CREEP TESTING MACHINE

Creep Testing Machine

NOTE:

Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this manual is accurate;
however no labiality is accepted for errors. Should an error be discovered please inform the
company in writing, giving full details. Any experimental results given are for guidance only and
are not guaranteed as exact answers that can be obtained for a given apparatus; due to the
complex variables applicable to most experiments.

EES
 Creep Testing Machine

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Page

INTRODUCTION……………….…………………………………………………… 1
DESCRIPTION……………………………………………………………..……...... 2
SPECIMEN……………………………..…......................................................... 4
NOTATION……………………………..…......................................................... 5
THEORY………………………………..…......................................................... 6
EXPERIMENT 1……………………..…............................................................ 14
EXPERIMENT 2………….………………………..…….………………………….. 20
TEACHERS GUIDE………………………………..…………………..……………. 22
 Creep Testing Machine

INTRODUCTION

All engineers need to know how to predict creep in materials. They can use this
information to decide the right type and thickness of materials for their own designs.
They will also know how long a fixing or part of a machine or structure will last before it
must be changed or re-tightened.

This Creep Machine show students how different materials creep when subject to a load
(stressed).

The Creep Machine also teaches students about:

 The three stages of Creep.
 The effect of temperature on Creep.
 Material failure (fracture) due to Creep.
 Plastic and elastic limits.
 Creep recovery.

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 Creep Testing Machine

DESCRIPTION

Figure 1: The Creep Machine

The Creep Machine is a simple lever and weight machine. It has a long lever (Arm) with
a pivot point near to one end. The pivot point is (J bearing, for very low friction. Students
fit specimens of different materials to the short end of the lever and known weights to the
long end of the lever. The lever gives a large mechanical advantage, so that even small
weights will apply a large load (tensile stress) to the specimen. This simple system gives
a predictable, uniform and constant load to the specimen.

Self weight of assembly is 350g which is the effective mass of the Arm at point 'P', where
the Weight Hanger applies its load. During the tests, students add this to the mass that
they use. This gives them an accurate value of the load at point 'P'. The force at the
specimen is then the product of the load, the mechanical advantage of the Arm and the
acceleration due to gravity.

A digital displacement indicator measures the change in length (extension) of the

specimen during the experiments. The indicator is exactly the same distance from the
lever pivot as the specimen, but on the opposite side. This ensures that it measures the
specimen displacement in a 1: 1 ratio, and is not affected by the slight angular movement
of the arm.

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 Creep Testing Machine

A thermometer measures the ambient temperature around the specimen. Fit the small '0'
ring to the thermocouple (see Figure 2). Push the thermocouple into the small hole in the
top of the transparent enclosure. Use the small '0' ring to adjust its height so that its tip is
near to the place where the specimen fits.

Figure 2: Fit the Small 'O' ring to the Thermocouple

Supplied with the machine is a set of precision loads and a Weight Hanger. A 'cool pack'
is provided for the student to freeze in a suitable refrigerator (not supplied) and put it next
to the specimen to test the effects of lower temperatures on Creep. The student may also
heat the pack in heated water and put it next to the specimen to test the effects of higher
temperatures on Creep. A clear enclosure fits around the specimen area to help keep the
temperature stable and provide some protection when specimens are tested to fracture.

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 Creep Testing Machine

SPECIMENS

Figure 3: Specimens
Supplied with the Creep Machine is set of specimens. The specimens have very accurate
dimensions, but can slowly deform if stored in a hot place for many month). For
predictable and accurate results, keep your specimens in a cool, dry place.

The Creep Machine tests only the thinnest part of the specimens. This part is called the
Gauge Length (see Figure 3).

Figure 4: Key Dimension of the Specimens

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 Creep Testing Machine

NOTATION

Symbol Definition Units

α, A, B and C Constants for the material
Q Activation energy or creep kJ/mol
σ Stress N.m-2
ε Strain με (micro-strain)
ε0 Initial (elastic) strain
ε Strain Rate S-1
E Young’s Modulus N.m-2
k Time exponent for polymers
m Stress exponent for polymers
n Strain hardening coefficient
R Universal Gas constant 8.31 J.mol K
t Time s (or minutes for
convenience where
shown)
o
T Absolute Temperature K

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 Creep Testing Machine

THEORY

Stress (σ)
This is the force applied to a material over a known area. It is found by the equation:
σ= F (1)
A
Compressive stress is where the material is compressed. It has a negative value.
Tensile stress is where the material is stretched. It has a positive value.

Strain (ε)
This is the change in length (distortion caused by stress) of a material over its original
length (/). It is found by the equation:
ε = ∆I (2)
I
Compressive strain is where the material has compressed. It has a negative value.
Tensile strain is where the material has stretched. It has a positive value.

Young's Modulus (E) or Modulus of Elasticity

This is a ratio of the stress divided by the strain on a material. An English physicist -
Thomas Young discovered it. It is a measure of the stiffness of a material (a stiffer
material has a higher value of Young's Modulus). It is found by the equation:
E= σ (3)
ε
It is often called the modulus of elasticity, because it only applies where the material is
stressed within its elastic limits.

Strain-Hardening Coefficient (n)

When many materials are stressed they actually become harder and resist the stress. This
is also known as work hardening. It is the gradient of a graph of the natural log values of
stress and strain in a material in its plastic region. It is found by the equation:
n = ∆Inσ (4)
∆In�̇

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 Creep Testing Machine

Activation Energy (Q)

This is the energy needed for the atoms of the material to move past each other, so that
creep can occur.
It is found from the equation:
Q = ∆(In�̇ ) (5)
R ∆(I/T)

Elasticity and Plasticity (or Elastic and Plastic Deformation)

When a material is stressed so that it compresses or stretches (deforms), then returns to its
original shape when the stress is removed, the material is perfectly elastic. The atoms in
the material have not moved, but the bonds between them have stretched, then returned to
their original position.

When a material is stressed so that it compresses or stretches (deforms), then does not
return to its original shape when the stress is removed, the material is perfectly plastic.
The atoms have actually moved and will not return.

NOTE:
Do not confuse the terms 'plastic', 'plasticity' or 'plastic region' with the word 'plastic'
used to describe the specimen material type (for example - metal or plastic specimens).

Most materials have both elastic and plastic properties. When stressed by a small amount,
they behave like an elastic material, up to their elastic limit. When stressed by a large
amount (that takes them past their elastic limit), they behave like a plastic material.
Rubber and soft plastic materials usually have more elasticity than more brittle materials
like metal or ceramics.

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 Creep Testing Machine

Figure 5: Stress/Strain Curves

Creep - An Increase in Strain Over Time

When the stress on a material takes the material above its elastic limit and into its plastic
region, then the material permanently deforms, due to the movement of atoms in the
material. If the stress is maintained, the deformation (strain) continues. This slow, gradual
deformation is called 'creep'. It is an increase in strain over time. Even hard materials like
concrete will creep under stress, given enough time (many years). Creep happens due to
long term stress levels that are below yield stress. The material permanently deforms to
relieve the stress. Creep is easily measured in pure metals when their temperature is one
third (or 30%) of their melting temperature.

Four main things determine the speed and amount of creep:

 Applied load - higher loads give higher stresses that increase the speed of creep
 Type of material - softer materials creep more quickly for the same value of stress
 Dimensions of the material - thinner materials take higher stresses for the same
value of load
 Temperature of the material - higher temperatures encourage faster creep

The applied load and the dimensions of the material determine the stress, so you could
say that three main things determine creep: Stress, material and temperature.

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 Creep Testing Machine

Figure 6: Curves of Creep at Different Temperatures and Stress

Material Failure (Fracture)

When a material is subject to creep, after enough time, the material will fail (fracture).
Different materials will fracture after different amounts of deformation.

Rubber materials can deform much more .than plastic materials before they fail. Plastic
materials can deform much more than metals before they fail. Metals can deform much
more than silicone based material before they fail. This is because the failure is
determined by the molecular structure of the material.

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 Creep Testing Machine

Three Stages of Creep

Figure 7: The Three Stages of Creep

Even though the applied stress and temperature on a piece of material may be constant,
creep is not completely linear. It has three main stages:
 Primary Creep or 'Transient' Creep - This starts when the load is applied. It is an
initial high rate of creep followed by a decreasing rate of creep
 Secondary Creep or 'Quasi-viscous' Creep - A long, linear rate of creep
 Tertiary Creep - A increasing rate of creep until the material fails

Primary creep does not start until the material has passed its elastic limit.

The secondary creep stage is almost linear because this is the stage where the material is
actually becoming 'work hardened', which helps to resist the load. The gradient of the
secondary creep determines the creep rate for tile material.

The point between the second and third stage is the 'Transition Point'. This indicates that
the material is starting to fail and may already start to crack in places.

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 Creep Testing Machine

Engineers must realize that they can allow materials to enter the first and second stages of
creep, but never the third, as the part (or structure) will fail. It is important for engineers
to know the second stage creep rate, so that they know when to change a part in a
machine or structure.

Calculation of Creep Rate (secondary creep)

Secondary creep rate is linear, so to find it you only need a measurement of the change in
dimension (strain) of the material over time, from a test at a constant temperature and
stress. The equation for this is:
�̇ = ∆ε
∆t
Creep in Metals and Alloys
To most common equation used to predict creep rate in metals and alloys is:
�̇ = Aσne –Q/(RT) (6)

As expected, this equation shows that the creep rate increases with an increase in stress or
temperature. This equation also helps to find creep rate when temperature or stress varies.
Taking natural logarithms gives:

ln�̇ =lnA + nlnσ – (7)

�

So for tests at constant temperature and varying stress, a plot of In�̇ against lnσ gives n
(see Equation4).
1
Also, for tests at constant stress and varying temperature, a plot In�̇ against can
�
produce the activation energy Q (see Equation 5).

Pure metals have a stress exponent of between 4 and 5. For alloys it is between 3 and 10.
Lead has a stress exponent of between 4 and 5, but only when the stress is below about 5
N/mm2. At higher stress levels the value of n increases to about 10, and eventually the
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 Creep Testing Machine

simple power law of Equation 6 does not work. So instead, an exponential expression is
better:

�̇ = Benσe-Q/(RT) (8)

A plot of ln�̇ against o will give a straight line of slope α. If the stress is in units on
N/mm2 (or MN/m2) the value of α is approximately 0.8 to 0.9 and also varies with stress
level.
The fact that exponents n and α vary with stress shows that simple laws are not good
enough to compare data over a wide range of stress levels. In practice, more complicated
equations are used.

However, for the experiments on the Creep Machine, we can use Equations 6 and 8
because the resulting plots are very nearly linear for the stress levels used. In this manual,
the power law of Equation 6 is used in the analysis of results.

Creep in Plastics
Plastic materials creep at ambient temperatures but they will deform much more than
metals before failure. The creep curves have a similar shape to those for metals, but the
way that they deform is different because of the difference in structure of the material.
The polymers in a plastic material are long chain-like molecules in a tangled and coiled
arrangement; creep occurs by the chains untangling and slipping relative to one another.
The creep rate still depends on stress and temperature but Equations 6 and 8 do not work
for plastics.

The complex processes that take place during creep in plastics make it difficult to quote
an equation that describes the creep behaviour of all polymers. There are many different
equations, but one of the most common for engineering plastics is:

ε – ε0 + BσmtK (9)

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 Creep Testing Machine

The elastic component of the initial strain is found from dividing the creep stress by the
tensile modulus of the polymer, which for polypropylene is 1250 N/mm2 In many
polymers this initial strain is very small and can be ignored, so that in these cases:

ε = Bσmtk (10)

A plot of log E against log t will therefore be linear, and the slope will give the value of
the exponent k. Values of k range from 0.025 to 0.33. For polypropylene, k is in the range
0.1 to 0.2 and tends to increase with stress level.

In cases where the stress exponent in is close to unity we have the situation where σlε is a
constant as k → 0, (the material behaves in an elastic manner). Alternatively, with high
values of k, say k → 1, then σlε is a constant and the material behaves as a viscous fluid.
The value of k obtained from creep data is therefore a measure of the relative contribution
of elastic and viscous deformation to the creep process.

Creep Recovery
In polymer materials, when the load is removed, most of the primary creep stage (where
the creep rate decreases) recovers. This is not true for most metals. The effect is easily
shown with the Creep Machine by removing the load after the polymer has been creeping
for several minutes, and continuing to take strain readings. It will be found that the elastic
strain recovers immediately, but that further recovery of strain takes several minutes. This
time dependent effect is due to recovery of the visco-elastic component of the creep
strain. For the highest stress levels used in the Creep Machine (typically 19 MN.m-2),
approximately 40% of the creep strain recovers after 5 minutes.

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 Creep Testing Machine

EXPERIMENT 1

Aims:
 To demonstrate and calculate creep in different materials at different stresses and
temperatures.
 To calculate the strain hardening coefficient (n).
 To calculate the energy of activation (Q).

Calculation of the Stress on a Specimen:

1. Calculate the total mass at the end of the Arm (point 'P'). To do this, add
together:
 The value of the weight you are to add to the Weight Hanger
 *The Effective mass of the Arrn at 'P'
 *Mass of the Weight Hanger
 *Mass of the Support Pin
* The mass of these parts is 350g = 0.35kg
2. Multiply the total mass by 4 (the mechanical advantage of the Arm), and then
by 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity). This will give the total force on the
specimen in Newtons.
M.A = 400mm/100mm = 4

3. Calculate the cross sectional area of the specimen (width x thickness) in m2 or

mm2.
4. Divide the total force (Newtons) by the cross sectional area (m2) to find the
stress on the specimen (in N.m-2) or in N/mm2.

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 Creep Testing Machine

Procedure:

1. Create a blank table of time v/s extension.

2. You will need a timer, with an accuracy of one second.
3. Accurately measure and record the width and thickness of the specimen (see
Figure 8).

Figure 8: Accurately Measure the Width and Thickness of the Specimen

4. Put the weight hanger in position and fit its support pin in its highest hole to hold
the arm up and ready for the test specimen (see Figure 9).

Figure 9: Put the Weight Hanger in Position and fit its Pin
5. Fit the specimen into place between the black support block and the arm, and fit
the pins (see Figure 10).

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 Creep Testing Machine

Figure 10: Fit the Specimen into Place (bottom first) and Fit the Pins
NOTE:
It is easier to fit the bottom of the specimen first.
If the specimen does not fit correctly, do not use it - it has been deformed.

7. Put the transparent cover into place around the specimen. Make sure that the
thermometer is in its hole in the top of the cover and its tip is near to the
specimen. Wait for at least five minutes for the temperature reading to stabilize,
and then record the temperature around the specimen.
8. Fit a suitable weight to the Weight Hanger, to give a stress that gives the longest
test time that you can allow.
9. Ask an assistant to prepare the timer.

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 Creep Testing Machine

Figure 11: Procedure

10. See Figure 11. Carefully remove the Weight Hanger support pin from the highest
hole in the Weight Hanger.
11. Switch on the digital indicator and press its button to set its display to zero.
12. Lift the Weight Hanger and support it while you fit the support pin in the lowest
hole.
13. Gently (and at the same time) - let go of the Weight Hanger and start your timer.

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 Creep Testing Machine

14. Record the specimen extension every 30 seconds (0.5 minutes), until it fractures
or stops extending due to the limits of the machine.
15. Repeat the test on new specimens at higher loads (stresses), so that you have a set
of at least two more stress results.
NOTE:
Too much weight gives a very high stress and a very short test time on lead specimens, so
results can be inaccurate. Lower value weights give longer test times, but better results.
Choose weights that will give tests as long as your laboratory time will allow.

16. Repeat the test on different specimen materials.

17. Repeat the test, but use the cool pack to reduce or increase the temperature
around the specimen before you start the test. Heat or cool the cool pack and put
it next to the specimen before you fit the transparent enclosure in step 7.

Results Analysis - All Specimens:

1. For each test, plot a chart of specimen extension (mm) on the vertical axis against
time (minutes) on the horizontal axis.
2. On the most linear (secondary creep) part of your curve, calculate the gradient.
This is the creep rate (in mm/minute).

Results Analysis - Lead Specimens:

1. For each value of stress at a constant temperature, on one chart, plot curves of the
natural log of strain rate (ln�̇ )(vertical axis) against natural log of the stress value
(Inσ)(horizontal axis).

For a correct comparison, the units of strain rate must be in mm/s and the units of stress
must be in N.mm-2. Also, remember that strain is a change in overall length, so you must
divide the creep rate by the total length of the test part of the specimen (20mm) to get
strain rate, so:
�̇ = creep rate (mm/min)
60 x 20

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 Creep Testing Machine

2. Find the gradient of your curves to give a value of strain hardening coefficient (n)
for your specimen.
3. From your curves, find the vertical difference in In�̇ between two temperature
curves. Use equation 5 to find the activation energy, so that:
Q = ∆(Inε) x R
∆(I/T)

Remember that T is in Kelvin, so you must add 273 to your centigrade readings, then
invert them to give 1IT.

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 Creep Testing Machine

EXPERIMENT 2

Aims:
 To demonstrate and measure 'creep recovery' in plastics.
 To use Young's Modulus equation to predict elastic extension and recovery.

Procedure:

1. Repeat Test 1 with these conditions:

 Use a polypropylene specimen
 Test at room temperature.
 Use a load that will give stress values of around 10 N.mm-2 to 13 N.mm-2
2. After approximately 20 minutes, remove the support pin from the Weight Hanger.
3. Continue to record the extension until it stabilizes (may take up to another 20
minutes).

Results Analysis
1. From your results, plot a chart of extension (vertical axis) against time (horizontal
axis).
2. Calculate the stress on the specimen.
3. Rearrange Young's Modulus equation to calculate the elastic strain of the
specimen (divide the stress by Young's Modulus for polypropylene). This will
give a predicted extension (in mm) for every one millimeter of tile specimen.

The part of the specimen that extends is the long thin part that has a length of 20
mm, so you must multiply your predicted extension by 20 to give the overall elastic
extension. Mark this value from the origin of your chart (see Figure 12).

4. On your chart, note the maximum extension of the specimen. Subtract the value
of the elastic extension to show the elastic recovery and draw a horizontal line at
this value (see Figure 12).
5. The creep recovery is now the distance between the elastic recovery and the most
level part of the recovery curve (see Figure 12).

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 Creep Testing Machine

6. From your results (before the load is removed), produce a chart of log ε (vertical
axis) against log t (horizontal axis). Find the gradient of your curve to give the
value k for your polypropylene specimen. Convert your strain readings into
percentage before you take their logs and use the time in minutes for log t. This
gives a correct comparison of results.

Figure 12: How to Mark Out the Elastic Extension, Recovery and Creep Curve

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 Creep Testing Machine

TEACHER’S GUIDE

Note:
These results are sample results only; actual results may be different.

Test 1 - Creep
Table 3 shows typical results for a lead specimen at room temperature with weights of 0.8 kg.
The total mass at P was: 0.8 + 0.36 = 1.16 kg
The total force on the specimen was: 1.16 x 4 x 9.81 = 45.45N
The specimen dimensions were 4.79 mm x 1.62 mm, so the total stress was: 45.45 N/7.76 mm2 = 5.857
N.mm-2 or (5.857 MN.m-2)

Figure 13 shows three different results for different stress levels at the same temperature (20°C), and the
creep rates in mm/minute for convenience.

Figure 13: Typical Extension Against Time Curve for Lead Specimens

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 Creep Testing Machine

Specimen Material: Temperature around Specimen:

Width: 4.79 Weights: 0.8kg
Thickness: 1.62mm Total Mass at ‘P’: 1.16kg
Time (minutes) Extension Time (minutes) Extension Time (minutes) Extension
(mm) (mm) (mm)
0.5 (30 s) 1.060 20.5 40.5
1.0 (60 s) 1.195 21.0(1260 s) 41.0(92460 s)
1.5 1.255 21.5 41.5
2.0 (120 s) 1.320 22.0(1320 s) 42.0(2520 s)
2.5 1.373 23.0(1380 s) 42.5
3.0 (180 s) 1.418 23.5 43.0(2580 s)
3.5 24.0(1440 s) 43.5
4.0 (300 s) 1.5 24.5 44.0(2640 s)
4.5 25.0(1500 s) 44.5
5.0 (300 s) 1.580 25.5 45.0(2700 s)
5.5 26.0(1560 s) 45.5
6.0 (360 s) 1.658 26.5 46.0(2760 s)
6.5 27.0(1620 s) 46.5
7.0 (420 s) 1.783 27.5 47.0(2820 s)
7.5 28.0(1680 s) 47.5
8.0 (480 s) 1.825 28.5 48.0(2880 s)
8.5 29.0(1740 s) 48.5
9.0 (540 s) 1.898 29.5 49.0(2940 s)
9.5 30.0(1800 s) 49.5
10.0 (600 s) 2.043 30.5 50.0(3000 s)
10.5 31.0(1860 s) 50.5
11.0 (660 s) 2.160 31.5 51.0(3060 s)
11.5 32.0(1920 s) 51.5
12.0 (720 s) 1.67 32.5 52.0(3120 s)
12.5 33.0(1980 s) 52.5
13.0 (780 s) 2.575 33.5 53.0(3180 s)
13.5 34.0(2040 s) 53.5
14.0 (840 S) 3.085 34.5 54.0(3240 s)
14.5 35.0(2100 s) 54.5
15.0 (900 s) 3.900 35.5 55.0(3300 s)
15.5 36.0(2160 s) 55.5

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 Creep Testing Machine

16.0 (960 s) 6.00 36.5 56.0(3360 s)

16.5 37.0(2220 s) 56.5
17.0(1020 s) 37.5 57.0(3420 s)
17.5 38.0(2280 s) 57.5
18.0(1080 s) 38.5 58.0(3480 s)
18.5 39.0(2340 s) 58.5
19.0(1140 s) 39.5 59.0(3540 s)
19.5 40.0(2400 s) 59.5
20.0(1200 s) 40.5 60.0(3600 s)

Figure 14: Chart f the Natural Logs (In) of Strain Rate Against Stress

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Figure 14 shows a chart of three different stress levels at two different temperatures. The gradients are
similar at approximately 10, which is the same as the nominal value of n at these stress levels.

The two temperatures are:

24.2°C = 297.2 K, so 1IT = 3.401 x 10-3
21°C = 294.0 K, so 1IT = 3.365 x 10-3
The vertical distance between the two lines is 0.46. So, from Equation 5:
Q= 0.46
R (3.401 – 3.365) x 10-3

So,
Q = 12.56 x 103 x 8.31
Therefore
Q= 104.38 kj/mol

This is close to the given value, but results can vary between 90 and 150 in tests with the Creep Machine.

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 Creep Testing Machine

Test 2 - Elastic Extension and Creep Recovery

Figure 15: Results for Creep Recovery Test on a Polypropylene Specimen

Figure 15 shows the results of a test on a Polypropylene Specimen, where the load was removed after 7 and
a half minutes. The elastic extension was creep stress (N.mm-2)/Young's Modulus for polypropylene
(N.mm-2):

19.95 = 0.016
1250

This is in mm/mm so for the full 20 mm of the specimen, the overall elastic extension was:
0.016 x 20 = 0.32 mm
When subtracted from the maximum extension on the curve, this gives an approximate creep recovery of
3.8 mm.

The total creep strain is the maximum extension (9.8 mm) - elastic extension (0.32 mm) = 9.5 mm
Therefore, the creep recovery was 3.8/9.5 x 100 = 40%.

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 Creep Testing Machine

Figure 16 shows a chart of the log of the percentage strain against the log of time in minutes. The slope (k)
is 0.167, which is near to the expected value. This test was done with a high value of stress for a short time.
A lower stress over a longer time will give better results.

Figure 16: A Chart of log Strain (%) against log Time (minutes) for Polypropylene Specimens

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