110 Global Education Review 5(2)

Complex Physical Activity, Outdoor Play, and School Readiness

Among Preschoolers

Derek R. Becker
Western Carolina University

Cathy L. Grist
Western Carolina University

Lori A. Caudle
Western Carolina University

Myra K. Watson
Western Carolina University

Abstract
High quality educational settings play a crucial role in preparing a child to enter kindergarten, but little
work has explored how outdoor play and complex physical activity outside school and childcare settings
promote school readiness among preschoolers. To address this gap, the present study explored
connections among school readiness with outdoor play and participation in complex physical activity.
Parents (N = 107) reported the extent and frequency of time their child spent in outdoor play during a
typical week, and what complex activities (e.g., soccer, biking, basketball) the child played over the last
year. School readiness was assessed with parent reports on the Preschool Behavior and Emotional Rating
Scale. Results showed participating in complex activities significantly moderated the relationship between
time in outdoor play with school readiness, with time in outdoor play positively related to school
readiness for children who participated in two or less complex activities. For children who participated in
three complex activities, time in outdoor play was not related to school readiness. Findings offer support
that encouraging both outdoor play and participation in complex physical activities could promote school
readiness, particularly when opportunities for outdoor playtime are limited.

Keywords
Complex physical activities, outdoor play, school readiness, preschoolers

Introduction focused on whether preschoolers’ participation

in complex physical activities and outdoor
While the National Association for the
____________________________
Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Corresponding Author:
endorses a multi-dimensional view of school Derek R. Becker, Western Carolina University, 1 University
readiness (NAEYC, 2004), little research has Drive, Cullowhee, NC 28723.
E-mail: drbecker@wcu.edu

Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited. Citation: Becker, Derek. R., Grist, Cathy L., Caudle, Lori A., & Watson, Myra K. (2018). Complex physical activity, outdoor play, and school
readiness among preschoolers. Global Education Review, 5 (2), 110-122.
 Complex physical activity, outdoor play, and school readiness 111

play promote the development of early intellectual and social development (Duncan et
academic skills. Early childhood is a crucial time al., 2007; Romano, Babchishin, Pagani, &
for motor and cognitive skill development (Myer Kohen, 2010). Cognitive skills that promote
et al., 2015), and evidence suggests preschool school readiness often involve executive
children who engage in active forms of play have function, which are cognitive processes involved
better memory and attention (Becker, in the control of goal-directed cognition and
McClelland, Loprinzi, & Trost, 2014; Diamond & behavior (Koziol, Budding, & Chidekel, 2012;
Lee, 2011). However, in a typical school day, Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, &
preschoolers engage in many forms of play and Howerter, 2000). Executive function is involved
other learning experiences, yet it is not clear how in the development of abstract thought and the
specific types of activities and play outside of formation of rules involved in the learning
educational settings promote school readiness. process (Kharitonova & Munakata, 2011; Snyder
Therefore, the present study examines the direct & Munakata, 2010), and can predict short and
and moderated relationship between parent long-term academic development. For example,
reports of child outdoor play and participation in executive function measured in the fall of both
complex physical activities (e.g., soccer, prekindergarten and kindergarten predict
basketball, dance, gymnastics) on school change in math in spring of the respective
readiness. Complex physical activities can occur academic year (McClelland et al., 2014).
both during spontaneous indoor/outdoor play Along with executive function, prosocial
and within organized team sports, with the behaviors that include the ability to understand
former being more likely among preschoolers. self and others, cooperate with peers, and
Following evidence with older samples regulate emotions are also related to short and
that participating in complex physical activity long-term academic outcomes. For boys, high
(i.e., sports) is associated with academic levels of aggressive behavior and low levels of
achievement (Becker, 2016), and that children prosocial behaviors in prekindergarten are
who engage in active play have better memory linked to low concurrent emergent literacy
and attention (Becker et al., 2014), it was scores, with solitary play related to low emergent
predicted that participating in a greater number literacy for boys and girls (Doctoroff, Greer, &
of complex physical activities and spending Arnold, 2006). Children who display more
more time in outdoor play would be related to prosocial behavior in kindergarten are also
school readiness. We also examined if found to have higher math and reading scores in
participating in complex physical activities the third grade (Romano et al., 2010). Given the
moderated the relationship between time in above connections between school readiness
outdoor play with school readiness, such that for with academic achievement, it is important to
children who participate in less complex examine factors such as outdoor play and
physical activities, the extent and frequency of complex physical activities that could promote
time spent in outdoor play will positively relate school readiness.
to school readiness.
Outdoor Play, Complex Physical
School Readiness and Academic Activities, and School Readiness
Achievement The connection between the cognitive and social
School readiness is a multidimensional construct components of school readiness with outdoor
that includes domain general skills related to play and sport participation can be found in the
112 Global Education Review 5(2)

aerobic activity that could be achieved during function were found for children in both a high
play, the complexity of participating in a and low training group (Chang, Tsai, Chen, &
complex task that taps executive function, and in Hung, 2013). Similar to Chang, after
the social skills that could be developed when participating in a 6-month soccer intervention,
interacting with peers. For the former, evidence children between age 7 and 9 showed
suggests that children who spend more time in improvement in executive function relative to a
outdoor play are more physically active and non-exercise control group (Alesi, Bianco,
physically fit (Cleland et al., 2008), with physical Luppina, Palma, & Pepi, 2016).
activity and physical fitness linked to higher At the same time, both complex physical
executive function. For example, in a non- activities and natural outdoor play often involve
experimental study with children between 9 and peer interactions that could be linked to the
10, higher fit youth showed better executive development of social skills (Bailey, 2006; Gould
function and greater activity in brain regions & Carson, 2008). For example, in a study with
associated with attention and memory shy children, participation in complex physical
(Chaddock, Erickson, Prakesh, Chaddock, activity was linked to a reduction in anxiety and
Erickson, Parkash, Van Patter, et al., 2010). better socials skills (Findlay & Coplan, 2008).
Higher physically fit children are better able to Children who participate in sport-type activities
control their behavior (Chaddock-Heyman et al., also show higher levels of social competence and
2013), and show greater prefrontal and parietal lower levels of social anxiety (Dimech & Seiler,
activation (Chaddock et al., 2012). In preschool 2010; Haugen, Säfvenbom, & Ommundsen,
samples, active outdoor play is linked to better 2013). Finally, when comparing both outdoor
executive function (Becker et al., 2014), with and indoor play, outdoor play was linked to
physical fitness also predicting working memory more peer- based interactive dramatic play
and attention (Niederer et al., 2011). (Shim, Herwig, & Shelley, 2001).
Evidence also suggests the combination of Together, the above evidence suggests that
exercise and cognitive engagement enhance the an outdoor environment that encourages the
relationship with executive function (Curlik Ii & child to be physically active, promotes activities
Shors, 2013; Koutsandréou, Wegner, Niemann, that include a combination of aerobic movement
& Budde, 2016), with sports such as soccer, and complex motor skills such as kicking,
baseball, and wrestling associated with higher throwing, or riding a bike, and allows for social
executive function (Memmert, 2009; Nakamoto interactions could be associated with school
& Mori, 2012; Williams & Ford, 2008). Although readiness. In the present study, we examine if
the majority of work examining the cognitive children who spend more time in outdoor play,
benefits of sport participation are with older participate in more sport activities, or some
samples, exposure to the perceptual and combination of the two have higher school
cognitive demands of a sport such as soccer, readiness in the fall of the prekindergarten year.
gymnastics, or dance, or sport type activity such
as riding a bike, is associated with change in The Moderating Role of Complex
executive function, the retention of motor skills, Physical Activity with Outdoor
and increased activation in brain areas involved
Play and School Readiness
in executive function (Lin et al., 2013; Saemi,
Although evidence points to a direct relationship
Porter et al., 2012). In work with kindergarten
between outdoor play and participation in
age children, following eight weeks of soccer
complex physical activity with school readiness,
skills training, improvements in executive
 Complex physical activity, outdoor play, and school readiness 113

it’s also possible that the relationship between Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
outdoor play with school readiness could vary assess the relationship between time spent in
based on the number of complex physical outdoor play and participating in complex
activities a child plays. For example, in work physical activities with school readiness.
with older children, evidence suggests that if a Research question one investigated if children
child plays a high number of complex sports, who spend more time in outdoor play and/or
such that require attention and are played in a participate in more complex physical activities
shifting environment (e.g., soccer, volleyball), have higher school readiness? Drawing on
the physical activity required to play the sport research suggesting participating in outdoor play
(assessed as metabolic intensity), is less related and complex physical activities are linked to the
to executive function (Becker, 2016). However, cognitive and social components of school
when a child plays repetitive sports that require readiness (Becker et al., 2014; Chang et al.,
less attention (e.g., running, swimming), the 2013; Shim et al., 2001), it was predicted that
level of physical activity required to play the the extent and frequency of time spent in
sport (metabolic intensity) is positively related outdoor play and participating in more types of
to executive function. complex physical activities would be positively
For children in the present study that associated with school readiness. Research
participate in fewer complex physical activities, question two assessed if participation in complex
it is possible they could achieve a similar level of physical activities moderated the relationship
school readiness if they spend more time in between time spent in outdoor play with school
outdoor play. Given that motor skills are readiness? Following evidence from Becker,
developing in preschoolers, participating in (2016), which suggests if a child plays multiple
complex physical activity at a young age could complex sports, the physical activity required to
promote school readiness (Chang et al., 2013). play each sport is less related to executive
However, for children who participate in fewer function, it was predicted the relationship
of these activities, it is possible that spending between outdoor play with school readiness
more time in outdoor play could improve school would be moderated by the number of complex
readiness through spending more time being physical activities a child played; such that for
physically active (Becker et al., 2014; Cleland et children who participated in less complex
al., 2008). Thus, it is possible for preschoolers physical activities, time spent in outdoor play
who participate in multiple complex activities, would be positively related to higher school
the extent and frequency of time spent in readiness.
outdoor play could be less related to school
readiness. Method
Participants
Summary and Hypothesis Participants included 107 children attending
High quality early childhood educational preschool in a child development center in
settings play a crucial role in promoting Western North Carolina. Children were sampled
academic skills (Vandell, Belsky, Burchinal, from a single center with multiple classrooms
Steinberg, & Vandergrift, 2010), yet little work (n = 6). Data was collected in the fall of the
has focused on how outdoor play and complex prekindergarten year through packets sent home
physical activities, both at home and preschool, with parents. The average age at the beginning
could promote academic skill development. of the study was 50.94 months (range = 36.03 –
114 Global Education Review 5(2)

60.11 months). A total of 54 of the children were outside of the formal early childhood
female, and 55 were male. The average yearly educational setting. Given that over a third
income of the sample was 45,060 (range = 0 - (78.49%) of the sample participated in 3 or
161,710). fewer sports, children who participated in 4 or
more sports were aggregated into one group (see
Measures Table 1).
Outdoor Play
The extent and frequency of time spent in School Readiness
outdoor play was measured by asking parents, The Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating
“On a typical week, how many hours is your Scales (PreBERS) is a standard, norm-
child outside playing?” The average number of referenced assessment, which measures the
hours of outside play reported by parents was behavioral and emotional strengths of preschool
8.00 (range = 0 - 25). children, particularly 3-5 years of age. The scale
includes 42 items, which rate on a 4-point Likert
Complex Physical Activity scale (0=not all like the child; 1=not much like
Participation in complex physical activities was the child; 2=like the child; 3=very much like the
measured by asking parents on a typical week, if child). The PreBERS includes 4 subscales:
the child participated in any of 8 complex Emotional Regulation (13 items), School
physical activities (see Table 1). The average Readiness (13 items), Social Confidence (9
number of complex physical activities which items), and Family Involvement (7 items). The
children participated in was 2 (range 0 - 8), with school readiness subscale was used in the
83 of the children participating in at least one present analysis. The internal consistency
complex physical activity. The complex physical reliability for the School Readiness subscale,
activity variable was a count of the number of coefficients averaged .94 for males, and .95 for
activities in which the child participated in, females (Epstein & Synhorst, 2009).

Table 1
Complex Physical Activities N = 93
Activity Played Sport Did not Play Sport Sports Sport Groups
n n n
Soccer 23 70 No Sport 11
Basketball 21 72 One Sport 27
T-Ball 17 76 Two Sports 18
Football 13 80 Three Sports 19
Dance 33 60 Four or More 18
Gymnastics 22 71
Bike 59 34
Scooter 33 60
Note: Played Sport = The number of children who played each individual sport. Did not Play
Sport = The number of children who did not play each individual sport
115 Global Education Review 5(2)

Analytic Plan model. To assess if school readiness was

Direct and moderated connections were stronger for children who spent more time in
examined between complex physical activity, outdoor play, participated in more complex
outdoor play, and school readiness. Pearson physical activities, or if the connection with
bivariate correlations were conducted on school readiness varied by complex physical
complex physical activity, extent and frequency activities, model one regressed outdoor play and
of time spent in outdoor play (hours), and school sport participation on school readiness. The
readiness, as measured by the PreBERS. A interaction between outdoor play with sport
multiple regression was computed to examine participation on school readiness was added in
the connection among complex physical model two.
activities and hours of outdoor play on school
readiness. The main effect of complex physical Results
activity and outdoor play was examined in model Descriptive information for complex physical
one, with the interaction between physical activity participation can be found in Table 1,
activity and outdoor play added in model two. and descriptive statistics (including correlations)
All analyses were completed using Stata for all variables included in the current analyses
13.1 (StataCorp, 2013). The percent of missing can be found in Table 2.
data ranged from < .02% to .18%, with Full Results for model one showed that the
Information Maximum Likelihood estimation extent and frequency of time spent in outdoor
(FIML) used to address the issue of missing data play was not significantly associated with school
(Schafer & Graham, 2002). FIML utilizes all readiness (B = .09. p = .374) after controlling for
available information and has been shown to child gender, child age, and family income.
produce less biased estimates than listwise However, participating in complex physical
deletion (Acock, 2012; Enders, 2001). Outliers activities was positively and significantly
were classified as values which were greater or associated with school readiness (B = 1.07, p =
lesser than 3.3 standard deviations from the .015), with children who participated in more
mean. There was 1 outlier for outdoor play and 2 complex physical activities showing higher
for family income. Both outliers were recoded to scores on the measure of school readiness (see
the next closest valid value for that measure Table 3).
within +/- 3.3 standard deviations. One outlier
was also found for child age.
Child gender, child age, and family
income were used as control variables for each
116 Global Education Review 5(2)

Table 2
Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Pairwise Correlations Between Variables.
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Outdoor Play - - - - - -
2. Sport Activity .32** - - - - -
3. School Readiness .17† .26* - - - -
4. Gender -.11 -.05 -.18† - - -
5. Child Age -.02 -.02 .26* .06 - -
6. Family Income .01 .02 .13 .09 -.02 -
N 93 93 91 107 107 95
Mean 8.01 2.41 32.07 51.19 45,060
SD 5.88 1.98 5.89 6.84 35,271
Min 0 0 1 0 36.3 0
Max 25 8 39 1 60.11 161,710
†p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01

Table 3
Regression Model Results: Main Effects Outdoor Play, Complex Physical Activity, and the Interaction
Between Outdoor Play and Complex Physical Activity with School Readiness.
School Readinessa
Model 1 Model 2
Variables B SE ß B SE ß
Outdoor Playb .09 .09 .09 .47** .18 .46
Complex PAC 1.07* .44 .24 2.47** .71 .55
Gender -2.01† 1.11 -.17 -2.03† 1.08 -.17
Child Age .26** .08 .30 .27** .08 .32
Family Income .00 .00 .08 .00 .00 .03
Outdoor Play* Sports – – – -.17* .07 -.59
Note. B = Unstandardized Estimate.  = Standardized Estimate. SE = Standard Error.
†p < .10. *p < .05 **p < .01
aThe Preschool Behavioral and Emotional Rating Scales
bThe extent and frequency of time in outdoor play is measured in hours.
C PA = Complex Physical Activity
117 Global Education Review 5(2)

Results for model two revealed a readiness for children who played no sports.
significant interaction between the number of However, for children who played 3 sports, time
complex physical activities a child played with in outdoor play did not predict higher school
the extent and frequency of time spent in readiness (see Figure 1).
outdoor play on children’s school readiness (B = Based on a reviewer suggestion, post hoc
-.17, p = .015) (see Table 3). A test of the regions analysis were conducted that included an
of significance (Preacher, Curran, & Bauer, average of the number of hours’ parents
2006) to identify the number of complex reported their child spent playing each complex
physical activities within which time in outdoor physical activity (Mean = .45, range 0 - 2.25).
play was linked with children’s school readiness This was done to control for overlap for parents
showed the region of significance fell between who might have reported the extent and
2.57 and 3.06. This suggests that for children frequency of time in outdoor play as being time
who played two sports, more time spent in the child spent participating in complex physical
outdoor play predicted higher school readiness. activity. Results did not differ when including
The extent and frequency of time spent in this variable in either model.
outdoor play was also positively related to school

21
20
School Readiness

19
18
17 3 Activities
16 2 Activities
15 No Activities
14
13
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Extent and Frequency of Time in Outdoor Play

Figure 1. Interaction Between Extent and Frequency of Time in Outdoor Play and Complex Physical Activity
Participation with School Readiness.

Note: Slopes represent the relationship between hours in outdoor play with school readiness for children who
participated in 0, 2, and 3 complex physical activities. The extent and frequency of time in outdoor play is
measured in hours.
118 Global Education Review 5(2)

Discussion between outdoor play with school readiness for

There is a need to understand the role of outdoor children who participate in fewer complex
learning environments and activities that occur activities. This result is somewhat consistent
within such environments in the development of with past work that examined coordinative
academic skills. Prior studies have found that exercise, team games requiring physical activity,
cognitive components of school readiness are and interventions involving training in a sport
linked to physical activity (Becker et al., 2014; skill, such as soccer (Chang et al., 2013;
Davis et al., 2011) and participating in sports Koutsandréou et al., 2016; Schmidt, Jäger,
(Chang et al., 2013), but the cognitive and Egger, Roebers, & Conzelmann, 2015). Evidence
academic benefits of outdoor play and complex from these studies show the perceptual and
physical activity are not fully understood in cognitive demands of a sport and the shifting
prekindergarten children. Therefore, the game context require attention that could be
purpose of this study was to assess if the extent leading to improved cognitive performance
and frequency of time spent in outdoor play, the following prolonged exposure. However, the
number of complex physical activities a child interaction also suggests, as participation in
plays, or some combination of the two is linked complex physical activities increase (e.g.,
to school readiness. Results supported the moving from two to three activities), the
hypothesis that participating in complex association between outdoor play with school
physical activities would moderate the readiness becomes flat. This suggests, for
association between outdoor play with school children who participate in one, two, or no
readiness, with a positive association found complex activities, their school readiness scores
between school readiness with time spent in increase when they spend more time in outdoor
outdoor play for children who played two or play.
fewer complex activities. For children who At a practical level, time spent playing
participated in 3 complex activities, time in outside likely means that the child is not
outdoor play was not related to school readiness, engaged in screen time. High levels of screen
although children in this group showed the time are linked to lower vocabulary scores, poor
highest level of school readiness. Results offer interpersonal skills, and lower levels of physical
support that early care settings that offer activity (Carson, Rahman, & Wiebe, 2017;
children the opportunity to participate in Hinkley, Salmon, Okely, Crawford, & Hesketh,
complex physical activities could promote school 2012; Hinkley, Timperio, Salmon, & Hesketh,
readiness, but also suggests that a similar 2017). It is possible that children in the present
connection could be found if children are given study who spend more time in outdoor play are
time to play outdoors. engaging in less screen time and spending more
time being physically active. Non-organized
physical activity is also linked to higher
Outdoor Environments and the
vocabulary scores (Carson et al., 2017), and this
Interaction Between Sports and is consistent with the connection between
Outdoor Play outdoor play and school readiness found in the
Results in the present study showed that present study.
complex physical activity significantly At the same time, children who
moderated the connection between the extent participated in three or more complex physical
and frequency of time a child spends in outdoor activities showed the highest school readiness
play with school readiness. The nature of the scores, with school readiness unrelated to the
interaction points to a positive connection amount of time in outdoor play for these
 Complex physical activity, outdoor play, and school readiness 119

children. This is consistent with results from suggest that participating in complex physical
Becker (2016), who found, for children who activities (i.e., sport type activities) is helping to
played more complex sports (e.g., soccer, prepare children for school.
volleyball), the physical intensity needed to play
the sport was negatively related to executive Limitations and Future Directions
function. Further, the highest executive function This study revealed connections among outdoor
was found for children who played multiple play and participating in complex physical
complex sports at a low physical intensity. It is activity with school readiness, but there were
likely if a child is participating in three or more also a number of limitations. First, given that
sports, they are spending time being physically this was a concurrent study it was not possible to
active and interacting with peers, both of which assess the directionality between outdoor play
are connected with school readiness. and participating in complex physical activity
The present study is unique in that it with school readiness. It is entirely possible that
examined multiple complex activities (i.e., sport children with better school readiness select to
type activities) in a population where motor and spend more time playing outdoors or
cognitive skills are starting to develop. Although participating in complex physical activity. Future
the complex physical activities assessed in the work should assess longitudinal connections
present study varied in the level of focus and among school readiness, outdoor play, and
attention needed to perform the activity (e.g., participating in complex physical activity (i.e.,
riding a bike or scooter vs kicking a soccer ball to sports). Second, outdoor play, participating in
a friend), they all required motor learning to complex physical activity, and school readiness
some degree. As motor skills are developing were all derived from parent reports. We
within this age group (Myer et al., 2015), it is therefore could not objectively determine the
possible that learning to ride a bike or scooter, amount of time a child spent participating in
or throw, kick, or catch a ball could be taxing outdoor play or complex physical activity, and
attention and inhibitory control, and improve future work should objectively assess both.
the cognitive component of school readiness. It was also not possible to determine if
Neuroanatomical connections support this parents’ responses ignored the time spent by
proposal, with the cerebellum, a brain region children playing outside when attending
central for coordination and motor control childcare. However, given that little research has
(Marr, 1969), connected to cortical systems examined how participating in outdoor play and
involved in executive function (Diamond, 2000; complex physical activity could relate to school
Stoodley & Schmahmann, 2009). readiness, this study is a starting point for future
Participation in sport-type activities is also work in this area. Results can also only be
linked to higher levels of social competence and generalized to the eight complex activities
lower levels of social anxiety (Dimech & Seiler, analyzed in the present analysis. Further, school
2010; Haugen et al., 2013). As prosocial readiness is a complex construct that not only
behaviors are linked to higher math and reading includes children's readiness for school, but also
scores (Romano et al., 2010), it is possible that the schools' readiness for the child along with
skills involved in positive social interactions the families and communities' readiness for
could be developing as children interact with school (Britto, 2012; Dockett & Perry, 2009;
peers both during outdoor play and participation 2014). Future work should examine if similar
in complex physical activity. Together, the connections are found with other less traditional
intersection among sensory-motor experience, sport activities and use a multidimensional
social engagement, and the physical and assessment of school readiness. Future work
embodied representation of information could should also assess parents' and teachers'
120 Global Education Review 5(2)

attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs related to the Acknowledgment

role of physical activity in cognitive The authors acknowledge the support of
development. Finally, assessing connections a School University Teacher Education
among engagement in dialogic book reading, Partnership Grant from the College of Education
motor skills, and physical activity are also and Allied Professions at Western Carolina
important avenues for future research given University, without which this work would not
there connection to early school readiness have been possible.
(Becker, Miao, Duncan, & McClelland, 2014;
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Miyake, A. U., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. About the Author(s)
H., & Howerter, A. (2000). The unity and diversity of Derek R. Becker, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the
executive functions and their contributions to Birth-Kindergarten program at Western Carolina
complex ‘frontal lobe’ tasks: A latent variable University. He teaches a range of early childhood research
analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49-100. methods courses, along with math, science and
Myer, G. D., Faigenbaum, A. D., Edwards, N. M., Clark, J. F., curriculum. His research focuses on connections among play,
Best, T. M., & Sallis, R. E. (2015). Sixty minutes of physical activity, and sport participation with executive
what? A developing brain perspective for activating function and early learning.
children with an integrative exercise approach.
British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49(23), 1510- Cathy Grist, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor and Director
1516. of the Birth-Kindergarten Program at Western Carolina
Nakamoto, H., & Mori, S. (2012). Experts in fast-ball sports University. She has taught courses in assessment and
reduce anticipation timing cost by developing intervention for young children with disabilities in a fully
inhibitory control. Brain and Cognition, 80(1), 23- online program for the last 10 years. She is a licensed clinical
32. psychologist who provides psychological and behavioral
Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). assessments, as well as interventions for preschool age
Computational tools for probing interactions in children in private practice.
multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and Research interests include preschool personality,
latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and assessment, social-emotional competence in young children,
Behavioral Statistics, 31(4), 437-448. behavioral issues, and online teaching strategies and
Romano, E., Babchishin, L., Pagani, L. S., & Kohen, D. methods.
(2010). School readiness and later achievement:
replication and extension using a nationwide Lori Caudle, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the Birth-
Canadian survey. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), Kindergarten program at Western Carolina University.
995. She teaches a range of early childhood methods courses,
Schmidt, M., Jäger, K., Egger, F., Roebers, C. M., & including authentic assessment, literacy, environments, and
Conzelmann, A. (2015). Cognitively engaging chronic curriculum. Her research focuses on the professional
physical activity, but not aerobic exercise, affects development of in-service and pre-service early childhood
executive functions in primary school children: a teachers, with a particular focus on the use of digital tools
group-randomized controlled trial. Journal of Sport and/or collaboration to enhance learning.
& Exercise Psychology, 37(6).
Shim, S.-Y., Herwig, J. E., & Shelley, M. (2001). Myra Watson, MAEd, NBCT, is an instructor in the
Preschoolers' play behaviors with peers in classroom Birth-Kindergarten Program at Western Carolina University.
and playground settings. Journal of Research in She is a former prekindergarten and kindergarten teacher.
Childhood Education, 15(2), 149-163.
Snyder, H. R., & Munakata, Y. (2010). Becoming self-
directed: Abstract representations support