Comparison of DC and AC transmission

DC transmission
Advantages Disadvantages
 2 conductors as compared to 3 for AC  High Dc voltage cannot be generated
system due to commutation problem
 No inductance, capacitance, phase  DC voltages cannot be easily step up
displacement and surge problem in DC or down
system  DC switches and circuit breakers have
 No inductance, thus voltage drop in DC their own limitations
transmission is less than AC
 No skin effect in DC system
 For same working voltage, potential
stress is less. Therefore less insulation
required
 Less corona effect, thus reduce
interference with communication circuits
 No synchronising and stability problem

AC transmission
Advantages Disadvantages
 Power can be generated at high  AC required more copper than DC line
voltages  Construction of AC line is more
 Maintenance of AC substation is complicated compared to DC lines
cheaper and easier  Due to skin effect, the effective
 AC can be easily step up and down resistance of the line is increased
 AC line has capacitance. Therefore
continuous loss of power due to
charging current even when the line is
open.

High Transmission Voltages

Advantages Limitations
 Reduces volume of conductor material  Increases cost of insulating the
 Increases transmission efficiency conductors
 Decreases % line drop  Increases the cost of transformer,
switch gears and other terminal
apparatus
Overhead versus underground transmission line
Overhead Underground
Public safety Better-less change of human
coming into contact
Initial cost More expensive-need to dig,
conduits, cables, manholes.
5-10 times higher
Flexibility Very flexible
Faults Less faults-better insulations
Appearance Invisible
Fault locations and repairs Easier to locate and repair Difficult to locate and repair
Current carrying capacity and Higher voltage as it can get
voltage drop cold by dissipating heat into air
Useful life 25 years 50 years. Therefore much
better
Maintenance cost Less chance of fault. Therefore
low maintenance
Interference with Electromagnetic inference
communication circuits

Important Terms and Factors-in power plant

Connected load-It is the sum of continuous ratings of all equipment’s connected to supply systems

Maximum demand-It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period

Demand factor-it is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load

Demand factor= [Maximum demand]/[Connected load]

Average load-the average loads occurring on the power station in a given period

Daily average load=[No of units (kWh)generated in a day]/[24 hours]

Load factor-The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period

Load factor=[Average load]/[Max demand]

Diversity factor-The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand on
the power station.

Diversity factor=[Sum of individual max demands]/[Maximum demand on power station]

Capacity factor-ratio of actual energy produced to maximum possible energy that could have been
produced during a given period.

Capacity factor=[Actual energy produced]/[maximum energy that could have been produce]

Reserved capacity=Plant capacity-Maximum demand

Plant use factor-It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product capacity and the number of hours for
which the plant was in operation

Plant Use factor=[Station output in kWh]/[Plant capacity ×Hours of use]

Load duration curve-When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of
descending magnitudes, the curve thus obtain is called a load duration curve.

Calculations
1. The maximum demand on a power station is 100MW.If the annual load factor is 40%, calculate
the total energy generated in a year.

2. A generating station has a connected load of 43MW and a maximum demand of 20MW;the units
generated being 61.5×106 per annum. Calculate

 The demand factor

 And load factor

3. A 100 MW power station delivers 100MW for 2 hours, 50MW for 6 hours and is shut down for the
rest of each day. It is also shut down for maintenance for 45 days each year. Calculate its annual load
factor.

4. A diesel station supplies the following loads to various consumers:

Industrial consumers 1500kW

Commercial establishment 750kW
Domestic power 100kW
Domestic light 450kW

If the maximum demand on the station is 2500kW and the number of kWh generated per year is 45
×105, determine
 The diversity factor
 And annual load factor

5. A power station has a maximum demand of 15000kW.The annual load factor is 50% and capacity
factor is 40%.Determine the reserve capacity of the plant

6. A power supply is having the following loads:-

Type of load Max demand (kW) Diversity of group Demand factor

Domestic 1500 1.2 0.8
Commercial 2000 1.1 0.9
Industrial 10000 1.25 1

If the overall system diversity factor is 1.35, determine

 The maximum demand

 And connected load of each type
7. A generating station has the following daily load cycle:

Time(Hours 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24

)
Load (MW) 40 50 60 50 70 40

Draw the load curve and find

 Maximum demand
 Unit generated per day
 Average load
 And load factor.

8. A power station has to meet the following demand

Group Power(kW) Time

A 200 8AM-6PM
B 100 6AM-10AM
C 50 6AM-10AM
D 100 10AM-6PM and 6PM-6AM

Plot the daily load curve and determine

 Diversity factor
 Unit generated per day
 Load factor

9. The daily demands of three consumers are given below:

Time Consumer 1 Consumer 2 Consumer 3

12 midnight-8AM No load No load No load
8AM-2PM 600W No load 200W
2PM-4PM 200W 1000W 1200W
4PM-10PM 800W No load No load
10PM to midnight No load 200W 200W

Plot the load curve and find

 Maximum demand of individual consumers

 Load factor of individual consumers
 Diversity factor
 And load factor of the station
Interconnected Grid System
The connections of several generating station in parallel

Advantages
Exchange of peak loads If the load curve of a power station shows a
peak demand that is greater than the rated
capacity of the plant, than the excess load can
be shared by other stations interconnected
with it
Use of older plants Older and less efficient plants can be used to
carry peak load for short durations
Ensure economical operation More economical station can be used to work
throughout the year and at high load factor and
less efficient plant for peak load hours only
Increase diversity factor The maximum demand on the system is much
reduce compared to the sum of individual
maximum demands on different stations
Reduces plant reserve capacity Every power station is required to have a
standby station. When connected in a grid, the
standby stations can be shared. Therefore
reserve capacity can be reduce
Increases reliability of supply If a major breakdown occur in one station, the
other stations can provide continuing supply.

Calculations
1.A base load station having a capacity of 18MW and a standby station having a capacity of 20MW
share a common load. Find the annual load factors and capacity factors of two power stations from
the following data:

Annual standby station output 7.35×106kWh

Annual base load station output 101.35×106kWh
Peak load on standby station 12MW
Hours of use by standby station/year 2190 hours
Economics of Power Generation
Straight line method Diminishing value Sinking fund method
method
Annual Depreciation A=[P-S]/n S 1/ n r
B=1−( ) Q=[P-S][ ]
P ( 1+r )n −1
##Q is annual deposit
in sinking fund##
Value of equipment P-[A×n] P(1-B)n **Use formula above
after n years to find P-S for the end
of n year. **
Value of plant will be
P-(this value)

Where

S=Salvage Value n=number of year

P=Initial Cost r=interest rate

Calculations
1. A transformer costing $90000 has a useful life of 20 years. Determine the annual depreciation
charge using straight line method. Assume the salvage value of the equipment to be $10000.

2. A distribution transformer cost $200000 and has a useful life of 20 years. If the salvage value is
$10000 and the rate of annul compound interest is 8%, calculate the amount to be saved annually
for replacement of the transformer after the end of 20 years by sinking fund method

3. The equipment in a power station costs $1560000 and has a salvage value of $60000 at the end of
25 years. Determine the depreciated value of the equipment at the end of 20years on the following
methods

 Straight line method

 Diminishing value method
 Sinking fund method at 5% compound interest annually
Importance of High Load Power
It reduces the cost per unit generated-This is because the number of units generated is more

It reduces variable load problems—because the load variation is less at various time

Calculations

1. A generating station has a maximum demand of 50000 kW. Calculate the cost per unit generated
from the following data

Capital cost $95×106

Annual load factor 40%
Annual cost of fuel and oil $9×106
Taxes, wages and salary etc $7.5×106
Interest and depreciation 12%

2. A generating station has an installed capacity of 50000kW and delivers 220 ×106 units per annum.
If the annual fixed charges are $160 per kW installed and running charges are 4 cents per kWh,
determine the cost per unit generated.

3. A generating plant has a maximum capacity of 100kW and cost $160000.The fix charges are 12%
consisting of 5% interest,5% depreciation and 2% taxes. Find the fixed charges per kWh is the load
factor is

 100%
 50%

4. A load having a maximum value of 150MW can be supplied either by a hydroelectric station or
steam power plant. The cost are as follows:

Plant Capital cost per kW installed Operating cost per kWh Interest (%)
(RM$) (Cents)

Steam 1600 6 7
Hydro 3000 3 7

Calculate the minimum load factor above which the hydroelectric plant will be more economical.