal, aluminum, or oil and gas. Regarding
incongruity that has the possibility of being an ore allocation of exploration, «Latin America has been
deposit. Obviously, an anomaly does not neces- considered the leading region for mineral explo-
sarily imply a mineral deposit, but every mineral ration by many companies for the past decade
deposit was first an anomaly, that is, something owing to its promising geology, its long history of
out of the ordinary (Hartman and Mutmansky world-class discoveries, the perception of its min-
2002). Where a mineral deposit has been identi- eral policies and its successful historical record of
fied, the next step is to map it more extensively to ­mineral production and development» (Wilburn
obtain a first evaluation of the grade and tonnage and Karl 2016).
3.2 · Mineral Resource Exploration Stages
125 3

..      Fig. 3.3  Top destinations for nonferrous exploration in 2015 (SNL Metals & Mining)

3.2  ineral Resource Exploration

M is already accessible to the mining company. Thus,
Stages a project can be quickly abandoned at any phase
if the results obtained are not clearly hopeful.
It is quite difficult to define exactly the number In other words, as commented above, very few
of stages in mineral exploration processes since discovered mineral deposits become producing
it depends of several factors such as the com- mines.
modity to investigate, the region to explore, the The time required for exploration of a min-
overall costs of the different steps, and others. ing project depends on its size and location.
Up to five stages in mineral exploration, the The following time requirements can provide a
so-called mineral exploration cycle, are usually broad approximation: (1) small deposits, from 2
found in literature: program design, reconnais- to 4 years; (2) medium-sized deposits, from 4 to
sance exploration, detailed exploration, prospect 6 years; and (3) large deposits, from 6 to 10 years
evaluation, and preproduction. However, there is of exploration. Actually, the process of mineral
consensus that two main phases can be broadly discovery and its development to production
outlined: reconnaissance exploration and detailed mine can take up to 25 years, because of the large
exploration (or prospecting and exploration). size of the modern mines.
Commonly, prospecting is the very first stage in
the search for mineral deposits, and permits tend
to cover large areas in an attempt to see if mineral 3.2.1 Program Design
deposits are present, whereas exploration involves
more detailed data gathering over smaller and At the program design step (generative stage or
specific areas. The complete sequence of mineral project generation, or simply planning stage),
activity is carried out for only a very low number the management staff of the company, with
of mineral projects, being the initial stages abbre- considerable experience of exploration, defines
viated if the information acquired in those stages the economic parameters for mineral targets.
 126 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

Technicians, usually geologists and/or geophysi- contrary, negative results reveal that the prospect
cists, design the exploration program that prom- will be commonly abandoned, although further
ises the best results in the search for such target. follow-up is possible if the economic conditions
According to Sillitoe (2000), the keystone to have changed. The first stage of mineral exploration
prospecting organization is to have the best forth- is the reconnaissance exploration, although it can
coming staff and appropriate finance in order to be named also in a variety of ways: simply prospec-
3 generate confidence throughout the organization. tion, target identification, early and extended
The economic parameters vary widely depend- reconnaissance, and many others. In turn, it typi-
ing on the expected exploration and development cally includes two steps: regional appraisal and
of the type of mineral deposit sought and on the reconnaissance of region. The main goal of the
economic factors and mine life. The conduct of a process is to identify an ore deposit that can be the
good prospecting program is aimed at the discov- target for subsequent exploration; the quantities
ery of a maximum number of mineral deposits at estimated for the deposits are with a low level of
minimum cost. In this searching process, geolo- confidence, and these estimates are inferred, that is,
gists decide the types of deposits to explore and based on interpretation of geological, geophysical,
which geological and exploration models should and geochemical results.
be applied. Previously, the management staff Reconnaissance exploration aims at rapid and
chooses the commodity or commodities. low-cost sorting out of prospective parts of an
The intensive use of mineral deposit models area. Regions ranging from 2000 to 200,000 km2
is a defining feature at this stage. This is because are evaluated with an analysis of accessible infor-
the first step in a new program is to acquire infor- mation, and parts of a region that cover 100–
mation about the study areas to be investigated. 5000 km2 are studied through field examination,
Thus, favorable regions are selected, either on the spaced geochemical sampling with wide grids,
basis of known potential as expressed by existing and geophysical exploration. In this sense, an
mines or mineral occurrences or on the basis of invaluable information to surface regional geol-
general knowledge of their geological characteris- ogy is that obtained with regional geophysics.
tics. In summary, the area to be explored is identi- Airborne magnetic, radiometric, and regional
fied based on literature search, looking at history, gravity data are available in a great part of the
reports and maps, and thesis works, among many developed world (. Fig.  3.4), and these tech-
 

others; these are called desktop studies. At the niques lead to refining geological interpretation.
end of this stage, exploration procedures are rec- Regional geochemical surveys also provide much
ommended to the management by the geological information in areas of poor outcrop.
staff, and a time schedule and general budget are
established. Regarding the exploration costs, the
exploration manager commonly considers them
as an expenditure within an organization while
it is as a geologist on a specific exploration proj-
ect that one becomes involved in the exploration
costs within the context of the project (Moon and
Whateley 2006). Prospection can be commodity-
or site-specific. In other words, the search can be
limited to a particular mineral or metal or to a
particular geographic area.

3.2.2 Reconnaissance Exploration

Since a prospect has been identified, a progressive

series of definable exploration stages can be carried
out. As a rule, positive results in any stage of explo-
ration will originate an advance to the next stage ..      Fig. 3.4  Regional magnetic map in mainland Europe
and an increase of the exploration effort. On the (Image courtesy of Getech)
3.2 · Mineral Resource Exploration Stages
127 3
The results are brought together on maps 3.2.3 Detailed Exploration
on 1:50,000 to 1:25,000 or smaller scale. They
are geologically analyzed in view of the char- If the goal of the previous stage is to locate anoma-
acteristics of known occurrences of the type lies due to the presence of a mineral deposit, the
of ore deposit being explored. The next step objective of detailed exploration is to define and
deals with selection of smaller target areas for evaluate this deposit in detail. The exploration will
detailed investigation. In general, the targets are focus to determine the geological setting, depth,
not clearly defined until the first stage has been geometry, grade, tonnage, extent, and worth of
accomplished: in fact, target identification is the the ore deposit identified. Similar techniques than
main goal of reconnaissance exploration. It can those applied in reconnaissance exploration will
cost from several thousand to one million or be used though in a more comprehensively man-
more USD, commonly spending from a several ner over a much smaller area. Exploration culmi-
months to 2 or 3  years to complete. Once field nates in preparation of a pre-­feasibility study that
studies such as rock and soil sampling have been either accepts or rejects the deposit for further
carried out, the results will be collected and mod- consideration. Detailed exploration is restricted to
els for the mineralization will be created using relatively small areas and is intensive and expen-
specialized computer software. sive, especially where drilling is carried out. For
In the first phase of reconnaissance explora- this reason, it is essential to protect the invest-
tion (regional appraisal), the following proce- ment and potential revenue from the prospect by
dures are usually performed: obtaining exclusive exploration or mining rights
1. Review of all information on the target such and to enter in negotiations with owners of sur-
as government geological information as well face property in preparation for later mine devel-
as geophysical and geochemical surveys in opment (Gocht et al. 1988).
the area, the results of previous exploration In the final stage of exploration, the target
data and the known occurrence of minerals, that ranges initially from 2 to 25 or more km2 is
and other previous bibliographies investigated through detailed field inspections,
2. Photogeological study of available air geochemical sampling, and ground and airborne
photographs geophysical surveys. It generally begins with
3. Study of accessible remote-­sensing information establishing a regular grid on interesting areas
4. Air and ground field inspection serving as a base for more detailed geochemical
5. Petrographic and mineralogical studies to and geophysical studies as well as geological map-
determine main rock types, mineral assem- ping, generally undertaken at 1:10,000 to 1:2500
blages, and identification of minerals of scales. In this step, it is common to carry out
interest limited trenching, drilling, and systematic sam-
In the second phase of reconnaissance explora- pling as a guideline to developing geological con-
tion (reconnaissance of region), techniques are: ceptions. In this way, the target is later reduced
1. Geological mapping and sampling to a smaller one ranging from 1 to several km2
2. Geochemical surveys and indicator mineral for further drilling to establish if the hypotheti-
studies cal valuable mineral deposit really is present. It
3. Geophysical surveys, airborne or ground is clear that investigating if a discovery displays
4. Shallow pattern drilling for regolith or a sufficient size and quality inevitably includes a
bedrock geochemistry, including geophysical subsurface investigation. In this case, the geolo-
borehole logging and drilling aimed at gist usually faces the task of generating a target
increasing geological knowledge for drilling. This stage can cost from several tens
5. Field inspection of outcrops and anomalous of thousands to tens of millions of USD, and they
areas will usually take 1 to several years to complete,
6. Petrographic and mineralogical studies, assuming that there are not disrupts. Once the
including study of host rock of the deposits existence of a valuable ore deposit is determined,
and alteration zone, mineralogical ­studies perhaps 1 or 2 years after the initial discovery of
(ore microscopy, X-ray diffraction, among economic ore, the exploration is considered fin-
others), identification of oxidized and ished and at that moment the development pro-
primary zones, etc. cess of the mine begins.
 128 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

Classical techniques for this stage are com- they must be sent to a laboratory for their analysis
prehensive geological mapping and sampling; (. Fig. 3.6). Cost should not be the main factor to
 

detailed geochemical surveys, with an elaborated select the laboratory. For this decision, accuracy,
grid pattern sampling and analysis; detailed geo- precision, and an effective proceeding are also
physical surveys, usually on the ground; drilling, requested (Moon and Whateley 2006). Before
logging, trenching, and geophysical survey in the samples are submitted to the laboratory, it must be
3 holes; and bulk sampling. Drilling involves vari- ensured that all the elements that can be associated
ous types, initially with a relatively wide spacing of with the explored ore deposit are incorporated in
holes. In areas of poor outcropping, trenching or the analysis and very important that this analysis
pitting is essential (. Fig. 3.5) to verify the bedrock
  comprises possible pathfinder elements.
source of a geological, geochemical, or geophysical The further decision to carry out a feasibil-
anomaly. Once the samples have been obtained, ity study can be obtained from the information

..      Fig. 3.5  Trenching in

progress (Image courtesy
of Petropavlovsk)

..      Fig. 3.6 Preparing
samples for analysis in the
laboratory (Image courtesy
of Anglo American plc.)
3.2 · Mineral Resource Exploration Stages
129 3
provided by detailed exploration, since resource/ that a pre-feasibility study is almost always carried
reserve estimations for the deposits are with a out during the previous step. Thus, the main goal of
high level of confidence. This is probably the most this type of study is to assess the various possibilities
critical stage of exploration because decisions and possible combinations of technical and business
involving high costs and potential costs have to be issues, to evaluate the project sensitivity to changes
made in view of the results. If a decision is taken in the individual parameters, and to rank various
that a potential ore deposit has been delineated, scenarios prior to selecting the most likely for fur-
the costs of subsequent exploration will drasti- ther and more accurate study. Upon completion of
cally increase, usually at the expense of other a pre-feasibility study, geological confidence is such
prospects. At this stage, it is essential to consider that it should be possible to publicly declare ore
that if it is decided to make the decision to close reserves (from measured and indicated resources)
prospection of a mineral deposit after this stage, (. Table 3.1) and any other mineral resources that
 

there is always the option that an ore body has can become mineable in the future with further
been lost (Marjoribanks 2010). study (Scott and Whateley 2006). The results of the
pre-­feasibility study determine whether the increas-
ingly large expense derived from full geological,
3.2.4 Pre-feasibility/Feasibility technical, and economic evaluation of a prospect
Study is justified. In other words, this study will detect if
the costs involved in exploration are suitable for the
The final step in mineral exploration process is earnings that logically can be expected.
the preliminary feasibility study that analyzes all The feasibility study is the final evaluation of
components (geological, mining, environmental,
­ the profitability of a mining venture in light of the
sociopolitical, and economical) relevant to the results of exhaustive geological exploration; assess-
determination to develop a mine. In very large ment of mining and processing cost; environmental
projects, the costs involved in evaluation are high so factors, including mine reclamation; and market

..      Table 3.1  Example of mineral resource and reserve data presented in a pre-feasibility study of a mining
project

Mineral resource table

Category Tonnage Cu Au Ag Contained Contained Contained

(million Grade Grade Grade Cu (billion Au (million Ag (million
tonnes) (%) (g/t) (g/t) pounds) ounces) ounces)

Measured 39.5 0.25 0.39 2.58 0.22 0.50 3.27

Indicated 247.2 0.34 0.26 3.81 1.85 2.04 30.26

Total measured 286.7 0.33 0.27 3.64 2.07 2.53 33.54

and indicated

Inferred 346.6 0.42 0.24 4.28 3.23 2.70 47.73

Mineral reserve table

Tonnes Diluted grade Contained Contained Contained

(Mt) Cu (billion Au (million Ag (million
Cu (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) pounds) ounces) ounces)

Proven probable 69.0 0.606 0.520 4.94 0.9 1.15 11.0

Probable 459.1 0.582 0.291 6.18 5.9 4.30 91.2

Total proven and 528.0 0.585 0.321 6.02 6.8 5.45 102.1
probable
 130 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

analysis. This study usually forms the basis for the 3.3 Mineral Deposit Models
«go/no go» decision on developing a mine (Gocht
et al. 1988), that is, it is the basis for an investment To predict and have a better knowledge of how and
decision or decision to proceed to the next stage where an ore deposits can be present, ­scientists
of development. Obviously, feasibility studies are developed mineral deposit models (. Fig. 3.7). A  

of higher level of rigor than pre-­feasibility studies. working definition of «model» in the context of
3 Thus, in feasibility studies, social, environmental, mineral deposits is «the systematically arranged
and governmental approvals, permits, and agree- information describing the essential attributes
ments, commenced during the pre-feasibility study, (properties) of a class of mineral deposits» (Cox
will be in place or will be approaching finalization. and Singer 1986). Models are very useful to orga-
A feasibility study incorporates all types of nize the information about a mineral deposit
detailed information obtained in previous stages of because they are simplifications and abstractions
mineral exploration such as geology, mining, envi- based on a large number of individual observa-
ronmental, infrastructure and service, financial data, tions. As such, they need refinement as new data
marketing, economic viability, and many other fac- are acquired and have to be set as exploration is
tors. Moreover, sufficient sample collection and test carried out. In fact, it is very difficult to find a
work have taken place during a feasibility study for paper in the contemporary literature on economic
more of the resource estimate to be reported in the geology of a mineral deposit that does not utilize
measured category. Several million dollars are com- the expression «mineral deposit model.»
monly spent in large projects, to bring the project to Mineral deposit models are developed from
feasibility study level and sensitivity analyses. They the information of a particular important deposit
will have been established to analyze the main fac- or the combined information of several equivalent
tors that can have a definitive impact upon the deposits. Thus, the grouping of deposits based
reserve estimation. This will help to calculate the risk on common characteristics forms the basis for a
associated with the reserve data, which at this stage classification, but the specification of the features
will enter within the acceptable risk category of the needed for being included in the group is the basis
company. It is very common that financial institutes for a model (Barton 1993). Consequently, mod-
utilize independent consultants to audit the resource els contain an element of prediction, particularly
and reserve estimations. where certain physical attributes are characteristic

Oceanic Continental
intraplate Continental rift/back-arc
Mid-ocean volcanoes margin arc
Island arc basin
Back-are ridge
g
basin
Sea level

Continental
lithosphere

Mantle
plume
Subducting
slab

Explanation
Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits

..      Fig. 3.7  Model showing volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits in different tectonic settings (Schulz 2012)
3.3 · Mineral Deposit Models
131 3
of ores of a well-defined deposit type. Models try be classified or the data that cannot be explained
to be constructed as much as possible «inde- by a previous existing model are commonly those
pendent of site-specific attributes and therefore that originate an advance in the knowledge of ore-­
contain only those features that are transferable forming processes.
from one deposit to another; this goal is difficult However, some pitfalls in the utilization of
to attain, because it is not always known which mineral deposit models have been frequently
features are site-specific» (Cox and Singer 1986). developed. Thus, Hodgson (1990) suggests up to
According the definition of a mineral deposit a total of five different pitfalls in the making and
model, it can aid in identifying areas favorable for using of models all related to corporate or insti-
finding valuable deposits since they describe all of tutional cults and affect industry, academic, and
the essential features of a selected group of min- government institutions to an equal extent:
eral deposits (Singer 1995). Obviously, there are 1. The cult of the fad or fashion: an obsession
a great number of mineral deposit models, new with being up to date and in possession of the
models being created as new types of deposits newest model.
are identified. The scale of the models can vary 2. The cult of the panacea: the attitude that one
from regional size (regional-scale models are con- model is the ultimate and will end all
structed through metallogenic studies) to smaller controversy.
local ore bodies, or even refer to some highlighted 3. The cult of the classicists: all new ideas are
part of an ore body. rejected as they have been generated in the
The application of a particular deposit model hot house research environment.
will depend on the quality of the database. Some 4. The cult of the corporate iconoclasts: only
deposit types (e.g., placer gold) are easy to under- models generated within an organization are
stand and supported by well-developed models valid; all outside models are wrong.
while other deposits such as the Olympic Dam 5. The cult of the specialist: in which only one
mineral deposit model are not still well established aspect of the model is tested and usually not
and can be represented only by a single deposit. In in the field.
these cases, the information about the deposit is
very difficult to obtain. Thus, the models should
be used with caution and with understanding of 3.3.1 Types of Models
their limitations. The current trend in exploration
and mineral deposit modeling is to incorporate A subdivision of mineral deposit models into var-
every possible component of ­ individual metal ious subtypes can be proposed (Cox and Singer
deposits in a database and carry out correlative 1986). These are dependent on the attributes used
analyses using computers. This approach is sim- in their definition and on the specific fields of
ply a continuation of the mindset that created the application the modeler has in mind (e.g., appli-
descriptive model and the availability of a new cations such as exploration/development, sup-
tool: the computer. Nonetheless, this model is in ply potential, land use, education, and research
reality a simulation, with its inherent case-specific guidance). The following subtypes are proposed
limitations, and as well can give misleading results (Cox and Singer 1986): (1) descriptive models, (2)
with limited utility for an emergent phenomenon occurrence models, (3) grade and tonnage mod-
(Robinson 2007). els, (4) occurrence probability models, (5) quanti-
The geological surveys of Canada and the tative process models, and (6) genetic models. The
USA have originated the vast majority of min- first three are empirical or descriptive models and
eral deposit models as well as a great number of the last three are conceptual or genetic models.
publications describing various mineral deposit Previously, three basic model types, descriptive,
types. They are the main source to obtain a com- grade and tonnage models, and genetic models,
plete information about the topic. Interactions were considered. Basically, the model can be
between the constructors of published models empirical (descriptive), in which several attri-
and the explorationists who use them are criti- butes are considered essential, or it can be theo-
cal to the evolution of more accurate and useable retical (genetic). In the latter, the attributes are
models. In this regard, the deposits that cannot interrelated using some fundamental concepts.
 132 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

Thus, the empirical or descriptive model is based Attributes can be considered on at least two
on deposit descriptions, and the genetic model scales: the first deals with local characteristics
explains deposits in terms of causative geological that can be obtained immediately in the field
processes. (mineralogy, local chemical halos, among many
Another model type that is very useful for others), whereas the second incorporates features
initial economic analyses is the so-called grade related to the regional geological setting and that
3 and tonnage model. This type of model displays must be interpreted from the local studies or can
grade and tonnage data for known deposits, being be inferred from global tectonic considerations.
possible from this information to assess the aver- For instance, «the rock sequence under study
age size and grade of a mineral deposit and the represents a deep-water, back-arc rift environ-
cash-­flow if one was met (Evans and Moon 2006). ment, or the area is underlain by anomalously
Ideally, mineral deposit types should reflect how radioactive high-silica rhyolite and granite» (Cox
the mineral deposit was actually formed. In many and Singer 1986).
cases, there is considerable debate among geolo-
gists as to how a specific deposit was formed, and Grade and Tonnage Models
thus classifications based purely on a given genetic Grade and tonnage models had a profound influ-
model will encounter problems. ence on the creation of mineral deposit mod-
els. The idea of relating grade and tonnage data
Descriptive Models appears to have originated long time ago (e.g.,
The classification of mineral deposits based on Lasky 1950). Grade and tonnage models of ore
empirical features will lead to the unique finger- deposits are very helpful for quantitative resource
print of a particular deposit (Herrington 2011). estimations as well as to schedule an exploration
Thus, descriptive models derive from the docu- program. They are useful to classify the known
mentation of the geological, geochemical, and deposits in a region and provide information
geophysical characteristics of individual mineral about the potential value of undiscovered depos-
deposits. Of the various kinds of mineral deposit its in the exploration area. Thus, the frequency
models, well-documented descriptive models are distributions of average grades and tonnages of
of the most direct use in mineral exploration or deposits of various types are calculated and dis-
resource assessment. A descriptive model can be played graphically. In a limited area showing
constructed from a single deposit but more com- favorable geological features, grade or tonnage
monly includes the essential common informa- frequency distribution curves are used to estimate
tion of a group of related deposits. The attributes the amount of metal that possibly exists in the
or properties of a mineral occurrence are, of area (. Box 3.1: Grade and Tonnage Models for
 

course, those features exhibited by the occurrence. Podiform Chromite Deposits).

 Box 3.1

Grade and Tonnage Models for Podiform Chromite Deposits

Construction of grade and tonnage possible economic interest and and banded podiform chromite.
models for podiform chromite tonnages based on the total pro- Percentiles of metal grades from
deposits involves multiple steps. duction, reserves, and resources at incomplete data sets, such as Ru,
The first step is the identification of the lowest available cutoff grade. Ir, Rh, Pd, and Pt, are based on
a group of well-explored deposits Thus, the grade and tonnage the observed distributions and
that are believed to belong to models are the frequency distribu- are represented by the smoothed
the mineral deposit type being tions of ore tonnage and grades curves on the grade plots. Chromic
modeled (Mosier et al. 2012). of Cr2O3, ruthenium (Ru), iridium oxide grades for the major and
«Well explored» means completely (Ir), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), minor podiform subtypes are
drilled in three dimensions. After and platinum (Pt) for the podiform each significantly different from
deposits are identified, data from chromite types. The three subtypes the normal distribution at the 1%
each are compiled. These data of podiform chromite deposits significance level. Only the chromic
consist of average grades of each modeled are major podiform chro- oxide grades for the banded podi-
metal or mineral commodity of mite, minor podiform chromite, form chromite are not significantly
3.3 · Mineral Deposit Models
133 3

different from the normal distribu- form at least 60% of the ore. For chromite deposits can be used
tion at the 1% significance level. In chemical ores, the chromite must as models of the grades and ton-
most cases, the departures of the be fine grained, and the chromic nages of undiscovered deposits.
grades from normality appear to oxide grades can be very low as Some examples of these frequen-
be typical for grades greater than long as there is enough to make cies are plotted in . Figs. 3.8 and
 

10% in other deposit types. chromium salts at a feasible rate. 3.9. Grade and tonnage models are
The reporting of very low Such a range of chromic oxide presented in a graphical format to
grades may be influenced by grades can contribute to multiple make it easy to compare deposit
favorable economics or technol- peaks or skewness in the data set. types and to display the data. The
ogy in processing low-grade If there were no differences grade and tonnage plots show the
ores and may indicate regional in grades or tonnages among cumulative proportion of deposits
differences that allow lower cutoff deposit types, it could be used versus the tonnage or grade of
grades. Because these are at the one model for all types. However, the deposits. Individual symbols
low-grade tail of the distributions differences in tonnages or grades represent the deposits, and inter-
and represent a small number of among the subtypes suggest cepts for the 90th, 50th, and 10th
deposits, they may not be impor- they should be represented by percentiles are plotted. Percentiles
tant for modeling purposes. For different models. For example, the of grades and tonnages are based
this analysis, grades lower than deposits associated with major on the observed distributions.
30% chromic oxide are excluded. podiform chromite are signifi- Relations among grade and ton-
Reports of very high grades may cantly larger than those associated nage variables are important for
be from deposits where hand with minor podiform chromite simulations of grades, tonnages,
sorting of ore was an important and banded podiform chromite, and estimated number of undis-
processing practice. For metal- and banded podiform chromite covered deposits. These relations
lurgical ores, grades less than deposits are significantly larger also affect the understanding
45% chromic oxide are usually than minor podiform chromite of how deposits form and the
rejected at the mills and a Cr to deposits. assumptions about resource avail-
Fe ratio of 3:1 is preferred. For Frequency distributions of the ability. Correlation tests among
refractory ores, coarser chromite tonnages and grades of chromic the variables reveal the relations
is preferred, and chromic oxide oxide, rhodium, iridium, ruthe- of grades and tonnage. In general,
grades can be low as long as the nium, palladium, and platinum in most of the variables show no rela-
alumina content combines to the three subtypes of podiform tion to each other.

..      Fig. 3.8 Cumula-
tive frequency of ore n = 246
tonnages of major 0.9
podiform chromite
deposits. Each red
dot represents an 0.8
individual deposit (n
is the total number of 0.7
deposits). Intercepts
Proportion of deposits

for the 90th, 50th, and

0.6
10th percentiles of the
lognormal distribu-
tion are provided. The 0.5
smoothed green curve
represents the percen-
0.4
tiles of the data points
(Mosier et al. 2012)
0.3

0.2

0.1
0.0004 0.011
0.54
0.0
0.0000016 0.000025 0.0004 0.0063 0.1 1.6 25
Tonnage in million tons
 134 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.9 Cumulative 1.0

frequency of chromic
oxide grades of major n = 246
podiform chromite 0.9
deposits. Each red dot
represents an individual
3 deposit (n is the total 0.8
number of deposits).
Intercepts for the 90th,
0.7
50th, and 10th percen-
tiles of the normal distri-
Proportion of deposits

bution are provided. The 0.6

smoothed green curve
represents the percen-
tiles of the data points 0.5
(Mosier et al. 2012)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

34 45 51
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Chromite grade in percent Cr2O3

The mineral deposit density area is a variation understanding of the physics and chemistry of
of the grade and tonnage model. Deposit density ore-forming processes. Therefore, the developing
modeling can be used to produce a quantitative of a mineral deposit model is an iterative process
mineral resource assessment by estimating the (Duke 1990). Genetic models are more power-
number of undiscovered deposits (Singer et  al. ful than descriptive models because they provide
2001). In this type of model, the grade and ton- a basis to distinguish essential from extraneous
nage model is carried out, and then the number of attributes. In general, the information of a descrip-
deposits per unit area is determined for a specific tive model is a necessary precondition to create a
deposit type from a well-explored region. The genetic model.
process originates a frequency distribution that Genetic models describe the origin of a deposit
is utilized either directly for an estimate of the or deposit type and represent the ­combination of
resources in a mineral deposit or indirectly as a a descriptive model with one or more process
guideline in some other method. models. Process models simulate physical and
chemical ore-forming processes (. Fig. 3.10), and
 

Genetic Models they are generic as much as they can apply to a

Although correct documentation of descrip- variety of deposit types. In this sense, Duke (1990)
tive models is of the most direct utilization to affirms that «the geologist engaged in mineral
the exploration geologist, it is almost impos- exploration and the government geologist carry-
sible to develop an adequate descriptive model in ing out a mineral-resource assessment combine
the absence of a good genetic one. Similarly, the descriptive deposit models with understanding
generation of genetic models depends upon an of the regional geological framework to develop
3.3 · Mineral Deposit Models
135 3

a
Initial surge of magma Entrained sulfide
droplets

Initial accumulation of sulfide («proto-ore»);

some possibly injected into the floor

New surge of magma

Remobilization, upgrading, and

redeposition of sulfides
Pro-ore shielded from reaction
by new magma surge
with later magma surges

..      Fig. 3.10  Illustration of the continued flow of magma through an idealized magma conduit (process model) in mag-
matic sulfide-rich nickel-copper-(platinum-group element) deposits (Schulz et al. 2014)

exploration or resource-potential models.» Even information were to be included, the number of

though there are not two mineral deposits iden- models would reach the total number of indi-
tical, empirical descriptions of deposits tend to vidual deposits considered. As a consequence,
show natural groupings into a small number of the compilers must use the genetic concepts at
definable categories or types. In turn, these cat- their disposal to distinguish the critical from the
egories tend to coincide with genetically derived incidental attributes (Cox and Singer 1986). From
models. Therefore, even by using purely physi- both the empirical and the genetic models, the
cally descriptive classifications, there is often exploration geologist assembles an exploration
a close coincidence between these and models model, which is a set of recognition criteria for
defined using genetic criteria (Herrington 2011). exploration. Some of these criteria are diagnostic
Descriptive models evolve into genetic models, for the presence or absence of an ore deposit while
and as such they become far more flexible and others are permissive. The criteria chosen should
powerful. In fact, there is an iterative relation- be as diagnostic as possible and should be both
ship among descriptive, genetic, and grade/ton- cost- and time-effective (Gocht et al. 1988).
nage models. The consequence of examining
these three is that they constituted a linear logical Other Types of Models
sequence leading toward the «final» model. In general, because of the previous models, two
One factor favoring the genetic model over more model types can be originated: occurrence
the simply descriptive is the great amount of probability models and quantitative process
descriptive information needed to represent the models. The former are models that predict the
many features of complex deposits. If all such probability of a deposit, size, and grade indicated
 136 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

by the appropriate grade and tonnage models, problems at abandoned mine sites; (3) land-use
occurring within a given area. The latter are planners that are involved in permitting proposed
models that describe quantitatively some process mines or reclaiming abandoned mine lands; and
related to ore deposit formation, being in fact (4) industry interested in mine planning and min-
only branches of the genetic model. All these eral exploration (Seal et al. 2002).
models can be parts of the «final» model, and
3 recycling of the model back to the early grouping 3.3.2 Maturity of Descriptive-­
phase assists in refining the selection procedure
Genetic Models
(Cox and Singer 1986).
Other types of models have also been described
The current level of genetic knowledge varies con-
by different authors and applied to mineral depos-
siderably from one deposit type to another. For
its: cause-effect models (Knox-Robinson 2000;
example, placers and evaporites are genetically
Sirotinskaya 2004), fractal and multifractal mod-
well-known types of deposits, and the problems in
els (Mandelbrot 1983), fluid flow-stress mapping
their exploration concern mainly local site-­specific
models (Heinrich et al. 1996), statistical/probabi-
geological problems rather than mineral genesis.
listic models (Agterberg 1974), structural models
In contrast, deposits such as the Coeur d’Alene
(Kutina 1969), and spatial-temporal models (Lud-
Ag-Pb-Zn veins remain genetic enigmas despite
ington et  al. 1993). As an example, probabilistic
extensive research for a long time. Other deposits
regression models have been especially attractive
are geologically well understood regarding their
and useful to mineral resource exploration. In
origin but still very poorly understood in terms of
this model, an area of concern is splitted into a
the reasons for their existing at any particular site.
grid of square cells, and the presence or absence
Thus, the rate of acquisition of information is very
of the various predictive attributes (e.g., different
irregular. The several scarps between plateaus in
lithologies, hydrothermal alteration, geophysical
the knowledge curve for some mineral deposit
or geochemical anomalism) is expressed for each
models might mark, successively, the recognition
cell, in the form of magnitude, counts or occur-
of very important aspects related to the genesis
rences, or percentage area occupied.
of the deposit, while plateaus denote periods of
absence of new knowledge. For instance, «a scarp
Geoenvironmental Models in the Mississippi Valley-type ores might involve
Geoenvironmental models are specific because recognition, from fluid-inclusion evidence, that
they are designed as natural extensions of mineral the ores were deposited from warm, about 100 °C,
deposit models. A geoenvironmental model of a highly saline solutions that could represent nei-
mineral deposit can be defined as «a compilation of ther simple surface nor marine waters» (Cox and
geological, geochemical, geophysical, h­ ydrologic, Singer 1986).
and engineering information pertaining to the Moreover, some aspects of any model always
environmental behavior of geologically similar remain to be determined and the model never
mineral deposits prior to mining» (Plumlee and reaches a definitive format. Indeed, «the approach
Nash 1995). Thus, the model offers information to complete understanding is asymptotic, and a
about natural geochemical variations associated lot of additional effort to clear up the last uncer-
with a particular deposit type and geochemical tainty in a nearly perfect model is probably
variations associated with its mining effluents, unwarranted» (Cox and Singer 1986). However,
wastes, and mineral processing facilities, includ- new ideas and new technologies can provide the
ing smelters. Such information should prove ben- impetus for new improvements in knowledge for
eficial to (1) environmental scientists interested until now incomplete models. Obviously, differ-
in mitigating potential environmental problems ent deposit types can require different amounts of
associated with proposed mines; (2) environmen- effort to achieve a similar level of genetic under-
tal scientists interested in remediating existing standing.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
137 3
3.4 Exploration Methods forthcoming since the late 1970s, the data from land
observation satellites have supplied a powerful tool
The geological, geophysical, and geochemical meth- for the exploration of mineral resources. Moreover,
ods applied at different stages of mineral resource satellite imagery (. Fig. 3.11) investigates the geo-
 

exploration are described in the next sections. The logical characteristics of remote areas of the surface
methods are organized in order of scale and stage, of the Earth without the requirement to access the
from remote sensing to drilling, through photoge- region on the ground. Thus, remote sensing is pro-
ology, geophysical, and geochemical surveys. viding information on mineral deposit exploration
targets without being in contact with the objects.
Remote sensing can highlight ore bodies and
3.4.1 Remote Sensing their respective mineralization or alteration sig-
natures as well as associated other features such as
Remote sensing is the characterization of the surface lineaments and faults. For instance, this method
of the Earth based on measurements of its reflected originates strong signals where gossans associated
or emitted electromagnetic radiation in wavelengths with hydrothermal alteration and oxidation of
from 0.3 to 3 m, being satellites the main observa- porphyry deposits are present. Another example
tion platforms. These wavelengths cover the range would be the discovery of fractures and faults in
from the ultraviolet to the microwave radar spec- volcanic regions with veins of precious metals.
trum although a great number of measurements On the other hand, the interpretation of satellite
are made in the visible range by passive methods, in imagery can originate very useful models before
which the reflected natural radiation is estimated. the start of geophysical investigations. In turn,
Remote sensing lead to the recognition of major geological and geophysical data can gage models
regional topographic features and geologic rela- obtained from this technique.
tionships and helping in the discovering of regions The resolution of remote sensing is restricted
with mineral potential. Since remote sensing was by the resolution of the imagery. According to this

..      Fig. 3.11 Satellite
image (Landsat) used
in mineral exploration
(pixel = 14.5 m × 14.5 m)
 138
Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

factor, satellites can be classified into three main features. In the context of geological mapping, elec-
categories: (1) VHR (very high resolution), sub- tromagnetic methods can be classified as (1) pas-
meter pixels; (2) HR (high resolution), 2.5–10 m sive optical methods (utilize the sunlight as the
pixels; and (3) MR (mid resolution), greater source and estimate the reflectance of the surface of
than 10  m pixels. An image with 50  m resolu- the Earth in the visible and infrared spectral bands)
tion would start to pixelate at scales larger (more (e.g., Landsat 7 ETM+ and the ASTER instrument
3 detailed) than 1:100,000. By contrast, a very high-­ from the Terra satellite) and (2) active microwave
resolution (VHR) satellite scene with a 50 cm res- radar methods (use a microwave source onboard of
olution could be viewed at scales to 1:2500 before the satellite and calculate the backscatter from the
pixelation became apparent. Mid resolution data Earth) (e.g., Radarsat-1 and the radar sensor from
can be used for the initial, broad-scale study, to the Shuttle Radar Tomographic Mission [SRTM]).
derive, locate, and designate smaller areas of For its part, infrared imagery is divided into three
interest, while higher-resolution data are utilized classes: (1) very near infrared, which detects partic-
for subsequent analyses. ularly vegetation; (2) short wave infrared, the best
In contrast to electrical, magnetic, and gravity possibility to discriminate sedimentary rocks; and
methods that compute force fields, remote-­sensing (3) thermal infrared, utilized to discriminate dark
technique is usually referred to methods that use the materials such as non-sedimentary rocks (Laake
electromagnetic energy as radio waves, light, and 2011). The most famous satellite used in geological
heat as the means of finding and measuring target studies is Landsat (. Box 3.2: Landsat Program).
 

 Box 3.2

Landsat Program
The Landsat program is a series of Since 1972, Landsat satellites the Landsat series was designed
Earth-observing satellite missions have continuously acquired initially to provide multispectral
jointly managed by NASA and the space-based images of the Earth’s imagery for the study of renew-
US Geological Survey. In the mid- land surface, coastal shallows, able and nonrenewable resources,
1960s, stimulated by the USA’s and coral reefs. Landsat satellites geologists immediately recog-
successes in planetary exploration image the Earth’s surface along nized the geological potential
using unmanned remote-sensing the satellite’s ground track in a of the Landsat images, and the
satellites, the Department of the 185 km-wide swath as the satel- bands 5 and 7 in the TM were cho-
Interior, NASA, and the Depart- lite moves in a descending orbit sen specifically for their geologi-
ment of Agriculture embarked on (moving from north to south) cal applicability. The approximate
an ambitious effort to develop over the sunlit side of the Earth. scene size of TM images is 170 km
and launch the first civilian Earth Landsat 7 and Landsat 8 orbit north-south by 183 km east-west,
observation satellite. Their goal the Earth at 705 km altitude. and the radiance measured by the
was achieved on July 23, 1972, They each make a complete orbit Landsat sensor is a measure of the
with the launch of Landsat 1, every 99 min, complete about integration of soil, rock, and veg-
originally named «ERTS» for Earth 14 full orbits each day, and cross etation characteristics. Landsat
Resources Technology Satellite. every point on Earth once every 7 carries the Enhanced Thematic
Thus, the Landsat program, a 16 days. Mapper Plus (ETM+), with 30 m
joint effort of the US Geological For most geologists and other visible, near-IR, and SWIR bands,
Survey (USGS) and the National Earth scientists, multispectral a 60 m thermal band, and a 15 m
Aeronautics and Space Adminis- imagery is synonymous with panchromatic band. Landsat 8 is
tration (NASA), was established NASA’s Landsat series. The primary the latest satellite (2013) in this
to routinely gather land imagery sensor onboard Landsats 1, 2, and series (. Fig. 3.12) and operates
 

from space. NASA develops the 3 was the Multispectral Scanner in a near-circular, near-polar,
remote-sensing instruments and (MSS), with an image resolution sun-­synchronous orbit with a
spacecraft, then launches and of approximately 80 m in four 705 km altitude at the equator. It
validates the performance of the spectral bands ranging from the carries two push-broom sensors:
instruments and satellites. The visible green to the near-infrared the Operational Land Imager
USGS then assumes ownership (IR) wavelengths. In July 1982, the (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sen-
and operation of the satellites, in launch of Landsat 4 saw the inclu- sor (TIRS), both of which provide
addition to managing all ground sion of the Thematic Mapper (TM) improved signal to noise ratio and
reception, data archiving, product sensor with a 30 m resolution 12-bit radiometric quantization of
generation, and distribution. and 7 spectral bands. Although the data.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
139 3

The use of satellite imagery associated with mineral deposits, IR) of Landsat satellite, with wave-
is now a standard technique in and to produce maps of regional lengths between 2.08 and 2.35
mineral exploration, and Landsat and local fracture patterns, which micrometers and resolution of
imagery has been used to pro- can have controlled mineralization 30 m, is very useful for mapping
vide basic geological maps, to or hydrocarbon accumulations. hydrothermally altered rocks asso-
detect hydrothermal alteration For instance, TM band 7 (reflected ciated with mineral deposits.

..      Fig. 3.12  Artist concept of Landsat 8 (Image courtesy of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center)

Because different rock types reflect radia- 3.4.2 Photogeology

tion to different degrees and in different spec-
tral ranges, remote sensing allows preliminary World War I was the onset of the development
geological interpretations of an area. Thus, some of aerial photography and photointerpretation.
of the geological features intimately associated Photointerpretation is the study of the character of
with ore deposits provide strong signals that can the ground surface using the aerial photographs.
be detected by this technique. These features are Aerial photographs are pictures of the ground
often clearly recognizable, even through soil cover surface taken from the air with a camera pointing
or vegetation. Different surface materials such as downward, and they are mainly used for the pro-
water, vegetation, or clay alteration generate dif- duction of topographic maps. Some important
ferent signals of radiation in varying wavelength additional uses are regional geological mapping
bands. This pattern of reflectance is characteris- (1:36,000 to 1:70,000), detailed geological map-
tic for each type of land surface and is known as ping (1:5000 to 1:20,000), open-pit management,
its reflectance signature. In mineral exploration, land use, agricultural and forestry applications,
this can be especially meaningful in looking for water resource applications, urban and regional
surface alteration systems where argillic alteration planning, and environmental impact assessment,
can be present (Sabbins and Oliver 2004). Finally, among many others. While satellite imaging cov-
the full potential of remote-sensing data can only ers very large areas of the Earth’s surface, aerial
be obtained by combining all forthcoming spec- photography and photogeological interpretation
tral bands in digital processing. This is because provide the topographic and geological basis for
the combination enables improving the interpre- exploration work of smaller areas of 10 km2 or
tation of linear structures, gossans, hydrothermal less. For this reason, most exploration studies
alterations, and so on. involve multi-image interpretation.
 140 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

Interpretation of standard aerial photographic adjacent photographs (overlap of 60–90%) along

images remains as an important tool, being highly the flight path enable subsequent stereoscopic
effective especially when used for logistic and (three-dimensional) viewing. The two main
planning. The study of the aerial photographs can- pieces of photointerpretation equipment are field
not substitute the field investigations, but rather it stereoscopes and mirror stereoscopes. The latter
helps and contributes to them. The advantages of are mainly utilized in the office and can view full
3 the study of the aerial photographs are as follows: 23 cm × 23 cm photographs without overlapping.
(a) they save time and provide to observe a larger Where available at a suitable scale and reso-
area; (b) they have more detailed ground surface lution, aerial photographs are the best medium
than maps; (c) they can be studied anytime and upon which to construct a geological map. Thus,
anywhere; and (d) the studies carried out on the the initial interpretation made from the images
photographs are cheaper and easier than studies will provide: «(a) definition of areas of outcrop
in the field. and areas of superficial cover; (b) preliminary
In turn, photogeology is the interpretation geological interpretation based on topographic
of the geological and geomorphological features features, drainage patterns, colors and textures
as well as various lithofacies on the aerial photo- of rocks, soils and vegetation, trend lines of lin-
graphs, a source of geological information that ear features, etc.; (c) geological hypotheses for
can be unobtainable elsewhere. The use of aerial field checking; (d) selection of the best areas to
photographs in geology includes (a) outlining test these hypotheses; and (e) familiarity with the
the structure and structural relationship in an topography and access routes to assist in logistic
area; (b) outlining the stratigraphic succession; planning of the field programme: access roads and
(c) preparation of a geological map; (d) measure- tracks, fording points for streams, potential heli-
ments of stratigraphic sections; (e) measurements copter landing sites, etc.» (Marjoribanks 2010) In
of dip and strike and thickness of formations; and this sense, topographic studies using drones are
(f) inferences about rock types present in the area common in mineral exploration (. Fig. 3.13).
 

(Dirik 2005). Tone in aerial photographs refers to the

Based on scale, there are different types of aer- brightness at any point on a panchromatic pho-
ial photographs: large-scale (1:5000 to 1:10,000), tograph and is affected by many factors (e.g.,
medium-scale (1:10,000 to 1:20,000), small-scale nature of the rock – sandstone is light, but shale
(1:20,000 to 1:60,000), and very small-­ scale is dark). Basic extrusive and intrusive igneous
(>1:60,000) aerial photographs. The photographs rocks display usually darker tone while bedded
used mostly are at the scale of 1/35000, with a sandstone, limestone, quartzite, and acid igneous
size of 18  ×  18  cm. The size of the photograph rocks are commonly lighter; mudstone, shale, and
cannot be greater than 25 × 25 cm because stereo- slate show intermediate tones (Whateley 2006).
graphic viewing is only possible for this size. In With regard to the texture, there is a large varia-
turn, based on film used, aerial photographs can tion in apparent texture of the ground surface as
be panchromatic black and white photographs, seen on aerial photographs. Moreover, texture is
infrared black and white photographs, and infra- often relative and subjective. However, drainage
red colored photographs. Aerial photographs can pattern indicates the bedrock type that affects soil
also be classified as oblique or vertical. Oblique characteristics and site drainage conditions. For
photographs can be either high angle oblique instance, dendritic drainage occurs on relatively
photographs or low angle oblique photographs. homogenous material such as flat-lying sedimen-
Vertical photographs are those taken by a camera tary rocks and granite, and radial drainage radi-
pointing vertically downward. ates outward from a central area, typical of domes
The factor that produces the strongest three-­ and volcanoes. Moreover, the distribution of veg-
dimensional effect in photointerpretation is ste- etation commonly offers information about the
reoscopic vision. Two photographs of the same rock types. For example, sandstone and shale can
terrain, but taken from different camera stations, be cultivated, while dolerite is left as rough pas-
generally permit three-dimensional viewing and ture. On the other hand, lines of vegetation (e.g.,
are said to comprise a stereoscopic pair, also com- trees) are the best indicator of fractures, faults,
monly referred to as a stereo pair. Overlapping veins, and joints.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
141 3
..      Fig. 3.13  Drone for
topographic study at
Nigeria (Image courtesy of
Eduardo Revuelta)

..      Fig. 3.14  Part of a 1:25,000 geological map (IGME, Spain)

3.4.3 Geological Mapping this early mapping was done to locate bedrocks
suitable for construction of canal systems, geo-
Publication in 1815 of the first colored, hand-­ logical maps (. Fig. 3.14) are used as a means of
 

painted geological map of England and Wales by presenting the observations as well as construct-
William Smith heralded the birth of modern geol- ing geological hypotheses. Geological mapping
ogy (Winchester 2001). Today, two centuries after plays an important role throughout the mine life
 142 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

cycle, from regional- to district-scale exploration based mapping tools, recent technological
targeting, through drilling and ore discovery, to advances incorporate global positioning systems,
deposit assessment, ore-reserve estimation, pre- pen tablet computers, and laser ranging devices
production mine planning to production, and, that all support direct (paperless) field-based digi-
ultimately, mine closure. tal geological mapping. In this sense, geographic
Geological mapping has been used exten- information systems (GIS) revolutionized explora-
3 sively  for mineral exploration for more than tion practices (. Box 3.3: Geographic Information
 

100 years. Beyond the use of traditional paper- Systems).

Box 3.3

Geographic Information Systems

A geographic information system well-delineated features. A raster The ultimate objective of using
(GIS) is a computer system (hard- data format expresses data as a a GIS during Mineral exploration
ware, software, and netware) and continuously changing set of grid is to predict the approximate
associated database designed to cells. The raster model is better for positions of new mineral deposits.
efficiently capture, store, update, portraying subtle changes such For doing this, the data to be
manipulate, analyze, retrieve, and as soil-type patterns over an area. integrated should be indicative
display all forms of geographi- Most geographic information of the mineral deposits searched
cally referenced information. The systems make use of both kinds according to an exploration model
first known use of the term geo- of data. Once all of the desired customized for the area under
graphic information system was data have been entered into a GIS analysis. In this sense, remote-
in 1968. In 1986, Mapping Display system, they can be combined to sensing data often constitutes an
and Analysis System (MIDAS), the produce a wide variety of indi- important part of the database
first desktop GIS product emerged vidual maps, depending on which introduced in a GIS because of
for the DOS operating system. data layers are included. its intrinsic digital nature and
Then, this was renamed in 1990 to In mineral exploration, the because it can be used as the base
MapInfo for Windows when it was data are usually organized in over which to overlap other data.
ported to the Windows platform. layers of different types such as By combining GIS technology
Recently, a growing number of topography, remote sensing, with the enormous progress in
free, open-­source GIS packages geophysical and geochemical recent years in remote sensing, it
run on a range of operating sys- results, etc. Some GIS applica- has been possible to extend the
tems and can be customized to tions, for instance using ArcGIS, mineral exploration all over the
perform specific tasks. are specifically developed to world. Moreover, recent integra-
Modern GIS technologies represent and process particular tion of exploration data with GIS,
use digital information, for which types of geological, geochemical, supported by intelligent systems,
various digitized data creation and geophysical information. has greatly enhanced the acquisi-
methods are used. The most com- Raster images, such as satellite tion, analysis, and interpretation of
mon method of data creation is or geophysical imagery, can be complex problems of probabilities
digitization, where a hard copy integrated and overlain with vec- and decisions involved in mineral
map or survey plan is transferred tor data such as geology, faults, projects. Mapping of mineral
into a digital medium through and sample information. Thus, GIS potential using GIS is conducted to
the use of a CAD program and is essential in customizing and delineate areas with different prob-
geo-referencing capabilities. integrating a broad range of min- abilities of hosting certain types of
Geographic data can be stored eral exploration data consisting mineralization. The main steps in
in a vector or a raster format. of information on drillholes with generating mineral potential maps
Using a vector format, two- summary stratigraphic logs, rock are (a) establishing the exploration
dimensional data is stored in sample and drillhole sample geo- conceptual model; (b) building a
terms of X and Y coordinates. For chemistry, mineral occurrences, spatial database; (c) spatial data
instance, a road or a river can be magnetic and gravity images, digi- analysis (extraction of evidence
described as a series of X and Y tal geology, current and historic maps and assigning of weights);
coordinate points. Thus, the vec- exploration details, and much and (d) combination of evidence
tor system is good for describing more (. Fig. 3.15).
  maps to predict mineral potential.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
143 3

..      Fig. 3.15  GIS image released with QGIS (a free and open-source geographic information system) including
different types of information such as geology or mining data (Image courtesy of Miguel Ángel Sanz)

There are two main reasons that mapping as the basis for preliminary examinations to assess
remains an essential part of mineral explora- mineral potential, frequently in conjunction with
tion. First, mapping creates the geometric pat- geochemical, geophysical, or remote-sensing sur-
terns that represent the geological attributes of veys or compilation of mine and prospect data.
an exploration target. Second, there are scientific, However, geological maps available today,
engineering, and financial implications of map- either published by government surveys or in
ping because subsequent geophysical modeling, many scientific journals, are generally not well
­ore-­reserve estimation, financial forecasting, and suited for special needs of mineral exploration
economic evaluation are based on the interpreta- and development and require exploration geolo-
tion of such work (Brimhall et al. 2006). The qual- gists to undertake specialized mapping. Whereas
ity and scale of the geological map will vary with published maps of general geology do outline
the importance of the program and the finance information essential to exploration, including
available. Scales of geological maps range from rock units, stratigraphy, ages of rocks, and general
reconnaissance (1:24,000 or smaller) to detailed structure, they are in most cases not sufficiently
project scale (1:100 to 1:12,000). detailed to help delineate mineral deposits that
Geological mapping is widely used in planning are typically 1–2  km2 in outcrop area even for
exploration strategies such as the selection of regions world-class deposits. Consequently, the geologi-
to explore for certain types of ore deposits. Prior to cal mapping at this stage generally is done at a
mapping campaigns, existing geological maps are more detailed and larger scale than published
examined and can be compiled to emphasize key mapping, and key lithologic units and features
geological features to assess exploration potential. of mineralization or hydrothermal alteration are
Exploration geologists commonly use existing maps mapped using the reconnaissance techniques.
 144 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

Since geological information is commonly economic minerals will produce them, but even
recorded on maps and cross sections at a scale the presence of a clear physical contrast between
appropriate to the aims, property geology must be mineralization and surrounding rocks does not
defined at a scale of 1:5000, while mineral deposit imply a significant anomaly (Milson 2006).
geology must be mapped to a scale of 1:1000 or Geophysical measurements in the natu-
even more detailed. Information displayed in this ral environment will be contaminated with
3 type of map includes faulting, folding, rock types, unwanted information. This is called noise, which
fracture/vein density and orientation, evidence is a source of error, while the information being
of primary porosity/permeability, and phases of sought in the measurement is known as signal.
mineralization, among many others. Signal amplitude should be as high as possible
Regarding geological mapping in underground whereas noise signal should be as low as possible,
mines, it can play an essential role in mineral explo- in order to obtain an accurate measurement of the
ration. Abandoned mine workings are the most parameter of interest. In any case, suppression of
direct guides of the mineralization in a region and noise is of outmost importance and must be con-
provide the immediate information on ore occur- sidered at every stage of the geophysical program,
rences. If the workings are active, they provide a from data acquisition to presentation of the data
series of fresh geological exposures with each for interpretation (Dentith and Mudge 2014).
meter of advance, and they supply well-­located Geophysical methods can be classified as
sites for underground drilling and sampling. passive (magnetism, specific gravity, and radio-
activity) and active methods (electric conductiv-
ity, electromagnetic properties, and seismicity).
3.4.4 Geophysical Exploration Passive methods use natural sources of energy,
of which the Earth’s gravity and magnetic fields
Introduction are two examples, to investigate the ground. The
Mineral exploration is increasingly being geophysical measurement is made with a detector,
addressed to searching for buried and deep tar- sensor, or receiver, which measures the response
gets since there are few large ore bodies to be of the local geology to the natural energy. In turn,
found at the surface. Unlike geochemistry and active geophysical methods involve the deliber-
other remote-sensing techniques, geophysics ate introduction of some form of energy into the
helps to look at into the subsurface and to provide ground, for example, seismic waves or electric
information about the concealed geology. Thus, currents. Again, the response of the ground to the
geophysics is an integral part of most mineral introduced energy is measured with some form
exploration programs. Geophysical techniques of detector (. Fig. 3.16). These methods are more
 

have been used in mineral prospecting for the complicated and expensive to work with.
past 300 years, beginning in Sweden around 1640
with the use of magnetic compasses in explor-
ing for iron ore. These techniques are essential in
areas where outcrop is poor or has been subject
to intense mineral search over a long period. In
some cases, geophysical techniques also enable
for quick regional appraisal of areas where ground
access is almost impossible, for instance, rain for-
est terrain or developing countries with insuffi-
cient infrastructure (Marjoribanks 2010).
For a geophysical technique to be useful in
mineral exploration, there must be a clear contrast
in the physical characteristics of the minerals,
rocks, and ores related to the existence of valu-
able minerals. Geophysical anomalies, defined
as differences from a constant or slowly varying ..      Fig. 3.16  Geophones for receiving seismic signal
background, can be recorded. Ideally, the actual (Image courtesy of International Geophysical Technology)
3.4 · Exploration Methods
145 3
The geophysical signal can be directly related matched with surface geological data to decide if it
to mineral deposits, for example, a magnetic is worth proceeding with further exploration.
anomaly caused by magnetite ore in an iron Geophysical techniques are routinely used in
deposit. More commonly, geophysical methods exploration programs to help the project geologist
provide indirect evidence that leads to interpre- delineate areas favorable for the type of target being
tations of the subsurface geological distribution pursued. They can be used to directly detect some
of rocks, but it does not directly or necessarily minerals, indirectly detect others, and map geologi-
reflect the presence of a mineral deposit. These cal and structural features in exploration programs.
types of methods are applied to both mineral Direct detection includes using induced polariza-
discovery and geological mapping. They are use- tion (IP) to find disseminated sulfides, magnetics
ful because geophysical responses of materials to delineate magnetite-­hosting rocks, and gravity
can be ­measured through vegetation, soil cover, and electrical techniques for massive sulfides. For
and extraneous overburden. In many cases, geo- instance, indirect detection of targets includes
physical measurements provide the only means of «using IP to detect pyrite in association with
interpreting the geological characteristics of the sphalerite and gold (both non-­responders to IP
subsurface short of drilling, which is much more geophysical techniques), and copper and molybde-
expensive (Gocht et al. 1988). num in porphyry systems; magnetics are routinely
Over the area of interest, geophysical instru- used to search for hydrothermal alteration in asso-
ments are deployed in the field to measure varia- ciation with porphyry systems, and can be used to
tions in a physical parameter associated with map buried stream channels (e.g. magnetite sands)
variations in a physical property of the subsur- that might host placer gold» (Mukherjee 2011).
face, and the measurements are used to infer Seismic surveys are highly effective for investigat-
the geology of the survey area. Of particular sig- ing layered stratigraphy, so they are the mainstay
nificance is the ability of geophysical methods to of the petroleum industry but are comparatively
make these inferences from a distance and, for rarely used in the minerals industry. Regarding
some methods, without contact with the ground. costs of geophysical surveys, the seismic method is
A considerable number of geophysical explora- the most expensive, while airborne magnetic and
tion methods are available for mineral explora- radiometrics are the less expensive.
tion, and each method exists in several variants. It is very important to note that most impor-
The specific choice is a function of the geological tant advances in geophysical exploration for ore
and exploration model of the targeted deposits; of deposits in the last 25  years dealt with advances
general conditions such as remoteness, climate, in theory or practice of the different methods but
and human land use; and of the costs (Shen et al. also with the development of more sophisticated
2008). Through either ground, airborne, or in-­ instrumentation and especially more powerful
ground (downhole) methods, geophysical studies data processing. These advances together with the
employ the types of surveys cited above to detect use of GPS for survey positioning control have
anomalous signals related to the presence of min- greatly reduced the cost and time involved in
erals. all geophysical surveys and have increased their
The chief advantages of airborne surveying resolution in the detection of anomalous signals
relative to ground surveying are the greater speed in the data.
of data acquisition and the completeness of the Traditionally, most geophysical data has been
survey coverage. After their introduction in the presented for interpretation in the form of contoured
1950s, airborne geophysical surveys became com- or raster plans and sections that can be interpreted
monly used as a first step in geophysical explora- in terms of the geology and ore mineralization that
tion. They provide the quickest, and often the most they represent. However, new methods of analyzing
cost-effective, ways of obtaining geological infor- and presenting geophysical data have been intro-
mation about large areas. Two or more methods duced in the last two decades to revolutionize the
are commonly combined in one survey to obtain interpretation process. These methods are gener-
data that are more accurate. In surface geophysics, ally referred to as «data inversion» (McGauchy
geophysical work on the ground is normally rather 2007; Oldenburg and Pratt 2007) (. Box 3.4: Data
 

slow. Results from airborne and surface surveys are Inversion in Geophysical Exploration).
 146 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

Box 3.4

Data Inversion in Geophysical Exploration

Geophysics is traditionally used geophysical measurements into given earth model (forward model-
to predict the position of a 3-D images of the subsurface ing), inverse modeling will help
mineralized body by seeking out that can be integrated with other determine what 3-D distribution of
3 geophysical anomalies. The new surface and subsurface geologic physical properties yields a mea-
inversion techniques establish the observations. Insights generated sured field response. The known
geophysical properties of rocks from geophysical inversion have information (e.g., overburden
and then measure their geophysi- helped to improve prospecting and thickness, lithology from drill data,
cal signatures in the field. Thus, it is focus drill targeting, particularly in and borehole assay results) can
possible to generate three-dimen- deeper and more complex subsur- help constrain the inverse problem
sional models of their potential face environments. The 3-D geo- to a limited number of plausible
mineralization and the surround- physical inversion is now possible models. The most useful models are
ing geological ­environment. Inver- for almost all geophysical methods the result of exploring the inver-
sion models are generally much that are commonly used in mineral sion model space by running many
easier to interpret than the original exploration. Over the past decade, scenarios with different constraints
data and provide a superior under- geophysical inversion has proved and sensitivity to other geological
standing of the subsurface. its effectiveness in exploring for information. Therefore, new algo-
The target deposit in mineral ore deposits and major oil reserves rithms and faster computers have
exploration is commonly buried around the world. a huge impact on the success of
within a complex geological Inversion techniques make geophysical inversion for explora-
structure, and the contribution of use of complex computer algo- tion. Similarly, the ability to easily
the other units masks the sought rithms and information of the integrate and use supplementary
response. In such cases, direct geophysical properties of the rocks information to better constrain
visual interpretation of the target and potential mineral deposits of the inversion is critical to produc-
location is difficult or impossible. the prospect, to construct math- ing reliable models. In summary,
Thus, the geophysical data need ematically a geological model that geophysical inversion produces
to be «inverted» to recover a agrees, or is at least compatible, physical property models from
distribution of the relevant physi- with the geophysical observations. geophysical data whereas forward
cal property that can explain the The results are presented as a 2-D modeling produces data from a
observations. Geophysical data or 3-D geological model of the physical property model of the
inversion enables resource explor- body of rocks that were surveyed Earth.
ers to extract more insight from (. Fig. 3.17). Instead of finding
  However, it is important to
geophysical data by converting the single possible response to a realize that, as with all computer

..      Fig. 3.17 3-D
geophysical inversion a
images. a 3-D con-
ductivity model from
frequency-domain
electromagnetic field
inversion (Geosoft
VOXI Earth Modelling);
b 3-D susceptibility
model from magnetic
field inversion (Geosoft
VOXI Earth Modelling) b Gridded
observed
(Images courtesy of data
Geosoft)

Y X
3.4 · Exploration Methods
147 3

models, the product of inversion its construction. It is a feature of measured in the field. Choosing
modeling is only as good as the geophysical inversion models between different possible mod-
geological choices made in set- that shows they are not unique: els requires geological knowledge
ting up the model parameters many different models can be about the area, and the better
and the accuracy of the geophysi- constructed that will reproduce that knowledge, the more useful
cal properties that are used in the geophysical pattern that was and realistic the inversion model.

Gravity Methods gravimeter reading are recorded. The measurement

In this geophysical method, subsurface geology of relative values of gravity, which is the differences
is investigated based on variations in the Earth’s of gravity between locations, is the standard pro-
gravitational field developing from differences of cedure in gravity surveying. Before the results of a
density between subsurface rocks. Gravity sur- gravity survey can be interpreted, it is necessary to
veys have been widely used to understand general correct for all variations in the Earth’s gravitational
subsurface structure as measurement of gravity by field that do not result from differences of density
gravimeters is relatively easy. The mean value of in the underlying rocks. This process is known as
gravity at the surface of the Earth is about 9.8 m/ «gravity reduction» (LaFehr 1991) and basically
s2, and variations in gravity caused by density includes instrument drift, latitude, elevation, and
variations are of the order 100 μm/s2. This unit of tidal corrections.
the micrometer per second squared is referred to Gravity differences over the surface of the
as the gravity unit (gu). An accuracy of ±0.1 gu is Earth are due to density differences between
quickly attainable in gravity surveys on land and adjacent rocks. Density contrasts of different
corresponds to approximately one hundred mil- materials are controlled by a number of factors
lionth of the normal gravitational field (Kearey such as type of rock, grain density of the particles
et al. 2002). The instrument used in gravity sur- forming the rock, and the porosity and intersti-
veying is called a gravimeter (. Fig.  3.18), an
  tial fluids within the material. Rock densities are
extremely sensitive weighing machine. At each among the least variable of all geophysical param-
survey station, location, time, elevation, and eters and range from less than 2.0 g/cm3 for soft
sediments to more than 3.0 g/cm3 for mafic and
ultramafic rocks. Obviously, many ore minerals
(e.g., metal sulfides) are clearly denser than their
host rock. For this reason, the ore bodies are com-
monly denser than their surroundings. However,
it is important to note that actual effects are tiny,
usually amounting to less than 1 ppm of the total
field of the Earth, even considering large massive
sulfide deposits. Gravimeters must then be very
sensitive, a specification which is commonly in
conflict with the request to be also rugged and
field worthy.
The variations in the density of the crust and
cover are presented on a gravity anomaly map
(. Fig.  3.19). A gravity anomaly map looks at
 

the difference between the value of gravity mea-

sured at a particular place and the predicted
value for that place. Gravity anomalies form a
pattern, which can be mapped as an image or by
contours. The wavelength and amplitude of the
gravity anomalies give geoscientists an idea of the
..      Fig. 3.18  Gravimeter (Image courtesy of International size and depth of the geological structures caus-
Geophysical Technology) ing these anomalies. Deposits of very dense and
 148 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

Bouguer anomaly map

mGal
57.574
57.547
57.531
57.514
57.502

3
57.488
57.478
57.467
57.456
57.448
57.438
57.431
57.421
57.414
57.405
57.398
57.389
57.381
57.373
57.364
57.357
57.348
57.340
57.330
57.322
57.311
57.300
57.290
57.277
57.265
57.248
57.231
57.205
57.173

..      Fig. 3.19  Bouguer anomaly map (Illustration courtesy of International Geophysical Technology)

heavy minerals will also affect gravity at a given used for mineral exploration if substantial density
point and will produce an anomaly above nor- contrasts are expected. Thus, chromite and sulfide
mal background levels. Anomalies of exploration bodies possess very high densities, and buried
interest are often about 0.2 mgal, and data have to channels, which can contain gold or uranium,
be corrected for variations due to elevation, lati- can be detected because they have relatively low
tude, and other factors. density. In fact, gravity surveying is rarely used
Much less can be deduced about the shape or in reconnaissance exploration because it is rela-
the depth of the investigated mineral deposit. A tively slow to execute and therefore expensive.
deeper body will, other things being equal, give However, gravity methods are very useful as a
rise to a broader and flatter anomaly. Likewise, the follow-up method utilized on a target defined
peaks of gravity anomalies are generally situated by another, more cost-effective method. In this
just above the causative bodies (a causative body sense, gravity surveys, along with regional aero-
is a rock unit of different density from its sur- magnetic data, played a significant role in the dis-
roundings), which is not the case for many other covery of the giant deeply buried Olympic Dam
geophysical methods. Regarding the interpreta- mineral deposit in Australia (Rutter and Esdale
tion of the measurements, «the reliability of any 1985), and the discovery of the Neves Corvo sul-
interpretation, no matter how sophisticated the fide deposits in Portugal was carried out utilizing
technique, depends, of course, on the validity of regional gravity surveys of the Portuguese pyrite
the input assumptions» (Milson 2006). belt on 100 and 200 m grids (Leca 1990).
Gravity surveys can be carried out either from
airborne or ground surveys, but the most sensi- Magnetic Methods
tive measurements are currently achieved from Magnetic methods, which are probably the oldest
the ground. They are used to evaluate the amount of geophysical exploration methods, thrived after
of high-density mineral present in an ore body, the World War II. Magnetic surveys (. Fig. 3.20)
 

and as a general rule, gravity prospecting is only measure variations of the Earth’s magnetic field
3.4 · Exploration Methods
149 3
Diamagnetic minerals show negative susceptibili-
ties and examples of these materials are quartzite
and salt although many of the elements and com-
pounds exhibit diamagnetism. Salt domes thus give
diamagnetic anomalies (weak negative anomalies).
Paramagnetic minerals are ones where the electron
shells are incomplete; as a result, they generate weak
magnetic fields. By definition, all materials that are
not diamagnetic are paramagnetic. Examples of
materials that are paramagnetic are the 20Ca to
28Ni element series. Finally, ferromagnetic miner-
als are minerals that are paramagnetic, but where
groups of atoms align to make domains. There are
only three ferromagnetic elements: iron, cobalt,
and nickel. Almost all natural magnetic minerals
are of this kind. Magnetite, which is the most abun-
dant, ilmenite, hematites, titanomagnetite, and the
oxides of iron or iron and titanium are common
ferromagnetic minerals. Magnetite (Fe3O4) is found
disseminated through most rocks in differing con-
..      Fig. 3.20  Magnetic survey (Image courtesy of Interna-
tional Geophysical Technology)
centrations. The magnetization can be either tem-
porary (induced) in the same direction as the field
of the Earth or permanent (remanent) and fixed
caused by the presence of magnetic minerals. in direction with respect to the rock, regardless
Magnetic outcomes result primarily from the mag- of folding or rotation. All geologically significant
netization induced in susceptible rocks by the mag- magnetic minerals lose their magnetic properties at
netic field of the Earth: everywhere in the Earth about 600 °C, a temperature reached near the base
there is a natural magnetic field. These methods of the continental crust. Consequently, local fea-
are widely used, both as an essential assistance in tures on magnetic maps are virtually all of crustal
regional mapping and for direct location of those origin (Milson 2006).
mineral deposits that show distinct magnetic sig- As a rule, the magnetite content and, therefore,
nature. Magnetic and gravity methods have much the susceptibility of rocks are very variable, being
in common. The magnetic map, however, is gener- present a considerable overlap between different
ally more complex, and the variations in field are mineralogies and lithologies (. Table  3.2). Basic
 

more erratic and localized than the gravity map. igneous rocks are commonly highly magnetic
Thus, the precise interpretation of magnetic field because this type of rock has a relatively high
data is usually much more difficult than for gravity. magnetite content. In this sense, the proportion of
Magnetic surveys are often utilized in metallic magnetite in igneous rocks usually decreases with
mineral exploration, particularly locating iron ores. increasing acidity; for this reason, acid igneous
However, ordinary hematite, the most abundant rocks are generally less magnetic than basic rocks.
ore of iron, rarely produces anomalies large enough Metamorphic rocks are also very different in their
to be detectable in conventional aeromagnetic sur- magnetic character, depending of the metamor-
veys. The combination effect of several geophysical phism grade. Regarding sedimentary rocks, they
techniques such as aeromagnetic interpretation are effectively nonmagnetic unless they contain
with study of regional gravity and radiometric data a significant amount of magnetite in the heavy
can produce further gains in the interpretation of mineral fraction. Thus, if magnetic anomalies are
the underlying rocks. detected in areas covered with sediments, these
Minerals can be diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or anomalies are mainly originated by an underlying
ferromagnetic. In diamagnetic minerals, all the elec- igneous or metamorphic basement or by intru-
tron shells are full; there are no unpaired electrons. sions into the sediments.
 150 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Table 3.2  Magnetic susceptibility of some ..      Table 3.2 (continued)

common rocks
Rock types Maximum
Rock types Maximum volume
volume susceptibility
susceptibility (SI units)
3 (SI units)
Limestone 0.025
Igneous rocks
Red sediments 0.0001
Andesite 0.17
Sandstone 0.0209
Basalt 0.18
Shale 0.0186
Dolerite 0.062
Tuffs 0.0012
Diabase 0.16
Conglomerate/akose/pelites 0.0012
Diorite 0.13
Arenites/breccia 0.0012
Gabbro 0.09
Avg. sedimentary rock 0.05
Norite 0.09
Metamorphic rocks
Dacite 0.05
Amphibolite 0.00075
Granite 0.05
Gneiss 0.025
Granodiorite/tonalite 0.062
Granulite 0.03
Peridotite 0.2
Acid granulite 0.03
Quartz porphyries/quartz-­ 0.00063
feldspar porphyries Basic granulite 0.1

Pyroxenite/hornblendite 0.25 Phyllite 0.0016

(Alaskan type)
Quartzite 0.0044
Rhyolite 0.038
Schist 0.003
Dunite 0.125
Serpentine 0.018
Trathyte/syenite 0.051
Slate 0.038
Monzonite 0.1
Marble 0.025
Phonolite 0.0005
Metasediments 0.024
Spilites 0.0013
Migmatites 0.025
Avg. igneous rock 0.27
Magnetite skarn 1.2
Avg. acidic igneous rock 0.082
(pegmatites Avg. metamorphic rock 0.073
Avg. basic igneous rock 0.12   Magnetite ~0.1% 0.0034
(komatiites, tholeiite)
    ~ 0.5% 0.018
Sedimentary rocks
    ~ 1% 0.034
Clay 0.00025
    ~ 5% 0.175
Coal 0.000025
    ~ 10% 0.34
Silt/carbonates 0.0012
    ~ 20% 0.72
Dolomite 0.00094
3.4 · Exploration Methods
151 3
The practical unit of magnetic field for survey ore bodies. Therefore, magnetic observations are
work is the nanotesla (nT), sometimes also known obtained relatively easily and cheaply, and a few
as the gamma. At the magnetic poles, the field is corrections are applied to them, explaining why
about 60,000 nT and vertical, while at the equator the magnetic methods are one of the most fre-
it is about 30,000  nT and horizontal. The mag- quently utilized geophysical tools. Three types of
nitude of the Earth’s magnetic field averages to correction are carried out in magnetic methods to
about 5 × 10−5 T (50,000 nT). Magnetic anomalies remove all causes of magnetic variation: diurnal
as small as 0.1 nT can be measured in continental variation, geomagnetic, and elevation and terrain
magnetic surveys and can be of geological signifi- corrections.
cance. Today, «with improvements in instrumen- Despite these obvious advantages, interpre-
tation, navigation and platform compensation, tations of magnetic observations suffer from a
it is possible to map the entire crustal section at lack of uniqueness due to dipolar nature of the
a variety of scales, from strongly magnetic base- field and other various polarization effects. The
ment at a very large scale to weakly magnetic sedi- greatest limitation of the magnetic method is
mentary contacts at small scale» (Likkason 2014). that it only responds to variations in the mag-
Methods of magnetic data treatment, filtering, netic properties of the materials of the Earth,
display, and interpretation have also improved which means that many other characteristics of
significantly, especially with the advent of high the subsurface are not solvable. «The inherent
performance computers and color raster graphics ambiguity in magnetic interpretation for quan-
as well as GPS technology. titative techniques is problematic where several
The instrument used for magnetic sur- geologically plausible models can be attained
veys is called a magnetometer. Magnetometers from the data».
record disturbances in the Earth’s magnetic field Most magnetic work for mineral explora-
caused by magnetically susceptible rocks. Since tion is carried out from the air since aeromag-
the early 1900s, a variety of surveying instru- netic surveying is quick and cost-effective, with
ments have been designed. The first device to a cost some 40% less per line kilometer than a
be developed was the fluxgate magnetometer, ground survey. In this type of survey, the flight
which found early application during the Second lines are spaced 0.5–1.0 km apart at an elevation
World War in the detection of submarines from of roughly 200 m above the ground. Line sepa-
the air. Actually, three types of magnetic sensor rations have decreased over the last years and
are commonly used in geophysical surveying, can now be as little as 100 m. Data are recorded
namely, the proton-­precession, the Overhauser, digitally and presented commonly as a contour
and the alkali-vapor sensors. The operation of all map. Obviously, flying at lower altitudes and
three is based on quantum-mechanical proper- decreasing the spacing of the flight line increase
ties of atoms. Importantly, they are sensitive to the final sensitivity of the survey. In this sense,
the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field, but it is noticeable that extremely detailed surveys,
they do not however measure its direction but comparable in their resolution to ground mag-
the total magnetic intensity (TMI) (Dentith and netic surveys, can be developed using low-flying
Mudge 2014). With the magnetometer data, a helicopter.
map of magnetic variation at the surface, called Ground surveys are conducted to follow up
a TMI map, can provide an image of lithology magnetic anomalies identified through aerial
distribution. surveys. Such surveys can involve stations spaced
Magnetic methods are used to detect different only 50  m apart. The magnetic survey is gener-
types of ore bodies in mine prospecting. Magnetic ally suspended if periods of large magnetic fluc-
surveys are fast, provide a great amount of infor- tuation (e.g., magnetic storms) are present. Solar
mation for the cost, and can offer information activity, such as spots and flares, cause short-
about the distribution of rocks under thin layers term irregular disturbances with amplitudes that
of sedimentary rocks, useful when trying to locate can surpass 1000  nT.  Although data are usually
 152 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

displayed in the form of a contour map of the utilizing a portable spectrometer. Radiometric
magnetic field, interpretation is often made on surveys for mineral exploration are made from
profiles. According to Kearey et al. (2002), mag- the air, on the ground, and within drillholes.
netic anomalies range in amplitude from a few Airborne radiometrics is particularly common
tens of nT over deep metamorphic basement in mineral exploration where the radiometric
to several 100  nT over basic intrusions and can data are acquired simultaneously with magnet-
3 reach an amplitude of several 1000 nT over mag- ics during airborne surveying, measurements
netite ores. usually calculated from a low-flying aircraft
Direct search for magnetic targets related simultaneously as air magnetic studies. As afore-
to mineralization is an important exploration mentioned, aerial and ground use are restricted
method, especially in those provinces with to areas with little soil cover, because most radia-
banded iron formations, IOCG mineralization tion on the surface comes from the uppermost
types, strongly oxidized porphyry copper intru- 10–50 cm.
sives, magnetite skarns, or pyrrhotite-bearing Although the Geiger-Muller radiation detec-
massive sulfides. In such cases, favorable anom- tor was used in the early era of radiometric
alies are commonly obtained from high-quality surveying, the instruments used nowadays are
low-level aeromagnetics, followed up then by scintillometers, the simplest form of instru-
ground magnetometer traverses and magnetic ment, and spectrometers, a more complex type,
modeling to define a drill target. «Magnetics that detect gamma rays by their interaction
have been also used to define subtle explora- with matter. Small handheld and larger portable
tion targets such as heavy mineral concentra- spectrometers for ground surveying have inter-
tions in palaeo-­strand lines and potential iron nal memories to store the large quantity of data
ore and gold orebodies in palaeochannels» acquired, which is generally restricted to mea-
(Marjoribanks 2010). Examples of ore depos- surements in the K, U, and Th energy windows
its found largely as a result of their magnetic and the total count (Dentith and Mudge 2014).
response are the Olympic Dam mineral deposit The presentation of the obtained data in radio-
(Reeve et  al. 1990) and the Broken Hill-type metric methods is similar to that of magnetic
deposit of Cannington in Australia. This deposit data. In this sense, the high geochemical mobility
was discovered as a consequence of drill test- of elements such as K and U in surficial environ-
ing and an air magnetic anomaly, generated by ments is the motive for the common use of ratios
associated pyrrhotite, in a zone of thick younger (U/Th, K/Th) in these maps due to the almost
cover (Walters et al. 2002). immobile Th. With respect to the presentation
of the obtained data in radiometric methods, it
Radiometric Methods is similar to that of magnetic data. As in grav-
Radiometric surveys carried out the estimation ity and magnetic methods, corrections must be
of the gamma rays emitted from the Earth by also made in radiometric surveys for the effects
natural decomposition of frequent radiogenic of scattered thorium radiation in the uranium
minerals, being a useful technique to map fault window and for the effect of both thorium and
zones or boundaries between geological units. uranium in the potassium window.
Natural radioactive decay produces alpha par- There are over 50 occurring naturally radioac-
ticles, beta particles, and gamma rays. These tive elements, but the elements of main concern
are very high-­frequency electromagnetic waves. in radiometric studies are uranium (238U), tho-
Thus, radiometric survey is a passive geophysi- rium (232Th), and potassium (40K). The latter is
cal method because it measures a natural source common in potassium-rich rocks that cannot be
of energy, similar to gravity and magnetic meth- related to concentrations of U and Th. The most
ods. Most gamma rays are produced in the top abundant radioactive element in the crust is the
30  cm of soil and rocks that can be sensed by potassium isotope 40K, which is widely included
airborne investigations and on surface rocks into the crystal structure of the rock-forming
3.4 · Exploration Methods
153 3
..      Fig. 3.21 Instrumen-
tation for ground radio-
metric (Image courtesy of
International Geophysical
Technology)

mineral orthoclase. Therefore, potassium can Electrical Methods

interfere with the existence of valuable mineral Electrical methods use direct currents or alternat-
deposits, constituting thus a form of noise in ing currents of low frequency to study the electri-
this type of surveying. Nevertheless, it facilitates cal properties of the subsurface, being all of these
the recognition of potassium salts in evaporites, methods ground based. This is in contrast to the
beach placer horizons in sand, and other econom- electromagnetic methods, described in the follow-
ically important deposits. ing section, which use alternating electromagnetic
Ground radiometry (. Fig. 3.21) was proving
  fields of higher frequency for this purpose. The
very useful in the discovery of major uranium most commonly measured property is electrical
districts in the last decades because this element conductivity (Siemens per meter, S/m) or its recip-
is essential for nuclear fuels. Nevertheless, the rocal, resistivity (Ohm). In general, these surveys
present unpopularity of nuclear power and the are applied: (a) to locate mineral deposits at shallow
availability of uranium from dismantled nuclear depth, (b) to map geological structures, and (c) to
bombs made exploration for uranium much less trace groundwater table in hydrogeological inves-
attractive, and the importance of radiometric tigations. There are different methods of electrical
methods has declined accordingly (Milson 2006). surveying: resistivity, induced polarization (IP),
Anyway, this geophysical method is attractive and self-potential (SP). Some utilize fields within
in geology since many rocks can be differenti- the Earth (SP), while others need the incorporation
ated from their distinct radioactive signal. The of artificially produced currents into the ground
advent of new multichannel detectors, which are (resistivity and IP). In general, resistivity surveys
capable of separating radiation from different are often accompanied by induced polarization
radioactive elements, the better sensitivity and measurements.
resolution of airborne surveying methods, and Rocks and minerals show widely varying resis-
the development of new data reduction algo- tivity, with lowest values displayed by clay, saline
rithms have approached airborne radiometric pore water, acid rock drainage, sulfide ore, native
surveys toward new applications. These include metals, and graphite, whereas common rocks and
detecting and mapping areas of hydrothermal minerals have low conductivity, being this con-
alteration as well as weakly radioactive mineral trast used in exploration. Thus, the induced polar-
deposits such as heavy mineral sands (Dentith ization method utilizes the capacitive action of
and Mudge 2014). the subsurface to identify areas where conductive
 154 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.22  Electrodes arrangement (Image courtesy of International Geophysical Technology)

minerals are scattered in their host rocks. The self- methods, operate much better in the upper few
potential method uses natural currents present 100 m of the surface with unweathered rocks rela-
in the ground and originated by electrochemical tively close to the surface.
processes with the aim of finding shallow bodies As a rule, the resistivity method is scarcely
that display anomalous conductivity. Although used in mineral resource exploration. Conversely,
the origin of the potentials is not well understood, IP is important in base metal exploration because
conductive mineralization can be associated with it depends on the surface area of the conduc-
a negative self-potential anomaly. tive mineral grains rather than their connectiv-
Electrical methods are used at regional and ity, being successfully employed to a maximum
prospect scale for direct detection of electri- depth of around 600 m. Induced polarization (IP)
cally anomalous targets and, in particular, to surveys cause an electric field in the ground and
detect metal sulfide and metal oxide mineraliza- calculate the chargeability and resistivity of the
tion. Establishing the depth of the source of the subsurface. Thus, this method is capable of iden-
response is problematic in electrical methods. tify changes in the electric currents produced by
Varying the position of the electrode array and the existence of different rocks and minerals. IP
the separation of the electrodes (. Fig. 3.22), lat-
  surveys are conducted along grid lines with read-
eral and vertical variations in electrical properties ings taken at receiving electrodes planted in the
can be mapped and used to produce data pseu- ground and moved from station to station.
dosections, volumes, and maps. However, moving IP is especially sensitive to disseminated min-
cables, electrodes, and equipment from one point eralization that can produce no resistivity anomaly.
to the next makes these methods laborious and After magnetic methods, IP technique is probably
slow. Electrical methods, as with electromagnetic one of the oldest geophysical methods utilized in
3.4 · Exploration Methods
155 3

NW SE
30 Gravel or sand 30
Water
25 500 25
Elevation (m)

500 50100 300

200 300 200
200 100

20 100 Sand and clay 20

100 50

15 200
15

10 Fresh granite 10
1000 1500
1000
5 5
0m 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m
Fresh granite
Weathered granite
50
55
61
67
74
81
90
99
109
120
132
146
160
177
195
215
237
261
287
317
349
385
424
467
515
568
629
689
760
837
923
1017
1121
1235
Resistivity
(Ohm.m)
Clay Gravel
Sand

..      Fig. 3.23  Graphic display of an IP survey (Illustration courtesy of International Geophysical Technology)

mineral deposit exploration. . Figure 3.23 shows

  (Hz) induces in the Earth electromagnetic waves
a graphic display of the interpretation of an IP of long wavelength, which have considerable pen-
survey. This method commonly detects sulfide etration into the Earth’s interior. Induced currents
ore minerals (e.g., of Cu and Mo in porphyries) or (eddy currents) produce a secondary field in the
other minerals that are disseminated in a matrix rock mass. The resultant field can be traced and
with high resistivity. Since both massive and dis- measured, thus revealing the conductivity of the
seminated deposits can be identified, IP is very underground masses.
widely used although the method is slow and com- Electromagnetic methods are often employed
monly relatively expensive. In fact, IP is virtually as the reconnaissance tools used to identify anoma-
the only geophysical method to detect direct dis- lies for greater detailing because EM instruments
seminated sulfides in the ground. Examples of the provide rapid and easy data collection. As a rule,
successful use of an IP survey in mineral resource higher resolution is achieved by using higher fre-
exploration are the detection of the blind, sedi- quencies and greater depth penetration by lower
ment-hosted, lead/zinc sulfide Gortdrum deposit frequencies. The problems to analyze the results of
of Ireland (Hitzman and Large 1986) and the EM investigations commonly increase with depth
discovery of San Nicolas VMS deposit in Mexico of penetration, and electromagnetic methods thus
(Johnson et al. 2000). operate best for ore bodies located as much as
200 m below the surface. Most of the sensor devices
Electromagnetic Methods of the electromagnetic methods are useful without
Electromagnetic induction (EM) utilizes the contact from the ground, having a high operational
induction principle to estimate the electrical con- efficiency in the field.
ductivity of the subsurface. Thus, EM surveys are There are two fundamental categories of elec-
based on variations of electric conductivity in the tromagnetic measurements: frequency-domain
rock mass commonly using an external electro- and time-domain measurements. In the frequency
magnetic field, the primary field, and inducing a domain, a continuous sinusoidal current is used. It
current to flow in conductive rocks below. These is a very sensitive tool, detecting variations as little
are classified as natural field methods and con- as 3%. In the time domain, the change in the pri-
trolled source methods, respectively. In the latter, mary magnetic field is produced by either abruptly
a transmitter is used to create a primary alternat- turning off or turning on a steady ­ current. It
ing electromagnetic field. The passage of current is a powerful transmitter and receiver, and the
in the general frequency range of 500–5000 hertz method can approach the depth, thickness, and
 156 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.24  DHEM survey

(Illustration courtesy of
International Geophysical
Technology)

conductivity of layers down to 300 m below sur- metal producers in eastern Canada is immediately
face. Unlike conventional resistivity techniques, related to the development of airborne electro-
EM works without a physical contact to the magnetic surveys (Lulin 1990).
ground, without electrodes, which is in advantage EM surveys can be also applied in drillholes
for use above ice, water, swamps, frozen, or arid (DHEM) measuring the effects of currents flow-
ground. ing between the drillhole and the surface or
EM surveys are conducted from the air (AEM), between contiguous holes. This method can
on the ground surface, and in drillholes (down- reduce the amount of delineation drilling
hole electromagnetics – DHEM) (. Fig.  3.24).
  required. In general, DHEM is one of the most
Ground-based EM methods are relatively expen- important geophysical tools in the exploration
sive, being used mainly to define targets for drill- for conductive massive sulfide mineralization,
ing in ­specific mineralization styles. For its part, especially deep nickel sulfide bodies. For many
airborne investigations incorporating this geo- reasons (e.g., many host rocks and mineralization
physical method have been commonly utilized for can give a similar geophysical signal), electromag-
direct ore location and sometimes in regional geo- netic methods are useful in locating ores in some
logical mapping. They were originally developed regions of the world where fresh and not oxidized
in the frequency domain to detect conductive rocks are present near the surface. An example of
massive sulfide bodies within the resistive rocks of this type of regions is the recently glaciated areas
the Precambrian shield of Canada. The subsequent of North America, northern Europe, and Russia.
need to explore other kinds of geological environ- Besides the described techniques, the mag-
ments, combined with developments in EM sys- netotelluric method (MT) is a passive elec-
tems, has led to higher-sensitivity time-domain tromagnetic technique used for exploring the
systems now being used almost exclusively for conductivity structure of the Earth from tens of
mineral exploration. Airborne electromagnetic meters to a depth of more than 10,000 m. It is a
surveys are used in mineral exploration to discover survey method that utilizes the Earth’s telluric
mineral deposits such as sulfides containing cop- current produced in the ground by variations of
per or lead, magnetite, pyrite, unconformity-style the Earth’s magnetic field. The main applications
uranium mineralizations, kimberlite pipes, certain of this technique are in hydrocarbon explora-
manganese minerals, and paleochannels as poten- tion. Finally, ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
tial hosts for placer deposits and sandstone- and is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses
calcrete-hosted uranium deposits (Dentith and to image the subsurface, being utilized in rock,
Mudge 2014). On the other hand, the discovery soil, ice, fresh water, structures, etc. It can detect
of massive sulfide deposits that form major base changes in material as well as voids and cracks.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
157 3

Line located west

0.0
–2.0
–4.0
–6.0
Depth (m)

–8.0
–10.0
–12.0 Contact
–14.0 Intensely
or clayey level
–15.0
karstified zone
–18.0
85+640 85+660 85+680 85+700 85+720 85+740

Line located east

0.0
–2.0
–4.0
–6.0
Depth (m)

Karstified zone
–8.0
–10.0
–12.0 Contact
–14.0 Intensely
or clayey level
–16.0 karstified zone
–18.0
85+640 85+660 85+680 85+700 85+720 85+740

..      Fig. 3.25  Results of a GPR survey (Illustration courtesy of International Geophysical Technology)

This method has a great similarity with seismic Most seismic work uses reflection methods
method and may be considered as a mini reflec- because they produce better resolution than other
tion seismic survey. . Figure 3.25 is an example
  techniques, with the exception of measurements
of a GPR survey. made in close proximity (e.g., as with borehole
logs). Seismic methods dominate oil industry since
Seismic Methods reflection seismic is the most important geophysi-
Seismic methods are based on measurements of cal method to prospect for oil and gas at greater
the time interval between initiation of a seismic depths. As aforementioned, these techniques are
(elastic) wave and its arrival at detectors in order comparatively little used in mineral exploration,
to obtain an image of the subsurface. The seismic mainly due to their high cost and because most
wave can be generated by an explosion, a dropped mineralizations in igneous and metamorphic rocks
weight, a mechanical vibrator, a bubble of high-­ display incoherent layering. Applications of these
pressure air injected into water, and other sources. techniques include searching offshore placers or
The seismic wave is detected by a geophone on land subsea resources of bulk minerals such as sands
or by a hydrophone in water. Since seismic waves and gravels. Where ores occur in sedimentary rocks
(e.g., P-waves and S-waves), which propagate with that are just gently folded or faulted, seismic surveys
different velocities in different rock types, are can be useful. However, reflection work onshore is
reflected and refracted at bedding or fault contacts, slow and expensive because geophones have to be
reflection and refraction are the most commonly positioned individually by hand and sources can
used seismic techniques. Refraction methods use need to be buried. The use of reflection in onshore
simpler equipment (. Fig. 3.26) and need less pro- exploration for solid minerals other than coal is
 

cessing than reflection methods. Compared with consequently rare, although Witwatersrand gold
other geophysical methods, the seismic method, in reefs, flat-lying kimberlite sills, and some deep
any of its forms, is rarely used in mineral explora- nickel sulfide bodies have all been investigated in
tion. this way (Eaton et al. 2003).
 158 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.26  Seismic refrac-

tion survey (Image courtesy
of International Geophysical
Technology)

..      Fig. 3.27 Electromag-
netic airborne survey (Image
courtesy of Geotech)

Likewise, the mining industry uses detector therefore, they can be carried out from aircraft.
and/or seismic sources located in the subsurface, Obviously, there is a loss of sensitivity because
with access provided by drillholes or underground detectors are far away from sources. The main
workings. Thus, seismic surveys can map miner- merit of airborne work is that it enables coverage
alization between drillhole intersections and are of large areas quickly and inexpensively per unit
used for exploration at a prospect scale and dur- area. Moreover, airborne surveys measure physi-
ing mining. Seismic survey also utilized seismic cal properties of rocks and ores through dense
waves that are deliberately guided through coal vegetation, swamps, lakes, and soils, among
seams to gather information of its characteristicsmany others. They are usually part of the recon-
prior to mining (Dentith and Mudge 2014). naissance phase of mineral resource exploration,
although some modern airborne systems offer
Airborne Geophysics higher resolution by surveying very close to
Magnetic, electromagnetic (. Fig. 3.27), gamma-­ the ground and can find application in the later
 

ray, and more recently gravity measurements stages of exploration. Airborne geophysical sur-
do not need physical contact with the ground; veys are typically undertaken using low-flying
3.4 · Exploration Methods
159 3
helicopters or light aircraft that fly in a grid pat-
tern, being the instruments mounted on the air-
craft or positioned underneath. According to the
survey type, the aircraft can fly ranging from 20
to 70 m above the ground and the flight lines can
be delimited from 20 to 200  m apart. Airborne
investigations can be flown either at a constant
altitude or at a nominally constant height above
the ground, which is more common in mineral
exploration.
Since airborne methods need a very good
navigational control, airborne surveys have been
completely transformed by the use of global
positioning satellites (GPS). With this instru-
ment, velocities can be estimated with great
accuracy, making airborne gravimetry, which
requires velocity corrections, usable for the first
time in mineral exploration. In the near future,
pilotless drones can fly some airborne surveys,
especially aeromagnetic surveys. In fact, drones
are already used in topographic applications
(. Fig. 3.13).
 

The most frequently used first stage in geo-

physical exploration includes the aeromagnetic
survey. Thus, a magnetometer or a series of mag-
netometers attached to an aircraft estimate the ..      Fig. 3.28  Caliper geophysical borehole logging
intensity of the Earth’s magnetic field, producing (Image courtesy of Robertson Geologging)
the detection of magnetic anomalies originated
by the minerals present in the ground. Among
other factors, the resolution of the data is depen-
dent upon (a) the distance between the traverse Borehole Geophysical Logging
line spacing, (b) the distance between the aircraft Because exploration drillholes are usually
and the ground, (c) the magnetic signature of the cored completely, the industry has been slow
aircraft itself, and (d) variations in the diurnal to identify the importance of geophysical bore-
activity. hole logging (. Fig. 3.28). However, since drill-
 

Airborne electromagnetic surveys generate ing is expensive, geophysical borehole logging

the strongest EM responses from massive sulfides is essential to obtain the maximum possible
and can use man-made primary electromagnetic information from each drillhole; in this sense,
fields to measure the electromagnetic properties of the geophysical characteristics of the rocks sur-
rocks. Very low-frequency EM system can be use- rounding a borehole are often the best guides
ful as a mapping tool, particularly when combined to discover the existence of ore (. Box 3.5:  

with magnetics. Finally, airborne gravimetry mea- Borehole Geophysical Logging). Borehole geo-
sures the changes in the gravity field with an air- physical surveys result in the higher resolution
borne gravimeter on a helicopter or an aircraft. It of data, especially in conjunction with geologi-
involves using ultra-sensitive equipment, called a cal, physical, and chemical core logging results
gravimeter, to look at the structure density of rock (Ellis and Singer 2007). Downhole geophysical
in the subsurface of the Earth. New generation surveys increase the radius and depth of inves-
gravimeters back out the movement of the aircraft tigation and provide greater resolution of buried
from the data, providing a more accurate mea- targets. For instance, in the uranium industry,
surement. Once corrections are made to the data, borehole logging is actually a basic tool in the
critical information can be derived for mapping exploration and delineation of uranium deposits
purposes. (Mwenifumbo and Mwenifumbo 2013).
 160
Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

Box 3.5

Borehole Geophysical Logging

Most geophysical techniques can hole, a depth counter, and the There are two quite distinct
be modified for use in boreholes. surface recording instrumentation modes of making downhole mea-
Thus, borehole geophysics is the that displays the data and usually surements: downhole logging
3 science of recording and analyzing supplies the power to the probe. and downhole surveying. The first
measurements of physical proper- In most cases, the probe sends is used where the in situ physical
ties made in boreholes. Compared information up to the surface in properties of the rocks pene-
to geophysical measurements real time, either wirelessly or via trated by a drillhole are measured
made on the ground surface, the cable. A string of different to produce a continuous record
they have better resolution in the probes can be connected to collect of the measured parameter.
depth dimension. Probes that more than one type of geophysical Measurements of several physical
measure different properties are information. Borehole geophysi- parameters, producing a suit of
lowered into the borehole to col- cal measurements are made by logs, allow the physical charac-
lect continuous or point data that sensors (receivers/detectors) that terization of the local geology.
is graphically displayed as a geo- are housed inside a probe. The Despite the valuable information
physical log (. Fig. 3.29). Multiple
  probe is lowered downholes in obtainable, multiparameter
logs typically are collected to take which the measurements are to logging is not ubiquitous in
advantage of their synergistic be made. A series of continuous mineral exploration, but its use is
nature because much more can be measurements are made with the increasing along with integrated
learned by the analysis of a suite of data transmitted to the surface. interpretation of multiple geo-
logs as a group than by the analy- The logging speed is commonly physical data sets. On the other
sis of the same logs individually. about 6 m/min. Data sampling hand, downhole surveying is
The primary components of a geo- rates range from one sample to designed to investigate the larger
physical logging system include five samples and provide measure- region surrounding the drillhole,
the probe, cable, winch, wellhead ments every 2–10 cm along the with physical property varia-
pulley assembly at the top of the hole. tions obtained indirectly, and to

..      Fig. 3.29 
Borehole geophysical
logs Log10 (conductivity) Temperature gradient
(mK/m)
Low

High

12
0
60

60
70
70

80
80

Depth (m)
90
90
Depth (m)

100
100

110
110

120
120
130
3.4 · Exploration Methods
161 3

indicate the direction and even gamma, single-point resistance, emit relatively high gamma
the shape of targets. For instance, spontaneous potential, normal radiation because they include
downhole electromagnetic survey resistivity, induced polarization, weathering products of potassium
detects conductivity variations, fluid resistivity, temperature, flow- feldspar and mica and tend to
probably owing to mineralization, meter, television, and acoustic and concentrate uranium and thorium
in the volume surrounding the optical televiewer (. Fig. 3.30).
  by ion absorption and exchange.
drillhole. Downhole geophysical For instance, the caliper probe The optical televiewer probe gets
surveys increase the radius and (. Fig. 3.28) measures the diame-
  optical views of the wall and is
depth of investigation and provide ter of the borehole as a continuous useful in locating structures such
greater resolution of buried tar- record against depth and is used as faults and also bed boundaries
gets. For instance, exploration of an as a check of borehole condition where there is a significant change
iron ore body could be improved before casing operations or before in rock formation colors. Acoustic
by a density log. The located min- running more expensive log- televiewer tools have a transmitter
eralization can be split into layers ging probes. Gamma logs record that scans the borehole wall with
of magnetite and hematite using a the amount of natural gamma an acoustic beam, and the acoustic
magnetic susceptibility log. radiation emitted by the rocks sur- energy reflected at the borehole
Common geophysical logs rounding the borehole; clay- and fluid and rock interface is recorded
and/or probes include caliper, shale-bearing rocks commonly by a receiver.

..      Fig. 3.30 
Acoustic and
optical televiewer
probes (Image
courtesy of
Enviroscan)

3.4.5 Geochemical Exploration of geochemical exploration during the twentieth

century. First, most metallic mineral deposits are
Introduction surrounded by zones of uncommon trace element
In geochemical exploration, anomalous surface concentrations in the nearby and enclosing rocks.
enrichments of elements that point to potential Thus, chemical deviations can be expressed by
mineral deposits in the subsurface are sought. For enrichment or depletion of certain minerals, ele-
this reason, geochemical surveys play an essen- ments, isotopes, etc. On the other hand, geochem-
tial role in mineral exploration because it is an ical exploration has gained widespread acceptance
essential component in most modern integrated with the development in the last decades of rapid,
mineral exploration programs. Geological map- sensitive, and accurate analytical methods. This
ping and geophysical surveys are usually carried type of mineral resource exploration is conducted
out simultaneously with geochemical exploration. at several scales, from regional reconnaissance
Several elements caused the quick development to very detailed local sampling at high sampling
 162 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.31  Soil for geo-

chemical sampling (Image
courtesy of Mari Luz García)

densities. Most exploration programs begin with during the 1930s (Garret et  al. 2008). Modern
regional stream sediment sampling followed by surveys are conceptually similar to earlier sur-
soil and then rock sampling. Geochemical surveys veys but are considerably more complex in their
in mineral exploration are based on two features details. This complexity in modern geochemical
of an ore deposit: (1) association with abnormal surveys arises from several sources (Adcock et al.
concentrations of elements in the nearby rocks, 2013): (1) the number of samples collected in a
and/or (2) association with secondary scattered single survey can sometimes reach several thou-
patterns of elements in the surficial materials sand, and national- or continental-scale projects
of their weathering and erosion; it substantially can involve numerous surveys carried out over
increases the area in which evidence for the pres- several years. (2) different sample types (e.g.,
ence of a mineral target can be detected. glacial sediment, multiple soil horizons, water,
The most commonly measured chemical prop- vegetation) can be collected at each sampling
erty in a mineral or rock is the trace content of an site. (3) a sample can be processed in various
element or cluster of elements. The analyzed mate- ways (crushing, sieving, heavy and/or magnetic
rial can be rock, soil (. Fig. 3.31), gossan, glacial
  mineral separation, washing, etc.) before being
debris, vegetation, stream sediment, or water. Thus, subjected to chemical analysis. (4) the sample
«the purpose of the measurements is the discovery can be analyzed by a variety of different meth-
of a geochemical anomaly or area where the chem- ods, by different laboratories, over a time period
ical pattern indicates the presence of ore in the of years or even decades. A clear example of this
vicinity» (Hawkes 1957). Obviously, the absence of complexity is the China Geochemical Baselines
such anomalies helps to eliminate areas for further project, which was carried out in 2008, being
consideration. However, it is essential to bear in sampling completed in 2012. The main goal was
mind that the basic geochemical question required to establish the abundance and spatial distribu-
60  years of discussion: what constitutes a geo- tion of chemical elements throughout the whole
chemical anomaly and how can this be enhanced China. Running the project, 6617 samples from
(sample processing and analytical methods) and 3382 sites were collected across the country
detected (a number of univariate and multivariate (Wang 2015).
mathematical techniques)? (Cohen et al. 2007). In general, a geochemical survey is divided
The modern techniques of geochemical pros- into the following phases: (1) planning, (2) sam-
pecting originated in the Soviet Union and Scan- pling, (3) chemical analysis, and (4) interpretation
dinavia where extensive research was conducted of data. As a general rule, samples are collected in
3.4 · Exploration Methods
163 3
689700 690000 690300 690600

ain
Sp
4162500

4162500
Murcia Region
Sp47 Sp48
Sp49
4162200

4162200
Sp45
S16 S18
Sp46 Legend
Sp42 Sp43
Sp44 Zn (Total sediments)
<P25
S10 S11 S12 P25 - Median
Sp36 Sp37 Sp38 Median - P85
>P85

4161900
4161900

Sp39
Sp40 S21 Sampling point
Sp31 Sp32
S3 Sp33 Sp41
S1 S2 S4 Sp34
Sp30 S5 N
S6 Sp35

0 150 300 Meters

Portman Bay
4161600

4161600
Mediterranean Sea
Tragsa

Research group:
689700 690000 690300 690600 Soil contamination E048-08

..      Fig. 3.32  Color contour map of a geochemical survey (Spain) (Illustration courtesy of Mari Luz García)

the field. They are brought to a laboratory facil- rocks at the time of ore formation. For instance,
ity where they are subjected to preparation prior some of the fluid permeates into wall rocks in
to analysis, including crushing, sieving, drying, hydrothermal deposits causing different altera-
and filtering. The prepared samples are then sent tions which include chemical changes. Halos of
to different laboratories for chemical analysis. this type are very useful in exploration since they
Where the data are returned, they are verified and can commonly be hundreds of times larger than
reported typically in a spreadsheet format, with a the mineralization they surround. Moreover, they
set of rows and columns. Finally, these data are extended both laterally and vertically, hence being
processed using different statistical methods (e.g., easier to locate. Primary dispersion halos have a
multivariate analysis) and displayed commonly as great variety of sizes and shapes due to the numer-
color contour map (. Fig. 3.32). The objective is
  ous variables that influence fluid movement in
to establish a geochemical anomaly that separates rock. Thus, some halos can even be identified at
the mineral deposit from enhancements in back- distances of hundreds of meters from their related
ground and nonsignificant deposits. mineralization. The factors that control the devel-
opment of primary halos are manifold: fractures
 rimary and Secondary Geochemical
P in the host rock, porosity and permeability of
Anomalies the host rock, inclination of mineralizing fluids
Geochemical anomalies are commonly divided to react chemically with the host rock, and so
into primary or secondary. The primary geo- on. Obviously, the composition and distribution
chemical anomalies are formed as by-product of of these primary halos depend on the type of
the processes that concentrate ore; they are larger deposit. For instance, porphyry copper deposits
than the ore target itself. As defined originally by usually display chemical halos that measure hun-
Safronov (1936), «the primary halo of a mineral dreds of meters horizontally and vertically.
deposit is an area including rock, surrounding Since trace elements of mineralization and
mineral deposit (ore bodies) and enriched ele- their linked primary halos are commonly dis-
ments that make up that deposit.» In general, charged by weathering processes to soils, overbur-
primary dispersion halos are produced in the host den, and vegetation, they generate a subsequent
 164 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

generation of enrichment called secondary halos. by classical analytical procedures (. Table  3.3).
 

Thus, secondary geochemical anomalies or halos For instance, arsenic is commonly utilized as a
are formed by processes that acted on the deposit pathfinder in exploration for gold. The choice of
after its formation. These types of halos are gen- pathfinder elements/metals depends on many
erated by mechanical breakdown and chemical factors such as consistency of association with
dissolution of rocks and ores. Chemical weather- the ore deposits sought, characteristics of primary
3 ing involves breakdown of rocks and minerals by dispersion, and ease with which geochemical
chemical means with further discharge of their analysis can be performed (Levinson 1974).
contained trace elements to the environment. The variable mobility of elements is of great
It requires abundant water, oxygen, and carbon significance in the process that causes secondary
dioxide. In general, chemical weathering is more dispersion. Elements with high mobility under sur-
abundant in tropical regions although it can also ficial conditions enlarge the anomalous zone. For
be substantial in temperate areas. In turn, physi- instance, a project targeting polymetallic deposits of
cal weathering includes all processes of rock dis- Pb, Zn, and Cu would use mobile Zn for regional
integration not involving chemical changes, being sampling with a low density, whereas dense sam-
more frequent in very cold or hot arid regions. pling of Zn anomalies for Cu and Pb should reveal
Mechanical breakdown and further trans- the drilling targets (Pohl 2011). In this context, there
port in surface water runoff concentrate resistant are many important properties in the elements such
minerals such as cassiterite, rutile, monazite, as electronic configuration, ionic potential, pH and
diamonds, gold, etc. Therefore, anomalies are Eh, trend to originate complexes with organic mat-
detected by heavy mineral panning of stream sed- ter, and trend to coprecipitate or to be absorbed with
iments or soils. Other minerals can be dissolved iron or manganese hydroxides.
and the metals can be either redeposited locally or The mobility of elements in secondary disper-
carried away into solution by ground- and surface sion is strongly influenced by factors including
water. Groundwater frequently dissolves some of the nature of rocks, climate, vegetation, relief, and
the constituents of mineralized bodies that can be groundwater flow. Thus, in cold climate, large and
transported along considerable distances before well-defined anomalies do not develop because
eventually emerging in springs or streams. During chemical dissolution is inefficient and drain-
dispersal, the elements can be reconcentrated in ages are poorly developed; in dry, arid climate,
vegetation, on clay minerals, or in organic matter, chemical dissolution is ineffective and dispersal
all of which are attractive sampling media in geo- by occasional flash floods does not lead to the
chemical exploration. Regarding the vegetation, formation of well-defined anomalies. By contrast,
some metals in solution can be collected by plants in tropical climate decomposition and leaching
and trees and then concentrated in the living tis- of the ore-­forming elements can be so complete
sue. In some cases, the element that originates the that no traces of the metals remain in weathered
most important primary halo is not necessarily rocks or soils. Therefore, the best environment for
the one of greatest economic significance in the geochemical exploration is located in a temperate
mineralization. climate in regions of gentle topography, in which
Mobility is an indicator of how far an element abundance of water and warm temperatures leads
can go dissolved in water, broadening the signal to effective dissolution of ore minerals and the
originated from the mineral deposit. For this rea- gentle topography fosters both chemical dissolu-
son, the usefulness of the mobility of an element is tion and the development of good secondary dis-
essential in geochemical prospection. This type of persion halos (Gocht et al. 1988).
element is commonly referred to as a pathfinder.
The pathfinders are very useful in geochemical Stream Sediment Sampling
exploration since their halo is generally greater Stream sediment geochemical surveys are the cor-
than that of the element with the most economic nerstone of all types of reconnaissance exploration,
interest or because it can be identified more easily mainly in regions undergoing active weathering.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
165 3

..      Table 3.3  Major components and pathfinders ..      Table 3.3 (continued)

for different types of mineral deposits (Moon 2006)
Type of deposit Major Pathfinders
Type of deposit Major Pathfinders compo-
compo- nents
nents
Co–Ni–Ag veins Co, Ni, Ag, S As, Sb, Bi, U
Magmatic deposits (Cobalt)

Chromite ores Cr Ni, Fe, Mg Epithermal Au, Ag Sb, As, Hg,

(Bushveld) precious metal Te, Se, S, Cu

Layered magnetite Fe V, Ti, P Sediment hosted Au, Ag As, Sb, Hg,

(Bushveld) precious metal W
(Carlin)
Immiscible Cu, Ni, S Pt, Co, As,
Cu–Ni–sulfide Au Vein gold Au As, Sb, W
(Sudbury) (Archaean)

Pt–Ni–Cu in layered Pt, Ni, Cu Sr, Co, S Mercury Hg, S Sb, As

intrusion (Bushveld)
Uranium vein in U Mo, Pb, F
Immiscible Fe, Ti P granite
Fe–Ti–oxide (Allard
Lake) Unconformity u Ni, Se, Au,
associated uranium Pd, As
Nb–Ta carbonatite Nb, Ta Na, Zr, P
(Oka) Copper in basalt Cu Ag, As, S
(L. Superior type)
Rare-metal Be, Li, Cs, Rb B, U, Th,
pegmatite rare earths Volcanic-associated Cu, S Zn, Au
massive sulfide Cu
Hydrothermal deposits
Volcanic-associated Zn, Pb, Cu, S Ag, Ba, Au,
Porphyry copper Cu, S Mo, Au, Ag, massive sulfide As
(Bingham) Re, As, Pb, Zn–Cu–Pb
Zn, K
Au–As rich Fe Au, As, S Sb
Porphyry molybde- Mo, S W, Sn, F, Cu formation
num (Climax)
Mississippi Valley Zn, Pb, S Ba, F, Cd,
Skarn-magnetite Fe Cu, Co, S Pb–Zn Cu, Ni, Co,
(Iron Springs) Hg
Skarn–Cu Cu, Fe, S Au, Ag Mississippi Valley F Ba, Pb, Zn
(Yerington) fluorite
Skarn–Pb–Zn Pb, Zn, S Cu, Co Sandstone-type U U Se, Mo, V,
(Hanover) Cu, Pb
Skarn–W–Mo–Sn W, Mo, Sn F, S, Cu, Be, Red bed Cu Cu, S Ag, Pb
(Bishop) Bi
Sedimentary types
Base metal veins Pb, Zn, Cu, S Ag, Au, As,
Sb, Mn Copper shale Cu, S Ag, Zn, Pb,
(Kupferschiefer) Co, Ni, Cd,
Sn–W greisens Sn, W Cu, Mo, Bi,
Hg
Li, Rb, Si,
Cs, Re, F, B Copper sandstone Cu, S Ag, Co, Ni
Sn–sulfide veins Sn, S Cu, Pb, Zn, Calcrete U U V
Ag, Sb
 166 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

Stream sediment sampling can be applied only if a fractions commonly include pebbles, which are
well-developed drainage system is present. In this usually depleted in trace elements.
technique, stream sediments are taken from active Panning heavy minerals to obtain concen-
stream channels and studied to find anomalous trates is also a classical method of stream sedi-
element concentrations since the sediment sample ment studies, being a very useful geochemical
from an active riverbed is considered to represent prospecting technique (e.g., panning for gold).
3 an average of its upstream watershed. Thus, the Panning refers to the process in which a sample
objective is to obtain sample(s) representative of is agitated in water to separate minerals by their
the catchment area. The relatively easy use of the specific gravity. Thus, heavy mineral panning is
method leads to a quick evaluation of regions at widely employed for searching native elements
fairly low cost. such as gold grains, platinum, diamonds, and
Small streams give maximum resolution and heavy resistant mineral grains such as magnetite,
sharpest contract, as opposed to large streams in zirconium, ilmenite, rutile, monazite, and cassit-
which any anomaly from a mineralized zone will erite. If positive results are obtained, immediately
be diluted by large amounts of stream sediment follow-up campaign is carried out to look for the
from barren areas. Sampling densities are about source of the anomaly.
one sample per two square kilometers in regional
reconnaissance programs. In more detailed inves- Soil Sampling
tigations, higher density of sampling density is Soil sample geochemistry is a powerful tool in the
usually carried out depending on the local con- exploration of anomalies found by stream sedi-
ditions and the characteristics of the target. For ment investigations. The method works very well
instance, sampling densities can range from one since weathering and leaching of buried deposits
sample over 100  km2 in reconnaissance studies can discharge anomalous concentrations of ele-
to a few samples per km2 in more specific follow- ments to soil and groundwater. The released heavy
up. In general, the values of the background and metals spread outward and originate a dispersion
anomalous element concentrations are computed halo in the soil that is much larger than the min-
statistically, and metal distributions are illustrated eral deposit itself. As a rule, the dispersion halos
in geological maps. Previously, samples are sieved in soils are smaller than those in stream sediments
to 80 mesh (0.157  mm) and the fine fraction is but larger than those in primary halos in rocks.
analyzed since it reflects better metal anomalies. Similar to stream sediment sampling, samples col-
It is important to remember that the coarser lected (. Fig. 3.33) are commonly the fine silty or
 

..      Fig. 3.33  Soil sampling

(Image courtesy of Mari Luz
García)
3.4 · Exploration Methods
167 3
been developed related to the positions where
Horizons the target and pathfinder elements can be ana-
lyzed.
O (organic) Regarding the sample spacing in soil sam-
pling, sampling density and patterns are deter-
A (surface)
mined by the style of target, stage of exploration,
topography of the exploration area, prospective
geology, and orientation of the anomaly. Soil
B (subsoil) samples are typically collected on a rectangular
pattern, generally with closer spacing of sample
sites along more widely space sample lines. The
optimum spacing between sampling lines and
C (substratum) sample sites will depend on the purpose of the
survey and the expected size of the dispersion
halo to be detected. For instance, usual sample
R (bedrock)
spacing for reconnaissance studies ranges from
200/400 to 400  m. For more detailed anomaly
investigation, samples are taken at 100  m inter-
vals on 200 m spaced lines. In this case, an infill
..      Fig. 3.34  Soil profiles sampling down to 50  m on 100  m spaced lines
is commonly carried out. The main goal is to
clayey material that results from weathering of the acquire at least two samples from the detected
underlying bedrock, being usually obtained just anomaly on a sampling line.
below the organic-rich surface grassroots layer.
It is a comparatively expensive technique Water Sampling
and is typically carried out in detailed explora- In general, water samples collected from springs,
tion where it is used to identify specific targets wells, boreholes, and streams are rarely useful
for drilling. Soil geochemistry surveys can be for mineral deposit exploration. According to
performed on a regional basis in areas without Pohl (2011), dissolved metal content in water
well-­developed drainages to allow stream sediment is usually very low, in the ppb range, and var-
surveys. The dispersion halos of elements in soils ies strongly with pH and Eh, which makes
are much smaller than those in stream sediments interpretation difficult. Thus, the concentra-
but still considerably larger than those in primary tion of elements of geochemical interest is very
halos in rocks. Soil sampling is especially recom- low compared to that in stream sediments.
mended in areas of residual soil over any bedrock For these uncertainties, hydrogeochemistry
and in areas with soil developed on in situ regolith. is not a widely method used in exploration.
Elements can accumulate in different forms However, high concentrations of chemical ele-
within a soil profile (. Fig. 3.34). Traditionally,
 
ments can be found in groundwater. For this
B-horizon has represented a position where reason, groundwater surveys are preferred to
elements have concentrated as minerals such surface water studies. Groundwater surveys are
as silicates, iron oxyhydroxides, and carbonate commonly conducted in conjunction with soil
crusts. This preconcentration can represent an studies for detailed surveys. Thus, groundwa-
ideal sample material for collection. It is also the ter has the potential to be a powerful mineral
most homogeneous horizon and provides the exploration tool for different considerations:
best sampling medium. The C-horizon, which «(1) recent advances in analytical methods have
is closest to the rock, generally shows little dis- resulted in lower detection limits; (2) ground-
persion of the target elements. The A-horizon, water is chemically reactive with mineralization
the uppermost soil horizon, can show the larg- and host rocks, in particular where water is O2-
est dispersion, but a variable c­ ontent of organic bearing; (3) groundwater flows away from the
matter leads to irregular element distribution. site of reaction with mineralization, providing
As analytical t­ echnology has advanced, becom- a potentially broader exploration target than
ing increasingly sensitive, new possibilities have lithogeochemistry; and (4) for many species of
 168 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

interest, background concentrations are low, delineation of mineralized felsic plutons and
enhancing anomaly contrast» (Leybourne and exhalative horizons because these plutons with
Cameron 2007). Interpretation of groundwater mineralization of copper and tungsten are com-
geochemistry in mineral exploration is easier if monly enhanced in these elements, although
data related to the local and regional hydrology invariably display a high variability inside the
is available. pluton. For instance, tin mineralization associ-
3 ated with highly evolved and altered intrusive
Rock Sampling bodies is delineated examining the geochemistry
Rock geochemical surveys seek the primary dis- of minerals such as micas.
persion halo around mineral deposits. Because
this type of halos is restricted to a small area Biogeochemical Sampling
immediately surrounding any prospective min- Biogeochemistry is a viable first-pass exploration
eral deposit, rock surveys are mainly applied to method, and it can show multi-element halos at
evaluate specific targets outlined by regional small scale, being more refined if more detailed
surveys. Although this technique has been also exploration methods are carried out in the target.
applied with relatively good results in regional Biogeochemical sampling is a relatively cheap,
reconnaissance, it becomes most effective in efficient, and environmentally passive method in
detailed campaigns (Moon 2006), being rock sam- the initial stages of mineral exploration programs
pling included in the techniques devoted to for (Reid and Hill 2010). Biogeochemical tech-
follow-up mineral exploration. It provides direct niques utilized in mineral deposit prospecting
evidence about the geochemical characteristics of are based on soil and plant relationships. In this
the rocks that cause the anomaly, helping in the sense, plants incorporate elements from soil and
geological interpretation of stream sediment and groundwater into their branches and leaves, and
soil surveys (Govett 1983). this absorption of trace elements depends on the
Geochemical exploration with rock samples or plant species, plant organs, grow stage, and soil
selected minerals is based on specific geological-­ type. Biogeochemical exploration with sampling
petrological models. Examples include regional and chemical analysis of plant tissues has been
sampling of granites in order to locate fertile utilized extensively in Canada and Russia and
intrusions, discrimination of prospective and more recently in Australia (Närhi et al. 2014).
barren porphyries by analyzing copper in bio- Plant samples (. Fig. 3.35) have benefits com-
 

tite, and identification of rare metal pegmatites pared to other sample media in terms of provid-
by muscovite analysis (Pohl 2011). On a regional ing data that represent a broad area, due to their
basis, the most successful applications deal with deep spreading root systems. Biogeochemical

..      Fig. 3.35 Biogeochem-
ical sampling of plants
(Image courtesy of Andrea
Castaño)
3.4 · Exploration Methods
169 3
exploration «relies on the fact that plant roots Gases are potentially an attractive medium
penetrate soil horizons, have access to weathered/ to sample because they can diffuse through thick
fractured bedrock and associated groundwater, overburden. Thus, a number of gases have been
and accumulate elements in their organs» (Dunn used in mineral exploration: sulfur vapors indi-
2007). Accordingly, if some plant organs include cate the presence of sulfide deposits, radon gas
excessive amounts of particular metals, they can guides to uranium deposits, and gaseous hydro-
be used as indicators of ore zones in bedrock for carbons reflect the presence of petroleum and
geochemical exploration (Brooks et  al. 1995). natural gas. However, mercury has been the
Plant growing on soil is dramatically affected most successful gas studied in mineral prospect-
by the host soil composition, which leads to the ing due to mercury is the only metallic element
selection of specific flora. Thus, plants answer to that constitutes a vapor at room temperature.
elemental composition of soil in three ways: exclu- Thus, it is widely present in sulfide deposits, par-
sion, indication, and accumulation (Rajabzadeh ticularly volcanic-associated base metal depos-
et  al. 2015). Biogeochemists use soil indicator its. Enrichment of carbon dioxide and depletion
plants for prospecting ore deposits. For instance, of oxygen produced by weathering of sulfide
because serpentine plants have been studied and mineral deposits have been tested recently.
ultramafic rocks are profuse on the crust of the The results are commonly inconsistent due to
Earth, plants growing on serpentinized materials the large changes in gas concentration (partial
are satisfactorily utilized in biogeochemical explo- pressure) caused by variations in environmental
ration (Freitas et al. 2004). conditions, specifically changes in pressure and
rainfall.
Gas Sampling
At present, mineral deposits susceptible to be Indicator Minerals
prospected are commonly buried deep below Indicator minerals are mineral species trans-
the surface of the Earth. However, the alteration ported as grains in clastic sediments and indi-
and oxidation of a deposit release gaseous com- cating the presence in bedrock of a specific type
ponents that can be detected at the surface using of mineralization, hydrothermal alteration, or
gas samples from soil or down drillholes. This lithology (. Fig.  3.37). The preservation and
 

method can identify a few different gases if they identification of these minerals is provided
are present in sufficient amount (e.g., mercury, by their physical and chemical characteris-
oxygen, CO2, and radon) (. Fig. 3.36). The char-
  tics, including relatively high density. They
acteristics of these gases and their concentration are quickly recuperated at the parts per billion
can provide hints on minerals occurring at depth level from stream, alluvial, glacial, or aeolian
and, consequently, where a mineral deposit can be sediments or soils producing large exploration
present. targets. Indicator mineral methods differ from

..      Fig. 3.36 Measure-
ment of soil radon using
a soil gas probe (Image
courtesy of DURRIDGE
Company Inc.)
 170 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.37 Zircons
used as indicator minerals
(Image courtesy of Javier
Fernández)

traditional geochemical methods for soil, stream only a few grains, equivalent of ppb-level indica-
sediment, or till sampling in that the indicator tor mineral abundances (Averill 2001). One of
grains reflect mechanical dispersion and the the most important and typical occurrences in
individual grains are visually examined and the application of indicator mineral techniques
counted. The greatest advantage of indicator was the bloom in diamond exploration activity in
mineral methods over traditional geochemical the glaciated terrain of Canada, which originates
analysis of the heavy mineral or some other frac- drastic changes in the concepts of sampling and
tion is that the mineral grains are visible and can processing methods because indicator minerals
be studied (McClenaghan 2005). The choice of improved the knowledge of kimberlite host rock.
sample media will depend on the climate, topog- Since most of Canada has been glaciated, the gla-
raphy, and size of area to be sampled. For exam- ciers advanced, eroded, homogenized, and redis-
ple, in glaciated terrain, till is most often used tributed the components of the bedrock that they
for indicator mineral surveys due to its simple pass over. For this reason, diamonds in glacial
transport history. Stream and alluvial sediments drift are the best indicators of a bedrock source
are sampled in glaciated, temperate, tropical, of diamond. However, they are very scarce even
and arid terrains. In turn, aeolian sediments can in the highest-grade diamond-bearing rocks. For
be sampled in arid terrain where other media are example, one carat – 0.2 g – of diamond per ton
not available. of mineralization is regarded a very high-grade
Nowadays indicator minerals are used to diamond deposit. As a result, indicator minerals
detect a great number of mineral deposits such as are an indirect but very useful tool to locate bed-
diamond, gold, Ni–Cu, PGE, porphyry Cu, mas- rock sources of diamond.
sive sulfide, and tungsten deposits. The resulting
benefits of using indicator minerals are numer- Analytical Methods
ous: (1) the ability to detect halos or plumes The analytical methods applied in geochemi-
much larger than the mineralized target includ- cal exploration depend on the requirements of
ing associated alteration; (2) physical evidence exploration stages. Techniques can be grouped
of the presence of mineralization or alteration; according to the attribute being measured. Some
(3) the ability to provide information about the techniques utilize X-rays in different forms for
source that traditional geochemical methods analytical objectives, while other techniques use
cannot, including nature of the ore, alteration, the optical effects of samples. Obviously, each
and proximity to source; (4) sensitivity to detect method has a minimum detection limit and
3.4 · Exploration Methods
171 3
below the concentration cannot be calculated. expected. In developed countries, most common
Therefore, geochemical analysis has a degree of analysis is actually performed by inductively
uncertainty, being uncertainty expressed in terms coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry
of precision. The theoretical lower detection limit (ICP-­OES), often in combination with inductively
is an intrinsic function of the technique, although coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)
the quality of the calibration and the cleanliness and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) (. Box 3.6: X-Ray  

of the equipment used in sample and standard Fluorescence Analysis). The three methods require
preparation also limit detection. The goal of most numerous constraints such as highly sophisticated
analysis is the determination of the trace metal laboratories, very pure chemicals, continuous
concentrations in a sample, but currently it is still and nonfluctuating power supplies, and readily
impossible to analyze all elements simultaneously available service personnel, among others. In less
at the needed levels. sophisticated situations, relatively high quality
The differences between methods are the analysis can be carried out using atomic absorp-
costs involved, analysis detection limits, velocity tion spectrophotometry (AAS), which was the
of analysis, and the requirement to take material most commonly utilized technique in developed
into solution. The method selected will depend countries until 1980. Regarding individual miner-
upon the element being analyzed and the amount als, detailed identification is commonly provided

Box 3.6

X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis characteristic spectrum because of appropriate standards. It is consid-
(. Fig. 3.38) is one of the most
  each element has its unique char- ered best practice to use standards
common relatively nondestructive acteristic energy spectrum (fluores- that are similar to the samples in
methods for qualitative as well as cence spectrum) composed by the question to minimize matrix effects.
quantitative (more interesting in allowed transitions of the specific XRF can measure down to parts per
mineral exploration) determination atom in the result of X-ray excitation. million concentrations and lower,
of elemental composition of materi- In general, a quantitative XRF analy- depending on the element and the
als. This technique is extremely sis can be conducted using two basic material. Regarding the detection
versatile and is suitable for solids, methods: (a) creating a standard limit of each element, it depends
liquids, as well as powders and can curve: this method involves measur- upon the specific element and the
be used to measure many elements ing several samples with a known sample matrix, but in general heavier
simultaneously. The relative ease and element concentration (standard elements have higher detection limit.
low cost of sample preparation and reference materials) and finding the Because X-ray spectrometry is
the stability and ease of the use of relationship between the intensity of essentially a comparative method of
X-ray spectrometers make this one the measured element’s fluorescent analysis, it is vital that all standards
of the most widely used methods X-ray and the concentration; by and unknowns be presented to the
for analysis of major and trace ele- referring this relationship, element spectrometer in a reproducible and
ments in rocks and minerals. In the concentration of unknown sample identical manner. Any method of
field, portable X-ray fluorescence is obtained only with information specimen preparation must give
analyzers are increasingly used for on its fluorescent X-ray intensity; or specimens which are reproducible
on-site data acquisition. The light- (b) considering the type and proper- and which, for a certain calibration
weight portable nature of the this ties of all elements that compose range, have similar physical proper-
instrument allows it to be used in the a sample, the intensity of each ties such as surface roughness,
field to survey locations of potential fluorescent X-ray can be derived particle shape, particle size, homo-
mines directly as well as measuring theoretically: with this method, the geneity, and particle distribution. In
drill cores to determine the depth composition of unknown sample can addition, the specimen preparation
profiles of the mineral deposit. be extrapolated by the fluorescent method must be rapid and cheap
X-rays cover the part of the X-ray intensity of each element. and must not introduce extra
electromagnetic spectrum between XRF is useful for the geochemical significant systematic errors, for
ultraviolet and gamma radiations analysis of a wide range of metals and example, the introduction of trace
and are produced by a radioactive refractory compounds, such as SiO2 elements from contaminants in a
source, an X-ray tube, and a syn- and Al2O3, and even some nonmetals diluent. Thus, specimen preparation
chrotron radiation. XRF technique (chloride and bromide). The quality of is essential in the ultimate accuracy
consists in the study of the produced XRF data is a function of the selection of any X-ray determination.
 172 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.38  XRF ana-

lyzer (Image courtesy of
AGQ Labs)

utilizing a scanning electron microscope (SEM) or limits for certain elements can be as low as parts
an electron microprobe. per trillion level in aqueous solutions. AAS uses
The advent of sensitive, rapid throughput the absorption of light to estimate the concen-
instrumentation such as ICP-OES and ICP-MS tration of gas-phase atoms. Concentrations are
used to complement one another has revolu- commonly established using a working curve
tionized exploration geochemistry in the last after calibrating the instrument with standards
decades. ICP-OES and ICP-MS are widely used of known concentration.
because of their convenient, virtually simulta- In exploration geochemistry, it is very
neous multi-­element capabilities. Plasma used important to note that absolute element con-
in these techniques permits the simultaneous tent in a sample is not always necessary or,
analysis of up to 40 elements, which means that in other words, accuracy cannot be essential.
ICP-MS and ICP-­OES (. Fig.  3.39) are multi-
  Deviations of ±30% from the absolute value,
element techniques. In some cases, detection for example, using international standards, are

..      Fig. 3.39 ICP-OES
instrument (Image cour-
tesy of AGQ Labs)
3.4 · Exploration Methods
173 3
endured, if the relative error remains within and further model building (Grunsky 2010). It
narrow limits. In contrast, excellent reproduc- involves the use of automatic and knowledge-
ibility of results (high precision) is needed. In based procedures for the recognition of patterns
fact, this is the most important characteristic of that can be attributed to known processes (e.g.,
any data evaluation, particularly if the contrast crystal fractionation, hydrothermal alteration, or
between background and anomalies is small. weathering).
In all geochemical programs, error control is According to Grunsky (2010), issues dealing
a fundamental aspect, and for this reason, it is with geochemical data are numerous: «(a) many
good practice to repeat at least 10% of sampling elements have a censored distribution, meaning
and/or control the data by another laboratory that values at less than the detection limit can
(Pohl 2011). The process of analysis is gener- only be reported as being less than that limit; (b)
ally done at some distance from the explora- the distribution of the data is not normal; (c) the
tion project, which means that analytical data data have missing values: not every specimen
is usually accepted and utilized without making has been analyzed for the same number of ele-
criticisms. However, while most laboratories ments; often, missing values are reported as zero,
generate good quality results, they are usually which is not the same as a specimen having a zero
looking for a business to make a profit. For this amount of an element and this can create compli-
reason, a good quality control minimizes biases, cations in statistical applications; (d) combining
confirms that laboratory assays are correct groups of data that show distinctive differences
within a defined degree of accuracy and preci- between elements where none is expected; this
sion, and detects the presence of contamination can be the result of different limits of detection,
between samples. instrumentation or poor quality control pro-
cedures; and (e) the constant sum problem for
Interpretation of Data compositional data.» These problems generate
Introduction difficulties to apply typical statistical procedures
Once the analytical data have been obtained to the data. For instance, in the case of varying
from the laboratory and the results are checked detection limits, the data need separation into
for precision and accuracy, the next question is the original groups so that appropriate adjust-
how to treat and interpret the data. A geochemi- ments can be applied to the groups of data. To
cal exploration data set consists mainly of sample avoid the problems of censored distributions, dif-
location and values of element concentration in ferent processes have been designed to estimate
many samples. Since the data are usually multi- replacement values for the objectives of statistical
element and the number of samples is large, the calculations. On the other hand, if missing values
use of statistical analysis using computer software are present, several methods can be provided to
is essential. This is because the development of impute replacement values that have complete
low-cost, rapid multi-element analytical tech- analyses.
niques has originated large geochemical databases The normal concentration of an element in
in many exploration programs, including usually non-mineralized Earth materials is referred to as
­thousands of observations with as many as fifty or background, which fluctuates around a mean value.
more elements. Thus, the resulting data matrix is It is more realistically viewed as a range of values
enormous, and effective interpretation utilizing all rather than an absolute value because the distribu-
of the elements becomes cumbersome. tion of any element in any particular Earth mate-
To study these large matrices, the use of multi- rial is rarely uniform and varies considerably from
variate statistical techniques can extract geochemical one type of Earth material to another and from one
patterns related to the underlying geology, weath- location to another. The upper limit of the range of
ering, alteration, and mineralization. Modern background values is called the threshold, and uni-
methods of evaluating data, structures, and pat- element concentrations greater than the thresh-
terns are clustered under the term «data mining.» old are collectively called anomaly. Regarding
This term involves the use of multivariate data the concept of threshold, it is possible that in the
analysis and statistical methods in combination same exploration project, a lower threshold can be
with geographic information systems and signifi- applied in regional exploration, whereas a higher
cantly assists the objective of data interpretation threshold is selected to locate the best targets
 174 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

for further drilling campaigns. Anomalous uni- Univariate Methods

element concentrations that indicate presence of Univariate methods relate to each element sepa-
mineral deposits are called significant anomalies. rately and with data for which only one variable
Thus, the identification of a geochemical anomaly is considered at a time. These types of methods
needs an implementation of a geochemical back- are crucial in statistically oriented geochemi-
ground, which in itself can be difficult to establish. cal studies, in particular in the interpretation of
3 As a rule, geochemical values that deviate too far results of multivariate methods because achieve-
from the background (values that are atypical) can ments derived from multivariate studies can be
be considered as anomalous. often predicted by a detailed univariate approach.
In an exploration area, anomalies can be Many of the exploratory and descriptive methods
delineated once threshold values in individual introduced in this section are recommended as
uni-element data sets are determined. Analysis routine ways of investigating properties of new
of frequency distributions of uni-element con- data, even if the final analysis required is bivari-
centrations is commonly the easiest way to define ate and/or multivariate.
the modeling of geochemical thresholds. To do
that, there are many classical methods such as Summary Statistical Tables (Descriptive
comparison of data from the bibliography, data Statistics)
comparison with results of an orientation geo- These types of tables provide useful descriptions
chemical survey, graphical discrimination from a of data where quantitative measures are desired.
histogram of the data, or estimation of thresholds Usually, they show listings of the minimum, max-
as the sum of the mean and some multiples of the imum, arithmetic mean, median, mode, kurtosis,
standard deviation of data. skewness, etc. Measures of dispersion, a mea-
A method of selecting threshold values that surement of the spread of data values, include
is still much used involves calculating the mean variance, standard deviation, and coefficient of
(m) and standard deviation (s) of the data set variation (CV). The latter parameter is useful
and «applying the classification of anomalous to because the mean divided by the standard devia-
those values that exceed the value of m + 2 s» (e.g., tion is expressed as a percentage and represents a
Hawkes and Webb 1962). This ancient definition relative measure for comparison of different ele-
was based on the assumption of normality of the ments.
data, and its application is no longer legitimated Skewness means lack of symmetry. A distri-
in many cases. In this sense, the introduction of bution is symmetrical where the frequencies are
computer-based methods for evaluating geochem- symmetrically distributed about the mean. The
ical data has provided powerful tools to identify mean, mode, and median coincide in such a type
outliers and specimens that can be related to min- of distribution. Positively skewed distributions
eralization targets. As a result, the previous com- occur where the mean is greater than the median
mented method of selecting thresholds with the and the tail end is more to the right (high values).
calculation of the mean plus two standard devia- This is in contrast to negative skewed distribu-
tions can be erroneous, and a better method is the tions, where the tail end is toward the left (low
use of percentiles, specifically 97.5 percentile. values) (. Fig. 3.40). Skewness is important as it
 

Exploratory data analysis (EDA) is concerned indicates whether a distribution is described as

with studying geochemical data to detect patterns normal or lognormal. The coefficient of variation
or structures in the data. The methods of explor- is commonly used for this purpose: values of CV
atory data analysis can be grouped in univariate, less than 0.5 indicate normal distribution whereas
bivariate, and multivariate methods. Davis (2002) values greater than 0.5 indicate skewness and usu-
and previous editions of this classical book (the ally represent a lognormal distribution or a com-
first edition was at 1973) offer an invaluable sup- bination of distributions.
port to understand the application of these statis- The analysis of percentiles allows handling of
tical techniques to geological sciences, especially univariate geochemical data. In a data set, the first
in multivariate techniques. SPSS and Statgraphics percentile corresponds to the value of the vari-
are common statistical software packages used in able below which 1% of the entries lie. The 50th
this type of data interpretation. percentile (median) divides the data set into two
3.4 · Exploration Methods
175 3

Maximum
Positive (right) skewed

3rd quartile

Negative (left) skewed

Median

..      Fig. 3.40  Positive and negative skewness

equal parts. The 25th and 75th percentile are also

typically used; they are known as quartiles and are 1st quartile
used to calculate the interquartile range (IQR).
Summary tables are useful for the purpose of Minimum
publishing actual values. However, as described
below, graphical methods contribute to visual- ..      Fig. 3.41  Box and whisker plot
ize the type of distributions and the relationships
between observations. The values of a summary
table are more easily interpreted where they are variable whereas the histogram height expresses
combined with graphical summaries. the frequency of observations within that range.
The scale of the height can be expressed either in
Box (and Whisker) Plot number of observations or as a percentage of the
The box plot displays order statistics in a graphi- total number of observations.
cal form. Unlike the histogram, the shape of the The histogram is a very popular graphical
box plot does not depend on a choice of interval. means for showing a distribution. At the initial
The box plot provides fast visual estimate of the stage of an investigation, histograms should be
frequency distribution and allows comparison plotted for all variables, this helping in geochemi-
of sets of data. Box plots are made of a rectan- cal interpretations. Moreover, the histogram will
gular box covering the central 50% of the data suggest the procedure that can be applied in a fur-
set. «Hinges» of the box are the 25th and 75th ther stage. Histograms can be directly drawn in
percentile values, respectively, and the median spreadsheets such as Excel. The number of inter-
is marked by a line at the appropriate value vals must be clearly defined since too few intervals
(. Fig. 3.41). The symmetry and skewness of the
 
will avoid the representation of finer details of the
data are well reflected; if the data are symmetri- distribution while too many intervals will result in
cally distributed, they are more central and closer a discontinuous distribution. Sturge’s rule, which
to each other. Lines that extend beyond the box sets the number of intervals equal to log2n + 1 (n is
are called «whiskers,» whose lengths on each side the number of observations), can be applied if the
of the box are indicative of the symmetry of the distribution is normal or close to normal.
distribution.
Cumulative Frequency Plots, Probability
Histograms Plots, and Q-Q Plots
Histograms are formed of contiguous upright Cumulative frequency diagrams show the percent-
rectangles (. Fig. 3.42). The width of the rectan-
  age values that fall below a value plotted against
gles indicates the range of values for a particular that value. The shape of a cumulative frequency

176 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.42 Histogram

50

3
40

Frequency
30

20

10

4% 5% 6% 7% 8%
Grade

curve representative of a normal distribution looks evaluation, the use of geostatistical procedures
like «S.» A probability plot is a special adaption of provides quantification of the spatial variabil-
that curve when the Y axis is scaled in such a way ity of an element, for instance, by construct-
that a normal distribution plots as a straight line. In ing a semivariogram. Semivariograms measure
probability plots any deviations from normality can the average variance between sample points at
be quickly identified (. Fig. 3.43). These plots have
  specific distances (lags). Usually, the variance
been applied in the splitting of univariate, polymodal increases as distance increases between any pair
geochemical populations into unimodal subpopula- of points. Thus, evaluation of the semivariogram
tions as they help in the identification of anomalies. allows assessing the spatial continuity of an ele-
Cumulative frequency diagrams and probability ment. The effectiveness of applying geostatistical
plots are better than histograms in displaying data. methods relies on adequate sampling density to
Equivalent to normal probability plots are represent the variation of the data.
quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plots. They also allow The effective use of geostatistical techniques
graphical comparison of a frequency distribution requires knowledge and experience in order
with respect to an expected frequency distribu- to model and extract information from spatial
tion (usually the normal distribution). In the data. They permit better estimates of geochemi-
Q-Q plots, the quantile values are calculated for cal trends though geostatistical techniques must
the normal frequency distribution, and then they be used with the awareness of the problems with
are plotted against the ordered observed data. The techniques of interpolation and the spatial behav-
plot will be a straight line where the frequency ior of the data (Grunsky 2010).
distribution is normally distributed, but it will be
curved or discontinuous for skewed frequency Contoured Plans and Profiles
distributions or for polymodal populations. Contour plots of both plans and sections can pro-
vide relevant information where variables are grada-
Geostatistical Techniques tional in nature, and this gradational character exists
Although geostatistics will be described in detail between control points. Contours indicate trends,
in the next chapter because this technique is directions of preferred elongation and indications if
mainly devoted to mineral resource/reserve more than one domain is needed. Since contouring
3.4 · Exploration Methods
177 3
..      Fig. 3.43  Normal prob-
ability plot

60
50
Grade (%)
40
30

1 5 10 25 50 75 90 95 99
Percent of data

is made with computer software, it is important to X-Y Plots

get a clear understanding of the contouring criteria In this method, the values of one variable are
contained within a given software package (Sinclair plotted against those of another variable deter-
and Blackwell 2002). Contouring routines use mined in the same group of samples (. Fig. 3.44).
 

some kind of interpolation criterion to construct a Normal distributions of the data are not assumed
regular grid of values that can be contoured easily. in X-Y plots, but log transformation can be used
Interpolation algorithms include inverse distance in scaling the data. The resulting plots supply bet-
weighting, nearest point, and triangulation or krig- ter visual estimate of the relationship between
ing, among others. This graphical expression of the two variables and can highlight clusters within
data is commonly used not only for geochemical the data. This can be improved by display in a
data but also in geophysical surveys. scatterplot matrix that allows to represent X-Y
plots for every variable against every other vari-
Bivariate Methods able simultaneously.
This section considers the analytical methods
used if it is necessary to take in account simulta- Correlation Coefficients
neously the variation of two variables where both Correlation is an exploratory technique used to
are measured on each element in a sample. In examine if the values of two variables are sig-
addition to providing extra information about the nificantly related. It means that the values of both
frequency distribution of a sample, these methods variables change or are not together in a consistent
generate information on the relationship between way. There is no expectation that values of one vari-
variables (Swan and Sandilands 1995). All the able can be predicted from the other or that there
techniques of bivariate statistics can be regarded is any causal relationship between them (McKillup
as ways of describing and analyzing the shape of and Dyar 2010). Quantitative correlation and cal-
the bivariate scatter. culation of simple linear correlation coefficients
 178 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.44  X-Y plot

5.5
3

Specific gravity
5.0
4.5
4.0

5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Grade

are useful tools for estimating the degree of inter- Regression Analysis
dependence between two variables. This can be of The correlation coefficient measures the strength
great importance provided that it can indicate that of the relationship between two variables. In
the variables are linked, directly or indirectly, in the contrast, regression analysis leads to express the
underlying causative geochemical process. nature of the relationship in quantitative terms.
The most common correlation coefficient used Thus, regression analysis is used to describe the
is the Pearson correlation coefficient (abbreviated functional relationship between two variables
to r). This coefficient is defined as the covariance so that the value of one can be predicted from
of the two variables divided by the product of their the other. Regression analysis is often preferred
standard deviations. As explained in a next section, to measure the linear relationship between
the concept of R-mode factor analysis is based on two variables because the nature of the bivari-
the correlation coefficients among a large number ate relationship can be more precisely defined
of variables. Correlation coefficients are dimen- in the form of equation. Regression analysis
sionless. They range between +1.0 (perfect positive is essential in geochemistry and geology since
linear relationship) and −1.0, the latter value repre- the derived equation can be used to describe
senting a perfect negative relationship (. Fig. 3.45).   and aid understanding of the geological process
Real data rarely lead to perfect, whether positive or and permits predictions to be made (Swan and
negative, correlation. Like other summary statis- Sandilands 1995).
tics, the correlation coefficient can display abnor- In the case of simple linear regression, a set
mal values in the nature of the distribution. These of bivariate data, expressed graphically as X-Y
must be always rectified before any important con- plots, is fitted with a straight line, which can or
clusions are drawn from the data or if the correla- cannot pass through the origin. This line repre-
tion coefficient is used as input to other statistical sents a close relationship between the dependent
methods like factor analysis. A classic example is a variable (normally plotted on the Y axis) and the
low value of the correlation coefficient in a group of independent variable (X axis). Total deviation of
essentially random bivariate data, which increases the predicted values from the observed values is
excessively where a single outlier is introduced in estimated. Moreover, the deviations are squared
the data set. It is important to remember that lin- to remove the plus or minus effects so that the
ear correlation will only detect linear relationship method is known as «least squares.» Sometimes,
between variables. Sometimes two variables are the values of dependent and independent vari-
clearly related, but their correlation coefficient is ables are fitted with a curve, rather than a straight
near zero, since this correlation is not linear. line, and it is called polynomial regression.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
179 3
analysis techniques. The multivariate methods
a most commonly employed in studying and quan-
tifying multi-element associations in exploration
geochemical data include principal components
analysis (PCA), factor analysis (FA), cluster analy-
sis (CA), and discriminant analysis (DA). PCA
and FA are useful in studying inter-element rela-
tionships hidden in multiple uni-element data sets,
CA is utilized for studying inter-sample relation-
ships, whereas RA and DA are useful for studying
inter-element as well as inter-sample associations
(Carranza 2009). It is important to note that multi-
variate analysis requires large samples: in the same
way that two observations on a pair of variables are
sure to give a correlation coefficient of 1; multivari-
r = –1
ate data with few observations on many variables
will give misleading results.
b
Triangular Diagrams
Triangular or ternary graphs are used routinely to
display relative compositions of samples in terms
of three variables. In cases where metal abundance
differs by several orders of magnitude, multiplica-
tion of one or two of the elements by an appro-
priate factor is common practice, this resulting
in spreading of the plotted points over much of
the triangular field. This procedure leads to strong
distortion of the ratio scales in the diagrams. In
the triangular diagram, each apex represents
100% of one of the elements and the coordinates
are numbered for one element on each side in a
r = +1 clockwise direction. It is only necessary to know
the percentages of two of the three variables to
plot the point.
..      Fig. 3.45  Correlation coefficient of: a maximum nega-
tive = −1; b maximum positive = +1 Multiple Linear Regression
Multiple linear regression is a straightforward
extension of simple linear regression. Where there
Multivariate Methods is no single variable sufficiently closely related to
Multivariate statistics relate several elements to the variable being estimated, several variables can
each other and facilitate the geochemical inter- be taken together and the estimate of the derived
pretation of multi-element data. Multivariate variable will be satisfactory. For example, the sedi-
methods are important because virtually all geo- ment yield of a river can be dependent on its drain-
chemical data are inherently multivariate. Leaving age area plus other factors such as topographic
aside some methods such as triangular diagrams, relief, precipitation, and flow rate (McKillup and
multiple linear regression, or multi-element Dyar 2010).
indices, multivariate data analysis techniques
simplify the variation and data relationships in a Multi-element Indices
reduced number of dimensions or groups, which Methods exist for dealing with multi-element
can commonly be tied to specific geochemical/ data that strictly do not involve multivariate sta-
geological processes. Many specific texts, (e.g., tistics. The calculation of multi-element indices
Davis 2002), include basics of multivariate data is an example of how element associations can be
 180 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.46  Example of

a graphic representation Lithology

0.4
of principal component MFd
samples and variable MFc Nd, Sm,
scores (Chen et al. 2015) MFb Ca, La,

0.3
RD
PR

0.2
Oxide minerals

Principal component 2

0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3

Dravitic tourmaline
-0.4

-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Principal component 1

applied to optimize features such as types of min- The linear combinations are derived from some
eralization or lithologies. Under certain circum- measure of association such as correlation or cova-
stances, some elements are deserving of greater riance matrix. Principal components are chosen
weighting in such an index because of their in such a way that the first principal component
greater importance as pathfinders for the deposit accounts for most of the variation in the data set
type sought. If detailed multivariate analysis can- and subsequent components for decreasing amount
not be achieved because of time limitation, the of variation. The interpretation of PCA results
calculation of multi-element indices provides points to geological/­ geochemical ­interpretation
a way of combining the tendency of certain ele- on the element loadings comprising the compo-
ments to be enriched in mineralization. nents. Ideally, each principal ­component might be
interpreted as describing a geological process (e.g.,
Principal Components Analysis crystal fractionation, mineralization processes, or
Principal components analysis, one of the oldest weathering). . Figure 3.46 shows an example of a
 

multivariate techniques, is a multivariate proce- graphic ­representation using principal component

dure to reduce the dimensionality of a data set samples and variables.
with a large number of variables while retaining
the variation in the variables. This is achieved Factor Analysis
by forming linear combinations of the variables The term R-mode factor analysis is given to
(principal components) that describe the distri- several related techniques that try to identify a
bution of the data. In fact, PCA uses the redun- limited number of controls on a much greater
dancy within the data set to reduce the number of number of observational variables. It is called
variables, although it does not exclude variables. R-mode because it is based on r, the correlation
Instead, PCA identifies variables that are highly coefficient, and deals with relationships between
correlated with each other and combines these to variables. On the opposite, Q-mode factor analy-
construct a reduced set of new variables that still sis deals with relationships between samples
describes the differences among samples. instead of variables. They are designed as linear
3.4 · Exploration Methods
181 3

..      Table 3.4  Factors are linear combinations of variables

Factor Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Communality

Ba 0.92 0.06 −0.08 −0.09 0.863

Ce 0.59 0.01 0.34 0.62 0.855

Cr 0.81 −0.24 0.26 0.41 0.947

Fe −0.07 0.87 −0.08 −0.00 0.766

K 0.31 0.04 0.75 −0.28 0.746

Mn −0.06 0.94 0.04 −0.08 0.902

Ni 0.79 −0.38 −0.42 0.20 0.977

Ra 0.67 0.49 −0.03 0.17 0.730

Rb 0.21 0.69 −0.13 0.46 0.746

Sr 0.82 −0.31 0.21 −0.15 0.833

Th 0.05 −0.02 0.79 0.07 0.629

Ti −0.39 0.75 0.49 0.09 0.962

U 0.10 −0.41 −0.13 0.62 0.579

Zn −0.18 −0.08 0.00 0.83 0.734

Zr −0.49 0.40 0.63 0.29 0.886

Eigenvalue 5.38 2.80 2.30 1.68

% Var. expl. 36 18 15 11

Cum. % var. −36 54 69 80

combinations, or «factors,» of those variables Cluster (Dendrogram) Analysis

(. Table 3.4). Where geochemistry is considered,
  Cluster analysis leads to grouping of points that
such factors will be related to the processes act- represent individual geochemical samples in
ing on the environment, and furthermore they multi-element space. The procedure is performed
can correspond to geochemical relationships. without prior knowledge of the groupings or their
R-mode factor analysis allows to condensate compositional characteristics. Cluster analy-
a large number of geochemical variables into a sis methods offer an excellent exploratory tool
smaller number of linear combinations of those for analyzing groups of multi-element data, not
variables that account for most of the total data clearly observable in simple scatter plots or by
variance. The number of factors is likely to be means of PCA. Thus, the main objective of clus-
much smaller than the number of variables. The tering algorithm is to distinguish natural group-
factors can be plotted and interpreted more easily ings within multi-dimensional data: it links the
than the full data set because more geochemical most similar pairs of observations or clusters in
information can be summarized at each sam- successive stages until all points are grouped.
pling point (Gocht et al. 1988). Since the method
is based on the correlation coefficients between Discriminant Analysis
the variables, FA is quite sensitive to their varia- Discriminant analysis is utilized to deal with
tions. Therefore, it is crucial to calculate the cor- problems of classification (. Fig. 3.47). It is one
 

relation coefficient so that distortion by outliers of the most widely used multivariate procedures
can be avoided. in Earth sciences. Discriminant analysis uses
 182 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.47 Graphical
representation of groups 6
using discriminant func- Sample group 1
tions 1 and 2 5 Sample group 2
Sample group 3
4
Sample group 4
3

Discriminant function 2 (6.8%)

3

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

Discriminant function 1 (90.2%)

all of the analyses in a data set, being the objec- of the mineralization and must determine its
tive to maximize the distinction between two shape and continuity by studying the samples col-
or more previously defined groups. It enables lected from every drill target of the drill program.
the further allocation of samples of unknown Mining requires drilling mainly for two differ-
origin based on analyses of the same elements. ent goals: (1) production drilling, making holes
The objective is to find discriminant functions: to place explosives for blasting (the holes drilled
these are vectors in the directions of optimal for this purpose are defined as blasthole and this
separation between the groups, and they trans- topic will be covered in the exploitation chap-
form the original set of measurements on a ter), and (2) exploration drilling, to estimate the
sample into a single discriminant score. The amount and grade of a mineralization using the
discriminant function provides not only the sample collections (. Fig. 3.48). Likewise, drilling
 

possibility of assigning samples of unknown is a continuous process throughout the entire life
association to one of these two groups but also of the mine to supplement reserve for the mined
of measuring the degree to which each of the ore. This will increase the mine life and continue
variables contributes to the classification. mining operation. Moreover, it also upgrades the
categories of the reserves by using underground
drilling. A strategically placed underground drill-
3.4.6 Drilling ing program can even probe for new ore bodies in
the neighborhood.
Introduction Drilling is the most frequently used technol-
Where an anomaly is found, by using geophysi- ogy in mineral exploration, and it is usually the
cal and/or geochemical prospection, the mining most expensive because its expenditure can reach
company will initiate a drilling program in order up to half of the costs of total exploration. In
to test the extent of the mineralization. The den- most cases, drilling locates and defines economic
sity of drilling will be set up by the wanted level of mineralization. The first objective of drilling is
geological confidence and project economics. The to safely obtain representative samples of the
drill program searches to confirm the presence target mineralization in a cost-effective manner.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
183 3
Rock Drillability
Rock drillability is defined as the penetration
rate of a drill bit into the rock. It is a feature that
cannot be exactly defined by a single mechanical
property of the rock. For this reason, drillability
is a function of numerous rock properties such
as mineral composition, grain size, texture, and
weathering degree. Quartz is one of the common-
est minerals in rocks. Since quartz is a very hard
material, high quartz content in rock can make it
very hard to drill and will certainly cause heavy
wear, particularly on drill bits. On the other hand,
a coarse-grained structure is easier to drill and
causes less wear of the drill string than a fine-­
grained structure.
Drillability is not only decisive for the wear of
tools and equipment but is, along with the drill-
ing velocity, a standard factor for the progress of
drilling works. Hoseinie et al. (2008) suggest that
the most important rock mass parameters that
affect the drilling are the following: the origin of
the rock’s formation, the Mohs hardness, the tex-
ture of the rock (shape and size of grains), poros-
ity, density, abrasiveness, rigidity, P-wave velocity,
elasticity and plasticity, UCS (point load index
..      Fig. 3.48  Preparing samples after drilling (Image
and Schmidt hammer), tensile strength, struc-
courtesy of Anglo American plc.) tural parameters of the rock mass (joints, cracks,
and bedding), and RQD.
The factors that concern the drillability of
The rock types are defined using the study of the rocks are numerous and can be classified into
­samples, and portions of them are commonly two main groups: controllable and uncontrollable
chemically analyzed with the aim of further parameters. Regarding the controllable param-
characterization of rock types and to search the eters, these are bit type and diameter, rotational
existence of valuable minerals. Thus, the differ- speed, thrust, blow frequency, and flushing. Rock
ent methods of drilling are for diverse objectives properties and geological conditions are uncon-
at various phases of an exploration program. trollable parameters (Yarali and Kahraman 2011).
Studying drill core also allows for geotechnical/ The drillability of rocks depends on not only their
rock mechanics data, being logs gathered during physical properties but also on the type of drill
surface drilling. being used and drilling parameters such as rota-
There are a large number of drilling tech- tion speed, feed rate, etc. The physical properties
niques. This heading is centered on the three of rocks which have some effect on drillability are:
main types used in mineral exploration: reverse 1. Crushing strength, defined as the pressure a
circulation (RC) drilling, rotary drilling using tri- rock sustains before breaking and related to
cone roller bits, and diamond core (DC) drilling. grain hardness and strength, grain bond
Each drilling method has its own characteristics, strength, porosity, and weakness planes.
which affect the quality of the collected samples. 2. Toughness, a measure of how difficult it is to
DC drilling generates a cylinder-shaped sample of pull a rock apart and related to grain shape
the ground at an accurate depth. On the opposite, and bond, fissibility, and tenacity.
RC drilling and rotary drilling using tricone roller 3. Chip separation, this is how readily the
bits yield a crushed sample that includes cuttings cuttings are cleared from the face, and it is
from a precise depth in the drillhole. related to pore pressure and permeability.
 184 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

4. Abrasiveness, the ability to wear downhole will be the wear. Thus, in most cases the DRI and
tools and related to grain hardness and shape BWI are inversely proportional to one another.
(Hartley 1994). However, the presence of hard minerals can pro-
duce heavy wear on the bit despite relatively good
The Norwegian Technical University has defined drillability. This is particularly the case of quartz,
two methods to evaluate the rock drillability: the which has been shown to increase wear rates
3 drilling rate index (DRI) and the bit wear index greatly. Certain sulfides in ore bodies are compar-
(BWI). The DRI describes how fast a particular atively hard, impairing drillability (Samuelsson
drill steel can penetrate. It includes measurements 2007). Other means of commonly used rock clas-
of brittleness and drilling with a small, standard sification include the Q-system; rock mass rating
rotating bit into a sample of the rock. The higher (RMR) of Bieniawski, incorporating the earlier
the DRI, the higher the penetration rate, and this rock quality designation (RQD); and the geologi-
can vary greatly from one rock type to another cal strength index (GSI).
(. Fig. 3.49). It should be noted that modern drill
 

bits greatly improve the penetration rates in the Selection of Drilling Method
same rock types. The BWI gives an indication of Selecting the right technique or combination
how fast the bit wears down, as determined by of techniques depends on many factors: speed,
an abrasion test. The higher the BWI, the faster cost, actual conditions (surface or underground),

..      Fig. 3.49 Relationship
between drilling rate index
and various rock types
(Samuelsson 2007)
Anortosite Granitic gneiss

Amphibolite

Mica gneiss

Quartzite Marble Limestone

Diabase Phyllite

Sandstone Pegmatite

Diorite

Argillaceous schist,
Gabbro
shale clay

Monzonite

Greywacke Norite

Gneiss granite Mica schist

Gneiss

Taconite Granite

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
3.4 · Exploration Methods
185 3
..      Fig. 3.50  Rock chips
and core samples (Image
courtesy of Atlas Copco)

depths of the drillholes, type of rocks, required rate and can offer three times the productivity of
sample volume and quality, logistics, environ- core drilling. Thus, significant timesaving can be
mental considerations, and finally the prefer- obtained using RC. When the ore body is located,
ence of the geologist. Moreover, each of these driller can decide to continue with RC drilling or
factors depends in turn on many parameters. switch to diamond core drilling to extract cores.
For example, drilling velocity is dependent on In so doing, RC drilling and classical core drilling
a lot of geological parameters such as jointing are perfectly combinable. The logistics of the drill-
of rock mass, rock anisotropy (e.g., orientation ing program have clear influence on the number
of schistosity), degree of interlocking of micro- of meters drilled per shift and thereof it is a time
structures, porosity and quality of cementation factor.
in clastic rock, degree of hydrothermal decom-
position, and weathering of a rock mass, among Cost Factor
others (Thuro 1997). Costs are mainly related to the time factor, except
Modern core drilling rigs carry out fast and that investment in RC rigs and equipment is
efficient core sampling of different diameters to higher compared to core drilling. For shallow
very large length. There are many items to select exploration applications, time and costs are in
the appropriate method of drilling: target, host favor of RC drilling. For deeper exploration appli-
rock, water presence, sample required, access, cations, shallow subsoil water and rocky terrain,
and politics (Hartley 1994). From a sampling core drilling is still the only practical alternative.
viewpoint, there are two types of drilling meth- Technical developments in drilling tools and rig
ods in mineral exploration: drilling methods that technology have resulted in lower drilling costs.
originate rock chips and those that generate core
samples (. Fig. 3.50). A three-key-factor selection
 
Confidence Factor
process can be established: the time needed, the The third variable in the equation is the confidence
cost of getting the job done, and confidence in factor. In an evaluation with positive results, a pro-
the quality of the samples brought to the surface gram of core drilling is the common way to drill for
(Gustaffson 2010). the purpose of bringing the project to a resource/
reserve status because geologists need dry and rep-
Time Factor resentative samples to carry out optimum evalu-
For any exploration drilling, the sample is the ations. Therefore, core drilling remains the only
most important goal result. RC drilling gener- viable method in these situations. The core helps
ates continuous drilling with high penetration the geologist to calculate the cost of extracting the
 186 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.51 Reverse
circulation drilling machine
(Image courtesy of Atlas
Copco)

mineral from the ore. Moreover, cores also yield

geotechnical data; for instance, data about slope
stability can be of the highest significance. Finally,
the geologist plays an extremely important role in
finding an intelligent and balanced choice between
the two methods.

Reverse Circulation Drilling

RC drilling technique (. Fig.  3.51) starts its uti-
 

lization in searching mineral deposits since the

early 1970s in Australia. It can be used in uncon-
solidated sediments or for drilling rock. Since this
method is clearly less expensive than core drill-
ing, it is the selected method for most prelimi-
nary mineral exploration work. The advantages
of using this method to collect rock chippings
are that all the sample is collected, the method is
very fast, up to 200–300 m per day is common at
drilling rates exceeding 10 m per hour, and there ..      Fig. 3.52  RC system (Illustration courtesy of Atlas
is very little contamination. RC sample content Copco)
ranges from dust to 25 mm chips. Often, reverse
circulation drillholes are of larger diameter than to the surface. High-pressure air is the common
common diamond drillholes, but it can be hard way to define the drill flushing medium. Water
to acquire sound geological descriptions because can also be injected to reduce dust and to assist
the material is obtained/recovered in the form of in transporting cuttings to the surface. At the
broken rock chips. surface, the cuttings are derivated to a cyclone for
The RC method uses dual wall drill rods that collection and bagging.
include an outer drill rod with an inner tube situ- There are many different drill bit types, each
ated inside the drill rod (. Fig.  3.52). The inner
  of them designed for different drilling condi-
tube affords a continuous pathway with sealed tions (e.g., rock type). Drill bits are chosen given
characteristic for the drill cuttings to be translated the underground rock formations expected to be
3.4 · Exploration Methods
187 3
encountered since to change bits can be a long
process. The most classical method utilized is
the reverse circulation hammer because it drills
almost all geological formations. RC hammers are
designed with an inner sample tube that extends
through the center and into the top of the ham-
mer bit.
RC drill rigs typically reach depths up to
500  m, although it can exceed that depth. The
method is undergoing continuous technical
development that will result in RC drilling being
applied to deeper drillholes and more difficult
geological conditions. In a comparison between
RC drilling and core drilling, RC drilling presents ..      Fig. 3.53  Tricone bit (Image courtesy of Atlas Copco)
two main issues. First, most of the RC drill rigs
actually used have a depth constraint of about
the drilling fluid for examination; in this method,
500  m. Second, RC drilling offers obviously less
advances of up to 100 m per hour are possible. It
information regarding the geological structure of
requires minimal air volume, and downhole costs
the ore body. It is important to bear in mind that
are low. For this reason, it is a very economical
this aspect is very important when estimating the
method of drilling. Tricone bits are used in many
cost of extracting mineral from ore. Regarding
drilling industry sectors. It is commonly applied
the sampling process, RC drilling is mostly led
to oil industry, with large diameter holes (>20 cm)
to obtain mineral samples for analysis, so correct
and several 1000 ms depth.
sampling equipment and practices are necessary
when undertaking this type of drilling. Diamond Core Drilling
There are two main components to the sam-
In diamond core drilling, a cylinder of solid rock,
pling system: the cyclone (. Fig.  3.51) and the
the core, is extracted from depth. It is commonly
 

splitter. The cyclone serves mainly to separate the

27–85  mm in diameter (. Fig.  3.54), but larger
sample from the air, thus allowing it to be recu-
 

diameters (up to 200  mm) are most useful but

perated. A good cyclone will usually gather more
much more costly. The most common sizes used
than 99% of the sample, being the sample interval
today for exploration drilling are 75  mm hole
normally 1 or 2 m of drillhole. As one sample has
diameter. Due to the common hardness of the
been collected, another is being drilled and incor-
rocks and the time involved in translating the
porating to the cyclone. The other mentioned
core from depth, the penetration in diamond
component is the splitter. The purpose of this
core drilling is much slower than other drill-
instrument is to cut the sample to a smaller size,
ing methods. Thus, diamond drilling is clearly
which accurately represents the complete sample.
more expensive than reverse circulation drilling.
The sample from 1 m drillhole is about 50 kg. This
sample is currently in a bag that is sent to a labora-
tory for subsequent analysis.

Rotary Drilling
Rotary drilling using tricone bits is a noncor-
ing method, being usually utilized for drilling
through soft to medium hard rocks such as lime-
stone, chalk, or mudstone. Rotary drilling uses
different type of rotary bits although the most
typical rotary bit is probably the tricone or roller
rock bit (. Fig. 3.53) that is made with tungsten
 

carbide insets. As the drill string is rotated, the

bit cones roll along the bottom of the borehole
and the rock chips are flushed to the surface by ..      Fig. 3.54  Different core diameter sizes
 188 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.55 Diamond
core drilling operation
(Image courtesy of Atlas
Copco)

However, if core recovery is good, it has the ben- rig. The diamond drill bit comprises a cutting
efit of carrying undamaged rock to the surface. head using diamonds as the cutting medium. A
Therefore, diamond drilling is usually accounted variety of core bit types is available according to
to offer the best quality of sample. Most advanced the diamond cutting elements used in their con-
exploration uses a combination of diamond and struction. In softer rocks (e.g., sedimentary for-
reverse circulation drilling. In general, diamond mations), other cutting elements such as tungsten
drills are the most essential tool in the final carbide and polycrystalline diamond compacts
exploration and evaluation of mineral projects can be used. Diamonds used are fine to micro-
because the study of the drill core yields a three- fine industrial grade diamonds that are set within
dimensional geologic picture of ore and host rock a matrix of varying hardness, from brass to high-
and the samples from drill core provide samples grade steel. Other options include tungsten car-
for chemical analysis, mineral recovery tests, and bide (TC) and polycrystalline diamond composite
rock stability tests. (PDC) bits. TC core bits are utilized for drilling
Nowadays, typical drilling operation includes in non-consolidated formations and in overbur-
a truck-mounted rig and a support truck to carry den and for cleaning drillholes. PDC bits are an
items such as the rods, casing, fuel, and water alternative to TC bits and surface set diamond bits
(. Fig. 3.55). The method requires significant site
  when drilling in non-consolidated and medium
preparation and rehabilitation. Diamond drilling hard rock formations (Black 2010).
machines utilized in mineral exploration com- As the drill bit advances, a cylindrical core of
monly reach depth of up to 3000 m and extraor- rock progressively fills a tube core barrel immedi-
dinarily up to 6000 m. In these situations, casing ately above the drill bit. Core barrels are classified
is installed in the upper levels to protect the walls by the length of core they contain. They are usually
from collapse. The rate of advance will depend of from 1.5 to 3.0 m in length but can be as long as
many factors (type of drill rig, type of bit, hole 6 m. It is important to note that to recover the core
diameter, the depth of drillhole, and the rock type the barrel must be removed from the hole by pull-
being drilled, among others). Drilling advance ing the entire length of drill rods to the surface,
rates of up to 10  m an hour are common. The which is a time-consuming process. For this rea-
costs can range from USD 40 to USD 90 a meter son, the wireline system is now a standard prac-
in drillholes up to 300 m long and from USD 75 to tice (. Box 3.7: Wireline System). Water is used
 

USD 160 a meter for length up to 1000 m. in diamond core drilling as lubricant fluid and to
The quality and continuity of the core are cru- remove crushed and ground rock fragments from
cial in the assessment of a potential mine, making the bit surface. Water can be used in combination
the core bit a key component of a core drilling with various clays or chemicals (. Fig. 3.56).
 
3.4 · Exploration Methods
189 3

..      Fig. 3.56  Chemical products used with water in diamond core drilling (Image courtesy of AMC)

Box 3.7

Wireline System
The Boart Longyear company time and money saved by not assembly is forced down the inside
introduced the wireline core having to remove the drill pipe in of the drill pipe using drilling mud
retrieval technology to the order to obtain a core is substan- pressure. When the core barrel
mineral exploration industry in tial. Consequently, wireline system assembly reaches the lower end
1958. By the late 1960s, it was in is designed to recover rock core of the drill stem, a locking device
almost universal use. Wireline core without removing the drill stem holds the barrel in place. The core
drilling is a special type of core from the borehole after each core barrel assembly consists of a cut-
drilling, most commonly used run (. Fig. 3.57). Besides reduced
  ter head, core catcher, core barrel,
in mineral exploration. Before tripping time and decreased cost, vent or inside pressure relief, lock-
wireline drilling, the whole string wireline core drilling system has ing device, and a retrieving head.
of rods had to be pulled from the the main following advantages: (1) During coring operations, the
ground in order to recover core with improved core recovery and circulating fluid passes between
from each advance of the drill. quality, the purpose of the drilling the core barrel assembly and the
Thus, in conventional rock coring, project can be better satisfied; (2) drill collar. After the core has been
the entire drill stem and core bar- logging instruments can be low- cut, the core barrel assembly with
rel must be removed after each ered by utilizing internal flush drill its core is retrieved by lowering
core run. This is a time-consuming rod; (3) inner tube structure can an overshot through the drill pipe
operation on deep core holes, be changed in accordance with (McPhee et al. 2015), or overshot,
in addition to creating an inher- the variation of rock layer; and (4) which is designed to engage
ent risk for collapse of the rock labor intensity of the operators the upper end of the core barrel.
into the unsupported borehole. can be reduced. As the overshot is lowered over
Moreover, as the average depth To obtain a core after the the upper end of the assembly,
of hole continues to increase, the core bit is in place, the core barrel the locking devices are released,
 190 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

Wireline

Drill rod Drill

3 rod

Flushing circulating

Casing tube Core

Casing shoe barrel

Drill rod

Reaming
shell

Core sample
Bit

..      Fig. 3.57  Wireline system

..      Fig. 3.58 Head
assembly inside the
overshot (Image courtesy
of TECSO)

permitting removal of the entire drill rods sill in position within the commonly used standard core
assembly. Thus, overshots are a borehole. While the core sections diameters for wireline drilling
key component of wireline coring are being removed from the inner are AQ = 27 mm; BQ = 36.5 mm;
systems. In this method, the inner tube and placed in special core NQ = 47.6 mm; HQ = 63.5 mm;
barrel containing the rock core boxes, a replacement inner tube and PQ = 85 mm. . Figure 3.58
 

is rapidly brought to the surface, is lowered into the hole so that shows the head assembly and the
leaving the outer core barrel and drilling can recommence. The overshot attached.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
191 3
Core recovery is essential in diamond drill- new ore reserves and for the safety of the mines in
ing. This is a quantifiable measurement defined establishing the position of possible gas or water
as the total linear amount of physical core sample intersections.
extracted over the total linear advance in a bore-
hole, expressed as a percentage. Low core recovery Other Drilling Methods
impedes quantitative interpretation of important Other drilling methods used in mineral explora-
properties, such as ore grade and ore boundaries. tion include auger drilling and sonic core drilling,
For example, Henley and Doyle (2005) reported the latter being the most recent improvement in
an important bias in ore grade at Las Cruces drilling technology (. Box 3.8: Sonic Drilling).
 

(Spain) as a result of core loss. The problem was Regarding auger drilling, rock is cut and broken
related to the presence of chalcocite in the min- with a simple blade bit that is mounted on the end
eralization as a friable and unconsolidated form. of a rotating string of rods (. Fig. 3.61). The drill
 

Very often, core recovery of more than 90% is stem is shaped like a helical screw and is driven
stipulated with drilling contractors. Other strict rotationally into the ground. Auger drilling is a
rules must be agreed, such as careful extraction useful method for quickly and cheaply collect-
of the core and its packing in properly labelled ing geochemical samples. On the other hand,
core boxes and marking individual core runs. this method is usually utilized to take samples in
In this sense, drilling should be supervised by the reconnaissance stage of mineral exploration.
experienced geologists. Proper storage of core is Regarding the rate of penetration, it depends on
needed for the duration of the project if the pros- the type of formation being drilled but commonly
pect is rejected and for the whole life of the result- can reach depths of around 20  m. Obviously,
ing mine, if the deposit is feasible (. Fig.  3.59).
  augers are not capable of penetrating hard or
Although onerous, storage is much cheaper than consolidated rock. Auger drilling uses either a
repeat drilling (Pohl 2011). handheld power auger or one mounted on a small
It is important to note that diamond core drill- vehicle. Augers are available in various sizes. Thus,
ing is also carried out in underground mining small augers mounted on trucks are often used for
development (. Fig.  3.60). Thus, underground
  reconnaissance exploration projects while large
core drilling is mainly accomplished to characterize augers are utilized for construction purposes.

..      Fig. 3.59  Proper stor-

age of core (Image cour-
tesy of Matsa, a Mubadala
& Trafigura Company)
 192 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.60  Diamond drill underground exploration station (Canada) (Image courtesy of North American Palladium
Ltd.)

Borehole Surveying
In a drillhole, the orientation is fairly established by
its azimuth (direction) and dip (inclination). It is
common that borehole deviates away from the orig-
inal direction because of many factors (. Fig. 3.64).
 

Borehole deviation is commonly defined as the

angular change from vertical during the course
of drilling. Some authors also call this process as
borehole deflection. However, it is possible to dis-
tinguish clearly between deviation and deflection
(Hartley 1994). Deviation indicates how the bore-
hole changes path naturally whereas deflection
points out where the driller deliberately changes
this natural deviation by inserting some mechani-
cal device or changing the rod string. The reasons
to change artificially the borehole path can be
various: (a) to create daughter boreholes to enable
several intersections from the same collar, (b) to
enhance or depress natural deviation to ensure the
target is intersected, (c) to bypass difficult drilling
conditions, (d) to obtain second intersection for
..      Fig. 3.61  Auger drilling at Burkina Faso (Image cour- improved recovery, and (e) to force the borehole
tesy of SEMAFO Inc.) path to those otherwise inaccessible locations.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
193 3
Box 3.8

Sonic Drilling
Sonic drilling is a unique technology that generates The sonic drilling method can produce almost com-
vibrational frequencies, usually between 50 and pletely undisturbed core samples from both solid and
180 Hz (cycles per second), transferring the vibrations unconsolidated materials with high percentage of core
down the drill pipe to its tungsten carbide bit while recovery rates; it is commonly greater than 90%, which
rotating the pipe at the same time. This frequency gives rise to extremely accurate estimates of mineral dis-
range falls within the lower range of sound vibrations tribution in the ore body. Sometimes, core sampling can
that the human ear is capable of hearing. Thus, the be accomplished without any drill fluids (dry coring),
term «sonic drill» has been applied to this class of although the casing is usually installed by using water or
rotary-vibratory drilling machine. Sonic drilling tech- mud to flush cuttings. Sonic drilling can collect samples
nology was first applied over 40 years ago in Canada. up to 300 mm in diameter and can drill down to 250 m
In mineral exploration, sonic drilling (. Fig. 3.62) is
  in a vertical or angled hole. The environmental impact
typically used to provide continuous core samples of from sonic drilling is typically less than other drilling
softer or even harder rock formation of mineral depos- methods. Thus, having a small footprint and lack of need
its. Instead of using a diamond bit rotating at the end to introduce fluid into the hole, this is an ideal drilling
of a drill rod, the sonic drill head sends high-frequency method where contamination is potentially a problem.
vibrations throughout the length of the entire drill In soft materials, sonic drilling is a penetration
pipe and onto the bit (. Fig. 3.63).
  technique that strongly reduces friction on the drill
In sonic drilling, the head contains the mechanism string and drill bit due to liquefaction, inertia effects,
necessary for rotary motion, as well as an oscillator, and a temporary reduction of porosity of the material.
which causes a high-frequency force to be superim- The entire drill string is brought to a vibration fre-
posed on the drill string. The drill bit is physically vibrat- quency of up to 200 Hz, which causes a very thin layer
ing up and down in addition to being pushed down and of soil particles directly surrounding the drill string
rotated. These three combined forces allow drilling to and bit to loose structure. Instead of the stiff mass
proceed quickly through most geological formations that requires torque and weight to penetrate, the soil
including most types of rock. The operator is able to vary behaves like a fluid powder (in an unsaturated zone) or
the frequency and drill bit weight to match the material as a slurry or paste in a saturated zone.
he/she is going through, ensuring the best penetration The liquefaction and inertia effects enable to col-
rate and most accurate sampling are obtained. lect very long and continuous samples. In addition,
the drill string stays extremely straight due to the
vertical high-­frequency movement, with a diversion

..      Fig. 3.62  Sonic drilling in iron ore mining (Image ..      Fig. 3.63  Sonic drill bit (Image courtesy of Sonic
courtesy of Sonic Drilling Ltd.) Drilling Ltd.)
 194 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

of commonly a few centimeters over the full length of vibration with rotation to allow the tungsten carbide
the borehole. It makes sonic drilling an optimal tech- buttoned ring bits to cut through the harder forma-
nology for installing instrumentation and monitoring tions. Because a sonic drill bit actually impacts the
equipment. In alluvial material, vertical vibrations are rock face, if a diamond drill bit was used with the sonic
generally enough to drive down a drill string for many drilling method, it would shatter, so tungsten carbide
meters without the injection of any water or air. On bits are used instead. In order to keep the temperature
3 the contrary, liquefaction cannot take place in hard of the drill bit down and lift the cuttings, foam injec-
formations. In such cases, it is necessary to combine tion is the best solution, but water or air is possible.

horizontally by about 17.5  m from its intended

position. Consequently, the use of the wrong value
of the end of the borehole sample in estimation pro-
cedures can originate serious and intense errors of
resource and/or reserve estimation.
Although it is difficult to assign an order of
importance, there are a number of features that
cause a drillhole to deviate both in azimuth and
inclination. The more important are hardness of
rocks, rock strength anisotropy, anisotropic strength
index, active length of drill rods, barrel length, hole
size, bit type, and direction of rotation and wedges
(Hartley 1994). Regarding the rock strength anisot-
ropy, which is exhibited by rocks with planar texture
features such as foliation and bedding, drillholes
will tend to deviate so as to make a greater angle
with the dominant foliation (usually bedding or
cleavage) of the rock unless the drillhole is already
at a very low angle to that foliation, in which case
the drillhole will tend to deflect along the foliation.
However, the absolute magnitude of deviation is
related not only to rock strength but also to the rela-
tive strength in different directions. Thus, drillholes
in well-foliated schists deviate at a much greater rate
than through a normal shale, which will be greater
than granite. Regarding drillhole size, greater devia-
tion occurs in smaller holes, probably a function of
..      Fig. 3.64  Borehole deviation greater flexibility of rod string.
Surveying the path of a borehole is referred
If the orientation of the borehole is not known, to as a borehole orientation survey or a deviation
the location of the sample is similarly unknown. survey. Borehole surveying must be an integral
Large discrepancies between planned and true component of all drill programs. Downhole ori-
drillhole locations can occur. Since the location entation surveys are commonly carried out by
of a borehole is just as important as the informa- moving a probe along the drillhole and checking
tion itself, the error in location of drillhole due to the movement of the probe relative to a reference.
borehole deviation can impinge significantly on The references can include the Earth’s gravita-
resource/reserve estimation. These errors are unfor- tional field, magnetic field, or other inertial refer-
tunately common. Deviation is commonly cumula- ence. There are differences among the numerous
tive, and the bottom of a deep hole can be many boreholes surveying devices used. These are based
tens of meters away from its straight-line course. on the ability to operate inside steel casing, time-­
For instance, a 200  m drillhole whose plunge is consuming, and complexity to operate. In any
off by only 5° will have the end of borehole moved case, none of them are clearly perfect.
3.4 · Exploration Methods
195 3
In general, a survey of a borehole must supply drilling (e.g., pressure at the bit face, temperature, or
an accurate estimation of the path of the drillhole rate of water flow) – and performance of the drilling
in three-dimensional space (X, Y, and Z coordi- machinery. All information related to each drillhole,
nates) of every point along the path that is known. including topography, drillhole deviation estima-
It should be obvious that the greater the num- tions, mapped geological features, and a copy of
ber of known data points, the less extrapolation the data returned, should be available with a single
required and the more accurate the survey. The folder for each drillhole (Rossi and Deutsch 2014).
coordinates of points are not measured directly Routine studies of drill cores consist of fracture
but are computed from measurements of the dip, spacing and orientation, core recovery (including
azimuth, and length along the drillhole. the location of excessive core loss, >5%), litho-
At present, there is a great variety of instru- logical description (e.g., color, texture, mineralogy,
ments for measure deviation, and borehole sur- rock alteration, and rock name), photographic
veys are carried out routinely in all drillholes of the documentation, description of the geological struc-
exploration project. Commonly used measuring tures visible in the core, preliminary geological
devices are based on photographs of a bubble ring profile, rock properties for calculating geotechnical
and related to an original orientation, such as single parameters (e.g., RQD), and content and distribu-
or multishot photos, magnetometer/accelerom- tion of mineral and ore components, including as
eter based tools, and/or small gyroscope devices, possible in situ assaying of ore. Depending upon
from which azimuth and dip measurements are the objective of the site investigation, a secondary
taken. The probe is lowered into the hole, taking processing can include many other aspects such
azimuth and dip measurements at prespecified as the presence and content of clay minerals, total
intervals, typically every 20–50 m down the hole, carbonate content, organic components, grain-size
and the data values are transmitted to the surface distribution, sediment matrix and cement, poros-
for processing. The measurements are later used to ity, pore-size distribution, and many others. The
determine the X, Y, and Z location of each sample. description must be quantitative and systematic,
Calculation of corrected positions at successive avoiding as much as possible qualitative descrip-
depths is a straightforward mathematical proce- tions. Since structural ­features must be captured
dure, if both the location of the top of the drillhole before split the core, the most useful way is to take
and the initial drillhole inclination are known. In photographs of the wet core previous the logging
borehole geometry probe, the verticality section process with the objective of producing a perma-
includes a triaxial magnetometer and three accel- nent photographic record. In noncore drilling,
erometers and data from these are combined. descriptions must be again systematic and quanti-
If the surveying is carried out in mostly non-­ tative. The data from core and noncore observation
magnetic rocks and in open hole, then the standard are plotted on graphical core logs and utilized to
magnetometer/accelerometer system is useful. On help in interpreting the geology of the present and
the contrary, a non-magnetic gyroscopic device next holes to be drilled.
must be necessary if magnetic anomalies are pres- Regarding RQD, it is used as a standard param-
ent. For instance, it is the case in ironstone min- eter in drill core logging and forms a basic element
eralizations, ore with massive pyrrhotite, etc. This value of the major mass classification systems such
instrument uses an inertial navigation system to as rock mass rating (RMR) system and Q-system.
define the borehole path as it moves. In rock quality designation (RQD), the lengths of
all sound rock core pieces that are greater than
Logging 100 mm in length are summed and divided by the
Considering the high costs of drilling, a maximum length of the core run to obtain the final value in
of information must be extracted. Thus, intense geo- percentage. This parameter is commonly estimated
logical logging of core and drill cuttings is a common where the rock has been altered and/or weakened
practice. Drillhole information is produced from by weathering. This procedure obviously penal-
many sources such as core, chips, down-the-hole izes if the recovery is poor, being useful since poor
geophysical measurements (e.g., caliper, natural recovery commonly means poor quality rock.
gamma radiation, gamma-­gamma density, magnetic Since geological logging is commonly a sub-
susceptibility, or resistivity), data from instruments jective process, this results in inconsistencies in
inside the hole such as MDW – measurements while the application of the logging codes. To solve the
 196 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

problem, it is desirable to use methods to objec- three main logging forms for recording observa-
tively classify how mineralized is a sample, for tions on drill core and cuttings: prose logging,
instance, using portable XRF technology (Gazley graphical scale logging, and analytical spread-­
et al. 2014). Thus, a clear, accurate, and standard- sheet logging» (Marjoribanks 2010). An interval
ized logging procedure is essential to promote is selected in prose logging, being identified by its
uniformity of data through what is commonly a downhole depth limits, and described in words.
3 long data-gathering period. It is important to note It is recommended that this type of logging must
that as geological information and concepts evolve be only utilized in a special column (e.g., com-
with time, the context is likely to request the core ments). Graphical scale log forms can include
be relogged (Sinclair and Blackwell 2002). several mapping columns along with extra col-
Although a great number of different logging umns for recording digital data, sketches, ver-
methods are utilized in the industry, «there are bal comments, etc. (. Fig.  3.65). The important
 

DH-01
0 to 100 0 to 500 0 to 100 0 to 500 0 to 500 0 to 400 0 to 400 0 to 400
0.0

gra-
25.0 des
mo-
re
cla-
yey

50.0

75.0

te-
mp-
orar-
ily
lost
cir-
cul-
ati-
on

100.0

125.0

..      Fig. 3.65  Graphical scale log (Rockworks)

3.5 · Case Studies
197 3
feature about all such logs is that they assemble surface, depending on fracture intensity, the type
many different types of geological observations of mineralization, and local geomorphology.
on one form linked by a single down page scale. The project exploration carried out by
Finally, the use of spreadsheet logging is indicated Rockhaven systematically advanced through soil
in second-­phase drilling programs (e.g., resource geochemistry, followed by excavator trenching,
evaluation and definition) where the main geo- geophysics (both magnetics and EM work very
logical problems associated with the ore body well), and finally through diamond drilling. Early
have been solved, and the aim of the logging is soil sampling identified linear gold ± silver ± lead
the routine recording of masses of reproducible anomalies, which correspond to some of the known
data. Regarding the graphical scale logging form, mineralized structural zones, and a large (2000 m by
it is usually separated into columns. The columns 3000 m) area of moderately to strongly anomalous
will be referred to in numbered order from left copper-in-soil response, which partially defines
to right, for example, column 1 (hole depth), col- the Kelly porphyry target in the southeastern cor-
umn 2 (core recovery), column 3 (sample no.), ner of the property. Grid soil sampling performed
column 5 (assay results  – it will be commonly from 2010 to 2012 expanded grid sample coverage
necessary to devote several columns to insert all to the west and north of the earlier grids and col-
assay results), and so on. lected samples on a few contour-­controlled lines in
the northwestern part of the property. The grid to
collect soil samples were established at 50 m inter-
3.5 Case Studies vals on lines spaced 100 m and oriented at 37°. Soil
samples were obtained using a handheld auger and
zz Klaza Gold-Silver-(Lead-Zinc) Project from 30 to 80 cm holes.
Exploration: Courtesy of Rockhaven
Resources Ltd. kSoil Sampling
The property lies 50  km due west of the town Effectiveness of soil sampling is often limited by
of Carmacks (Yukon, Canada), located 420  km thick layers of organic material and overburden
from the year-round tidewater port at Skagway, and in many areas by permafrost. Despite these
Alaska (USA). Most of the property is underlain limitations, soil sampling has been an essential
by mid-­Cretaceous granodiorite. A moderately and effective surface exploration technique for
sized, late Cretaceous quartz-rich, granite-to- detecting trenching or drilling targets. Results
quartz monzonite stock intrudes the granodio- for gold from historical surveys and Rockhaven’s
rite in the southeast corner of the property and sampling are illustrated in . Fig. 3.66.
 

is thought to be the main heat source for hydro- Historically, excavator trenching in geochemi-
thermal cells that deposited mineralization along cally anomalous areas has been the most effective
a series of northwesterly trending, structural tool for identifying near surface but non-outcrop-
conduits. The porphyry dykes are up to 30  m ping, mineralized zones. Within the main areas
wide and commonly occupy the same structural of exploration, overburden generally consists of
zones as the mineralization. The dykes are coeval 5–20 cm of vegetation and soil organics covering
with or slightly older than the mineralization. a discontinuous layer of white volcanic ash and
Mineralization is dominated by gold-silver-rich 50–125 cm of loess and/or residual soil, which cap
structures associated with a zonation model decomposed bedrock. Trenching of 22,366 m was
ranging from weak porphyry copper-molybde- performed in 84 trenches between 2010 and 2015.
num centers, outward to transitional anastomos- Where possible, trenches were excavated in areas
ing sheeted veins, and lastly to more cohesive that had previously been stripped of soil and veg-
and continuous base and precious metal veins. etation. The trenches were aligned at about 30°,
The metals of primary interest at the property which is perpendicular to the anomalous trends
are gold and silver. These metals are intimately of the main soil geochemical anomalies. All rock
associated with lead, zinc, and copper in various samples (chip sampling) collected from the prop-
forms and concentrations throughout the miner- erty were taken from excavator trenches, because
alizing system. The age of the mineralizing events there are no naturally outcropping exposures of
is now considered to be Late Cretaceous. Depth these zones. Continuous chip samples were col-
of surface oxidation ranges from 5 to 100 m below lected along one wall of the trench as close to
 198 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

T.N.
1°59.4
Mineralized trend 20°12.5.

Gold geochemistry (ppb)

Gridnorth

h
nort
netic
>100 <6582

Mag
3
Annual change
>50 <100 decreasing 20’

>20 <50 6 894 000 mN

>10 <20

0 <20

6 892 000 mN
Pro
p ery
tb
ou
nd
ary

6 890 000 mN

Rockhaven resources ltd.

Gold soil geochemical

values
Klaza property 6 888 000 mN
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 M
382 000 mN

384 000 mN

386 000 mN
UTM ZOZE 8.NAD 83
DATE: DEC 2015

..      Fig. 3.66  Gold soil geochemical values in Klaza property (Data courtesy of Rockhaven Resources Ltd.)

the floor of the trench as slumping would allow core samples within the altered structural zones
using a geological hammer. Sample sizes averaged compared to higher values from surrounding
approximately 2 kg per linear meter sampled for unaltered wall rocks. Several of the magnetic lows
intervals containing veins and about 1.5  kg per extend outside the main areas of exploration and
linear meter sampled for intervals comprised pri- have not yet been tested by drilling or trenching.
marily of altered wall rock. . Figure 3.67 shows the first vertical derivative of
 

the magnetic data overlain with the interpreted

kGeophysical Surveys surface traces of the structural zones. Elevated
To date, four types of geophysical surveys have potassic radioactivity is evident in the general area
been completed on the property: (1) ground-­based of the main zones in the eastern part of the prop-
VLF-EM and magnetic surveys, (2) gradient array erty but does not specifically coincide with indi-
induced polarization survey, (3) high-sensitivity vidual mineralized zones. Numerous porphyry
helicopter-borne magnetic and gamma-ray spec- dykes and frost boils containing porphyry frag-
trometric surveys, and (4) high-­resolution induced ments lie within this area, and they are the prob-
polarization surveys. The magnetic surveys identi- able source of the elevated radioactivity.
fied a number of prominent, linear magnetic lows The gradient array and pole-dipole IP survey
on the property. Subsequent trenching and drill- covered a 1800  m by 1450  m area in the east-­
ing have shown that many of the northwesterly central part of the property. Readings were col-
trending lows coincide with mineralized struc- lected at 25 m intervals along lines spaced 100 m
tural zones, while northeasterly trending breaks in apart. This survey identified two main anomalies,
the magnetic patterns correspond to cross faults. both of which feature elevated chargeability with
These relationships are consistent with the low coincident resistivity lows. The most prominent
magnetic susceptibility results that returned from anomaly is located in the southeastern corner of
3.5 · Case Studies
199 3

1˚59.4' 20˚12.5'
Grid north

h
nort
netic
Mag

Annual change
decreasing 20'

0 250 500 750 1000 m

6892 000 mN

Pro 6890 000 mN

pert
yb
ou
nd
ar y

Rockhaven resources ltd. 6888 000 mN

Airborne magnetics
first vertical derivative
Klaza property Cross-fault
380 000 mE

382 000 mE

384 000 mE

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 m

Known mineralized
UTM ZONE 8, NAD 83
DATE: DEC 2015
zones

..      Fig. 3.67  First vertical derivative of the magnetic data in Klaza project (Illustration courtesy of Rockhaven
Resources)

the grid and coincides with an area of weak to hole. Five diamond drillholes totaling 308.76  m
strong gold-in-soil geochemistry (25–100  ppb) were drilled vertically, peripheral to the min-
and strong copper geochemistry (>200  ppm) as eral resource areas as water monitoring wells. In
well as porphyry style mineralization that is part general, core recovery was good, averaging 95%,
of the Kelly zone. The mineralized vein and brec- excluding the near surface portions of the holes
cia zones tested by geophysical surveys show up where core recovery was poor. Final hole depths
as resistivity lows that coincide with chargeability within the Klaza zone averaged 251.49 m, which
highs. included a maximum hole depth of 550.77 m. To
determine the deflection of each drillhole, the
kDrilling orientation was measured at various intervals
Regarding drilling program, a total of 70,099.72 m down the hole. Measurements taken and recorded
of exploration and definition drilling was done were inclination, azimuth, temperature, roll angle
between 2010 and 2015 in 295 diamond drillholes (gravity and magnetic), as well as magnetic inten-
on the property. All diamond drillholes were col- sity, magnetic dip, and gravity intensity.
lared at dips of −50°, and most of the holes had azi- As an example of the results obtained in the
muths of 30–35° (north-northeast). Drilling was main mineralized zones, the host rock of the min-
completed on section lines spaced roughly 50  m eralization in the central Klaza zone is an exten-
apart. Some of the 2015 drilling was done in part sive complex of steeply dipping veins, breccias,
for ­geotechnical and environmental purposes. To and sheeted veinlets. The strongest veins are typi-
monitor seasonal water levels and frost variations, cally found along dyke margins. Pyrite, arseno-
vibrating wireline piezometers were installed in pyrite, galena, and sphalerite are the main sulfide
four holes and a thermistor was installed in one minerals in this subzone. Excellent results from
 200 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

035°
9
13 08
Looking northwest -2 4 2-
14 1-02 11 -1
09
7 - KL
2- KL L-1 4-
2
-1 Trench-10-14 K -1
KL KL
3.84 g/t Au / 43.20 g/t Ag

3 2.53 g/t Au / 133 g/t Ag

2.20 m

1.50 m
90.53 m
7.79 g/t Au / 128 g/t Ag
1.10 m
102.72 m

1.57 g/t Au / 4.26 g/t Ag

2.55 m 221.59 m
3.15 g/t Au / 72.00 g/t Ag
1.37 m

13.05 g/t Au / 17.65 g/t Ag

1.31 m
one

zone
361.80 m
Xz
l BR

PIKA
tra
Cen

402.02 m

..      Fig. 3.68  Type section depicting the geometry of the mineralized veining relative to the dyke and the gold and
silver grades values obtained in the samples (Illustration courtesy of Rockhaven Resources Ltd.)

this part of the Klaza zone were reported from an thick quaternary glacial deposits. The 45–75 Ma
interval in KL-10-07, which graded 7.10 g/t gold kimberlites of the Lac de Gras kimberlite field
and 259  g/t silver over 15.25  m, and an interval intrude both the granitoids and metagreywackes.
in KL-12-133, which graded 11.85  g/t gold and The kimberlites are mostly small pipe-like bod-
5.24 g/t silver across 6.65 m. . Figure 3.68 shows  ies controlled by tectonic fissures and typically
the results of central Klaza zone. Finally, a geo- extend to depths of several 100 m below the land
technical log was carried out previous to geologi- surface. The mineralization is mostly limited to
cal logging and included determinations of core, olivine-rich resedimented volcaniclastics and pri-
rock quality designations (RQD), hardness, and mary volcaniclastics. Diamond grades from the
weathering. In 2015, fracture frequency, joint sets, kimberlites range from less than 0.05 cpt to more
and joint set roughness, shape and infill were also than 4 cpt.
recorded. Diamond exploration in the area started
with heavy mineral sampling from fluvial and
zz Ekati Diamond Project Exploration: glaciofluvial sediments, which was followed by
Courtesy of Dominion Diamond mapping of geomorphological features and field
Corporation observations. Till sampling coupled with ground
The Ekati diamond mine is located in northwest geophysics pinpointed the Point Lake kimberlite
Canada, 200 km south of the Arctic Circle. Cold pipe, which was later investigated by core drill-
winter conditions are predominant in the region ing and confirmed as diamondiferous kimberlite.
for most of the year. The area is a wildlife habi- Approximately 15,000 till samples were taken
tat, where human activities are limited to hunting during the project exploration phase. They were
and fishing. The geology of the Ekati project area also used to search for airborne geophysical
consists mainly of Archean granitoids, intruded anomalies. The extent and chemistry of the indi-
by metagreywackes and transected by Proterozoic cator minerals dispersion trains were evaluated to
mafic dykes. Bedrock is overlain by less than 5 m pinpoint drill targets.
3.5 · Case Studies
201 3
kIndicator Mineral
Kimberlite indicator mineral (KIM) composi- a Fox kimberlite - total magnetic intensity
tions were outstanding in the exploration pro-
8000
gram leading to the development of the Ekati 7000
mine. Discovery of the first kimberlite at Point 6000

Northing (m)
Lake was followed by the identification of over 5000
150 kimberlite bodies within the Ekati areas. The 4000
use of KIM geochemistry was adopted to priori- 3000
tize likely high-grade phases for follow-up bulk Fox 380 MSL 2000
sampling and/or diamond drilling programs. 1000

The method involved selecting representative

TMI (nT)
samples from the drilling and recovering a full Easting (m)
suite of KIM’s from each sample. The recovered
b Fox kimberlite - 7200Hz Co-planar resistivity
grains (garnet, chromite, ilmenite, clinopyrox- 8000
ene) were analyzed by electron microprobe 7000
for major elements and by inductively coupled 6000
plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) for nickel.
Northing (m) 5000

4000
kGeophysical Surveys
3000
The Ekati area was explored using helicopter-­ 2000
borne total field magnetic (TFM), electromagnetic Fox 380 MSL
1000
(EM), and very low-frequency electromagnetic
(VLF) surveys. Final exploration sweeps were car- (ohm-m)
Easting (m)
ried out using an improved airborne EM system
with tighter line spacing, reduced sensor height, c Fox kimberlite - vertical gravity gradient
and airborne gravity gradiometer (. Fig. 3.69).
 
40
The ground geophysical surveys were used to 20
gather more precise kimberlite/non-kimberlite 0
Northing (m)

target discrimination and estimates of pipe size. -20

The surveys were completed on both the major- -40

ity of the drill targets and all of the pipes with -60
-80
reported mineral resource estimates. A small core Fox 380 MSL -100
hole seismic survey was designed in the Koala -120
pipe, this searching for detailed spatial informa-
Gdd (Eo)
tion of the kimberlite body. The data proved that Easting (m)
the borehole seismic technique could augment
drillhole pierce points with seismically deter-
mined pipe wall contacts. ..      Fig. 3.69  Fox kimberlite airborne geophysical response;
the Fox kimberlite has a weak and normal magnetization a,
a strong conductive response b, and a very strong gravity
kDrilling
response c (Illustration courtesy of Dominion Diamond
Drilling lasted from 1991 until 31 July 2016 and Corporation)
included 1389 core holes (254,490 m), 111 sonic
drillholes (2596 m), and 513 RC holes (106,547 m).
Core drilling using synthetic diamond-tipped also used for gathering geotechnical and hydro-
tools and/or carbide bits contributed to define the geological data. . Figure 3.70 shows the location
 

pipe contacts, wall-rock conditions, and internal of the drillholes. Forty kimberlite occurrences
geology. Prior to 1995, the diameter of drillholes were subsequently tested for diamond content
ranged from 27 to 71 cm; from 1995 to 2008, the using reverse circulation (RC) drilling and/or
holes’ diameter was standardized to between 31 surface bulk samples.
and 45  cm. In order to obtain larger samples, Sonic drilling was used to core both soil
drillholes’ diameters for the 2015 and 2016 pro- and bedrock in Ekati. The primary objective of
grams ranged from 45 to 61 cm. Core drilling was sonic drilling was to characterize the nature and
 202 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

490000 500000 510000 520000 530000 540000 550000

Map of all drill holes

7210000
7210000

N
(with insets)
Sable Legend
kimberlites
Currently mined kimberlite
7200000

7200000
3 Pigeon
Depleted kimberlite
Resource kimberlite
DD holes
RC holes

7190000
7190000

Sonic holes
Lakes
Panda Jay
Mine lease boundaries
Buffer zone
Koala north
7180000

7180000
Core zone

Koala
7170000

7170000
Fox

7160000
7160000

Misery ne
Misery
Misery sw ext Date: 31-07-16 Datum: NAD 1983
Misery s
Drafted by: Projection: UTM 12N
Lynx
Mineral Services
7150000
AN MS GROUP BUSINESS
km
0 5 10 20

490000 500000 510000 520000 530000 540000 550000

..      Fig. 3.70  Map showing location of all drillholes with or indicator dispersion targets were drilled, with a total
insets for pipes with reported mineral resources for the of 150 kimberlites discovered (Illustration courtesy of
Ekati project area; approximately 350 geophysical and/ Dominion Diamond Corporation)

variation of the soil layers to determine the depth and the tool for conductivity induction and natu-
to bedrock. In addition, recovered soil was logged ral gamma readings, were used on all RC holes.
and geotechnical laboratory testing was performed Oriented core was used for geotechnical
on selected samples. After reaching the final depth investigation of the wall rocks but not in kimber-
of investigation at each borehole location, in situ lite. The following geotechnical parameters were
hydraulic conductivity testing was carried out. determined for all core drillholes: (a) percent-
Since core recovery was largely a function age core recovery, (b) rock quality designation
of the hardness of the kimberlite, recoveries of (RQD), (c) fracture frequency, (d) point load
95–100% for both core and RC drillholes were strength index, and (e) joint condition and water.
common within wall rock. In kimberlite, the core Digital geological and geotechnical logging
recoveries were as low as 20% and as high as 95% was completed and the core photographed before
but were more typically in the 75–85% range. For being stored in appropriate building. Color pho-
RC drillholes, kimberlite recoveries ranged from tographs were taken of delineation drill core and
50% to over 100% in cases of in holes sloughing. used to verify significant contacts and litholo-
All core and RC drillhole collars were surveyed gies as well as provide a permanent record of the
with GPS instruments prior to and after drilling drill core. Geological logging used digital logging
in order to ensure that the drillhole collar loca- forms for both wall-rock lithology, kimberlite/
tion error is minimal. For core holes, downhole wall-rock contacts, and internal kimberlite lithol-
surveys were done with industry standard instru- ogy. Kimberlite cores were examined macro-
ments. Three tools, including the tool for gyro- scopically and using a binocular microscope to
scopic deviation surveying, the three arm caliper, determine concentration of macrocrystic olivine,
3.5 · Case Studies
203 3
matrix composition, abundance and type of coun- followed up with ground prospecting/sampling.
try rock xenoliths, approximate abundance of Second, areas with mineralization of ­interest were
indicator minerals, rock fabric, color, and altera- then flown again at the local scale with a tighter
tion. Samples were taken from core holes for line spacing to define areas with better potential
determination of dry bulk density and moisture for thick and continuous mineralized envelopes.
content of host rock and kimberlite. In the opinion These prioritized areas were then surveyed with
of the responsible QPs, the quantity and quality of ground-based TDEM technology to allow high-
the lithological, geotechnical, density, collar, and resolution delineation of the sub-­ outcropping
downhole survey data collected in the drill pro- parts of conductors. This information was used
grams were sufficient to support mineral resource to quickly plan trenching and drilling for efficient
and mineral reserve estimation. sampling of the mineralization.
With graphite being significantly more con-
zz Matawinie Graphite Project Exploration: ductive than host rocks, the first step in the explo-
Courtesy of Nouveau Monde Mining ration stage was to carry out an airborne time
Enterprises Inc. domain electromagnetic (TDEM) survey. Thus,
The Matawinie project is spread over an area of a regional heliborne magnetic and TDEM survey
approximately 70 km by 50 km, being the center was carried out over an area of 55  km  ×  72  km
of the most important block (Tony Block) posi- at a 1  km line spacing. Several anomalies were
tioned approximately 120 km north of the city of detected and ten local areas were selected for
Montréal (Canada). The Matawinie property lies detailed surveying using the same configuration,
in the southwestern portion of the Grenville geo- but at a 100  m line spacing. The surveys were
logical province. The belt hosts the only currently successful in outlining several large-size conduc-
producing crystalline flake graphite mine in tors (. Fig. 3.71). In order to assess the multiple
 

North America. The area includes a great variety

of rock types such as paragneiss and calc-silicates.
Granitic and pegmatitic intrusions also occur
and are located occasionally on the property. The
graphite mineralization is hosted in paragneiss
horizons and appears as disseminated graphite
flakes. The graphitic paragneiss occurs as layers a
few centimeters to several meters thick and can
often be followed along strike over tens to hun-
dreds of meters. This rock type visually contains
approximately 0.5–3% disseminated crystalline
graphite. The graphitic horizons are interbedded
with garnet paragneiss units displaying low graph-
ite content and ranging from a few centimeters to
tens of meters in width. The mineralized zones are
limited by garnet paragneiss on the exterior side of
the main circular conductive anomaly while char-
nockite granitic gneiss (hypersthene granite) occu-
pies the internal portion of the circular anomaly.

kGeophysical Surveys
Given the contrasted physical properties of the TDEM response (nT/s)
graphite mineralization sought after, geophysics 49 86 124 162 199 237 274 312 350 387 425 462

was the key component of the exploration program Residual total magnetic intensity (nT)
-706-268 -183 -127 -81 -46-10 25 54 82113 157 212 282 383 5911527
and in particular time domain electromagnetic
techniques (TDEM). The exploration strategy
was twofold. First, it implied large regional air- ..      Fig. 3.71  Local areas flown with heliborne MAG-­TDEM
borne surveys with a wide line spacing to detect (Illustration courtesy of Nouveau Monde Mining Enter-
pluri-kilometric conductors, which were then prises Inc.)
 204 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

resulting targets in an efficient manner, a quick using EM methods. Some poorer, more subtle,
prospection campaign was deployed. It was sup- conductors were also outlined. Furthermore, the
ported by the use of a very small EM device with chargeability model highlighted some areas where
a penetration capability estimated at 1  m. This disseminated graphite and/or sulfides may occur
effort resulted in the collection of 35 grab samples in addition of the conductive occurrences. In addi-
grading between 5% and 17% graphitic carbon. tion, the 2-D section models of the IP data were
3 Based on these preliminary results and the poten- especially useful for drillhole planning.
tial size of the conductors estimated from the Magnetic data was also gathered in an effort
airborne surveys, several areas were selected for to try to discriminate weakly magnetic conduc-
further assessment. tors, likely relating to low sulfide graphite occur-
In order to get an accurate image of the sub-­ rences, from strongly magnetic conductors for
outcropping portion of the conductors, a ground which higher sulfide concentration may occur
TDEM system was used. The system has a lim- (. Fig.  3.72). In one instance where a drillhole
 

ited penetration depth estimated in the order of had intersected a graphite-rich horizon at a depth
10–15 m but offers high spatial resolution, being much greater than expected (85  m instead of
the unit equipped with an integrated GPS.  The about 20 m), a borehole Mise-À-La-Masse survey
survey was carried out along existing roads and (MALM) was carried out with a 12.5 m spacing
trails, along the 100  m spaced network of lines to verify which of the sub-outcropping conduc-
cut for other geophysical techniques, and finally tors this deep intersection was connected to. The
along a local 20 m spaced set of lines specifically MALM survey proved that the deep graphite
designed for this instrument. The overall results occurrence was connected to shallow conductive
obtained with this system proved very useful to units further to the northwest rather than nearby,
map the sub-outcropping conductors. This type indicating some local discontinuities.
of high-spatial-resolution information enables a The 2014 and 2015 ground TDEM surveys
significant gain for understanding the geometry delineated wide conductive areas over each of
of ore bodies close to surface. It served as a guide the targeted mineralized zones. As a result, four
for strategically locating exploratory trenches and trenches were excavated in 2014 and five in 2015
drillholes, especially in this geological area that (. Fig.  3.73). Trenches were oriented roughly per-
 

underwent strong deformation. Everywhere a pendicular to the foliation of the paragneiss units
trench was dug or a hole drilled based on these and mineralized horizons with the exception of
results, graphite and/or sulfide mineralization was one trench, which was at about 45° to the foliation
found and could explain the anomalies. The over- because of terrain constraints. In 2014, the trench-
burden encountered in the drillholes of the area ing program aimed at sampling only mineralized
varied from 0.4 to 5.5 m, with an average of 3.5 m. material along the trenches in order to determine
Other classic geophysical techniques were used the potential of the mineralization, while in 2015
to better define the conductors. A horizontal loop channel sampling usually started 2 or 4 m (1–2 sam-
EM (HLEM) survey was performed every 25  m ple lengths) outside the visible mineralized area and
with a 100 m cable using three frequencies. With was collected in a continuous manner as to prevent
its estimated penetration depth of 50 m, the infor- any sample bias. Trenches were approximately 1.5 m
mation provided by this survey was especially use- in width and varied from 0 to 4 m in depth. In some
ful at locating conductors with significant vertical instances, large boulders, the accumulation of water
extensions and those with their top located deeper and prohibitive depth prevented the excavation and/
than the penetration depth of the previous system. or sampling of portions of the planned trenches.
It also enabled some estimation of the dip, conduc-
tance, and depth to top of conductors. A resistivity/ kDrilling
induced polarization (IP) survey was also carried Drilling on the Tony Block targeted wide conduc-
out at a 12.5 m station spacing (for increased reso- tors on each of the main conductive areas out-
lution) with ten receiving dipoles using the pole- lined by the 2015 ground TDEM survey. A total
dipole configuration (for increased penetration of 70 holes were drilled for a total of 10,479  m.
depth). The conductors identified with this elec- As an example, the drilling on the southeast zone
trical method conformed well with those detected of the south deposit consisted of nine holes for a
3.5 · Case Studies
205 3
..      Fig. 3.72 Ground
magnetic survey results
(Illustration courtesy of
Nouveau Monde Mining
Enterprises Inc.)

..      Fig. 3.73  Part of a

trench including a channel
sampling (Image courtesy
of Nouveau Monde Mining
Enterprises Inc.)

total of 1552 m drilled. Mineralization was inter- 3.18% to 3.61% Cg. The drilling on the southwest
cepted 13 times by drilling here resulting in the zone of the south deposit consisted of 22 holes
interpretation that the southeast zone is com- for a total of 2617 m drilled. Mineralization was
posed of two main mineralized horizons (S1 and intercepted 57 times by drilling here resulting
S2). From Section S2600 to Section S2900 (300 m in the interpretation that the southwest zone is
length), the mineralized horizon ranges from 116 composed of two main mineralized horizons (S1
to 159  m true width, with grade varying from and S2). The highlight of southwest zone is a first
 206 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

graphitic horizon (S1) about 29 m thick. It is fol- a 0.5–0.7 kg sample was collected from the follow-
lowed by a mainly barren interval between 24 and ing 0.5 m below the topsoil. Samples were placed
62 m thick and finally a second graphitic horizon in a plastic bag and tagged. A brief description that
(S2) around 40–50  m thick, with both graphitic included color of the sample, percentage of gravel,
horizons varying from 2.79% to 5.29% Cg. sand, and silt was ­carried out. All field information
was controlled by the geologist in charge of the soil
3 zz Coringa Gold Project Exploration: Courtesy survey and digitized into the data base before send-
of Anfield Gold Corp. ing the sample to the laboratory for gold analysis.
The Coringa gold project is located in north cen- In trench sampling, a start point was located with
tral Brazil in the mining friendly state of Para, a handheld GPS, and azimuth and trench length
65 km south of Novo Progresso. The area occurs was estimated with a compass and tape. Trenches
in the southeastern part of the Tapajós mineral were hand dug to a depth of 1 m. In these trenches,
province where past production is estimated at 30 approximately 2–3 kg chip-channel samples were
million ounces of gold. The claims are underlain collected at 1–1.5  m intervals. Finally, a stream
by Proterozoic granites and rhyolitic volcanics, sediment sampling program was also carried out,
and the main structural trends are northwest and being collected a total of 756 samples.
north-northwest. The Coringa shear-vein system
(high-grade gold mineralization is hosted in a kDrilling
series of narrow quartz-sulfide veins that range in In drilling program, four drilling phases have been
thickness from 0.15 to 4 m) is coincident with the completed on targets identified at the project site
north-northwest trend (345°) and dips 70–90° to for a total of 24,093 m of HQ core in 160 explo-
the northeast. The main shear is 7 km long and five ration holes. In the first phase of drilling, 1774 m
zones of vein mineralization occur along it. Many in 22 holes was carried out for early stage explo-
other mineralized structures are also present. ration, being drilled under the main artisanal
workings («garimpos») (. Fig.  3.74). The second
 

kGeophysical Surveys phase drilling includes 5032  m in 44 holes, and

The exploration program initially focused on
determining drilling targets. These targets were
identified through artisanal workings, geological
mapping, airborne geophysics, and ground IP
surveys, along with rock and soil sampling. An
airborne magnetic-gradiometric and gamma-
ray survey was carried out during 2007. The air-
borne survey covered 549 km2 with a 200 m grid
spacing and at an altitude of 100 m. A 34 km line
induced polarization (IP) dipole-dipole geo-
physical survey over two zones and a 70.7  km
line IP (induced polarization) dipole-dipole
geophysical survey over approximately 7.0 km of
gold-bearing structures were later completed. A
time domain electromagnetic geophysical sur-
vey of 860 km line was flown to cover all identi-
fied pan concentrate and gold-in-soil anomalies.

kRock and Soil Sampling

Rock and soil sampling were carried out in several
phases. Gold and 34 other elements were assayed
in the samples. Soil sampling was carried out using
a 100 m by 25 m sampling grid together with 18
trenches. For soil sampling, a baseline was set up
perpendicular to the soil line orientation. The top- ..      Fig. 3.74  «Garimpo» or artisanal working (Image
soil (between 0.3 and 0.5 m deep) was removed and courtesy of Anfield Gold Corp.)
3.5 · Case Studies
207 3

..      Table 3.5  Drilling summary by phase

Phase Holes Holes with Meters Samples Meters sampled

downhole survey

1 22 0 1774 1922 1717

2 44 42 5032 1711 1370

3 15 12 1979 434 333

4 79 66 15,308 5227 4752.83

Total 160 120 24,093 9294 8172.83

Data courtesy of Anfield Gold Corp.

Verifying the drill hole interval Marking the core for splitting

Photographing the core

Bagging the sample

..      Fig. 3.75  Sampling procedure (Images courtesy of Anfield Gold Corp.)

the aim was further defining of the resources in . Table  3.5 summarizes the drillholes completed
 

several blocks. Regarding the third phase, drilling within each phase of drilling.
was 1979 m in 15 holes; the main objective was to The sampling procedure in holes (. Fig. 3.75)
 

define the resource in one block and test two of includes the continuous sampling of the core at
the IP targets. Finally, the fourth phase of drilling intervals of approximately 0.5  m (mineralized
covered 15,308 m in 79 holes), being the goal to zones) to 1  m (non-mineralized zones). In this
test the continuity of the Mae de Leite structure at process, a cutting/splitting guide line is marked
depth and along strike as well as the continuity of on the core by the geologist to ensure that the
the Meio zone along strike to the north and south. mineralized structure is equally divided, each box
 208 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

is photographed to provide a visual record of the geochemical anomalies from the short RC explo-
core, and then one-half of the core is returned to ration holes carried out by SQM while looking for
the core box, while the other half is placed in the industrial minerals, known reported or inferred
numbered and tagged sample bag. lineaments forming structural corridors and
other geological information.
zz Atacama Copper Project Exploration: The initial target selection was reviewed again
3 Courtesy of Arena Minerals Inc. once the company acquired regional airborne
Atacama copper property consists of approximately magnetic and radiometric data that had been
920  km2 (92,000 hectares) in Chile’s Antofagasta flown as part of a multi-client survey in 1999
Region, approximately 40  km northeast from the (. Fig. 3.76). The reinterpretation of this database
 

city of Antofagasta. The property has been almost led to the identification of an additional 23 targets
exclusively explored and exploited for industrial that had not been selected during the initial selec-
minerals, primarily iodine and/or nitrates. These tion process. The remaining 17 of the reinterpreted
industrial minerals are found within overburden magnetic/radiometric targets correspond with
covered areas and generally within 20  m from previously selected ASTER/geochemical targets.
surface. As a result, the exploration activities All alteration zones or mineralized outcrops
within the property focused on shallow explora- were systematically sampled, and a preliminary
tion methods, ranging from trenching to short geological map was made of all areas of interest.
RC drilling in more recent years, which targeted A total of 1450 rock chip samples were collected
sedimentary layers within the overburden. Most during this phase of exploration, and several areas
of the Cu porphyry deposits of the region belong with potential for both copper porphyry and epi-
to the Paleocene-Early Eocene world-class Cu-Mo thermal gold mineralization were identified for
porphyry belt which extends from southern Peru additional ground follow-up surveys. Based on
to northern Chile for a distance of over 1300 km. the results of the initial fieldwork, five areas were
Mineralization is associated with a complex of selected for ground magnetics coverage: Cerro
granodioritic to quartz-monzonite stocks with Barco, Cerrillos, Quebrada Honda, La Paloma, and
accompanying Paleocene dykes dated at 57 mil- Paciencia. A total of 3647 line km of surveying was
lion of years. completed by this survey. Following the ground
A basic outline of the exploration program in geophysics, additional mapping and in some cases
place is as follows: (1) data compilation; (2) desk- multispectral analysis were done on selected alter-
top analysis and target selection; (3) initial ground ation areas to get a better definition of the targets
work and prospecting; (4) prospect generation and define trenching and drilling targets.
and selection; (5) follow-up ground work, includ- The ground magnetic surveys were con-
ing additional geology, geochemistry, and ground ducted on north-south lines with a line spacing
geophysics; and (6) drill program design, RC of 100  m. Readings were carried out with an
drilling in two phases: 2 km grid drilling followed approximate station spacing of approximately
by 1  km grid infill based on results. Thus, the 0.5–1.5  m. A checkpoint was measured twice
exploration program during 2013–2014 started daily with all the magnetometers. Repeatability
with an initial phase of target selection using of the corrected magnetic readings was within
satellite imagery (ASTER) to identify exposed 1 nT, and the GPS UTM coordinate repeatability
alteration zones and main structural features and was within 2 m of the average value. In summary,
trends. This work was combined with regional several large anomalies that may be indicative
geological and geochemical data to provide a of large hydrothermal alteration systems were
selection of priority targets for field follow-up observed, being the magnetic data effectively
with prospecting and sampling. Twenty-nine tar- mapping lithology.
get areas were selected of which 11 have exposed Regarding the exploration results and inter-
alteration of various compositions read from the pretation, the comparison between the smoothed
ASTER images. The other targets that do not have analytical signal data and what is known of the
surface alteration detectable by ASTER imaging local geology from either the regional map sheets
lie under cover or have only small outcrop expres- or the arena mapping allowed for a definition of a
sions (less than the 25 m pixel limit). These areas set of characteristics for the different lithologies,
were selected based on their copper-molybdenum subject to variations caused by things like burial
3.5 · Case Studies
209 3
400000 425000 450000 475000
N
7500000

7500000
1999 airborne
magnetic survey
7475000

7475000
7450000

7450000
Concession boundary
7425000

7425000

Airborne magnetic
7400000

7400000

survey location
July 13, 2015

Concession
1:550,000
0 5 km
Basemap: airborne magnetics TMI

..      Fig. 3.76  Airborne magnetic survey location (Illustration courtesy of Arena Minerals Inc.)

depth and well-known magnetic characteristics of than granites. In several locations, the lithologies
igneous and sedimentary rocks. Typically, mafic were revised based on magnetic characteristics
intrusives are more magnetic than mafic and where the regional mapping indicated lithologies
intermediate volcanics that have been subject to (e.g., Cretaceous granites) that are not consistent
oxidation, and in turn, these are more magnetic with high magnetic gradients measured in the
 210 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

..      Fig. 3.77 Crustiform
quartz from Paciencia
prospect (Image courtesy
of Arena Minerals Inc.)

new survey and where the geological map sheet zinc (up to 0.15%), and silver (up to 154 g/t). The
shows Holocene cover and an absence of outcrop. next stage of work on this target should comprise
Pampa Paciencia prospect results, as an exam- of trenching, sampling, and mapping of the two
ple of the exploration program, are the following. vein areas prior to exploration RC drilling.
The Pampa Paciencia prospect is located approxi-
mately 10  km north and northeast of the Sierra zz Preston Uranium Project Exploration:
Gorda and Spence mines, respectively. The detailed Courtesy of Skyharbour Resources Ltd.
magnetic survey has allowed the interpretation to The Preston uranium property is located in north-
refine the position of the faults and to recognize western Saskatchewan, Canada. The property
that most of the lithologies are fault-­bounded in comprises 121,148 ha and is approximately 32 km
a broadly north-south elongation direction. Two long in a northerly direction. Outcrop exposure
distinct mineralized areas, approximately 2  km is limited, generally 5%. Vegetation, weather
apart, have been discovered within altered dioritic conditions, and seasons are typical of northern
and granodioritic intrusive rocks. The mineraliza- Saskatchewan. The Preston uranium project is
tion consists of quartz vein outcrops and subcrops located 30 km southwest of the southwest margin
of angular quartz fields that align with east-west to of the Athabasca Basin, which is interpreted to
west-northwest lineaments. The quartz vein mate- have been filled over a 200 Ma period in four major
rial exhibits well-­developed crustiform-colloform depositional sequences coalescing into a single
textures (. Fig. 3.77) and is associated with gold,
  basin. No significant zones of uranium mineraliza-
silver, and base metals anomalies. tion have been identified on the property to date
The epithermal quartz field consists of a 500- to but the Athabasca Basin arguably hosts the world’s
800-m-long area of quartz float concentrated along largest and richest known uranium deposits.
a west-northwest axis immediately south of a large
granodiorite outcrop. Several quartz chip samples kAirborne Geophysical Surveys
taken from this area originated anomalous values A 5162 line km combined versatile time domain
of gold up to 6.82 g/t of gold. Seventeen other sam- electromagnetic (VTEMplus) and aeromagnetic
ples from this zone also generated anomalous val- survey was completed over six blocks of the
ues ranging from 0.5 to 3.85 g/t of gold. The second Preston property. The survey areas were flown at
area of interest is located 2 km southwest of the epi- 200–300 m line spacings with tie lines at 1000 m.
thermal quartz field, consisting of veins with asso- Over 300  km of conductor segments, some
ciated quartz-amethyst. Anomalous gold values approaching 10 km in length, occur in the com-
from chip sampling range from 0.3 to 2.07 g/t and bined eastern blocks of the Preston VTEM cover-
are associated locally with anomalous base metal age. Basement aeromagnetic trends in the furthest
values in copper (up to 0.12%), lead (up to 0.41%), western block are oriented northwest-southeast,
3.5 · Case Studies
211 3
while those of the eastern blocks are E-NE which Geological traversing and mapping and sampling
is similar to the dominant basement strike ori- of the various rock types were aided by ground
entation at Fission’s Patterson Lake South high-­ radiometric surveying. Areas with high topogra-
grade uranium discovery area. Cross-cutting phy were chosen for geological mapping traverses
structural features and flexures affecting the con- based on coinciding airborne radiometric anoma-
ductor traces were identified to be of particular lies and strong EM conductors. Geological outcrop
interest as prospective follow-up targets. and structural mapping was completed at a scale
A Goldak high-resolution radiometric survey of 1:5000 in selected areas. The dominant lithology
was flown to locate uranium boulder trains, in situ was moderately to steeply dipping, northeast trend-
uranium mineralization and alteration associated ing, weakly to moderately foliated granite. Further
with uranium mineralization. The airborne radio- to the northeast, to the extent of the Preston ten-
metric, magnetic, and VLF-EM survey was flown ure boundary, diorite-to-gabbro and granite-to-
over one large block extending up to 60 km east- granodiorite outcrops are mapped along the same
west and up to 36 km north-south flown at 50 m intermediate airborne magnetic  northeast trend.
above surface. A total of 8273 line-km on 200 m Radioactive pegmatites (>2000 cps) intrude gran-
line spacing was flown on lines at 155°/335°. ite to granodiorite to the northeast.
The airborne radiometric spectrometer coverage
mapped a significant number of enhanced radio- kWater, Sediment, and Soil Sampling
active locations that were classified into contri- Lake-bottom water and sediment sampling were
butions from uranium, thorium, and potassium regularly collected together at the same site.
sources. Interpretation of the radiometric data Samples of lake sediment were collected using a
identified areas with elevated uranium counts that tubular steel instrumentation, fitted with a butter-
can be correlated along and between multiple lines fly valve that opens an impact with the sediment
potentially indicating the presence of radioactive and closes as the sample is retrieved, and trapped
boulder trains or in situ uranium mineralization. the containing sediment. The sampler is designed
These radiometric features, particularly when so that once retrieved, it can be inverted and the
coincident with prospective EM conductors, were contained sediment poured into a sample bag.
given high priority for follow-up ground work. Sample control was by GPS with sub 5 m accuracy.
Geological outcrop mapping and identifica- Thematic plotting was completed for As, Au, Co,
tion of boulders and/or boulder terrains were Cu, Li, Mo, Pb, U, Th, Y, and Zn and assessed for
completed over geochemical survey grids (at spatial associations with known geological, radon,
200 m line spacing) and on prospecting traverses and geophysical features. Statistics for select ele-
while ground truthing geophysical anomalies. ments of interest are tabulated in . Table 3.6. For
 

..      Table 3.6  Select lake sediment statistics

n = 260 U_ppm Pb_ppm Pb206_ppm Co_ppm Au_ppb Y_ppm

Max 2.60 19.74 4.66 42.90 7.30 39.49

Min 0.05 0.55 0.13 0.50 0.10 0.65

Average 0.63 3.31 0.83 8.10 0.50 8.01

Stdev 0.46 2.31 0.57 6.47 0.78 7.09

50‰ 0.50 2.81 0.70 6.20 0.30 5.66

78‰ 0.80 4.02 1.03 11.01 0.70 11.08

90‰ 1.20 5.35 1.40 16.19 1.10 16.84

95‰ 1.71 6.60 1.62 20.98 1.51 22.47

99‰ 2.20 12.66 3.12 29.42 3.30 33.79

Data courtesy of Skyharbour Resources Ltd.

 212 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

the uranium lake-bottom sediment results, a total three different tree species have differing back-
of 7 out of 260 samples collected in 2013 are above ground values on an element by element basis,
the 99th percentile. This cluster of samples is also so it is critical that plots showing biogeochemical
strongly anomalous in Co, Cu, Nb, Y, and Zn. results be levelled to account for these differences.
Regional soil sampling grids were completed,
for the most part, between 200 and 400  m line kIn Situ Radon-in-Soil
3 spacing and 100–200 m sample spacing orthogo- In situ radon-in-soil measurements were taken
nal to EM conductors and/or radiometric anoma- adjacent to the site of soil sample (hole). A hand-
lies. Over 700 B-horizon samples were collected operated auger was used to drill a hole approxi-
with sampling generally avoiding muskeg. The soil mately 2.5  cm in diameter to a depth of approxi-
profile comprises 0–15 cm of moss or pine needles mately 65 cm. Net radon results are given in counts
covering a thin 0.1–1 cm organic humus layer, then per minute (cpm). Radon-in-soil analysis was com-
into a generally beige- to white-colored uncon- pleted at a total of 181 sample sites, most of which
solidated pebbly sand. The B-horizon selected for have corresponding soil sampling completed for
sampling was identified in the field as an abrupt ICP analysis. Values for radon ranged between 0
transition from the above beige or white sand to a and 26 counts per minute. In most areas, the spac-
brown or orange sand typically occurring between ing and sample density were too low to establish
15 and 85 cm depth. Thematic plotting was com- significant anomalies when viewing the radon-in-
pleted for Ag, As, Au, Ce, Co, Cu, Li, Mo, Pb, U, Th, soil data alone. Other samples such as lake-bottom
Y, and Zn and assessed for spatial associations with water samples were also collected and measured.
known geological, radon, and geophysical features.
Uranium anomalies in soils are generally limited kGround Gravity Surveys
to one or two adjacent station anomalies. Two of The targets for land-based gravity surveying were
the most significant multi-­station soil anomalies selected based on favorable geology and structure,
in the north-west to north central fin area are spa- coincident geochemical survey (lake sediment,
tially associated with mapped granitoid outcrops radon-in-water, radon-in-soil, and/or biogeochem),
with significant topographic relief. The highest U and airborne geophysical survey results from the
value for 2013 came from the west central portion 2013 exploration program. Prioritization was given
of the Swoosh target, adjacent to the projected to discrete sub-kilometric ovoid gravity lows poten-
map extension of pelitic sediments. This sample tially associated with desilicification, clay alteration,
returned 7.90 ppm U with >95th percentile values and other alteration typically found in uranium
for Cu and Y and greater than 80th percentile As deposits. The 2014 ground-based gravity survey
and Pb and positive Pb isotope systematics. consisted of gravity stations collected on survey
lines spaced at 400 m with a station spacing of 50 m.
kBiogeochemical Sampling A horizontal loop electromagnetic survey (HLEM)
Regional biogeochemical sampling was completed was later carried out. The targets were selected for
on geochemical survey grids in conjunction with HLEM surveying to more accurately define air-
soil sampling. Black spruce was selected as the borne VTEM conductors of interest refined by the
preferred vegetation medium due to its proven geological, geochemical, and gravity results.
ability to concentrate many elements and wide-
spread availability in both well-drained and poorly kDrilling
drained areas. Previous studies also identified Jack Finally, two diamond drilling programs were
pine as a suitable biogeochemical medium. These carried out in 2014 and 2015. The drill core was
species was selected as a secondary target vegeta- descriptively logged by the geologist on site for
tion type, due to its widespread distribution in the lithology, alteration, mineralization structure,
property area. Thus, twigs with attached needles and other geological attributes with the pertinent
were collected from around the circumference of data entered into a database. Handheld spectrom-
an individual tree within 20 m of each soil sampling eters were used to measure the radioactivity of the
site. Numerous field parameters were collected drill core and aided in the selection of zones for
including tree height, twig length and diameter, sampling. The core was sampled based on radio-
soil moisture conditions, slope, aspect, and any activity, alteration, and structure of the core with
other factors that would affect sample quality. The sample intervals typically 0.5–1 m in length.
3.5 · Case Studies
213 3
zz Ilovica-Shtuka Gold-Copper Project soil geochemistry sampling was approximately
Exploration: Courtesy of Euromax 5000  m2. The soil sampling targeted the subsoil
Resources horizon, which is generally at a depth of 20–30 cm
The Ilovica property is located in the southeast of (the «B» horizon of the soil profile), as this unit
Macedonia, about 16 km to the border with Bulgaria. generally contains the accumulated minerals. The
Ilovica is a porphyry copper-gold deposit, situated in soil surveys were completed by initially removing
a northwest-southeast striking Cenozoic magmatic the humus topsoil layer with a spade, before taking
arc that covers large areas of central Romania, Serbia, a 2–3 kg sample of the subsoil. The remainder of
Macedonia, southern Bulgaria, northern Greece, and the soil was restored to the sampling location and
eastern Turkey. It is more or less 1.5 km in diameter, rehabilitation of disturbed areas was performed.
being associated with a badly exposed dacite-grano- Results of soil sampling over the property
diorite plug and emplaced along the northeastern indicate significant copper anomalies (>200 ppm
border of the northwest-southeast elongate Strumica copper) to the northwest, southwest, and south
graben. The exact location of the deposit is controlled of the mineralized intrusive (. Fig.  3.78). These
 

by major north-south crosscutting faults and minor anomalies are believed to represent down slope
northwest-southeast faulting, parallel to the faulted dispersion of the copper from the central area
border of the graben. Alteration related to tertiary of mineralization. In contrast, significant gold
magmatic activity at Ilovica is variably present over (>0.10  ppm) and to a lesser extent molybdenum
an area of approximately 8 km2. Pervasive alteration (>20  ppm) show less down slope dispersion and
is largely confined to a roughly 1.5 km2 area in and more accurately delineate the underlying miner-
adjacent to the main intrusive complex. Smaller alization.
areas of pervasive and structurally-­controlled altera-
tion extend somewhat asymmetrically to the south kGeophysical Surveys
and east of the intrusive complex. A total magnetic intensity survey was carried out
Regarding the mineralization, the main sul- and 24 east-west lines spaced 100  m apart were
fide mineral at Ilovica is chalcopyrite followed by surveyed with readings taken every 10 m. The aim
pyrite and secondary copper sulfides such as chal- of the survey was to outline the lateral and ver-
cocite, covellite, and bornite. Molybdenite, galena, tical extension of stockwork zones with second-
and sphalerite are present in minor amounts, ary magnetite enrichment intersected in several
and occasional traces of sulfosalt minerals such drillholes. Magnetic susceptibility measurements
as tetrahedrite-tennantite and tellurides of gold were taken at an average interval of about 10 cm
and silver are observed. High-temperature oxide on core from these holes using an electromagnetic
mineralization, such as magnetite, dominates at inductance bridge. A high amplitude magnetic
depth associated with pyrrhotite and chalcopyr- anomaly was outlined; the magnetic susceptibility
rhotite in what is interpreted as the core of the measurements demonstrated that the only mag-
system. A variety of iron hydroxide group miner- netic rocks in the area are the secondary mag-
als are largely developed within the oxidation and netite enrichment stockwork zones that are the
cementation zones. Very occasionally gold nug- source of the magnetic anomaly. The magnetic
gets are observed at the base of the oxidation zone. models indicated that the magnetic stockwork
zone trends north-northeast along an 800 m strike
kField Mapping, Rock Chip Sampling, and length and is approximately 300 m wide, though
Soil Geochemistry Survey inherent ambiguities in the interpretation process
Detailed geological mapping was completed on may have underestimated the width of the body.
1:2000 and 1:5000 scales and comprised observa- A high-resolution pole-dipole array survey was
tions with respect to petrology, style of alteration, carried out using dipole lengths of 300 and 150 m
and mineralization. Rock chip samples were col- and n spacings of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5,
lected from the outcrops which were identified as and 5.5 for the array with dipole length of 300 m and
having potential to host mineralization. n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 for the 150 m dipole length.
In total, three phases of soil sampling have The IP or resistivity survey identified a number of
been undertaken on the property, resulting in intense IP anomalies, interpreted to be related to
a total of 540 sampling points arranged on a sulfide and magnetite mineralization previously
100 m × 100 m grid. The total area covered by the intersected in drillholes (. Fig. 3.79). The resistivity
 
 214 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

4596000
Legend
Drillhole
ILOVITZA 06
ILOVITZA 11
Au_soil
3 Au
Au in soil >0.216ppm
Au in soil 0.108–0.216ppm
Au in soil 0.054–0.108ppm
Au in soil 0.027–0.054ppm
Cu_soil
Cu
Cu in soil >384ppm

4595000
Cu in soil 192–384ppm
Cu in soil 96–192ppm
Cu in soil 48–96ppm
Mo_soil
Mo
Mo in soil >40ppm
Mo in soil 20–40ppm
Mo in soil 10–20ppm
Mo in soil 5–10ppm

..      Fig. 3.78  Excerpt of the soil geochemistry anomalies map (Illustration courtesy of Euromax Resources)

7652700 7653000 7653300 7653600 7653900 7654200 7654500 7654800 7655100

4595800 4595800
N
4595600 4595600 400
W E
200
4595400 4595400
S 150
4595200 4595200 125

4595000 4595000 100

80
4594800 4594800 60

4594600 4594600 40
20
4594400 4594400
10
4594200 4594200 8
6
4594000 4594000
4
4593800 4593800 2
0
4593600 4593600
7652700 7653000 7653300 7653600 7653900 7654200 7654500 7654800 7655100

..      Fig. 3.79  2D IP Inversion model on level 350 m from surface (Illustration courtesy of Euromax Resources)
3.5 · Case Studies
215 3
models revealed the presence of linear, almost ver- area of low resistivity correlates with low-grade
tical low resistivity features, interpreted as fault copper and gold in the Ilovica block model, and
zones. The most prominent IP anomaly coincided in fact, grade appears to increase as the higher
spatially with the magnetic stockwork zone defined resistivity zone is intersected.
previously by the magnetic survey and tested by
several drillholes. The high IP intervals correlated kDrilling
with high total sulfide values of up to 3–5%, though A total of 130 holes have been drilled over 10
while the copper mineralization in drillholes coin- campaigns (42,032  m): 20 were drilled for geo-
cides with high sulfide concentrations, it was not technical investigation, 15 were carried out for
possible to distinguish between anomalies related hydrogeological investigation, and 95 were drilled
to a barren pyrite halo and IP anomalies associated for mineral resource determination. The drill-
with porphyry copper mineralization. holes are generally vertical or steeply dipping,
Several IP anomalies form a discontinuous with 95 of the drillholes being vertical and the
annular zone around the interpreted core of the remainder being between 55° and 75°. The drill
system, probably related to the pyrite halo. The locations are illustrated in . Fig.  3.80. All of the
 

resistivity model indicates the presence of near to holes were drilled using rotary diamond coring
horizontal low resistivity layers to the west of the techniques. Drillholes were collared with PQ
core of the system interpreted to reflect the pres- diameter (85 mm core) and then advanced with
ence of intensive stockwork zones with copper HQ (61.1  mm core) and then occasionally NQ
mineralization. A further observation is that the (45.1 mm core) diameters. A wireline system was

7653500 7654000 7654500

500

70
0 0
55

500 EOIC1236 EOIC1233

EOIC1017

IC1577GT02
BHIL114GT
4595500

4595500
EOIC1243
EOIC1121 EOIC1232 EOIC 1235 EOIC1247
BHIL 113G3
IC1574GT01IC1591 IC1583 IC1579
EOIC1015
EOIC1019 EOIC1016 EOIC1238 EOIC1250
IC15103HG11A IC15100GT06 EOIC1240
IC15115HG4
IC1594 IC1586 IC1582 PDIC0607IC1573
45 500
0 PDIC0606
IC15110HG1EOIC1360IC1520MIC1590 IC1542M EOIC1237 EOIC1358
IC15101HG2 EOIC1120 EOIC1242 IC1584
IC1578 IC15107GT08
EOIC1124 IC1572
IC1587 EOIC1364IC1588 EOIC1370 EOIC1366
85

IC1593
0

EOIC1254 EOIC1241 EOIC1251

55

EOIC1246 EOIC1125 EOIC1128

0
45

IC1581GT03EOIC1126 EOIC1122
IC15116HG6 IC1576
IC1596 IC1597 IC1562M EOIC1367
EOIC1365 EOIC1362
EOIC0811
0

0 EOIC1255 EOIC1239 EOIC1244 EOIC1231EOIC1357EOIC1361

50

60 EOIC0813 IC1595PDIC0608
EOIC1014 EOIC1368
IC1585 IC15112HG5 IC1580
IC1589GR04
4595000

4595000

EOIC1245 EOIC1127 EOIC1248 EOIC1230

IC1592GT05 IC1599 EOIC1369
EOIC 1256 EOIC0812 PDIC0403 IC1575
EOIC 1371
65

PDIC0504
0

EOIC 1249 EOIC0710

PDIC0402 EOIC1253

EOIC1359 IC1598GT07EOIC1234 PDIC0401

700

EOIC1229
150
N

W E
S
Meters Legend
0 50 100 200 300 400 500 Drill hole location
0
70
0
80

7653500 7654000 7654500

..      Fig. 3.80  Drillhole locations (Illustration courtesy of Euromax Resources)

 216 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

900 Z

800 Z
Cu depleted
3 oxide zone

Supergene
600 Z enriched Cu
zone

400 Z
Primary Cu
mineralization

Cu (%)
0
200 Z 0 – 0.1
0.1 – 0.2
0.2 – 0.3
0.3 – 0.4
0.4 – 0.5
> 0.5

0Z
7653600 E

7653700 E

7653800 E

7653900 E

7654300 E

7654400 E

7654500 E
7654000 E

7654100 E

7654200 E

z
x

..      Fig. 3.81  Typical section with copper assays (%) (Illustration courtesy of Euromax Resources)

used to hoist the core tube to surface to allow the deeper holes show up to five degrees variance
drill core to be extracted. from design for both dip and azimuth. The cross
Logging included observations relating to section presented in . Fig.  3.81 illustrates the
 

lithology, alteration, mineralization, structure, interpretation of the drilling results in relation

recovery, and rock quality designation (RQD). to copper depletion in the oxide materials and
Drill core recovery is very good, generally greater supergene enrichment beneath. The gold assays
than 95%, throughout the deposit. Within the show a similar but less pronounced distribution.
oxide zone, the core is general highly fractured,
and as such the RQD is low; however the over- zz Gold Springs Gold Project Exploration:
all core recoveries remain high. Generally half Courtesy of TriMetals Mining Inc.
of the core samples were taken and processed The Gold Springs gold project is an advanced
for analysis. Where density samples were taken, exploration stage gold project located along the
one quarter was collected for density determi- Nevada-Utah border in the USA.  The project is
nation and another quarter was taken for assay- situated in the southeastern portion of the basin
ing. Downhole surveys were completed using and range physiographic province, which is char-
a digital survey instrument (JKH-R magnetic acterized by northerly trending mountain ranges
single shot inclinometer) with readings taken with closed internal drainage basins that resulted
every 50  m. Generally the drillholes show very from extensional tectonism and associated volca-
low deviation from the planned hole paths; nism during the tertiary period. The Gold Springs
3.5 · Case Studies
217 3

..      Fig. 3.82  Stockwork veining (Image courtesy of TriMetals Mining Inc.)

project lies within the Indian Peak volcanic field, True thickness of the mineralized zones reaches
which is a broad tertiary volcanic field that strad- up to 150  m wide with the strike length of the
dles the Utah-Nevada border and contains several vein systems extending up to several kilometers.
nested, collapsed calderas and resurgent dome
features that formed as part of a major Oligocene-­ kSampling
Miocene «ignimbrite flare-up cycle.» The oldest The work program collected 2409 rock chip sam-
rocks in the region consist of Proterozoic through ples, 2964 soil samples, and 323 stream sediment
lower Mesozoic sedimentary sequence that samples. The majority of the samples were col-
became folded and thrust-faulted eastward during lected on a reconnaissance basis from both outcrop
the Cretaceous Sevier orogeny and were subse- and float material. Sampling was also conducted
quently overlain by tertiary sedimentary deposits. within the target areas where outcropping min-
Gold mineralization at Gold Springs is hosted eralization was sampled perpendicular to struc-
by complex sheeted veins, breccias, and stock- tural trends where possible. Grab samples were
work vein systems (. Fig. 3.82) that are laterally
  collected to help define background geochemical
extensive and locally form resistant ledges and levels within the various rock units and to evaluate
ribs that protrude up to 10 m above the surround- metallic ion distribution and chemical zonation in
ing ground surface and surrounding areas of areas of new exploration. Select s­ amples were also
mineralized wall rock. The veins contain quartz, collected from mine dumps and vein exposures to
adularia, and bladed calcite with minor sulfides determine if there were any specific geochemical
(<2%) and represent a low sulfidation, epith- signatures and to characterize the ability of the
ermal gold-silver vein system. Gold and silver system to contain high-grade gold values.
mineralization are hosted in quartz and quartz- Rock chip results ranged from <5 ppb gold to a
calcite veins, breccias, and stockwork/sheeted high of 145.68 g/t gold. Silver shows some correla-
vein zones surrounding the main vein systems. tion with gold and values ranged from <0.1 ppm to a
 218 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

high of 252.9 ppm. Gold geochemistry from the soil models for the ZTEM and magnetic inversions
samples ranged from <0.5 ppb to a high of 1.3 g/t provided a 3-D conductivity model of the earth
while silver ranges from <0.1 to 11.6 ppm. Results that honors the ZTEM and magnetic data to a
from the stream sediment sampling show a varia- specified level of fit. The modeling correctly con-
tion in gold values from a low of <5 ppb to a high of sidered 3-D topographic effects which can signifi-
1.28 g/t. Preliminary analysis of some of the down- cantly influence the data. The inversion modeling
3 hole geochemical data suggests that there are at least was unconstrained by geologic and physical prop-
two different signatures for the various target areas. erty information. The primary outcome of these
Moderately anomalous arsenic and local molybde- studies was the development of a clear correlation
num values are associated with gold mineralization with the location of surface gold mineralization
with a ­surrounding zone that shows a relative deple- and gold intersected in drillholes particularly with
tion in calcium, potassium, and sodium. the margins of the high resistivity features. This
Then, a detailed follow-up sampling and map- correlation can be seen in the «depth-slice» pre-
ping were conducted on several of the target areas. sentation of the data (. Fig. 3.83). Where the high
 

This work included detailed structural analysis and resistivity is shallow, a strong correlation between
channel sampling as well as detailed vein sampling the margins of the high resistivity and gold inter-
in the main trenches. In addition, a series of chan- sected in drillholes exists. Where the high resis-
nel sample lines were completed over the exposed tivity is deeper, gold mineralization is found both
vein zones. These channel sample lines generally at the margins and over the top of the resistivity
consist of a series of 2  m long, continuous chip- features. This correlation is interpreted as relating
channel samples across outcropping exposures of to the heat source for the «hot spring» style min-
the various vein-stockwork zones. eralization seen at Gold Springs.

kGeophysics kDrilling
A 470 line-km ZTEM and aeromagnetic heli- The last exploration work in 2014 focused on com-
copter survey was completed. Previous ground pleting a 38-hole RC and 4-hole core drill program.
surveys revealed a positive correlation between The four core holes were completed to collect mate-
the known epithermal gold systems and buried rial for metallurgical testing and to start to collect
subvertically dipping high resistivity features. geotechnical data for rock quality designation
The ZTEM results correlated very well with (RQD), fracture analysis, and lithologic and altera-
known geology, in particular the presence of all tion data. On the other hand, downhole surveys are
the known epithermal centers. The helicopter- conducted using a gyro deviation survey instru-
borne geophysical survey in Gold Springs project ment at or near the termination of the hole. These
included a Z-axis Tipper electromagnetic (ZTEM) surveys provide detailed downhole data on the azi-
system and a cesium magnetometer. Ancillary muth and dip of the hole over the length of the hole.
equipment included a GPS navigation system and The 2012–2014 drilling programs were con-
a radar altimeter. The survey was flown in an east ducted by wet reverse circulation drilling method.
to west (N 90° E azimuth) direction, with a flight Emphasis was placed on quality control and the
line spacing of 200  m. Tie lines were flown in a proper handling and numbering of all samples.
north to south (N 0° E azimuth) direction, with a The reverse circulation drill cuttings are collected
flight line spacing of 1900 m. as they come out of the drillhole from an industry
TD (total divergence) imaging converts the standard rotary wet splitter provided by the drill-
ZTEM tipper crossover data into peak responses ing company, which delivers the material to three
which assists their interpretation in plan. TD low collection points. Samples are collected on 1.52 m
(conductive) areas signify areas with sulfides or intervals. Every 20 samples, standards and blanks
possibly conductive clays, and the TD high (resis- are inserted into the numbering sequence of the
tive) areas represent resistive rocks which show drill cuttings. The material from the second sample
an excellent correlation with known gold occur- point is retained as a duplicate sample for future
rences as would be expected in the low sulfidation testing if needed. The material from the third sam-
environment. Subsequent to the 2-D inversion, a ple point is geologically logged on site and put into
3-D inversion of both the ZTEM conductivity data chip trays that are labeled with sample numbers and
and the magnetics was carried out. The resulting footage intervals from which the sample was taken.
3.6 · Questions
219 3
Gray eagle
M+|+| 220,000 AuEq Oz Iris
Horseshoe Ext.
Fluorite

Miracle Pope
Ridge North
jumbo
Red light North
jennie
Tin can
Declaration Jumbo
Charlie ross
Surface outcropping gold mineralization Jumbo
M+|+| 634,000 AuEq Oz
Silica hill Ext.
Potential buried gold targets
Silica hill Gem
Thor vein
N
Pinyon North
and Pinyon South
Sharks belly
not shown on map
0 500 1000

Meters
Midnight

375 depth slice Lost world

Etna
ZTEM resistivity
Gold targets
Source: TriMetals Mining Inc., April 2015 Snow

..      Fig. 3.83  ZTEM high resistivity and correlation with outcropping gold-bearing rocks in the Gold Springs project
area (Illustration courtesy of TriMetals Mining Inc.).

3.6 Questions 55 Explain the differences between primary

and secondary halos in geochemical
??Short Questions exploration.
55 What is mineral exploration? 55 List the main types of multivariate statistical
55 Define the concepts of «juniors» and methods used in geochemical interpretation.
«majors» mining companies. 55 Bring out the main disadvantage of reverse
55 What greenfield and brownfield exploration circulation drilling.
programs mean? Explain the advantages and 55 What is the wireline system in diamond core
disadvantages of both. drilling?
55 What are the main mineral resource explora- 55 Define the concept of borehole deviation.
tion stages? Explain briefly each stage. What is the difference between deviation
55 What is a mineral deposit model? and deflection?
55 What is the Landsat program? 55 Explain the parameter RQD in logging and
55 Explain the differences among diamagnetic, the method of calculation.
paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic minerals.
55 What are the airborne geophysical surveys? ??Long Questions
List the main types of measurements carried 55 Explain the three-key-factor process in
out in these methods. selection of drilling methods.
55 Explain the importance of borehole geo- 55 Describe the electrical methods used in
physical logging. mineral exploration.
 220 Chapter 3 · Mineral Resource Exploration

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