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World Maritime University Dissertations Dissertations

1992

Marine automation and impact on shipboard machinery

Edet Asukwo Offiong
WMU

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Offiong, Edet Asukwo, "Marine automation and impact on shipboard machinery" (1992). World Maritime
University Dissertations. 1030.
https://commons.wmu.se/all_dissertations/1030

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 L_11.

HORLD MARITIME UNIUERSITY

HRLNO-SNEDEN

HRRINE RUTOHRTION QND IMPQCT ON SHIPBORRD HRCHINERY

BY

OFFIONG. EDET RSUKHO

NIGERIA

A dissertation submitted to the Horld Maritime University

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the auardoi
the decree of
Master of Science
Maritime Education and Training
(Marine Engineering)

Year of Graduation
1992
 (Declaration)

I oortltu that all uatortal In thlo dtooortatlon which to

not as can work hao boon idontlltod and that no uatorlal
to lnoludod for uhlch a dooroo has boon vrovlcuclu
oontorrod upon no.
Tho oontonto of thio dlooortation rotloot nu poroonal
ulooo and aro not noooccarilu ondorood by tho Untuoroltu.

Blonaturoi j{...
naeo..;/ x£/'.Z.L­

Iulorvlcod and acoooood but

Profoocor H. Rluura
Doanof faculty (lartttno Education and Traininc)
Horld Haritlno Univorcltu
Co-aooooood but
Protooccr J. Ltotounik , r
Harttluo Univoroitu ( ;§V * fl ,
Bzozocln-Poland ‘‘ ,J- 3lLlLLK,
Uloltino Profoooor *7
Horld Haritino Univoroltu
 ABSTRACT

Today. the world is experiencing high energy COIt

and energy conservation and these have prompted the ship
operators to use automation in order to save energy.
Also high operational and labour costs have accelerated
the pace for automation application on board ships as
mini-and microcomputer based controllers have become
relatively cheap and yet, robust and flexible to perform
the require functions. Automation therefore is now
expanding in the maritime industry as benefit to its
adoption is being widely accepted and acknowledged.
Nigeria. plagued by scare financial resources. lack
of technical know-howand logistics with inadequate
training facilities, has always hastened to adopt new
technology without proper evaluation of technical and
socio-economicalfactors for effective operation.
management and maintenance of such systems.
In this dissertation. a comparative analysis of
practical shipboard automation as applied by developed
maritime nations has been looked at with a view to giving
the shipowners and operators in Nigeria the tool to
selecting a better level of automation for present and
future vessels in their fleet so as to maximize
efficiency and safety in shipping operations. However,
in dealing with a subject as wide as this, it was
very necessary to project the views and opinions of
successful users and to highlight futuristic trend in
shipboard machinery automation: with a view to making
ships less costly to operate with high degree of
reliability and safety to navigation.
 ACKNOHLEDGEHENT

This dissertation is dedicated to my children Amy&

Richard Offionq for giving me the inspiration to toughen
it out for the two years. '
I take this opportunity also to thank Professor H.
Kimura, Professor J. Listenwik and Lt.cadr. S. Ohnstad
for their detailed and constructive commentson earlier
drafts which helped me greatly in preparing this final
version of the dissertation.
Lastly, I thank Captain 8. A. Anyaeji and Engr. Dlu
Akinsoji for their invalid assistance and recommendation
to the UNDPfor the fellowship.
 TALE OF CONTENTS PAGE
ACKNOHLEDBEHENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
1umooucr mu 1
arm. IOSRAPHY 162

CHAPTER 1. HECHANTRONIC CONCEPT IN MARINE DIESEL PLANTS.

1.1.0 Introduction 1
1.2.0 Systemdesign criteria and objectives 2
1.2.1 Monitoring the operating conditions 5
1.2.2 Minimizing functional loss of the system 6
1.2.3 Hanual operation 7
1.2.4 Environmental considerations 7
1.3.0 Hechatronic application in engine operation 8
1.4.0 Systems for condition monitoring 17
1.5.0 Developmentof instrumentation systems for
signal conditioning 27
1.5.1 Analoguesign:l_conditioning direct reading 27
1.5.2 Data preprocessing and digital data
transmission 27
1.5.3 Integrated condition monitoring system with
process computer 28
1.5.4 Microprocessor based monitoring systems 29
1.5.5 The microprocessor concept. 29
1.6.0 Use of condition monitoring data 32
1.6.1 Data reporting 33
1.7.0 Concluding remarks. 34
 smpaonno mcnucav AUTOMATION PAGE
CHAPTER 2.
2.1.0 Introduction of automation on diesel ships. 36
2.1.1 Main engine remote control system 38
2.2.0 Control systems for engine room aux. system 40
2.3.0 Automationin electrical power generation. 43
2.4.0 Fully integrated shipboard machinery control
systems. 54
2.4.1 Basic unmannedmachinery operation
requirements. 55
2.4.2 Integrated machinery system 56
2.4.3 Concluding remarks 66
2.5.0 Integrated bridge systems 67
2.5.1 Concluding remarks 72

CHAPTER 3. IMPACT AND BENEFIT OF AUTOMATION IN SHIPPING

3.1.0 Automation and manning 75
3.1.1 Manningreduction in the world's fleet
1950s-19905. 76
3.1.2 Progress toward unattended engine room 78
3.1.3 Innovation in the deck department BO
3.1.4 State of-the-art and the decade ahead. 81
3.2.0 Effect on safety and maintenance with
smaller crews. 87
3.2.1 The problem of quantifying maritime safety BB
3.2.2 Safety implication of available data 96
3.2.3 Specific safety concerns 96
3.3.0 7§enefitM9f_automation 103
3.3.1 Future trends in energy saving due to
automation. 112
3.4.0 Concluding remarks. 116
CHAPTER 4. PROPOSAL FOR BHIPOARD MACHINERY AUTOMATION
LEVEL ON FUTURE NIGERIAN MERCHANT FLEET.
4.1.0 Introduction 120
4.1.1 Operational experience with semi-automated
ships in Nigerian fleet. 121
4.1.2 Facts about shipping industry in Nigeria. 124
4.2.0 Proposal for training and skill certification
for future Nigerian vessels. 128
4.2.1 Training and certification programs of
advanced shipping nations. 130
4.2.2 Proposed programmeof training in Nigeria 133
4.2.3 Proposal for shore service facilities in
Nigeria. 140
4.2.4 Capital availability for investment in new
ships. 141
4.3.0 Suggested automation level on Nigerian
future ships. 142
4.4.0 Concluding remarks 148

CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 152

ANNEX 1 160
ANNEX II 161
LIST OF TABLES pAGE
1. Measuresfor ensuring the reliability of an electronic
governor. 9
2. Comparison of manning patterns. 78
LIST OF FIGURES PAGE
1. Basic system configuration of electronic governor.
2. Failure frequency of piston rings. 13
3. Part of fault-tree analysis of diesel engine. 16
4. Positioning of sensors in a liner. 19
5. Schematic of a surface thermocouple. 20
Piston ring monitoring. 23
Example of liner wear development in an LB engine. 24
Position of temp. sensor for measuring thermal load. 26
Block diagram of a microprocessor based condition
monitoring system for LB diesel engine. 30
10 Principle of prediction of future trend. 33
11. Hain engine cooling system with variable speed cooling
sea water pump on ships. 37
12. Dexter design for H/E remote control. 39
13. The Engard system and cooling water circuits. 42
14. Automatic power supply system. 48
13. Diesel control unit. 52
16. Fully Integrated marine machinery automation system. 59
17. Integrated Navigation system. 70
18. Integrated Honitoring and control system. 72
19. worldwide vessel loss 92
20. worldwide gross tonnage lost. 93
21. Rates of serious casualties of oil tankers. 94
Incidents per ship/year 95
23. Theprinciple of electronic injection. 105
24. Power! fuel consumption curves. 107
Cost distribution pattern conventional &modernships. 110
26. Shipboard tasks analysis. 155
 INTRODUCTION

Hanhas transformed his world by his ability to

control other occupants of this planet. Progress was
slow at first. but was accelerated in the 18th century by
a series of stupendous discoveries and inventions.
Duringthis period of the first industrial revolution.
substituting machine for man's muscle was introduced.
Today substituting machine for both human muscle and
brain has becomethe required objective as equipments and
materials became more sophisticated and complicated.

Recent technological development in marine automation

have created somedifficulties with profound
consequences. As automatic control systems are more
sensitive and accurate. they can maintain or exceed the
efficiency. reliability and safety of manualsystems.
This would improve working conditions and thereby reduce
manpowerrequirement.

Mostcountries have recently developed varieties of

systems to modernize their merchant fleets so that they
can reduce crew sizes. and ensure economical maintenance
cost with diagnostic expert system. This has been
accelerated by the availability of cheap, compact. yet
powerful, mini-computers and the increasing availability
of micro-processor based controllers which have a
substantial influence on ship operations.
 Yhese devices are used on the shipl to DO"O'l Out"
functions as watchkeeping, navigational sanoeuvrinoio
berthing. collision avoidance. material hendlifl9 ‘"5
cargo control. The use of this equipment occurs where
monitoring. controlling and information P70605905"'
gnvgxygd. Trends towards the greater modernization of
shipboard installations and equipments. with reduced
manningobviously point towards the ultimate goal of one­
mancontrol from the bridge.

In assessing the circumstances surrounding the

shipping business today. the importance of promoting
modernization by grasping the need to control ship
installation and information should be recognized. This
is so as shipboard environment also served as a living
environment for ship‘s operators from the stand point of
an integrated man-machine system. Thus conducting
sufficient assessment on such a system through an
ergonomic approach as well is desirable.

In this dissertation. several issues related to

social. economics and safety operation of ships in
respect to the reliability of automated marine machinery
will be discussed.

Developedcountries. having substantial resources and

less manpower,can justify a reduction in manning levels
on ships. Developing countries with a surplus of cheap
labour. but a lack of logistics to cater for spare parts
availability. shore base repair facilities, or highly
trained personnel, maynot justify such a high capital
intensive venture without careful evaluation and analysis
as financial resources are scarce. It should therefore
not to be forgotten that the developing nations ships

II
cannot operate in isolation because shipping is an
gntgrnotionll industry. Also it should be noted that
automation can conceivably reduce energy C0015. 1-PVOVO
reliability. and above all. enhance safety of the shifl
operation. It is also a knownfact that most shipowners
from developing countries are acquiring second hand shiDI
from the industrialized nations due to limited resources.
these ships are in most cases fully automated and reauifi
coepetent engineers with the grasp of the technology to
operate such ships. Hith this in mind. the developing
countries would have to train new technologists having a
broad knowledge of the fundamentals and understanding of
automation to a wide variety of problems. This would
accelerate technological development in the developing
nations for the future.

Therefore for developing countries to remain

competitive in the shipping trade. application of
automation to their ships should be critically examined
and implementedat a point best suited for their
prevalent situation.

The subject of mydissertation therefore is to

discuss the application of automation to marine machinery
with respect to propulsion, power generation. integrated
bridge system and unmannedmachinery space operation with
computerutilization. It will attempt also to assess the
impact on the Nigerian shipping industry and the benefit
to be derived from such innovation.

III
CIQAPTQX: IEIIIATHXIC CGCT IN IAIIIIII Dlflll. l’LI.N'!‘8

1.1 lITIDDUCTlOI|

lechatronics is the ability to integrate electronic

and computer technologies into a wide range of primary
products and processes.
The good performance record of modern diesel engines
for main propulsion is due to the ability of engine
makers to exploit developments in technology. This is
introduced at the design stage in both products and
manufacturing processes. The result has been a system
which is cheaper. simpler. more reliable and has greater
flexibility of operation than their predecessors. In
this highly competitive situation. the old division
between electronics and mechanical engineering are being
replaced by the integrated and inter-disciplinary
approach to engineering design referred to as
Hechatronics.

In this highly competitive environment. therefore.

only those new products and processes in which an
effective combination of electronics and mechanical
engineering has been achieved are likely to be
successful. In most innovative products and processes
the mechanical hardware best utilized is realized by a
consideration of necessary electronics. control
engineering and computing from the earliest stages of the
design process. The integration across traditional
boudaries that this requires. lies at the heart of
understanding the developments that are taking place.
Thus the mechatronic approach to engineering design is
the only vay to achieve high reliability of marine
products and services.

The introduction of new technologies to the marine

machinery therefore. is to follow the established and
operational rules and regulations mainly for the safety
of ships and human lives at sea.

Marine machinery mechatronics is concerned with

bringing together and integrating key areas of
technology. particularly;
- sensors and instrumentation systems.
- embeddedmicroprocessor systems.
- drives and actuators.
- engineering design.

In the case of sensors. instrumentation. drives and

actuators. the incorporation of dedicated data processing
units vill allov independent operation of the main
controller thereby providing increased system
flexibility. Such smart sensors and intelligent
actuators that incorporate embeddedmicroprocessors as
part of the distributed system play a significant role in
the design and development of a large scale mechatronic
systems in marine machinery.

1.2 8781!! DESIGN CRITERIA AND OBJECTIVES:

The three main points to be considered in evaluating

mechatronics from the viev point of safety and
reliability of ships are as follows:
 - Desin to niniaise the potential system lailure
- Ouick trouble shooting and response in case of
Iailure.
- Alternative means to continue navigation in an
emergency.

In order to meet these requirements. the following

points must be considered in designing the system.
- Redundancy.
- Fail-safe features.
- Monitoring operating conditions.
- Iininising functional loss of a system.
Possibility of manual operation
- lhvironmental considerations

Explanation is given belov to each of the points

mentioned above.

IIDUNANCY:

For redundancy. it is of utmost important to

consider the safety of the vhole ship in preference to a
single item of equipment or machinery. The degree of
redundancy to be provided for each sub-system. should be
determined in relation to the importance of the sub­
system vithin the vhole system of the ship. the
Pf°b|b111¥Y0! ill flilUrO. availability of alternative
means etc.

For a ship to continue navigation without

disturbance to its propelling and steering equipment or
"‘h1n°TY. designs providing redudancy such as parallel
or standby equipment must be provided. loans of ensuring
continued navigation at a temporary reduced speed or
sufficient supplies of spare parts to enable repair must
be of paramount consideration and be taken selectively
according to their importance. furthermore coordinating
the system with fail-safe or monitoring functions is
essential.

FAIL-IAII FIATUIISI

These are functions designed in case of any failure

of power. control circuits. structural menbers. or other
components resulting in system abnormality to some
extent. They will ensure safety of the entire ship. For
instance. main propulsion engine tripping due to abnormal
functioning parameters provides safety in the sense of
protecting the main engine. but it signifies the loss of
propelling power for the entire ship. It would be safer
to continue operation of the main engine as long as is
possible to avoid endangering the whole ship. This is
therefore necessary to bear in mind during the design of
the control systems or protection systems.

Hechatronics is attracting the attention of diesel

engine manufacturers. In so doing. however.
consideration should be given so that continuation of the
unchanged state of operation can be maintained as long as
possible by blocking control circuits and power circuits
should they fail.
1.3.! $11113 TICGQATIQ(311111:
To oaintain tho safoty o! tho plant itsol! or tho
ontiro oystol o! tho ship through oarly dotoction of
abnoraalitios. constant nonitoring of oporating condition
is indisponsablo.

Tho oporating conditions should bo nonitorod not

only to indicato tho occurronco of abnornalitios to tho
onginoors. but also to coordinato tho function to provont
an unoxpoctod control action in tho plant or tho ontiro
ship syston and switch to backup syston as rosult of
abnornalitios. Furthornoro. it is an important function
to bo capablo of idontifying troublo {or oarly
rostoration of tho plant.

In Iochatronics systol dosigns. sonsors and

actuators aro tho hard vorking slavos. Evon though tho
oloctronic unit sorving as a brain of tho syston is
normal. tho function of tho ontiro syston cannot bo
oxpoctod to bo nornal if abnornalitios dovolop in sonsors
or actuators. As sonoors and actuators aro gonorally
nountod at difforont locations. thoro is tho concorn that
a failuro nay occur in cablo ways. It is thoroforo
nocossary to dotoct faults in units and cablo ways at an
oarly stago in ordor to copo with tho: proporly. A good
dogroo of conoidoration oust bo givon to tho safoty of
tho ontiro ship; in accordanco with tho principlo of
fail-safo oporation so as to assist tho onginoor‘s
docision to oithor continuo oporation by maintaining tho
prooont otato. ru at roducod spood or stop oporation.
1.3.8 IIIIIIZIQ "§Tl@A.I. LQI G TIC IYITEI

With the recent increased capability of computers.

the range of functions to be imposed on a single computer
unit is tending to expand. A failure dOVOlOp}n9in a
central processing unit (CPU)or similar unit vith an
extensive range of functions. means that all relevant
functions could be lost. eventually creating difficulties
in the operation of the ship itself. To avoid such a
serious situation. there is the need to have a proper
distribution of functions to enhance the safety of the
entire plant. This is done by securing the independence
of the control system. the alarm system. and the safety
system representing the basic functions of an automated
system.

Hovever. the advantage vith computers is that many

functions can be totally monitored and controlled.
therefore the above consideration of independence may not
be obtained. In such a case. consideration of equivalent
safety is required by the installation of alternative
systems. change-over functions to a stand-by computer.
etc.

The area to vhich mechatronics is presently being

applied is only a small part vithin the entire ship
system. Though highly probable that it vould be expanded
extensively in the future. Whenthis functional
diversification is realized. basic functions vill be
imposedon respective distributed sub-systems. and the
extra features such as functional optimization and system
sophistication vill be incorporated into the central
processing unit that control the entire plant.
1.3.3 IAEM.Cflfflfil
Autonatic control of various plants on tho ships is
still undorgoingfurthor dovolopoont. A plant utilising
autonatic control systons oust incorporato a nanual
control to onablo tho onginoor to copo with tho
possibility of !ailuro of tho autonatic control function.
To ho ahlo to rospond innodiatoly to any contingoncios in
tho autonatic control syston. considoration is givon to
loans to tako tho nocossary stops instantanoously to
tonporarily undortako tho dutios of tho autonatic
controls and noans to onsuro onorgoncy oporation.
Consoquontly. instrunontation to provido ainioun lovols
o! inlornation to undortako such altornativo loans nust
bo providod. Considoration also to onsuro indopondont so
that tho ultinato protoction syston can bo kopt offoctivo
ovon during Ianual oporation. Thoroforo. tho basic
control functions nocossary for nanual oporation Iust bo
soparatoly providod tron tho autonatic syston for normal

1.2.4 INVIRONNINTAL CONSIDERATIONS:

Tho configuration of nochatronics systons could tako

tho torn of oloctronic signals from sonsors boing
rocoivod by controllors to rogulato actuators. In such a
syston. sonsors and actuators aro ofton fittod vhoro
onvironoontal conditions aro sovoro. Thoroforo
considoration lust bo givon to thoir rosistanco to such
advorso onvironnontal conditions. With oloctronic
conpononts. including controllors. thoro is tho risk of
Ialfuctioning duo to high lovol oloctrical noise.
vibration and high tenperature that nornally exist in
ship's nachinery. Thus a care!ul assessnent of the
resistance o! conponent parts to adverse environnental
conditions is one o! the highly inportant considerations
for securing satisfactory levels of reliability for
nechatronics.

A series o! sensors (or nonitoring and alarn

Iunctions has shovn a high statistical (allure rate on
ship installations. particularly those (or exhaust gas
tenperature. These have been doninated by the parting o!
Iilalents caused by vibration. Thus sensors vith high
resistance particularly to tenperature and vibration nust
be selected for those nounted directly on engines or in
the vicinity exposed to excessive vibration and high
tenperature.

1.3.0 NICHATRONIC APPLICATIONS IN NARINI MACHINERY

OPERATIONS

ILICTRONIC GOVERNOR:

Electronic governors are typical nechatronic

application. The first practical application in ships
vas in 1907 and vas approved by the classification
society after several environmental tests vere conducted.
All the governors installed vere on 2-stroke cycle diesel
Iain engines. A better stable runing condition vas
achieved vith a borelstroke ratio of greater than three.
75*’ Proved that slov speed nain diesel engines in their
V97710' lPeed range perforned better than conventional
nechanical-hydraulic governors.
 Tho Ionic oyctoo configuration ancludoc tho control
oust. ICCIIOCOI . and rovolutnon pickup as shown in !t¢uro
I. fhoro to another node! typo tn uhtch tho dncplcy
pcnol and povor unat cro copcrstod froo ouch othor.
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loorcoa Ill Tbchniccl Bulletin-1990

 Tho oloctronlc govornoro uood ln norlno oloool
onglnoo oro ooolnod olth tho oforononttonod doolon
phllooophy to onouro rolloblllty and oofoty (ooo Toblo
l).
Ioounooncy no provldod olthor by:
- Dupllcotlno onth o nochontcol govornor In cooo of
oloctronlc oovornor folluro. or
- duplscotlno tho procoooor and nonory of tho
control procooolno unit for outonotlc chongo-ovor
to tho backup oyoton.

Rovolutton plckup oyotono oro duplxcotod In all

nooolo to provont tho onglno opood ovon vhon thoro ll o
coblo brookooo. Thus nornol oporotaon no onourod by
onothor rpn pxckup oyoton vhon ono pxckup oyoton foxlo.
Dupllcotlon ll oloo provxdod for tho foodbock oonooro and
hydroulxc O11 pups. Rodundoncyfor foal-oofo functxon
and nonatortng tunctnon ll pfOVldOdby tho colt­
nonntorxng fumctaon of tho control procoooang unxt (CPU)
or by xnput oionol nonltorxng. Evon if obnornolxtxoo
dovolop. tho octuotor lo blockod to noxntoxn tho prooont
ototo of oporotaon of tho noxn ongxno. Furthornoro.
obnornol points oro dxoployod oxtornolly oo o batch olorn
lndicotton. Thno con bo quxckly dotoctod to foctlxtoto
oorly rootorotion of dofoctxvo conpononto.

An oloctronlc govornor is on oloctronxc voroion of

tho convontionol nochonxcol govornor that should not
roquaro any duplication. Hovovor. concxdorotion nuot bo
oivon to ouffaciont nunboro and kind of oporo port: if it
is lntondod to continuo oporotxon of tho ongino without
Ionxpulotion of tho locol fuol oil hondlo by hand ovon
Ihon foiluro occuro. Uhon tho oloctronic govornor is
dooignod no on intogrol port of othor important control

10
gygtoms. such a systom should hawo amplo rodndancy.

X37 DlAiTlC IYITX Ill CODITIQIIIIITGIID

0' DIIIIL IIDIIII.

Anothor positiwo implomontation of mochatronics is

its contribution to tho oxport diagnosis tochniquo.
Oonorally. it is difficult to dotoct faults in mochanical
structuros and in many casos an abnormality is dotoctod
aftor obsorving its socondary consoquoncos. With this in
mind. tho oxport diagnostic systom can offor various
information which can bo assossod on a roal timo basis
diroctly through sonsors. Faults can bo dotoctod in a
shortor timo onabling an offoctivo rosponso to machinory
failuros.

Condition Monitoring (C.l.) implios systomatic

monitoring of charactoristic paramotors in ordor to
assoss tho condition of a componont. and comparo it with
a roforonco or with accoptod limits whoro a failuro or
brsakdown is likoly to occur. Tho main objoctivo is to
minimiio tho oxponsos rolatod to maintonanco of componont
systoms.

larino onginoors havo always roliod on inspoctions

at rogular intorvals or on occasion. for gaining
hnowlodgo about tho condition of tho machinory. Howovor.
tho 24 hours visual inspoction is not oasily availablo on
board ships in today‘s shipping onvironmont duo to amplo
humanorror that can occur and also crow roductions which
havo boon implomontod by shipownors in ordor to savo
labour costs.

11
 The expert engine diagnostic systen seens necessary
due to the folloving considerations in nodern shipping
practices:
-A scheduled or planned maintenance schene is not
necessarily an econonic one.

-The tight schedule of a nodern vessel allows for

very little downtine; i.e. less frequent and
shorter overhaul periods. The Ill being to do nost of
the naintenance or repair work in harbour by well trained
CIOV.

-As already nentioned. Iodern nanning schedules of

lesser crev make it very difficult to have personnel for
engine naintenance work. The situation in the future is
predicted to beconenore difficult.

In the past. planned or scheduled maintenance vas

based on performance records. The inherent problem
associated with it was that the lean tine betveen
overhauls was largely dependent on several factors in
which sonetines the engine nanufacturer had little or no
control. These led to maintenance work being carried out
too early or too late which was unecononical.
particularly as a consequence of a breakdovn. It is
obviously clear that an accurate prediction of life
expectancy of engine components. e.g. a piston ring. is
very difficult. A reliability analysis of piston rings
of slov speed tvo stroke narine diesel engine from field
data of Sulzer engines illustrate this ViOVquite vell.
see figure 2

12
 ‘N
ail‘)

Figure 2. Failure frequency of piston rings

Source: Det lorste Veritas Techical paper-1967

lainly due to these reasons an on-line engine

diagnostic systen is required to detect early adverse
influences on the operation of the engine.

A brief classification of knovn sub-systems should

be discussed before describing in detail the principles
and methods of condition monitoring and diagnostic
systole.

13
 - Improvedcondition or data available from
conventional instrumentation:

Data collected from instruents fitted on

turbocharger filters and coolers o! the air system. as
vell as exhaust temperatures and indicator cards. can be
evaluated systematically. Nomogramsare then used to
produce trend development curves for maintenance
prediction. Values from the nomogramsare normalized
graphically by a central computer or by a programmable
calculator.

- Thermal load monitoring:

Temperature sensors mounted on the cylinder cover

can detect thermal overloading and similar methods
described above are applied for recording deviations from
calculated values in order to develop trend curves.

- Cylinder liner temperature monitoring:

Temperature sensors in the cylinder liner are able

to monitor the overall piston ring operating conditions.
Due to load variations. the data can be normalized or
limited to a specified loading of the engine. Variation
of temperature during normal operation may be
substantial: thus a statistical treatment of the measured
data may be necessary.

14
 - Direct ennitering of piston running condition (eear
end lubrication):

Specialised sensors can significantly improve the

possibility of detecting the onset of failure in
cylinders. The engineer could take immediate action to
avoid harmful secondary effects. thus elaborate
mathematical algorithms for normalicing of values are not
required.

- Combustion system monitoring:

The condition monitoring system can monitor the

cylinder pressure. fuel pumppressure. and closing and
opening time of the fuel injectors. A more complex
computer based eonitoring system is required.

FAILURE ICHANIBI AND PROCESS PARAIIIIRS

To design an effective and efficient condition

monitoring system. the possible processes and failure
mechanisns must be knovn. Evaluation of the feasibility
of instrumentation methodsof reliability engineering
have been found to be useful as well as detailed studies
into specific failure types.

A simple method to meet this demand is the ‘fault

"" 33817310‘vhich is an efficient tool for a complex
'Y0lOI- A fault tree maybe considered a particular

15
typo of on event loguc daeoreo de!|nod to e events.
logtc
The
'09 reeontetlon of the lnter-reletaonehlp of
dleoreo ontch I0 booed on evonte lntorconnected by loolc
gotoe to detetotne th e roletnon beteoen tnput nnd output
CVCIII. A brief euplenetlon no ehovn tn tho fxoure 1.

5'?‘
-" ':‘::"—'.-'=w :.-.:='u=:OfleI
an I OH
I! tuna-:v=':..'f'u:.{.l.IInu no-u-em...

uunLn=:uLun:1
uuuus up
INADS
vm.:'""" ""'“ "H-0| nu­
$!l..'.l.t'_'!.L£.'!!1'_'2
--f'-:?‘:.:':.'.::.':::.‘1:':::::.:':::.-.:'

719.! Port of fault-tree analysis of dleeel englno.

Source: flarlne Technology Journal-cept.1990
 The procedure eeploys either working backwards from
the undesired event to its cause or forvards from a cause
to its possible end effects.

The developoent of ieproved condition monitoring

systees has involved details and penetrating research
into failure mechanismsin diesel engines and their
behaviors under widely different service conditions over
long periods of time. These have prompted the
development of entirely nev sensors to improve
conventional types and their reaction to various engine
conditions observed. Thus signal condition and data
processing electronics had to be developed to give
meaningful information to the operator. Efforts to
develop sensors and instrumentation is a great challenge
in order to achieve high reliability to ensure effective
and efficient implementation of mechatronics in marine
machinery.

1.0.0 IYITIII FUR CONDITIONIONITURINU:

Various systems for condition monitoring for diesel

engines have emergedvhich differ videly on the folloving
points:
- The part of the engine being supervised.
- The nuber of specialized sensors needed.
- The extent of signal conditioning.
- The algorithm being computed.
- The manlmachine comunication systems.

There are substantial variations in capital costs as vell

as in the requirement for specially trained enginoers.

17
 For the user. the main concern is the cost/benefit
analysis relationship in implementing the condition
monitoring system. Also optimal configuration will be
varied from ship to ship depending on type of machinery,
size. trade etc. Generally. shipping being very
conservative in outlook. shipowners will certainly accept
a system of moderate complexity.

CYLINDER LINERS TEMPERATURE MONITORING

The temperature in the upper part of the cylinder

liner responds to most abnormalities and phenomenawhich
mayoccur in the cylinder; blow-by, piston ring collapse
and heat developed by friction (e.g. during scuffing
periods). The liner temperature is therefore the best
means of evaluating the general state of the cylinder
unit. Whenthe temperature remains at a reference value
and is stable for long periods. it can then be concluded
that the performance of the cylinders are normal.
However, due to strong and frequent temperature variation
as a result of faulty injection equipment. piston ring
and liner wear. rotation of piston ring collapse cap
across the sensor, the cylinder liner temperature cannot
be used as the only condition in which the cylinders are
operating normally.

The thermocouples are positioned in the cylinder

walls 5-10 mmfrom the inner surface of the the liner.
The most suitable level is between the first and second
piston ring when the piston is at top dead centre
position. Generally. four sensors diametrically opposed

18
are mounted around the liner circumference (fig below)­
The probe is spring loaded to provide good thermal
contact with the liner material.

A
Fig.4 Positioning of sensors in a liner. The upper
sensor is a liner temperature sensor and the lower
is a typical wear sensor or a liner surface
temperature sensor.
Source: Det Norste Veritas Technical Bulletin-1987

LINERS SCUFFING MONITORING

A surface thermocouple with unique properties is

used. The response is extremely fast. enabling it to
pick up the transient temperature caused by-micro-seizure
between rings and liner. The sensor which is shown in
the figure below has an important feature in that it may

19
be worn down as much as 3-4 mmwithout loss of function.
During wear. the measuring point in the surface is
renewedcontinuously through dielectric crazing and metal
bridge connections being formed across a two micro-metre
thick dielectric. It has proved very useful in condition
monitoring. Also a secondary slow thermocouple 10mm
below the surface is provided in addition for ordinary
slow liner temperature monitoring.

.\-
/‘ - . I ," .
I ;_‘;)’\’\§_\}_\§\\\\\\s __
\\\~\\\-\\\\\\\\\\\\\~\\-T
A'IIII.I ._ -——'
s\\\\\ n\\\\\ x\\\~
/, . ;.. ‘_ . .
:.iUR'F'AcE'-l_n1'{
. 'I

Fig.5 Schematic of a surface thermocouple.

Source: Det Norste Veritas Paper-1987.

The purpose of the surface sensor is to detect the

temperature flashes produced when the oil film is
disrupted and metal to metal friction occurs. For
monitoring purposes. the number of flashes detected
during a certain period is displayed as a condition
parameter. An instantaneous indication of scuffing
activity in the form of an alarm is incorporated for

20
immediate action to be taken when such anomalous
conditions occur.

A large number of these sensors have been installed

on engines in service for evaluation, testing and
research. Experience from service has shown that the
engineers could succeed in terminating ongoing scuffing
activity by increasing the cylinder oil supply. It has
also been experienced that the additional cylinder oil
delivery if maintained for some time before reducing to
normal supply can minimize cylinder liner wear and oil
consumption.

It is typical that if the oil delivery is increased

immediately on high temperature flashes occurring.
scuffing would stop shortly after. However. if scuffing
is allowed to persist for a long time, a longer period
would be needed for an increased oil supply to have an
effect. The reason for this must be damages developing
in the surface of piston rings and liner thereby impeding
the possibility of a stable lubrication oil film being
formed; this requires running in. With condition
monitoringthe initial scuffing activity is detected
immediately and action is taken to avoid damages and oil
consumption is minimized.

The surface thermocouple must be perfectly flush

with the liner surface and therefore the mounting hole
has to be drilled through. No stress concentration,
which could develop cracks on the through-holes for
sensor. has ever occurred or been reported. The
reliability of the sensors has been very high.

21
 PISTON RINGS MONITORING

The sensor is a proximity transducers embedded in

the cylinder wall to measure the distance between the
liner wall and the piston ring surface. Similar to the
surface thermocouples, the piston ring sensor is mounted
through the liner wall. The end of the sensor is flush
or within 0.5 mmfrom the liner surface. It may be worn
down 3-4 mmwithout loss of function. The sensors are
mounted diametrically opposed to each other and is
sufficient for monitoring of the piston rings.

Presentation of piston rings function is done by

estimating the mean number of failing rings within a
specified period on a digital display or print out. Due
to passing ring-locks giving a reduced signal, a certain
failure frequency is displayed. even during normal
operating condition. Incorporating an oscilloscope with
the sensor signal, the piston ring dynamic signal can be
displayed directly. This has proved to be sufficient for
detecting defective and malfunctioning rings. In most
shipping companies, the piston overhauls have been
successfully governed by this system.
 I‘ | new
SIPWA at
piston-ring segment‘

R “mm
0 It

1
-‘ eegrnenti

WOITI
et
segrnentfi
QOOQO
Q0‘ O
00000

°‘°""
printer r:u:u3:1:1

/A . son”, 1
Shah encoder

Sensor elgnel Electronic unlt

\
l

K53./...
3,
k Analog recorder Wear

Fig.6 Piston rings monitoring

Source: Sulzer Technical Data for RLB-MarineDiesel
Engine.

CYLINDER LINER WEAR MONITORING

The measured condition parameters described in

section 1.4.1 are suitable for detecting conditions that
_ could lead to undue wear rates in the cylinders. Known
methods of collecting oil samples for metal oil content

23
examination can also be used. But measuring the wear rate
directly and continuously seems a better option.

A wear sensor based on thin-film technology has been

developed. The figure below shows the working principle
of the sensor which is mounted as an integral part of the
cylinder liner. just as the surface thermocouple. As the
liner wears down. the resistance changes in the thin-film
resistor. Accumulated wear, as well as the wear
rate measurement is possible by this sensor. The sensor
is mounted where there is the most likely severe wear in
the liner. A substantial number of these sensors have
been tested on several ships with positive results. (LB
SULZER DIESEL ENGINE).

Q; fl l:;“f'f* 2
5.:F: - L3 ;;
.% 34 : __'-/:.4_‘I-_.

S _
4
( 2'
m I‘
I

-0
_

41;
:_. 3_‘-.I',»

_:;.
g _ ..

_
-r
.' ;L:.:4fJ
' .I

T -'-.‘,--‘If’.
-»-room '
-A' '.“rf;:Y‘
15000-' I 1

-;_
;;;:r,ubyI§s_ -'cs:s.HiP... '3

Fig. 7 Example of liner wear development in an LB engine

Source: Det Norste Veritas Technical Paper-1987

24
 CYLINDER PRESSURE MONITORING

SULZER has developed a non-cooled piezo-electric

type transducer used in measuring the cylinder pressure.
In the prototype installation the sensor is mounted on
the indicator cock. The only problem envisaged with
this kind of mounting is the possibility of the
connecting tube being blocked by dirt. However. a new
cylinder pressure sensor has been developed (piezo­
electric). This is mountedflush in the cylinder cover
and is cooled by the cylinder cover cooling medium. To
facilitate a fast and reliable cabling of the engine and
to prevent cable damage. a prefabricated tube system
containing all the necessary cabling is used.

Fig.6 Position of temp. sensor for measuring thermal load

Source: Marine Technology Technical Bulletin-1990

26
 AIR SYSTEM MONITORING

A simple system for monitoring air mass flow is to

measure the pressure drop in the blower inlet diffuser.
when the reduction of air occurs the engineer can then
check individual components(filters, coolers, scavenge
ports and compressor) by conventional methods in order to
take necessary maintenance steps.

BEARING MONITORING

For slow speed diesel engines. their bearings are

not so critical to introduce temperature measurement into
the lower half of the bearing. The wear particle
analysis of the lubricating oil is sufficient to monitor
the bearing condition. Temperature measurement of the
inlet and outlet lubricating oil from the bearing can
also be used as a measure of the performance of the
bearing in long term running.

On mediumspeed diesel engines. thermocouples are

mountedon their main hearings in direct contact with the
bearing shells to detect on-line abnormalities
(Wartsila). Here the bearings are very critical due to
their high speed; any abnormal load of the bearing could
result in seizure. This system reacts quickly enough to
detect critical changes in the bearing condition. The
measured temperatures form the basic signal for which the
microcomputer can automatically regulate the way these
measurements are made. depending on actual condition.

25
1.5.0 DEVELOPMENT
or rnsrnunznrarzon svsrcns roa SIGNAL
connrrxonxne

Various instrumentation systems of different and

vast complexity have been developed for conditioning
monitoring. The approach has been from simple analogue
recording to computer based centralized systems. The
current trend is smaller decentralized units performing
specialized functions. Such modules are built together
into a central condition monitoring system.

1.5.1 ANALOGUESIGNAL CONDITIONING DIRECT RECORDINGS

The system is an automatic recording of primary

parameters on ships and information of value to the
engineers on board is limited or none at all. The data
analysis is done ashore and the time lag involved between
recording and data evaluation is enormous. This system
is cumbersome for modern machinery maintenance and
supervision; thus it is inadequate and obsolete except
for experimental purposes.

1.5.2 DATA PREPROCESSING AND DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION

The transmission of low tension signals over greater

distances from sensor to central processing units is
unreliable. This is because they are subjected to
electrical noise stemmingfrom generators and high
tension lines. Analogue transmission requires expensive
cabling with shields in order to counter these
disturbances.

27
 Thus a digital data transmission and processing
system is chosen. The preprocessing units can be mounted
on the engine and contain the amplifiers. multiplexers
and analogue/digital converter. In case of dynamic
signals (cylinder pressure. fuel injection pressure and
proximity signals). the preprocessing units can carry out
most of the processing and data storage in order to
separate (time-wise) the central processing unit from the
engine process. The digital signals are transmitted in a
sequential asynchronous manner over cheap telephone wires
up to a distance of 400m. This means that extremely
inexpensive cabling can be installed in a minimumtime.

1.5.3 INTEGRATED CONDITION MONITORING SYSTEM WITH PROCESS

COMPUTER

The system incorporates extensive and elaborate

software for evaluation of the sensor signals and
performs advanced calculations on the primary input
signals to produce secondary parameters. Twomini­
computer installations takes care of the monitoring
requirementfor the classification society notation of
(UMS)unmanned machinery space. as well as the condition
monitoring. For the man/machineinterface, a teletype
printer and cathode ray tube (CRT)display are used for
communication.

Presentation of liner temperature scuffing activity

and piston ring signals are done daily and weekly in a
teletype printout. In addition the CRTdisplay presents
alphanumerical parameters. dynamic signals from piston
ring sensors. and cylinder and fuel injection pressure
transducers. A system of this size and complexity

28
provides the engineer with a large amount of information
and there is an inherent risk of too much data. most of
which represent normal operating conditions. Specialized
engineers are required for operating and servicing this
system.

1.5.4 nxcnopaocsssoa BASEDCONDITION

nonrroams svsrmqs.

With the microprocessor a number of monitoring

functions are dispensed with; without sacrificing too
much of the user value, as compared to a mini-computer.
Requirements of direct monitoring of cylinder unit
condition parameters to signals conditioning and
calculation procedures are also reduced. This is
realised by the design of a special purpose microcomputer
which takes care of this particular task. The advantages
are less volume. lower costs and higher reliability due
to fewer components and a better man/machine
communication.

1.5.5 THE MICROPROCESSOR CONCEPT

A microprocessor can handle virtually infinite word

lengths simultaneously (a word length is proportional to
the resolution of the numbers the computer can
manipulate) than a mini-computer. Thus this machine gives
a better performance than a minicomputer with regards to
speed. cost. size and reliability.

The microcomputer consists of the following parts.

The central processing unit is the brain of the system.

29
 Mucsoékoésssoa - mock DIAGRAM

imut mm
Llcut tn|1x1nn
mmn

PANEL (2)

EL‘!
DITA SIME

SIGNAL TIIEATIEIY IJIIT (I)

Lmqwfincu .
Central nnalog:ee::{tiulener " P°"f* 5U"lV (3)
Analogue/DI cm .
-gm 9..., ."L.,,._,,'-’°"""" nucnovnocrssou - mot: oucnm
mg: luau AccessNotary‘

Fig.9. Block diagram of a microprocessor based

condition monitoring system for LBdiesel engine.
Source: Det Norste Veritas technical Bulletin-1987

This unit controls all the signal transport and

manipulations. The fixed program is stored in (ROM)READ
ONLYMEMORY where the program is virtually indestructible
and unaffected by power failure. The process data is
stored in (RAM) RANDOMACCESS MEMORY. Data stored in RAM
is volatile; thus important data in RAMrequires
additional circuitry with a battery backup in case of
powerfailure. The input/output circuitry interfaces the
microprocessor to the outside world. This part collects
signals for processing. and transports data to the
operator or to peripheral devices. The clock generators
create the timing pulses for signal transport and give
speed to the system.

30
 The micro-computer works on a set of primary input
signals collected from the following sensors.
- Surface thermocouples
- Liner thermocouples (sub-surface)
- Liner wear sensors
- Piston ring sensors
- Bearing thermocouples
- Cylinder pressure transducers

The signals are conditioned for noise reduction.

linearised, multiplexed and amplified in the analogue
state. The multiplexing and amplification are done per
cylinder unit by the preprocessor units embeddedin the
sensors. which also incorporate the analogue to digital
converter that transforms the temperatures. liner wear
and cylinder pressure measurementsinto digital signals
for further conditioning by the CPUand then transfer to
the display unit.

All communication with the engineer is via a push

button and a keyboard.
The display consists of two parts:
- 3-digital display with resolution of one degree
Celsius. one for numbers and 1/100mmfor wear.
- Columndisplay which shows the relative values per
cylinder for the selected parameter. These assist
the engineer for a quick look at relative values
for temperature scuffing and number of piston
rings across the engine.

Experience from the use of micro-computers in ships

environment shows that the reliability of each component
in the computer. this include CPU. ROMand RAMis similar.

31
to that for other electronic components(logic circuits).
Due to the high packing density in these chips. it offers
the system a high reliability and low mean time between
failure as comparedto separately built components of
other systems.

1.6.0 use or CONDITIONMONITORINGnan

TREND DIAGRAMAND FAILURE nmenosxs

The basic idea of condition monitoring systems has

been trend presentation. This is achieved by the
measurement of the condition parameters from the time the
component is new or newly overhaul and plotting the
difference between these values and reference values to
produce a trend curve. Any deviation would enable
extrapolation or prediction of the future trend to be
assessed. The intersection between this and the action
limit line established. See figure below. The main
purpose of ploting a trend curve is to be able to forsee
when a unit. for example. a cylinder should be
overhauled-if wear progresses normally. The condition
monitoring system is then able to express the present
condition of the engine componentsas explicitly as
possible. and then react to deviations from normal within
the shortest possible delay. Readings from the system
can provide instant information for diagnosis of the
failure. thus makingit possible to take corrective
action before a failure develops that could cause
damages.

32
 _ .4.¢'.¥I
d:$fi
‘nu
*“ .:
I
-I‘.­
. .

- .- -
‘Tn ..
r... :­
_. ; .r. -: \
'5’-;__ I:-'.y- '.'._-:.4'}. I-ou'.v'..

Fig.1O Trend analysis diagram

Source: Marine Technology Journal-1990

1.6.1 DATA REPORTING

Condition monitoring systems can also be used as a

reporting system to minimise the engineer‘s work load
while maintaining simplicity and clearness for optimum
use of the available data. The system is designed for the
following objectives:­
- As an integral part of the engine room reporting
system in order to avoid redundant information.
- Only abnormal or critical conditions can be
logged.
- Reporting sheets are kept to the minimum.

33
 - Related information is only on one sheet.
- Filling in and evaluation procedure is self
explanatory
- A long service period can be covered on one sheet.
- Maintenance data included so that effects of
service and adjustments made are easily related to
changes in condition parameters.
- Critical limits can be easily observed for
condition parameters.
The condition monitoring system include separate
report writing software so that trend developments and
batches of data can be transmitted through electronic
data interchange via Inmarsat C-terminal to a large
computer ashore.

1.7.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The expert system is designed to provide automated

engine faults diagnosis through an on-line interface with
the ship‘s engine monitoring computers.

It has been shownfrom the description above that it

is possible and advantageous to monitor the process and
componentsdirectly by means of special sensors.
Experience with most ships has shown that low maintenance
costs and high reliability can be_achieved in the diesel
plant.

This has proved more efficient than parameters

derived from numerous measurements externally on the

34
engine which required a large amount of data processing.
This will certainly be the future trend in engine data
analysis rather than depending solely on the engineer‘s
skill which sometimes is wantingand also due to human
error element present.

Further research and development particularly in the

sensor field is continuing. These will certainly offer
an improvedreliability and long term stability to
mechatronics in marine diesel engine condition
monitoring.

Direct monitoring and decentralized signal

conditioning electronics fit very well with the
microprocessor technology. Very small. compact and
inexpensive units can be obtained with high reliability.

Finally. future condition monitoring systems and

instrumentation for diesel plants will probably be based
on decentralised units which function independently. A
central computer which may also perform other ship‘s data
handling could be linked to these decentralised units for
either propulsion or power generation data collection and
control.

35
CHAPTER TWO: SHIPBOARD MACHINERY AUTOMATION

2.1.0 INTRODUCTION OF AUTOMATIONON DIESEL SHIP

The automatic control systems necessary on diesel

vessels are usually simple and often the temperature and
pressure are the only parameters automatically control.
Jacket cooling water. lubricating oil and piston cooling
water can easily be controlled by fitting a cascade
system to provide a greater accuracy of control. The
cooling system could be used in conjunction with a
electric or steam heater to maintain engine temperature
above a minimumvalue during warm up process before
operation or at reduce power. The method employed is a
split controller output signal and feeding to a
regulating valve in the heater as well as the cooler
valve.

Factors contributing towards this innovation were

aimed at crew reductions. fuel and energy economy which
later was linked to increase reliability and safety. One
method of saving energy was the introduction of variable
speed cooling water pump. The system works on a feedback
control system for temperature as shown on figure 11.

36
 _.._:_.___'_f
fl'|II'| engine I HITSUI-BIN SL616!’ 11230 IMP »

cooler oboorln
.:: ;- E
- um Pm":
Iunp, -E
: ,' -::,':¢.||. E "' cu-lnllu "
3 pump _- i
‘
C , ~=
I :9... : ='
-'
E ' E : E
__ .- ed 3
.. — 2
3 rw L0 I
3 cooler too or 1
"mp, uni controller ........ -._
unur - ...... .._ ;
nu!
(run well! motor """" 5ION?’no!
I''"''"' tidy-curronl
¢Q"”lI| -"' fin"

1. no ‘Iron :00

Figure 11. Main engine cooling system with variable speed

cooling sea water pump on ship.
Source: Ship operation automation III

A diesel engine requires air. fuel. lubrication and

cooling to operate. To operate satisfactorily. the
quantity, pressure and temperature levels must be kept
within limits set by the engine builder. Further. to
utilize the output of the engine for propulsion. the
direction of rotation and speed involves variation of
power between zero and full limit. Automatic controls
simplify operations and ensure safety as well.

37
2.1.1 MAIN ENGINE REMOTE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Numerous remote control systems for main engines are

available and selection depends on the number of control
stands and modeof control. It is also independent of
engine design. All systems are suitable for operation by
the deck officer having fairly minimumknowledge of the
system and machinery or the requirements that are
controlled by the control system. This allow the plant to
be remotely controlled and operated from the navigation
bridge.

With the available systems elements of the main

engine and reduction gear box. controllable pitch
propellers(CPP) if fitted are protected and emergency
control is also provided. Someof the automatic remote
control systems perform the following functions:­
- Engine start and programmed loading
- Engine stop
- Automaticquick transition of the critical speed
range
- Attendance of propulsion plant operation, fault
alarms and automatic reduction in load or stop of
the engine in case critical parameters like drop
in pressure of lubricating oil jacket/piston water
occur etc.
- Shut downprotections/emergency runl engine
stop/crash stop functions also provided in case of
critical condition of the vessel.
- Ensuring a proper operation of engine with other
main propulsion plant elements such CPP and gear
boxes.
Monitoring of the control system operation which
includes passive control of the safety system.

38
 The Figure 12. below illustrate the system
configuration for monitoring. alarms and recording
arrangement of the remote system.

{--W} {"7 *"'“°}

Fig.12 Dexter design for M/E remote control

Source: Marine Technology Bulletin-1990

39'
2.2.0 CONTROLsvsmn FOR ENGINE aoon AUXILIARYsvsmns

This system aims at maintaining appropriate

operating parameters which are essential for main
propulsion and electrical power generation operation with
other engine room systems. As main engine requires air.
water, fuel and lubricating oil for operation. there are
individual mechanisms. for example. pumps and associated
equipment providing these logistics and the system
control of such auxiliaries has also been automated. It
is made to be remotely and automatically controlled and
perform the following functions:

A stand-by equipment is started automatically in

case of failure of the one in operation or after voltage
decay for restoration of such equipment as pumps.
compressors etc. Temperatures and pressures of
lubricating oil. fuel oil. cooling water/oil. steam and
other auxiliary system are automatically controlled.

As mentioned above the task of automatically

starting a stand-by unit is achieved by arrangement based
on relay systems which actuate a stand-by mechanism after
receiving an alarm signal from a sensor. On the control
panel. there are selectors switches and the equipment to
be kept on stand-by is selected by operating the switch.
There are also push buttons for manual operation both at
the control panel and at the local station. On the
control console running lamp indicator (green) and alarm
lamps indicator(red) are fitted to indicate any fault in
the system and starting duplex mechanism. In some cases
a commonsignal for all stand-by machinery is brought up
to the engine room central alarm unit. The system
provide a sequential switching of machinery into

40
operation after voltage restoration.
The task of controlling temperatures and pressures.
are performed by various type regulators. In the sea
water temperature and fuel viscosity control systems. the
PJ-type direct action regulators operating in conjunction
with actuators are employedwhereas for lubricating oil
and jacket/piston water it acts on a preset value
control; based on direct action regulators. The
operating station for regulators are located in the
engine control room (ECR). The system employs both
pneumatic lelectronic regulators._valves and actuators.

ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF CENTRAL COOLING SYSTEMS.

Engard is a microelectronic control unit for

centralized cooling systems which regulates the capacity
of the sea water pumps in accordance with cooling
requirements. Substantial energy savings are claimed due
to pumping not more than is necessary. It comprises an
electronic control unit with a microprocessor linked to
the sea water pumps. regulating valves and temperature
sensors in the low (L.T) and high (H.T) temperature
cooling circuits. It controls the temperature of two
fresh water circuits by operating a regulating valve
each. By using two or more pumps which could be of
different sizes and of two different speeds. total
capacity can be adjusted to the most suitable of up to
four valves.

Most systems are designed for up to 36 degree

41
 Celsuis in the fresh water L.T circuit at maximum
capacity and sea water of 32 degree Celsius. However.
few vessels sail in waters always at 32 degree so that
considerable energy savings are possible by reducing
pumping.

_ . The Englrd
system Ind cooling
water circuits.

T Hightemperature
circuit
a Lowtcrnpcrnturo
circuit
Sccwatcr circuit

Fig. 13. The Engard system and cooling water circuits.

Source: I.MarE. technical paper on energy saving
May.19B5.

42
2.3.0 AUTOMATION IN ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION SYSTEM.

A variety of systems exist with a wide choice of

selection depending on the required automation levels in
the generating plant system. The system generally
provide electric power plant automation in the scope
required by the owners and requirements of the
classification societies. Electrical power supply for
ships 300grt or more and having propulsion machinery of
1000kwor more are enumerated as follows:­

- Precautions are to be taken to avoid power supply

units being overloaded.

- The ship main power supply is to be arranged

according to the following methods:

a) In ships where one generator is sufficient for

normal sea load operation. an arrangement for
automatic start and connection to main
switchboard of a stand-by generating set must be
provided. Start and connection should be
completed within 30 seconds.

bE In ships where more than one generator is

necessary to cover normal sea load operation,
there should be an arrangement for accessing
tripping non-essential loads in case of
disconnection or failures which will lead to
connection of another generator .so as to
maintain ship maneuverability:

- Stand-by units are normally to have separate

cooling water and lubricating oil pumps.

43
 Alternative automatic start of standby pumps is to
be arranged when they also serve other generating
sets.
—In the event of automatic start by power supply
units. automatic start of essential machinery is
to follow in a pre-determined sequence. Units
necessary for maneuvering of the vessel are
regarded as essential machinery. Starting air
compressors, bilge, ballast and fire pumpsneed
not be included.

For essential consumers having power supply from the

lighting system, precautions against power failures are
to be similar to those taken for the units having power
supplies from the main generators i.e the following
should be applied:­

a) Adequate automatic emergency lighting for access to

stand-by by transformer for the lighting system and
operating gear for manual connection.

b) Automatic connection of standby transformer.

c) Parallel connection of a sufficient number of

transformers. and arrangement for selective
disconnections.

d) Automatic connection of emergency source of power.

e) Dividing the system in two or more circuits with

automatic switch over.

Havingstated the classification society

44
requirement, the description of a commonsystem available
in modernvessels is as follows. The electric power
plant automation system provides operation of the plant
with continuous crew attendance. The system is arranged
as a block system to allow assembling depending on the
required automation consisting of any number of
generating sets.

The following functions are performed by the

automation system:

Automatic starting and synchronization

Automatic shut down and stop of generating sets

Automatic frequency control

Automatic load sharing for running generators

- Automatic load control and switching with

provision for particular generator sets on and off
depending on demand.

- Maintaining a generator in a standby mode.

- Alarm in case when permissible operating

parameters are exceeded and stopping in case of
critical condition. Diesel generator is stopped
immediately in case of the following.

a) cooling water flow failure

b5 lubricating oil low pressure

c) main switch cut-out due to short circuit

45
 e) reverse power relay actuation

Provision also exists for the diesel engine to be

automatically stopped in case of excessive temperature of
cooling water and lubricating oil with slight time delay.

Under normal operating conditions generators are

usually automatically controlled; however. provision
exist for remote/manual control. In emergency condition
the generator can be started with the manual control
located on the set.

DIESEL CONTROL UNIT TYPE DSG 822

GENERAL

A typical system designed by AEG. term control unit is

described below. The control unit built up in
microprocessor technology is employed for the monitoring
and control of diesel sets started electrically or by
air. It performs the above already mentioned functions
and can be used as a single unit or in combination with
other control units(refer as "automatic power supply
system"). see fig.14. Installation can be made into
consoles. cabinets or switchboards. Monitoring is either
with open or closed circuit principle. Group alarms for
actuation of an external alarm system and a signal for
suppression during standstill condition of the diesel are
potentially free. Control functions such as pre­
lubrication of diesel or preheating can be taken over by

46
the control unit depending on ignition speed. Data for 3
ship operation managing system can be made via an
interface.

EOUIPMNT DESIGN

The diesel control unit consists of two main

components i.e. the control and monitoring unit and the
periphery connection board.

CONTROL AND MONITORING UNIT

It is integrated into the front of a switchboard or

a control console with the aid of four instrument holders
and comprises:

- one front circuit-board to house all indicating

and control elements.

- one input/output circuit-board to process all

digital and analog input/output signals.

- one power pack

- one central card to house among others. the

standard or shipborne software program.

47
--.n -’-'—_4­
- 7

-'2»

Fig.14 Automatic power supply system.

Source: GEAPAS-DMT
technical manual.

PERIPHRY CONNECTION BOARD

The connection board is provided for separate

mouting into the rear of the cabinet or console. It
comprises all necessary components. such as transformers.

48
converters. output relays and terminals. The electrical
connection between control and monitoring unit and the
periphery board is realized by plugged flat cables.

FUNCTIONS

The control unit is ready for operation when the 24V

direct current (DC) is available and the unit switched
on. Twelve different momentaryoperational values can be
requested via the segment display with the aid of the
switch SELECTION OPERATING! SETTING VALUES. Mode of
operation can be manual or automatic selected with a
luminous diode indicating the selected mode. In the
manual mode. all commandsmust be given manually. In
case of abnormal operating conditions an automatic diesel
engine stop is initiated. In the auto-mode the engine is
started automatically after a black out. Whenthe
control unit is working in compoundoperation with other
control unit / diesel sets, the diesel set is
automatically synchronized after a diesel engine start
has been initiated manually; and after adding on the
automatic active load sharing will be effected. In case
of abnormal operating conditions. an automatic diesel
engine stop will be effected.

After a starting failure the starting process is

automatically repeated. In case of repeated false starts
(5 starting trials maximum)- the automatic system locks
the diesel set and gives the next standby set the
starting command. For preselection of engines. the
selector switch is used to preselect the set which is to
start first in case of a blackout. Preselection of a

49
diesel engine is signalled by luminous diode. After
starting the engine the control unit performs automatic
synchronization and adding on of the diesel set. provided
auto-modehas been selected; its also automatically
shared the active load. In case of diesel operation ­
(without shaft-driven or turbo-generator.) the ship mains
load is distributed over all feeding diesel sets
proportional to the rated outputs. This unit can also be
combinedwith shaft- drivenl turbo-generator control
units. loading criteria which are specified to the
system will be taken into consideration. For special
applications, for example, thermal power coupling by
additional supply. a diesel set can be controlled to full
load independent of the frequency. For this purpose.
however. an over-riding load demand control unit is
incorporated.

The generator protection device is provided

specially for the monitoring of three-phase ship's mains
generators. The following criteria can be monitored:
- overcurrent - phase failure
- short-circuit - preference system
- reverse power - under frequency
- under voltage - stator winding
protection
- over voltage

Occurring malfunctions will cause non-essential

loads to be switched off from the main switchboard. All
malfunctions causing a release of the the generator
circuit-breaker are optically displayed and memorized.

50
 FAILURE MONITORING IFAILURE INDICATION

After start up of the diesel engine and release of

the alarm suppression all monitoring systems are
activated. A wire break monitoring is standard for all
binary transmitters (terminal strip) as well as different
analog transmitters. start and stop magnet. Self­
monitoring of the control unit allows for signal internal
malfunctions. The respective malfunctions are detailed
through the segment display.

PARAMTER INPUTS

Each diesel control unit is equipped with a software

program based on empirical values. If due to certain
operating conditions it should becomenecessary to change
analog limit values or times in this program. it can be
done any time. Parameters which have changed, could be
chosen by the aid of a segment display, the switch
“selection operating /setting value" and the button
"setting value" in the front of the diesel control unit.
The change will go into effect by using the (+) or (-)
input facility and successive acknowledgement. To
protect the engine against inadmissible time and limit
value inputs. appropriate limit ranges are determined
which can neither be exceeded nor decreased. All
parameters are stored in ELECTRICALELECTRONIC
PROGRAMMABLE
READ ONLY MEMORY<EE-PROM’S).i.e. the data
stored can not be_wipe out even with power failure. The
program functions are protected independent of time and
also in case of power failure.

51
Front view - diesel control unit

FIG. 15 Automatic Power supply unit

Source: GEAPAS-Technical manual.

SHAFT-DRIVEN AND TURBO-GENERATOR CONTROL UNITS

The hardware of the control units is identical with

that of diesel control units described above. The only
difference is in the software program and by the front
designation which is matched to the respective monitoring
of a shaft-driven generator or turbo-generator. In
compoundoperation both units can be combined to an
automatic power supply system with asymmetric load
control with the aid of a load demandcontrol unit.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF OIL FIRED BOILER

As requirement for unattended machinery space

operation. the oil fired boiler operation has to be
automated. Water level is automatically maintained by

52
the control of starting /stopping feed water pumpsby the
control unit. A photo cell sensor monitors the flame
condition in the furnace and if abnormalities occur. the
boiler is shut down. The burner equipment - for example:
the firing electrodes. the purge fans. etc. are also
controlled automatically by the control unit.
Connections between sensors and control units are based
upon normally closed circuit controls. so that an open
circuit leads to auto shut off of the oil supply. Both
audible and light indicating alarms are provided to warn
the duty engineer of any malfunctioning.

FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

The early ships had certain equipment. like portable

fire extinguishers. sand buckets. firemen axe. etc.
Later camefixed installations of carbon dioxide, foam.
halogen. etc. which were integrated with smoke/flame
detectors for cargo/machinery spaces. However, it became
necessary and essential as watch keeping duties were
undertaken by automated systems. Continuous vigil
against outbreak of fire had not only to be maintained,
but a system was developed that was potentially efficient
to facilitate leaving the engine room unattended at
night. Classification societies grew to be more
stringent in their rules and their recommendationswere
designed to ensure that all potential fire outbreaks are
monitored and alarms indicating such outbreaks are
displayed on the bridge and at the fire fighting control
centre where all necessary controls are located. The
release of fire fighting media such as water from
sprinklers in the accommodation areas came to be
automated as well.

53
2.4.0 FULLY INTEGRATED SHIPBOARD MACHINERY CONTROL
SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

Rapid development in the field of information

technology has encouraged the implementation of cost
effective automation systems on board ships. These are
showing secondary benefits to the engine room as part of
integrated ship systems covering all aspect of operations
from unmannedmachinery space to bridge control for safe
navigation of ships and the protection of marine
environment. These has led to increased development and
implementation of bridge systems and the periodically
unmanned machinery space (UMS) concept with improved
reliability of controls and alarms loops. These form a
more comprehensive instrumentation . data logging, alarm
monitoring and automatic shut-down systems which act as a
surveillance systems. The shipowner has been able to
reduce manpowerrequirements while improving the
efficiency of the machinery and equipment installation
with more attractive working conditions as a side
benefit.

This section will describe the system requirements

in which shipboard automation are successfully
implemented on board modern merchant vessels.

The centralized data handling system employs a

microprocessor computer which links to an integrated
central control system. The computer provides an
interface between measurement and control through

54
programmedfunctions which are interfaced directly to
digitized control process. The computer is programmednot
only to control machinery under all conditions but also
to acquire start-up. emergency and shut down functions.

2.4.1 BASIC UNMANNEDMACHINERY OPERATION REQUIREMENTS

It can be summarized as follows:­

Bridge control of propulsion plant. The bridge

watchkeeper must be able to take control action in
an emergencysituation i.e stopping and starting
the plant. The control and instrumentation must
therefore be as simple as possible.

—Centralized control and instruments required in

machinery space. This enables the engineer to take
control action when called to the machinery space
immediately in an emergency. i.e. easily reachable
and fully comprehensive.

-Installation of automatic fire detection system

with alarms positioned at numerous points for
rapid and quick response.

- Fire extinguisher system. In addition to portable

extinguishers. a remote control fire station is
required. Fromthis station. control for the fire
pumps. generators. valves for oil tanks.

ventilation fire flaps and the extinguishing media

are required outside the machinery space.

55
 - A comprehensive machinery alarm system for control
and for accommodationareas is also required.

-Automatic start of emergency generator which must

be connected to separate emergency bus bar. This
is to give protection in case of blackout.

Local hand control of essential machinery e.g.

main propulsion plant. generating sets and
associated equipment for safe operation.

- Adequate settling and daily oil tank capacity is a

requirement for unmannedperiods of continuous
operation.

Finally, regular testing and maintenance of

instrumentation to be carried out to ensure their
proper functioning.

The aforementioned criteria for the (UMS)operation

is the minimumrequirement of the classification society.
However. the present development has become more
sophisticated due to new technology. Classification
societies have accepted the present trend as described
below.

2.4.2 INTEGRATED MACHINERY SYSTEM

The traditional approach to shipboard automation has

been to install several separate systems with varying
technical designs. As a result, a large amount of
devices and internal wiring as well as expensive cabling
has been essential features. Engine control roompanels

56
with hundreds of instruments and switches are also
difficult to supervise and can cause maintenance and
service problems. To eliminate these problems. an
integrated machinery control system has been developed by
various manufacturers. The Datamic marine system of
Valmet Automation AS. Siemens. Norcontrol, etc. offers
unique systems that have proven in service which has led
to maintenance and operational cost reduction. The new
technology used is derived from the advance on-shore
process industry. It offers the possibility of covering
several instrumentation tasks in individual
microprocessors , utilizing the same hardware concept.
This integrated concept covers most of the
instrumentation requirements onboard a modern vessel
today such as:­

- Alarm and equipment monitoring of unmanned

machinery spaces.

- Controller loops

- Diesel starters

Generator power generation

- Ballast control system

- Cargo control systems for bulk and tanker vessels.

Stand—bystarters in case of failure

- Fuel economy.

From one commoncontrol room console located at the

57
upper level of the machinery space, colour monitors.
multi-functional rather than alpha-numeric. keyboards and
printers, allow the engineer to monitor and operate the
entire engine room and ballast system from one or several
workstations. This gives the engineer optimumcontrol
over the entire engine room as well as ballast systems.
The basic functions of the system is the monitoring
and alarm system for unmanned machinery spaces which
includes most of the control roomunits and functions
needed for a fully installed system. Other functions.
such as diesel engine starters. generator power
automation and condition monitoring. are added to process
bus through process stations with their hardware and
application programs. From this the system can be built
up as required.

An integrated system is extremely economical when

compared to traditional equipment. The system design
further minimizes the possibility of a total system
failure, due to the presence of back-up microprocessors
The result also reduced installation costs. reduced
service. smaller spare parts store and less training
needed for both service and operational engineers.

The system is also a distributive system that gives

it processing capability distributed in separate units
performing dedicated tasks in parallel with each other.
Each station in the system is dedicated to a definite
task and consists of a control processing unit.
communication unit and memorycards. The station are
distributed as follows:

56
 damatic_'-1 ~ .
MARINE

nuuv ‘­
guru: «'
--V-.-.—...=-«--=-«I-~.-.-..-e.
—-l-.-n'«i'-7-"r--
t
qg umf ’ In
. T.|.

Fig.16. Fully Integrated Marine Machinery Automation

System.
Source: From the paper presented by E.Ruud at the
seventh International Marine Propulsion
conference March, 1985.
a) -CONTROL STATIONS

The dedicated functions of the control rooms are

programmedinto distributed microprocessor units. Each of
these units performs the dedicated tasks using its
parallel processing capacity for batch or continuous
processing. presenting the results to the data highway
bus or to the various presentation media.

b) -TRAFFIC STATIONS

The main tasks of the traffic station are to co­

ordinate all serial communication on the data highway
buses at both control room and process levels. The
station is the system's time keeper. There are cross­
communication from one process station to another. from
one data bus to another or other systems. and from
process level to control level. It goes through an
acknowledgementprocedure in order to be recognized.

c) -PROCESS STATION

The main tasks of the process stations are:

- To interface the system with process
instrumentation.
- To perform programmed control tasks. for example.
continuous control. sequencing and interlocking.
- To use self diagnostic facilities for checking
input/output units and itself for errors
- To activate switch-over to back-up process
stations.
- To function as the last operator controlled

man/machine communication. when all control room

60
 stations which is in the machinery space have
failed.

In the system. monitoring, regulation and control

are combinedin a single decentralized system. Security
features are incorporated in the system and as a
consequenceof decentralization the failure of one unit
will have only limited effects.

Standardization of hardware and software is a great

advantage in the distributed system. All processors use
the same type of hardware and are used for different
functions only by altering the program. As altering
programs is simple. functional changes and additions can
be madeeasily and quickly both before and after start­
up.

The following arrangement has been used in the

Datamic marine system to achieve reliability and
availability which are similar to other systems such as
Norcontrol and Siemens:

(a) Fault indication arrangement in different types

of process interfaces such as transmitter
current supply supervision, signal ring
exceeded, short circuit, or break in signal
time, are arranged on the analogue input card.

b) Whenthe test program detects a fault in any part

of the system. an alarm is given in the control
room. The self diagnostic system monitors the
following types of faults within the entire
system:

61
 Process unit faults
Failure in voltage supply
Disconnection or absence of process interface
cards.

The time reserved for programs exceeded on the

execution tape

Fault in the ELECTRONIC PROGRAMS READ ONLY MEMORY

(EPROM)memory contents.

Distortion of serial bus message

Failures in process interface cards

C \I Operational error from operator i.e. feeding

wrong data to the system.

d \I Signal traffic along serial buses is always

redundant; the self-diagnostic system will shift
automatically to the stand-by bus when the main
bus become faulty.

e) Each process control station is able to function

independently even if communication with the
control roomis lost. Control circuits. logic
operation and regulation elements can be brought
to a safe condition during disturbances.
f) To provide for failure of the processor itself.
the process control station can be equipped with
a "hot stand-by" processor. In the event of
failure the changeover to the stand-by processor

62
 will then occur automatically.

g) The stand-by processor has two buses exactly in

the same manner as the main processor. Processor
operation is thus secured through double
redundancy.

h) The range of printed circuit cards in the Datamic

has been minimized. The same type plug-in unit
is used in all stations, reducing the amount of
spare parts and makes the units easy to maintain;
normally no maintenance is required. The devices
are madeup of high-quality. reliable components
which ensure a long operating life.

i) The Datamic Marine system also has a distributed

power system. Each frame has its own power
supply unit which isolates the rack galvanically
from the main power supply. Each bank supply has
monitoring and overcurrent limiter /protection
units, which limit the effect of a fault so that
it cannot disturb units in other frames. Each
plug-in unit also has an individual supply
current limiter. The construction of the power
supply units ensures that the supply voltage
cannot exceed the safe values. even in case of a
malfunction.

J) Retention of important process data through power

failures of varying duration is secured in three
different types of memories as a standard in
Datamic marine system:

-Accumulator-secured RAMin the CPU. hold time

63
 0.5 hour.
-Accumulator-secure CHOS-RAM
- EPROM

k) As a standard. the system has a main back-up

battery supply connected to the system. A
further securing feature is the warning given by
the cabinet‘s central supply unit if supply
voltage drops below a preset limit. Another
logic sequence ensures that the system takes a
certain sequence when supply voltage is
reconnected.

The operational environment causes certain external

stresses on the device in addition to the electrical
stresses caused by its primary electrical function.
Additionally, the operating purpose sets requirements for
the device‘s operating life. reliability and cost. In
somecases it also sets strict limits on regular
maintenance. To improve the availability of the system,
approval test according to classification societies has
been conducted to a design ambient temperature of 0-70
degree Celsuis (type approve equipment).

Serviceability and economyhas been a very important

aspect during specification and development of the
Datamic marine automation system. since a ship is not a
shore-based industry where a service engineer can be on
hand within a short period of time if something goes
wrong in the system. The following has been done to
improvethe serviceability and reduce the overall
economy:

64
 Dueto its distributed structure. a sophisticated
self-diagnostic system can monitor system operation and
give alarm if any of the processors or devices fails
during operation. This has given great benefit compared
with a centralized minicomputer system which cannot write
its owndeath certificate. The self-diagnostic
arrangement gives the operators/engineers direct
information on any failure in the system. Thus the
engineers do not need long and detailed training to
operate the system and it minimizes the system down-time
and mean-time to repair.

The manufacturer has developed a test instrument for

on board system testing and fault finding. All functions
needed for testing input units. transmitters as well as
analog and binary field instruments are built into this
unit.

Because of the modular construction, all sub­

stations are based on the same of hardware. All the
various functions can be achieved with a relatively small
selection of basic units. This is also advantageous from
the point of view of spare parts, which can be kept
reasonable. Spare parts consist mainly of replacement
units.

Normally all spare parts delivered with the system

are stored on board. Instead of keeping all processor
units in stock, they can be placed into the system and
act as hot back-up. This means that the system can
repair itself if malfunction should occur in the main
PPOCBSSOI‘ .

65
2.4.3 concwoms REMARKS

Manyadvantages derived from an integrated system

concept have been mentioned above, but the following
should be emphasized:

The system is less complex from the crew‘s

viewpoint because the degree of technical variation is
reduced, while the available computing capacity means
that a numberof calculations such as trim optimization
and fuel economy can be performed. Maintenance and
service requirements are also greatly reduced.

The shipowner benefits from lower training costs. a

reduced spare parts store and service visits from many
suppliers as well as fuel economywhich can bring
reductions of around 4-8%. Because there is less
likelihood of a major breakdown there is less chance that
the vessel will have to go on off-hire.

The shipyards also benefit. since the cost is lower.

not only in comparison with more traditional equipment.
but also in terms of the basic engineering costs; only
having a single sub-supplier instead of five or more is
of great advantage. Such systems occupy about 30%of the
volume of more conventional versions which can bring
reduced installation costs. The various microprocessors
can be linked together by a data bus rather than a number
of multicore cables.
The type-approval of a single integrated system for
a number of functions represents a big step forward in
the development of a total solution for shipboard
automation. Such systems are new tools in the
rationalization of this equipment and the safe operation

66
of sea-going vessels.

2.5.0 INTEGRATED BRIDGE SYSTEMS

The integrated bridge system came as a result of

labour costs and shortage of seafarers in the western
hemisphere. Thus a reduction in crew. faster turn
around, and pressure due to keen international
competition have contributed to increasing amount of
sophisticated labour and energy saving equipment being
installed on modern ships.
Introduction of UMSwas the starting point for radical
change in vessel operation philosophies. with machinery
being monitored and controlled by electronics through
pneumatic and hydraulic operated systems. This
eliminated the need for constant attention by the ship‘s
crew. It was in turn followed by the installation of
cargo control rooms. particularly on bulk and tanker
vessels. It further developed with the evolution of
sophisticated ships carrying liquid gas and chemicals.
The trend therefore has extended through modern
vessels to the bridge. the control center of the vessel.
By centralizing all the internal monitoring and control
systems, the watch officer is free to monitor the
situation. He can interrogate the system for any
required information and general overview of the vessel
status. This brings a safety belt to the present trend
of crew reduction, thus enabling the officer to be in
full control of the ship without being over extended by
the performance of physical tasks and his attention then
redirected to incidental operational requirement. In
addition to his primary role of safety and efficient
navigating of the vessel. the officer can now control all

67
functions of the ship including machinery and cargo
systems remotely from a work station on the bridge.
With this added responsibility. the work load of the
officer is madeas light as possible. This established a
requirement that all systems and equipment are as
reliable as possible i.e. user friendly.
An ergonomic design and layout is a prerequisite of
the system in order that the star wars appearance of some
of the equipment can not be frightening to first time
users. This is the philosophy behind the Racal-Decca
Hirans system which is based on the following four major
points describe below.
Safe operation of the equipment; each operator can
be able to operate the system with minimumtraining and
familiarization . Thus in combination with a full
working knowledge of various individual components such
as radars. etc. the officer on watch is capable of
operating these independent of the system.
Each componenthas the capability of operating in a
stand alone mode and can not disable the whole system in
the event of individual componentfailure.

The system is easy to use. requiring minimum

additional skills to those normally expected from
professional mariners.
The system design takes into account the most vital
tasks undertaken by the watch officer. These tasks
being:-Traffic monitoring
-Position finding
-Monitoring and logging of data
-Course and speed alteration
-Starting and stopping of the main propulsion
plant.
As with most systems. the Racal-Decca range is

68
expandable to meet shipowner requirements. The basic
system. the Mirans 3000. comprises an ARPAradar. a
position finding device and a means to monitor and pre­
plan a voyage.
The basic unit can be upgraded to a Mirans 4000
system. which incorporates a live situation report
console (LSR). This displays information for safe
navigation of the vessel both on passage and during
maneuvering. Details of the engine monitoring system and
control can also be displayed at this work station. The
system can be fitted with an electronic chart digitizing
table which allows the integration of paper charts. It
allows the transfer of information quickly and easily
using the pen plotting device. The system has recently
been upgraded to accept digitized replicas of the
standard nautical chart on a 65 centimeters colour high
resolution screen. A zoomfeature enables the navigator
to enlarge a small area of the chart and to more readily
access the information contained therein.

Engine room monitoring and alarm input is derived

from the ISIS (integrated ship instrumentation system)
and with the 250C-version control is also available. A
number of local scanning units (LSU) and local scanning
and control units (LSCU)are fitted throughout the
machinery spaces. With information passed to the group
display on the bridge. Flexibility in the system allows
other manufacturer‘s components to be incorporated into
the system. enabling the integrated bridge to be
developed for individual customers‘ needs. Interfacing
and computer power allows for future expansion of the
system.
 SEIUO5

pigahy and Operation |

I

I
l”5' Spud
I

. r______....__
..._.-- -- - - -- - - - -4 I

If

R‘d,i°
ravg. L Track cont.

I “"3”
slum“ l :
Position External {Autq-Duo‘ ' I
Rm” recezvers Chan um
mvg.
Plotter

__ Mamxuw
control

Lie boat
t|dk> ­

Direct

Fig.17. Integrated Navigation system (TELDIX)

Source: Flensburg Research Institute for ship
operation automation.

70
 With increasing acceptance of one-man bridge
operation, Norcontrol has introduced a new modular bridge
concept knownas Bridge Line (Fig.17). The system
incorporates all the requirements for the single
watchkeeper. including the latest recommendations
regarding safety for reduced manning levels.

The ergonomic bridge layout is designed to ease the

workload and fatigue factor of the watchkeeper. At the
center of the system are two workstations. each with a
29-inch high resolution colour display. The VDUS(visual
display units) can showa radar display with ordinary
functions, an ARPAdisplay incorporating the presentation
of electronic charts. All navigational activities are
integrated into the two workstations, which in turn are
linked to navigation instruments, propulsion control
systems and the auto-pilot. By combining the
navigational and propulsion control systems, operational
economies can be achieved through voyage planning. The
new system incorporates a data integrated navigation
system. Datachief integrated alarm, monitoring and
control systems for machinery. Datamaster integrated
alarm. monitoring and control systems for cargo and
Autochief propulsion control.

71
 .. ____
‘-;.‘.__' I _ '
“--oLandBasIs :
_,-..
2 —- ''| ___r_
;'/

hi I ‘-‘ ' 1_ong19-nn Load

Manag ; Data Management
a..­

I
.,, .I­
5‘-""2
I‘ J
;'--' '--'-‘-.1‘—'- ' ' . -‘h . . 1’ . a

‘El tion system ,. StatIon1 ‘«,:_ _ Ur _ _ _ _ 1 _. . _

_ _.>_,
«_...;q'.-I .ai—:-ii;-'---——‘—
'—‘b"-‘-
- - - ’-"I - ' ‘‘ " ‘. ‘ ‘ ‘ ' ' ' —- - ' - ‘W
Maschine I 1

Propulsion Power Suppl)’ SVSW“ Shipsewice

Fig.18 Integrated Monitoring and control system.

Source: Geamar 100 ISL manual.

2 . 5 . 1 CONCLUDING REMARKS

with the bridge line, emphasis has been placed on

cost-effectiveness in order to prevent the shipowner with
the best economical investment. However. system
limitation is related to the ratio between cost and
performance. and how much the end user is prepared to

72
spend in order to reduce operational cost of the vessel.
Thus investment should therefore be analysis to determine
if return is a viable proposition. Inevitably. orders
for nice-to-have equipment specified by the technical
department of the shipping company should then be
considered whenadditional cost estimates are presented
to the finance department. It is therefore follows that
due to the high cost of an integrated bridge system. it
would be better to be fitted /installed on new ships
rather than as a retrofit to existing ships.
In recent years. ship officers has experienced the
migration of technology from the machinery space to the
navigation bridge. Training therefore has becomean
essential part of the entire investment. Most
manufacturers offer a range of familiarization courses to
users. It varies from in-house instruction using
simulators to on-site ship‘s officer instruction with
courses tailored to meet individual customer‘s needs.
Systems are expandable to allow interfacing with
other shipboard requirements such as stock control and
budgetary management. Manysystems are already fitted
with the capability for both onboard and external
networking. Thus interfacing compatibility of equipment
is a prerequisite of the systems.

Racal-Decca, for example, looks at the future of the

integrated bridge system as developing in areas of
electronic charts and the transfer to personal computer
based systems. allowing for greater flexibility and
permitting users to upgrade existing integrated bridge
systems without the need for full replacement.

The long term future. therefore. lies towards

further integration and total central control and

73
monitoring This would lead to continued development of
the concept dual ship officers whowill replace the
traditional seafarers specializing in deck or
engineering.

Ultimately. as more vessel are fitted with

integrated systems. there would be a phased increase in
the acceptance of the new technology. Ship management
will become more of a core function on board with all
fields of workultimately being totally integrated. This
is in line with the fall in manning levels from the high
numbers in the past decades to a compliment of less than
15 already being introduced. Most Western European and
the Far East countries have already established a dual
discipline training schemefor their officers. On board
their latest vessels. integrated bridge systems form part
of the ship operation center. The ships are operated
entirely from the bridge by one watchkeeper trained in
both nautical and engineering functions. A series of
workstations grouped on the starboard side of the bridge
affords the duty watch keeper an immediate access to the
ship status reports on control functions. Links for data
transmission to the head office are facilitated through
the ship‘s satellite communicationsystem.
Most shipowners of the developed nations approached
this concept of integration with a working group which
includes the company‘s technical department and a cross­
section of watch keeping seafarers. This keeps the
office staff in touch with what is happening at the sharp
end of the business and gives seafarers an insight into
the budgetary restraint that beset the company. From
this, the systems forms the most compatible profile and
the trading role of the vessels.

74
CHAPTER THREE: IMPACT AND BENEFIT OF MACHINERY
AUTOHATION IN SHIPPING

3.1.0 AUTOMATION AND MANNING

About forty years ago, commercial vessels typically

went to sea with crews of more than forty persons. Today,
vessels on foreign voyages, average globally, have about
twenty or less with the Western Europeans, Far Eastern
countries 11 to 15 persons. These reductions in manning
levels reflect more than a century of gradual technical
and organizational change. Sail gave way to steam, and
steam has largely given way to diesel engine. Ship
designers and builders have automated and mechanized many
shipboard systems, adopted more durable coatings and
paints on their ship hulls, shifted some maintenance and
cargo-handling duties to shore—based personnel, and made
other transitions toward more efficient machinery.

These changes are far from having run their course.

Ship technology is developing at accelerating pace
throughout the world. The accompanying organizational
innovations in the past few years have gone beyond
straight forward crew reductions in some countries to
reorganization of crews and reallocation of tasks. The
traditional division of crews into deck and engine
departments, for example, is fading as owners and
operators seek to makethe most efficient use of labour
and new technology.

1" Qeneral, improved operating economics is the main

objective. Technological improvements, including
automation, have resulted in improved fuel efficiency,
higher reliability and lower labour costs. In pursuing
cost competitiveness, however, shipowners throughout the
world have been faced with keen competition that has been
even more intent on reducing crews. In the 19805, more
reductions came as a result of globally depressed
shipping market. These drove operators in manycountries­
(often aided with government research and development
programs) to cut costs and streamline operations by
further automation. In 1970s and 1980s, operators in
Japan, Taiwan and other Asian nations became leaders in
applying ship technology and reducing crews.

Manynations have revised their manning statues and

regulations to accommodatethese moves toward operating
efficiently. Theclassification societies have also
accepted the new trend in automation application to
shipboard machinery. One may also note that the tendency
of crew reduction especially in the western countries is
due to shortage of sea-going staff.

3.1.1 MANNINGREDUCTION IN THE HORLD‘S FLEET 19505-19905

Since World War Two, several generations of vessels

have been launched. Advances in automation,
mechanization, and reallocation of crew members‘
responsibilities have permitted reductions in crew
levels.

All of these developments have been pioneered by

76
western Europeans and Japanese operators, often with
government assistance. The late 1950s saw
containerization of cargo, and the late 60s saw the first
engine room automation; some engine room personnel were
redundant, while most were relieved of watch-standing
responsibilities. The mid-19605produced highly
automated vessels like the products of the German "ship
of the future" program; with propulsion, navigation and
communicationcontrols centralized on the bridge. Engine
room layouts arranged for easy maintenance, and
installation of a variety of automated safety equipments.
These vessels were designed for crew as small as eleven.

In the late 1980s to present , European and Japanese

governments supported even greater automation,
centralizing navigation, engine control, communications
and administrative functions on the bridge ( which came
to be called "ship operation centre") and more automation
throughout the vessel. Corresponding changes in crew
members‘ job assignments were made in effort to make the
most effective use of both labour and technology.

Table "2" compares the manning patterns of two

representatives generations of ships, from Nigerian flag
ship of 1966 to highly sophisticated Japanese "pioneer"
series. To illustrate the effect of current Nigerian
manningstatues and labour contracts, two manning scales
are shown for the German "ship of the future", and the
Nigerian flag ship.
 I mu JRPMESE amum sun or THEmum:
cms Fzaaésnunrlmotcfgegull ml-Y 1999
me cmvmma mommamo
1 1 1 1
1 - 1 1
1 — 1 1
1 - 1 1
13 — - 9
1 1 1 1
1 - 1 1
1 _ — 1
1 — — .1

1 — — 1.
1 — 1 1

9 — - 5
a 1 2 7
1 — 1 1
1 — 1 1
_ 4 —
nmu.omcm — - ­

42 11 14 32
Table 2.

3.1.2 PROGRESS TOWARD UNATTENDED ENGINE ROOM

The initial reduction in crew size were brought about

by making vessel machinery self -regulating, centralizing
controls, and automating certain functions. These
developments culminated in the so-called "unattended
engine room".
which can be monitored from the bridge or

78
other remote locations, and requires no watch-standing
crew membersin the engine room itself.

a). AUTOHATIC BOILER CONTROLS.

Early reduction in crew was made possible by the
installation of automatic controls on propulsion boilers.
Boilers so equipped could be operated without constant
humanattendance, and thus allowed the requirement for
three fireman/water tenders (one for each watch) to be
removedfrom the vessels certificate of inspection. A
vessel with automatedboilers controls still required
constant attendance by an engineer and an oiler for each
watch.

In the early 1970s, oilers were relieved of watch

standing by centralization of machinery controls and
installation of propulsion controls in the pilot house. A
single licensed engineer thus stood each watch alone. On
oil tankers, the same technology -fluidic systems,
electronic solid—state controls, and data logging
devices— were also used for cargo pump controls.

b). THE UNATTENDED ENGINE ROOM

Diesel propulsion came into commonuse in the late

1960s to early 1970s with utilization o+ slow-speed
diesel plants. Greater economythan steam propulsion and
better adaptability to full automation were the driving
forces for this trend. It let the operators design
machineryspaces for “periodically unattended" operation,
with computers to monitor and control vital systems.
Periodically unattended machinery spaces could be
Unmanned*0’ PFD1Dngedperiods of time, and there¥ore

79
did not require round-the—clock attendance by a licensed
engineer.

The innovations was accompanied by further crew

reductions (for example the elimination of one or more
engineer assistants). The most important effect,
however, was to free crew members from watch-standing,
allowing them to do other jobs, such as maintenance; in
this way it led eventually to the creation of maintenance
department. (a more recent innovation in the industrial
countries).

3.1.3 INNOVATION IN DECK DEPARTMENT

By a variety of labour—saving measures, vessel

operators in the 19705 did away with the need for daymen,
carpenters, and most ordinary seamen.
In the deck department, labour saving devices and
the increasing use of shore-based personnel for
maintenance led to further crew reductions. For example,
navigation watch-keeping on the bridge traditionally
required a licensed officer as well as a lookout and a
helmsman (generally both ABS). A third unlicensed person
(an 805) was used for relief helmsman and to serve as
additional lookout when needed. By the early 1970s, the
relief person had been eliminated on many ships by
placing sanitary and drinking water facilities on the
samedeck as the pilot house, installing watch-call
systems (which wake the member of the next scheduled
watch) and other measures.

M°°'i”9s unmooring, and anchoring also became less

 labour intensive with the installation of constant
tension winches with strategically located controls, as
well as lightweight synthetic mooring lines. Newpaints
and coatings diminished the need for chipping and
painting. Automatedhatch covers also eliminated the
need for much hard work.

The containerization of cargo in the 19605 and 1970s

further reduced crew tasks and eliminated most cargo
handling by crew members. For example, containerization
reduced the need for deck maintenance by eliminating most
shipboard cargo handling equipment.

The steward‘s section was also reduced by the

application of technology. Microwave ovens and pre­
packaged meals eliminated most food preparation and
services. Officers began to make their own beds and
clean their own rooms. Microcomputers came into use for
inventory controls. This section has been presently
eliminated in todays modern ships.

3.1.4 STATE OF THE ART AND THE DECADE AHEAD

From the 19805, operators in the FarEast, Europe

have led the world in manning related innovations. This
phase of innovation has emphasized the centralized
control of all ship functions on the bridge with more
comprehensiveautomation of navigation, engine control,
Cargo operations, safety and emergency systems, and
communications. These have been accompanied by
rea1locat' Ions of crew members‘responsibilities
~ - - . and

B1
dramatic crew reductions and have been supported by
careful analysis and experimentation ( Grove 1989,
Yamanaka and Gaffney 1988).

In the state-of-the art ships the bridge has become

a "ship operation centre", housing controls and monitors
for all essential vessel functions. Manyroutine
navigational tasks, such as chart updating, position
plotting, and steering have been automated. For example,
aboard the German"ship of the future", eight of which
were built by early 1989, the ship‘s position is
determined automatically by a computer that integrates
information from satellite navigational systems and other
equipment. The position is displayed as a dot of light
on an electronic chart. Ballast is adjusted from the
bridge while the ship is underway. Logs, reports,
certificates, documents, and letters are computerized
with electronic mail links via satellite to shore (Grove
1989, Kristiansen et al 1989).

The levels of automation in these ships and other

advanced vessels, not only reduce the need for the
helmsman(in good visibility) and the lookout on the
bridge, but also reduce the need for deck and engine
personnel generally. The result is that some foreign
vessels operate with very small crews. Somelarge
Norwegianvessels sail with crews of 8 to 12 (Kristiansen
et al 1989). The Japanese "pioneer" vessels have 11­
person crews (Grove 1989; Yamanaka and Gaffney 1988) The
German"Norasia" vessels carry 16 persong, but were
d95i9ned to operate with 12 (Gaffney 1989). Japan, which
has carried out the world‘s most ambitious reduced
manning program, has mounted a research program to design
3 *U11Yautomated vessel, capable of operation from sea
 buoy to sea buoy by a single person or, ultimately, an
advanced computer (Hamada,19B9).

These radical manning reductions have led some

European and Asian shipping companies to eliminate or
blur departmental distinctions with "general purpose"
rating and dual-qualified officers (i.e trained in both
engine and deck skills). Further reductions mayblur
somedistinctions between licensed personnel; in Japan,
for example, somespecially trained senior ratings are
already permitted to take charge of bridge and engine
watches (Yamanaka and Gaffney, 1988). In the
Netherlands, some senior ratings supervise anchor
watches.

THE GERMANY EXPERIENCE

GENERAL-PURPOSE RATINGS:

Since 1987, the former west Germanyshipping industry

“a5 Pr°Vid9d 0”1Ygeneral-purpose training for its
unlicensed personnel, eliminating separate deck and
engine specialties. These personnel are knownas ship‘s
mechanics and can advance to the position of ship‘s
foreman.

In preparation for this change, Hapag-Lloyd A6, a

G - I .
Erma” 5h1PP1n9 Company, experimented over 18 months with
f .
°Ur 5h1D5 manned by 18 crew members of whom 7 were
9enera1_p”rp°5e ratings. The success of this erperiment
1 d th - . ,
E 9 German QDVEFnmentin 1984 to change its manning
regulations, allowing the crew of even the largest ship
to be reduced to 19 persons, provided that manning was
based on the general-purpose concept.

DUAL-QUALIFIED OFFICERS:

To meet the operating requirements of state-of-the art

ships with controls and monitors centralized on the
bridge, the Germanshipping industry developed the
concept of the "ship managementofficer". The officer is
responsible for the entire ship-cargo, navigation and
maintenance - and thus required both technical knowledge
and expertise in seamanship. A ship manned by these
officers have a master and four ship managementofficers;
at present, Germanships carry three deck and two
engineers, in addition to the master (Froese,19B9). In
1986as a first step in that direction, the industry,
with governmentsupport, began offering officers with
existing top level deck or engine licenses the
opportunity to earn medium-level credentials in the
opposite specialties.

THE JAPANESE EXPERIENCE

Japanese Shipping companies, perhaps, have gone

further towards departmental integration than those of
any other flag. The initial experiments, in 1979, were
Succeeded DYa carefully planned sequence of steps toward
a new “hypothetical image of seafarers". The goal was
th . . . . . .
9 Completeelimination of departmental distinctions and

B4
 the substitution of a shipboard managementteam.

In 1931, the first phase of these experiments began

aboard several new vessels whose bridges were fitted with
monitoring and control systems for propulsion machinery
and safety systems; remote control for mooring winches,
cargo-handling equipment, and ballast; and satellite
position location and communication systems. The
distinction between deck and engine departments was
removedfor unlicensed personnel, and junior officers‘
position (third officers and third engineer) were filled
by dual-qualified watch officers. This pattern of
organization , with an 18-person standard crew, was
incorporated in the manning laws in 19B3, and its
application was widened to more diverse types of ships.
By April 1965, 14Sships were operating with 18-person
crews (anonymous,1989).

Meanwhile, an experiment with 16-person crews had

begun in 1982 aboard vessels with additional automated
cargo—handling and navigation equipment. Watch officers
replaced engine and deck officers up to the level of
second engineer and second officer. In addition,
specially trained ratings were used as watch-keepers on
the bridge. The success of this experiment resulted in
this manning pattern being put into law in 1986 and
applied to 98 ships (Anonymous,19B9). Also in 1986,
experiment with 14-persons were begun. The vessels‘
bridge were further automated, with all functions of the
deck, engine, and radio watches centralized at the ship
operation center configuration, and with additional
labour-saving devices for mooring and unmooring.
 The 11-person pioneer ship experiment began in
Apri1,19B7 aboard 7-new vessels. The main technical
innovations were the placement of auxiliary engine and
navigation controls on the bridge wing, a labour saving
galley, and labour saving oil processing devices with
sufficient disposal facility.

TE NETHERLANDS EXPERIENCE

Dutch shipping companies pioneered the use of general­

purpose ratings and dual-qualified officers, beginning as
muchas 20 years ago. Dutch officers are trained and
licensed with major and minor specialties (navigation and
technical) and are expected soon to be completely
integrated as maritime officers or "ship managers”(
S.Cross 1988).

Highly trained ship mechanics with general-purpose

qualifications have been employed abroad Dutch ships
since the late 1970s. However, they are reportedly being
used in the traditional engine and deck specialties since
there has been too little highly skilled workavailable
on today”s modern automated ships. Vessels may carry one
or two ship mechanics to maintain mechanical systems.
Morerecently, they have been assigned as core crew
aboard vessels mannedlargely with unskilled third world
crew members. In the guise of ship technicians, they may
assumesupervisory responsibilities in such cases.

86
 3 2 0 EFFECT ON SAFETY AND HAINTENANCE WITH SMALLER CREWS

Recent reductions in crew sizes aboard Asian and

Northern European vessels have been preceded by extensive
government sponsored programs to define through careful
step—by-stepexperimentation, the potential operational
impacts.
Safety concerns expressed over crew reductions
relate primarily to three operational considerations:
- Fatigue: will there be greater demands placed on
the remaining crew members, and, if so will there
be a reduction in alertness negatively impacting
safety of the ship or its crews? Or, will the
overall impact of changes hold even or reduce
working hours and/or fatigue levels for the
remaining crews?
—Training: with the higher degree of automation
(often used to justify crew reduction), will the
remaining crew be able to handle emergencies if
automated systems fail? Are higher or different
levels of competence required? w111 the crew be
adequately trained for the new conditions?
- Maintenance: will crew reductions result in the
neglect of essential maintenance? To what extend
will better equipment, more durable coatings,
riding maintenance crews, and other measures
compensate by improving reliability of equipment?

Lack of attention to all these problems will raise

the risk of injuries and vessel accidents with attendant
social, economic, and environmental costs.

87
3.2.1 THE PROBLEH OF GUANTIFYING MARITIME SAFETY

The problem of assessing maritime 5B*EtY 9095 bEYDnd

the lack of crew size data. Determining the overall
safety impacts of moves toward smaller crews requires
estimating not only the associated marginal increase or
decrease in the frequency of casualties, accidents and
marine environmental pollution incidents, but also the
impacts of those events on people , property and the
environment. The information on which to base such an
assessment is subjected to great uncertainty. It is at
present inadequate for development of sound conclusions.
The most fundamental problem is that the impacts of
casualties, personnel accidents, and environmental
pollution incidents are highly varied, and thus difficult
to assess and compare. Property damage, environmental
damageand humanpain or death are very different things.
Assessing and comparing impacts of maritime safety lapses
must therefore be largely subjective. In practice,
regulatory priorities of this kind are established by
policy decisions, reflecting the values society places on
the various potential losses involved.
The frequency of such incidents, in contrast, are
quantifiable, given adequate information. Several
organizations maintain records of these events both
domestically and world-wide. For example, data on the
numbersof casualties, personnel injuries, and oil spills
per year are easily obtained. However, this information
by itself is inadequate for meaningfulstatistical
estimates of the contributions of vessel manningto the
safety record. First, the available data bases do not
include information on vessels‘ manning in computer­
searchable form.
In addition, they do not generally offer information

BB
on the manyother variables and causal factors that
interact to determine the safetv record 0* 3” i”diVid”a1
vessel. Managementpractices ( e.g.,maintenance,
training, and scheduling), extent of compliance with
regulatory requirements, the performance of thDSE
entrusted with operating and navigating vessel is put
(its trade and routes); all must be knownor
statistically estimated before the causal role of manning
in safety performance can be assessed.
Finally, there is no general agreement on an
appropriate measure of expose to hazards. Casualty and
accident data must be related to an exposure variable.
One obvious approach might be to compare the percentage
of a given flags (or a given fleet‘s) of tankers
experiencing the same class of accidents. However, this
comparison maybe misleading, since tankers of different
flags mayhave markedly different services and routes,
thereby encountering different hazards. Studies thus far
have used at least three approximation of exposure to
hazards: Port calls, tonnes delivered, and tonne-miles.
These measures yield very different estimates of accident
frequencies and can yield different rankings of risk.
For example, as tanker size increases the rate of
accidents and pollution incidents increases when
tabulated by port call, but decreases whentabulated by
tonnes of cargo delivered. (Meadet al 1981).
Furthermore, collection and analysis of exposure data is
not routine; obtaining and working with it can be time
consuming. Development of maritime exposure data bases
is therefore required.
Accurate maritime safety assessments require
Precise, reliable, and highly detailed data on vessels
casualties, accidents, and pollution incidents. In
addition, identifying trends requires intimate knowledge

B9
of the validity and variability of data from different
sources and complexmulti-variant analysis. At present,
such a treatment cannot be suPD0Vt9dbY the available
data and analytic methods.

SHIPPING INDUSTRY SAFETY INFORMATION

In general, the broad industry-wide data contain no

direct information on crew levels involved in accidents.
However,such data, collected consistently over the past
few decades are meaningful, since crew sizes have been
substantially reduced during this periods. Thus, these
data mayoffer some general insight into the safety
implications of smaller crews. This insight is clouded,
however, by other developments over the same period, such
as more stringent requirements for safety equipment and
procedures.
Thoughthere are some variances, the available
industry safety statistics indicate the following:
- There has been a measurable and substantial
improvementin the rate of both vessel casualties
(accidents) and personnel injuries during the past
twenty years. Morespecifically. there has been a
declining rate of vessel losses as a result of
accidents, and declining rate of personnel
injuries. These trends are evident on a non­
dimensional basis (e.g.percentage
of total vessels, percentage of total gross
tonnage, incident per ship, and injuries per
seagoing employee), that is, as a result of a
methodology that eliminate the impact of changes
in fleet size, numbers of employees, and other
 variables. These trends are consistent whether
one considers statistics published by the
International Maritime Organization (IMO), by
Lloyd‘s casualty Reports or, by the Marine Index
Bureau etc.
—During the same 20 years period, the average crew
size has declined substantially (from the high
fifties to high thirties for Nigerian flag vessels
and to the high teens for for manyforeign fleets).

while these two trends have occurred during the same

time period , other factors have also changed.
Technology has improved, operating procedures have been
refined, and the scrutiny of maritime operations by
governments and industry bodies has increased. The
safety data available from the various worldwide sources
is not sufficiently detailed to correlate vessel
casualties and personnel injuries with crew size. It is
therefore not possible to isolate the effect of crew size
to determine whether any casual relation, positive or
negative, exists between crew size and safety. Neither
is it possible to determine from the available data
whethercrew size in itself interact with other variables
to enhance or reduce safety.

LLDYD‘S VESSEL LOSS DATA

Figure 19, displays worldwide total number vessels

loss from 1985-1990. During this period, the number of
vessels loss has dropped from about 307 to IBB; about 40%
decline. Although total losses worldwide are a gross
measure covering large and small vessels (individual
Years aside), the figure demonstrates that the combined

91
 impac t of a 11 factors-including changes in the size and
tvpes of vessels sailings Ship d95i9“' manning and
opera t‘ing practices-has been to reduce total vessel
losses substantially. In terms of tonnage (a MDFE
accurate indicator of commercialactivity), a downward
trend is also evident (figure 20). Over the P35t *iVe
years annual tonnage losses have declined about twenty
percent with
. a large dropped EADEFIEHCE
u ' in
' 1989.
TOTAL WORLD FLEET
J10 LLOYDS REGISTER CASUALTY RETURN

NUMBER
or
SHIPS
LOST
PER
van

H36
1&3

FIGURE18. Worldwide vessel loss for commercial

ships, 1985-1990. The decline in the total loss o¥
commercial ships since 1985 has been linear at a
confidence level exceeding 99%.
Source: Llodys Register casualty returns-1990.
 TOTAL WORLD FLEET
LLOYDS REGISTER CASUALTY EUJRN

\ \\
/H
/’
(MN—‘I'ONNE)
TC-NNAGE
LOST
GROSS

0;I \
I I I

1937 1988 1989 1990

YEARS

Figure 20, Worldwidevessel loss (total gross tonnage)

for commercial ships, 1985-1990. The decline in rate of
loss of commercial tonnage since 1985 has been non-linear
(power function) at a confidence level exceeding 99%.

Source: Data from Lloyds casualty returns-1990

 3.4
12-:

2.9 -'
2.6 -1
2.4 ­
2.2 i '

1.8 ­
1.6­
1.4 ­
1.2 ­
RATE
PER
100
SHIPS

1 -4

0.8 -1
0.6 -1
0.4 —
0.2

FIGURE 21. Rates of serious casualties of oil tankers

(actively trading vessels over 6000 grt.) 1974-1988. The
decline in the rate of serious tanker casualties since
1970 has been at a confidence level exceeding 90%

Source: Data from International Maritime Organization.

94
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1. CA/YR=CASUALTIES PER SHIP/YEAR.

2. BIL/YR=BILLETS PER SHIP/YEAR
3. P/SHYR=PERSONNELINJURIES/FATALITIES PER SHIP/YEAR
4. HTF/YR=HATERIAL FAILURES/BREAKDOWNS PER SHIP/YEAR
FIGURE22. Trends in number s of billets, casualties,
material failures/breakdowns and personnel
injuries/fatalities per ship for company"A" during
consecutive three-year intervals from 1973 to 1988
(indexed with 1973=1.0 ) Source : U.S.A. Marine board
survey.

95
3.2.2 SAFETY IHPLICATIONS OF AVAILABLE DATA

The historical data, viewed from several

perspectives, showsthat the rates of vessel casualties
and personnel injuries have improved over the last two
decades. These improvements have occurred simultaneously
with a significant reduction in the average crew size.
However, no direct link has been detected between crew
size and vessel or personnel safety. The broad
statistics should not be considered a basis for
complacency. The limited data from individual companies
showthat safety records are not uniform, illustrating
the fact that safety must be addressed by each company in
terms of its specific operations.
The data‘s importance, however, stem from known
steady decline in average vessel manning, approaching 50%
since world war Two, due to introduction of newer, more
automated vessels with smaller crews and to manpower
reduction on existing ships.
Replacements for older vessels invariably have more
automation and lower required manning, so the trend
toward lower average manning will continue. Developed
countries operators have vessels operated with as few as
eight to twelve persons. If they continue to operate
safely, pressures will rise throughout other maritime
nations including Nigeria to follow suit.

3.2.3 SPECIFIC SAFETY CONCERNS

I”1ti311Y. manyunion representatives in countries

with smaller crew and automation believe that safety will
deteriorate. Theypoint to increased fatigue due to
lon 9er "°rk1nQ
" -
hours, poor maintenance .
practices, and

96
fewer opportunities for on-the-job training.
More important than the general opinions expressed
by labour, was the fact that they identified manysafety
concerns. These concerns are the objective to further
improved safety:
Fatigue: The potential for fatigue is the safety
concern voiced most often and is taken seriously by both
labour and management. They recognized that inattention
can cause accidents. A few casualties have been
attributed to inattention associated with fatigue.
Long working hours are commonin the maritime
industry, and indeed desired by many labour union members
as a means of increasing their take-home pay. Since
shipboard workers do not commute or cook their own meals,
long hours may not be as tiring as they would ashore.
Where long hours are a recognized problem (e.g. the
round-the-clock cargo responsibilities of deck officers
or the heavy workloads imposed by frequent port calls),
most operators have opted to use shore-based personnel
for cargo and maintenance operations, to allow the crew
membersto rest for deep sea duties.
However,little information is available to indicate
the increase or decrease in working hours as crew have
been reduced. Although some operators indicate that
overtime has not changed significantly. some labour
organizations are genuinely concerned that smaller crews
means more hours worked more fatigue for personnel and
therefore degradation of safety. Managementresponds
worldwide is that properly managed work, need not
increase average working hours and that in some cases
fatigue has been reduced; for example, in the engine room
certified for unmannedoperation, engine department
personnel can work days only instead of standing four­
h ' _ . .
°U'5 0"» Elght hours off watches. In a given situation,

97
either point of view may be correct, depending on the
degree of work planning and management of work effort.

MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Traditionally, vessel crews have done most routine

deck and engine maintenance. Newer materials and design
changes have eliminated some of this work or made it a
biennial shipyard repair item. Nonetheless, ship safety
would be impaired if reduced manning causes a reduction
of needed maintenance on safety-related equipment.
Experience with operator is to carry "riding crews"
or repair firms to perform needed maintenance in port.
These approaches maybe quite acceptable, but it remains
incumbent on the companies to maintain records
demonstrating compliance with international and national
regulation.

In modernautomated vessel, all safety related

equipments are duplicated thus ensuring continuous
operation of the vessel if the running equipment
malfunction.

EMERGENCY RESPONSE CAPACITY

Operators and labour unions agree that more

atte"ti°" tn 5a*9tY 5Y5tEmSand Emergency procedures are
necessary as crews are further reduced.

93
 Three general categories of emergency are considered
below:
—First, and perhaps most critical is that "all
hands" on deck type, such as fire and explosion,
collision, or grounding. Vessel design and
personnel training can ensure the shipboard
capability to evaluate and respond. On-line
diagnostic and preventive
maintenance programs ensure that the vessel is in
condition to operate properly and safely. Strict
adherence to safety procedures (e.g. the use of
fire proof doors in cargo areas etc.) is also
HECESSEIFY .

- Second, the vessel must be able to operate safely

in case of power losses and failures of vital
equipment such as steering gear. navigational
equipment, mooring equipment, the main propulsion
plant (including loss of automation and problems
with diesel generators or boilers), and cargo
gears. This problem of loss of automation is
solved by manual operation incorporated in the
system. Emergencygenerator and battery systems
ensure equipment such as steering gear,
navigational equipmentetc., are operational for
the vessel safety.

- Third is the ability to handle personnel

casualties. Manningdecisions must allow rapid and
efficient response without depriving the ve55e1 0+
its ability to operate. For example, evacuating a
crew memberby helicopter requires enough

99
 personnel to transfer the injured person
(including at least four stretcher bearers) as
well as enough personnel to operate the ship.
Rescues at sea presently involve at least six
people in addition to those left aboard to operate
the ship. Launchingand retrieving lifeboats also
can be labour intensive. These problems are
tackled by providing redundant safety systems and
equipments. To ensure that the vessel could at
least limp to the nearest port before major
maintenance can be effected.

REDUCED TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES FOR UNLICENSED CRENS

The elimination of entry level positions ( such as

wipers/greasers and ordinary seaman) on many vessels has
reduced the opportunity for on-the—job training, some of
which is required for the more responsible positions that
remain such as oiler and able-bodies seaman. Both labour
and managementagreed that inexperienced or inadequately
trained personnel can create safety problems, whether on
watch, cargo handling, or operating safety equipments.

To prevent such problems, most companies have

instituted "cadet" programs to train unlicensed personnel
with sea service experience.

A few companies in recent years have negotiated

l
ab°”r C°"traCt5 that Drovide
-
for employmentcontinuity
. .

3m°"9 REYPersonnel, thus ensuring that investments in

 additional training can be recaptured ( American
Presidents lines, 1999). whatever the approach. it is
essential that the National Maritime Administration
certifications be based on demonstrated proficiency and
that managementexercise due diligence to promote or hire
only qualified people.

SERVICE CONTINUITY BY CREW MEMBERS

All operators agreed that continuity of service by

crew membersis an important safety factor, particularly
with sophisticated shipboard systems requiring intimate
knowledge. Repeated service aboard the same vessel
ensures familiarity with equipment and promote team work.
Continuity is most desirable amongkey personnel (master,
chief engineer, chief mate and second engineer), and is
helpful with junior officers and unlicensed personnel as
well.

PHYSICAL DEMAND ON CREW MEMBERS

Concerns are also expressed about the growing need

for physical fitness of crew members. Smaller crews mean
‘ewe’ PE0P1eavailable for emergency operations and very
1'1 - . . .
ILEIY‘ewe’ Phvsical strong people in situations where
 strength is needed. Assessments of minimummanning
levels must take into account the degree to which labour­
saving devices are available or task requiring strength
have been eliminated. Thus the fully automated vessels
are deigned to minimize things such as unnecessary ladder
climbing or heavy lifting to eliminate some of the causes
of injuries as well as impediments to emergency response.
Annual physical and medical examination is recommended.

To be effective in improving safety, the national

administration must adhere to the strict rigid standards
of fitness for duty as recommendedby International
Maritime Organization.

CHANGED SHIPBOARD SOCIAL CONDITIONS

Recognizingthat attitudes mayaffect alertness and

attention to safety rules; most operators expressed
initial concerns over the impact of reduced manning on
the shipboard social environment. with smaller crews and
the breakdownof someof the traditional distinctions
between the deck, engine and stewards‘departments, new
social structures is necessary. This problem cou1d be
countered by promoting the ship team concept, an effort
that may be assisted by movementtoward greater
continuity of assignments_

102
3.3.0 BENEFIT OF AUTDHATIDN

Merchant ships increased in size during the last few

decades which necessitated increase in manning due to
operational and maintenance requirements. The machines
and equipment on the bridge, engine room, deck and in
cargo pumprooms were then haphazardly installed. A
great number of operators and watch keepers were required
during operations of such equipments and machines; and
there were improper communications and coordination
between operators and watch keepers of different machines
and equipments. The concept of centralized control was
not yet developed and also human elements being prone to
errors madevessels operation not so safe.
In later years, effort were madeto centralize
equipments on the bridge and improved engine room
machinerylayout thereby introducing centralized control
and monitoring console. The concept of modern automation
and remote operation was developed which resulted in
establishing a balance between crew size and ship safety.
This was followed by fitting of complex and
sophisticated automatic monitoring, fault diagnostic and
control equipments in the console. Installation of
control equipment to carryout every day operational tasks
with the integration of audio/visual alarms for watch
keepers were incorporated.
Advantages ensured by automation are reduction in
crew size and ease of operation. It also provide
increased efficiency, reliability and safety of shipboard
machinery. In the context, reference to Norwaywhich
pioneered the adoption of shipboard automation and whose
loss ratio of its fleet is probably the 1owe5t_
 Automation systems have now become the integral part
of the ships operational systems. with satellite
communication. data transmission between ship and shore
has facilitated decisions between companies head office
and ship. Therefore total decision making concept for
vessel operations have been greatly influenced.
Initially, automation in engine room was, perhaps,
to ease the work load of the engineers. But on more
recent years automation has produce better engine room
arrangement which eliminate continuous attendance to
machineryparticularly at sea. Engineers previously
employed for watch keeping has been freed to carryout
maintenance work.
Finally, the main purpose of increase automation in
modern vessels are aimed at:
a) Optimizing plant and machinery operation close to
design conditions.
b) To give early warning of fault conditions in
machinery thus improving safety.
c) Reducedthe risk of personnel injuries as
starting and stopping of machinery could be done
using computers.
d) Provide better working conditions by abolition of
watch keeping practice, reduce fatigue and thus
allowing personnel to respond to emergency with
clear mind and strength.
e) Reduce crew cost by achieving manning reduction
d) Reduce maintenance cost by using the fault
diagnostic features that reduced frequency of
machinery maintenance.

104
 EERBY SAVING THROUGH AUTOHATION

Before this time, developing countries did not show

muchenthusiasm towards automation because of
availability of cheap and abundant supply of crew.
However. in 1973 came the oil price increase and this
cause the shipowners in the developing countries as well
as worldwide to seek means to reduce fuel consumption:
thus the idea of energy saving measures and energy saving
ships were born.
A typical system to combat this was the application
of electronics. For example, electronic injection which
control injection almost perfectly rectangular but can
also be controlled within wide limits in terms of
commencement,duration and pressure of injection.

Figure 23. showsthe principle of electronic injection

Source: Ship Operation Automation III
 Anengine-driven high-pressure system supplies fuel
flows along the shortest route to the injection nozzle
and the nozzle needle. The overlap between the opening
and closing of two control needles release fuel
injection. The very short electronic pulses are
optimized in terms of load points in the microprocessor.
It is intended and natural to impose on this control
system ambient conditions as input values. Finally, the
system is conclusive to optimizing and matching the
performance of individual cylinders. Optimization is
possible in accordance with various freely selectable
parameters:

-Heat release, combustion pressure and combustion

chamber temperatures can be matched to different
fuels.
-The minimumfuel consumption point can be set for
any load point.
-The emission characteristics of the engine can be
influenced
-Within certain limits, wear in the injection
system. for instance can be balanced out so that
time between overhauls (TED) of such items
increases.

Electronic injection yields better operating values

than mechanical injection. This system reduces specific
fuel consumption and the improvement noted is possible at
part load. (see figure 24).

106
 ‘END. hnhpnon '
"Vt!VIM-lud i’
'-:34 Mr-_vIaa-no
..m,.,,,,*

"3"!
Irnuun
lb]

E S
3%
5 E1‘
=
K" T
‘hrs
5°
\
‘x
'*

15
"’i"'I
as
I

‘Q
Moor 1%:

FIGURE 24.

However,the hydraulic injection still offers

comparative results and because of this engine
manufacturersare reluctant to introduce electronic
injection except in high speed engines. The hydraulic
injection so far still gives marginal savings especially
in slow speed engines.

Another example was the use of satellite

communicationfor accurate fixing position by electronic
navigation system. The total navigation system is able
to guide the ship from departure point to destination by
means of optimumrouting. The tracking pilot used with
total navigation system is expected to allow a saving of
about 6%of fuel oil as compared to the old system. (

Automationhas facilitated the accurate operation of

engine, use of controllable pitch propellers etc., all

107
 . I t
have been done as enerQY 53V1“9 measures Comp” er
trimmed sails fitted to motorships have been bUi1t With
the expectations of giving abDUt 50% 5aVin9 0* ‘U91 °i1'
Results obtained from such ships are very encouraging
indeed.

Automation came to be developed and implemented very

fast in modernships; no doubt, reliability and safety
are the most important elements of the ship automated
equipment.

ADDED SAFETY AND RELIABILITY THROUGH AUTOMATION

Results from automation showed that the performance

and reliability of machinery was improved due to
automation being integrated into them. This feature plus
the high cost of fuel attracted the attention of ship
owners of developing countries as well. Automation came
to be adopted on ships belonging to developing countries
also.

All equipments namely the main engine, auxiliary

engines, steering equipment, navigation equipment, cargo
gears have with the introduction of automation exhibited
decreased failure rate. In analysing factors that has
influence safety, speed, course, and communication;
monitoring of machinery safety system and cargo would
definitely be considered. with the introduction of
automation it has been made possible to keep ship on the
course at the required speed determined according to
weather conditions by the use of automated navigational
a1d5s Supplemented by efficient automated communication

108
 . -
systems. Monitoring of carQ0 5t3t”5' a“d plannlng
' h
ave
becomeeasier and safer by the use of computers due to
efficient automated systems introduced to merchant
vessels in recent Years.

CHANBING PATTERN OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE DUE TO

AUTOHATION

Automationin the shape of maritime satellite

communicationand aids to administration in the form of
computerhas greatly influenced the organizational
structure and work distribution between ship and head
office.

To compensate for the higher costs, shipowners have

resorted to competitive measures such as greater
efficiency, improvedsafety and reliability, less energy
consumptions. improved marketing and service. All these
could be achieved by only additional investments on ships
to makethem more productive, reliable and labour saving.
This demandedincreased use of instrumentation and
automation which improved or increased operating
reliability and safety; more efficient cargo handling and
storage; utilization of equipments and operational
systems that increases fuel economy; investment in labour
saving aids that reduces or lightens the need for manual
operations; introduction of efficient and more computer
oriented methods in organization; increased operational
safety and cargo services; efficient information
PFDCES5i"9bY inVESting in automated communication
Equipment; using modern planning techniques especially
ships of the B05 and 90s have to a large extent been
 . .
optimized - re93rd5 to operational
with - cost rather t han
- cost. The figure 25. indicates the radlca
production . - - ' 1

. the cost of d15

changes in ' tribution pattern between a
conventional
- and a modern fuel economic
’ medium sized bulk
carrier.

FIGURE
25. Cost distribution pattern; conventional and
modern automated ship.
Source: Fairplay International Shipping
week1y—198B.

110
 AUTOHATION AND OPERATIONAL COST

Automationhas played a great role in curtailing the

operational cost of vessels which has greatly increased
due to influence of certain factors. Someof these
factors can be summarized as follows:

-High price of fuel oil and inferior bunker quality.

-Short sailing period of crew

—Increasedship specialization

-International requirement for safety and

environment

AUTOMATION AS COST REDUCING MEASURE

Automation has great influence on the cost reducing

measures such as :

-Optimization of route

-Improvement of navigation

-Hull roughness supervision

‘D°Cki”9 and related procedures optimization

‘B””k9Vi"9and bunkers procedures(purchase,quality

testing etc.)

‘Optimized cargo loading and handling (use 9+

 loading cOmPUt9r5)

—Improvedroutines for maintenance and spare DaVt5

inventory

-Improved equipment for condition monitoring.

3.3.1 FUTURE TRENDS IN ENERGY snvme DUE TO AUTOMATION

The trend in energy savings have been till now been

concentrated on each equipment individually. Examples
are electronic control of central cooling systems. It
must not be forgotten that ships are considered as a link
in the total transportation system. Integration of the
whole system therefore becomes the need of the hour.
Such integration can be achieved by systematic
engineering. in consideration with the ships operational
conditions, the ships equipmentsafety and reliability,
efficiency. profitability, upkeep and maintenance as well
as logistics for repairs and spares gears.
Measures to save energy include the achievement of
optimumengine load condition; accurate engine operation,
improvedrudder efficiency, reduced propulsion energy
requirement through propulsive improvement; for example,
the ‘itti”9 Of highly skewed propeller) which can
increased thrust up to 50%of conventional propeller as
claimed by the maker (KAMEWA);
reduction of ships weight
and propulsive resistance; employmentof fuel saving
diesel engines, maximumrecovery of residual/waste heat,
for exampleI the fitting 0* tuFb°"9E”E"3'°°" t° 9""”e"atE
. _ . .
electrical power free of charge by ut11121fiQ the 9*‘h a”5 t
gas energy to raise steam that run the turbine;
conversion of existing diesel engines burning marine
diesel oil into engines that can burn low grade/blended
fuel and finally the introduction of sail assistance and
utilization of available solar energy.

ADAPTIVE AUTO PILOT

Automatic steering of a ship can improve its

manoeuvrability. whenthe steering characteristics
change, the parameters of the autopilot have to be
adjusted in accordance with these changes. During
manoeuvring,the autopilot coefficients are adjusted
according to changes in the ship‘s behaviour. Information
of the behaviour that can be expected is obtained from
the log and echo sounder, but continuously changing
conditions makemanual adjustment of the autopilot
settings unpractical. To makeit possible to use an
autopilot in this situation, automatic adjustment is a
necessary requirement. Anadaptive autopilot offers this
solution by automatic adjustment of the counter-rudder
setting. The control system is based on a relatively
simple, non-linear second order model of the ship. This
model is implemented in the autopilot and determines the
optimumperformance. In the autopilot a filter is
implemented to prevent undesired rudder movement. This
reduces the rudder angles to prevent the speed of the
ship from decreasing too much, but also keep the
deviation from the desired course to a minimum. It also
minimize the rudder movementto prevent wear of the

113
steering gear. Autopilot generate the rudder signals to
get the ship in a minimumtime to its deStinati0”
therefore saving in fuel consumption.
The revolutionary adaptive pilot (ADP)or auto pilot
therefore, can provides energy savings of about 6%when
comparedwith the conventional auto-pilot. The saving in
fuel in most cases can be as much as 15%.

POWERDRIVEN SAIL-ASSISTED SHIP.

Aitoku-Maruis the world‘s first commercial sail­

assisted ship. It embodied a fully automated computer
controlled modethus obviating the use of extra crew for
handling of sails. Experience with this ship has shown
that energy saving of up to 50%could be achieved by
automated computer controlled sails. Another benefit of
the sail was the improvementin the stability because the
sails behaved as some kind of aero-dynamic stabilizer;
making use of all winds except on 20 degree on either
side of the bow. from this experience, it can be said
that sail will be regarded as an indispensable part of
future ship design.

An engine is the main means of propulsion in the

modernsail assisted ship and the sails are auxiliary.
Such sails can not ordinarily be installed on existing
ships, rather it involves extensive calculations, design
and planning in pre—building stage with special attention
being paid to the hull design characteristics to match
the sails. The engine burns low grade fuel even at low
1°3d5s thEVEbYaiding to achieve maximumpower gain from
sails that is fed back to the engine system.
 The gains obtained from such ship can be Summarized
as follows:
_ Energy saving - maximum power gain of 22% to 26%
at wind speed of 10m/s and BIZ to 95% at true wind
speed of 20m/s when sailing at 14knots at a wind
direction of 90 to 100 degree.
- Increased stability at low sailing speed.

The engine, the hull form and sail all fall into a
broad integrated system. The achievement from encouraging
results with such energy saving ship had been made
possible due to use of extensive automation. This has
resulted in two-fold gains of reduction in manpoweras
well as energy saving.

AUXILIARY HACHINERY ENERGY SAVING DEVICE.

High turbocharger efficiency in modern diesel engine

has allowed the power generating plant to utilize exhaust
gas from the main engine to generate electrical power. A
micro-computer is use to optimize load allotment to
engine and generator set. Such a plant is the ICS
(integrated combined system) genset which incorporate a
turbo-generator driven by the excess energy from the main
engine. This turbo-generator is coupled directly to a
diesel generator which can run on low load. In the event
of exhaust gas shortage, the computer senses this and
cause the diesel generator to speed up to make up for the
shortage of electrical power requirement of the ship.
The C0mDuterlimits the demand from the diesel generator
to just the amount of power of power require to
supplement the total exhaust generator (genset) power at
1
°” load 0PEFat1onof the main engine. Besides startingl
' - - .
stopping diesel generator and overseeing parallel
the computer
operation with exhaust gas generator,
also carried out proporti onal output allotment between
the generators.

TREATMENT OF LON QUALITY FUEL.

Automatic water separators are used for the

treatment of water content in fuel. Such separators are
capable of reducing the water content to less than 0.022
for fuel of high density at 15 degree Celsuis.
Separation of aluminiumsilicate from high density fuel
is still a problem. However, homogenization, micro­
explosion and subsequent atomization of emulsified fuel
contribute between 1%to 5% fuel saving. An economic
evaluation of fuel economymeasures made to determine its
worthwhileness.

3 .$ . 0 CONCLUDI NB REMARKS

Analysis of National and worldwide maritime safety

data supports the conclusion that number of vessel
casualties and personnel injuries has declined steadily
over the past two decades. (U.S.A. Marine Board Survey
figure 22.). During the same period, average crew sizes
have been substantially reduced. In gathering and
analysing worldwide maritime safety data, 1 have not been
able to establish a causal relationship between manning
levels and safety.
Available data on maritime safety are inadequate to

116
support firm judgements about the contribution of various
factors. such as crew levels to safety. A Worldwide
effort is needed to standardize, gather, and evaluate
safety data in order to identify trends and provide the
technical basis for constructive managementof maritime
safety. The following developments are needed
worldwide:­
-Standardization of information about casualties,
their causes, and their consequences.

-Collection of information about the exposure of

ships to casualties including data tabulated on the
basis of tonne-miles and numbers of port callsgand

-Collection of comprehensive data, including size

and organization of crews on all levels.

The pace of change continues. Foreign fleets have

set the pace at which new technologies are being adopted
on ships. They have well planned methodical programs to
use technology effectively and safely, bringing crew
levels in some cases down to the low teens. Innovation
in Nigerian fleet is essential for better competition.
The way in which innovation is implemented will determine
whether safety is helped or hindered. Aboveall, the
Nigerian fleet should leverage other countries‘
experience with their systematic programs in developing
its ownreduced crew ship of the future.
Progress can be achieved only by close cooperation
amongall interested parties, including ship operators,
the sea-going workforce and its union, and the industry‘s
safety and economicregulators. This collaborative
effort should encompasstraining, research, eva1uatian
and di ssemination
' ' of information
' - on international
- ­

117
developments and pilot programs under the Nigerian flag.
Governmentcan serve as a catalyst in this endeavour, but
the industry itself (including operators and labour) will
need to lead.
The introduction of new technology should consider
ships as socio-technical systems, consisting of
personnel, technology, organization structure and
external environment. Changes in any of these four
subsystems should suggest appropriate changes in others.
Newship technology coupled with appropriate
training, organizational innovations, and ergonomic
design can enhance safety. For example, these approaches
can reduce potential problems of stress, fatigue and
boredom.
The Nigerian Maritime Administration (Maritime
Inspectorate) do not presently have the necessary human
factors analysis methodsto makesolid certification
decisions on minimumsafe manning for highly automated
ships.
In establishing safe crew levels, government and
industry needs to consider demands on the crews on
different vessels, taking into account specialized
technologies, type of service, skills required and
quality of management. Formal analytical methods need to
be incorporated into the establishment of safe crew
levels and the consequent issuance of certificate of
inspection. Lack of an analytical approach has led to
inconsistent certificate determinations and has madeit
difficult for the Administration to exercise its port
state control authorities.
The skills needed to operate ships are changing with
advances in technology. Lines dividing deck and engine
departments are fading, along with the need for engine
r°°m "Etch keeping. The importance of individual and team

11B
skills is increasing as crew are reduced. These changes
need to be reflected in training programs and licensing
requirements.
Training programs must therefore reflect not only
technical skills required, but subjects such as
managementof personnel and communications. Licensing
requirements must becomemore specialized to reflect the
differences in vessel type and service and to require
periodic re-certification of skills to ensure that crew
membersdevelop and retain necessary qualifications. The
certification and licensing of general purpose ratings,
dual-qualified officers and watch officers should be
established to reflect the changing ship organization
structure.
Finally, automation on board ships has played a
great role on the managementof condition monitoring and
maintenance activities by the use of work saving
technology and use of advance communication media. This
has also serve as an effective aid in the shipowners
endeavour to keep cost low and productivity high.
By changing the automation levels on board ships,
some gains in the form of economy, reliability and
efficiency have definitely been achieved. Statistics
gathered over the past years has, revealed the loss ratio
of world fleet has declined by 40% (Lloyds Casualty
Return 1990), and this definitely has been due to
implementation of automation since these trend occurred
as automation were being introduced.
Automationhas increased efficiency, safety and
reliability and has brought about reduction in manning
scale and operational costs. These perhaps the main
reason to which it has tended to strengthen its foot on
board ships.

119
CHAPTER FOUR: PROPOSAL FOR SHIPBOARD MACHINERY AUTOMATION
LEVEL FOR FUTURE NIGERIAN MERCHANT FLEET.

4.1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, the advantages of adopting

extensive shipboard machinery automation were highlighted
as claimed by some users and equipment manufacturers who
are mainly from developed nations. These claims when
analysed are found to be based on the prevailing
circumstances in such technologically, industrialized and
economically sound countries which has the necessary
infrastructure for effective utilization of automation.

The socio-technical, economical or industrial

environmentsprevailing in Nigeria are entirely
different. In evaluating automation from from Nigerian
viewpoint, there seems to have some shortcomings. This
has created the need for scientific evaluation of
introducing the amount of shipboard automation by a study
of operational experiences with automated vessels already
in Nigerian fleet. The technical level, training and
facilities, wagesstructures of crewing must therefore be
analysed. Also what may be applicable in the near
future, spare parts and shore side repair facilities and
the study of the economical viability of automation
installation must also be considered.
4 1 1 OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE WITH SEMI-AUTOMATED SHIPS IN
NIBERIAN FLEET

In 1978. the Nigerian national shipping lines

procured 19 semi-automated ships which were of the
unattended machinery space (UMS)class notation as
certified by the classification society. The ships when
delivered left the Nigerian crew in limbo as they were
trained originally to manconventional ships. These crew
had no knowledge of operation nor experience on fault
diagnosis on electronic equipment that were installed by
Siemens of Germany. This became a nightmare for the
technical department as no plan was made to up date the
present crew knowledge (e.g. marine /electrical
engineer). The problems were compounded as the system
were soon to breakdown and the ships reverted to manual
operation. In an attempt for the managementto put the
ships back on the UMSclass, the maker of the equipment
were employed around the globe (Siemens) to visit any
ship in difficulty for maintenance. This seriously
drained the hard earned foreign currency of the company
and suddenly there were mounting debts to pay. The ships
were soon to be arrested for non—paymentof debts on
maintenance all over Europe within a span of 5 years of
the ships deliveries. Todaythe fleet has been reduced
down to 13 vessels as the company had to sell off most of
the 5hiD5 to pay maintenance debt. Equally too, the
remaining 13 ships are now being run manually as
conventional ships with crew as many as 42 members. The
question then arises as to what had caused the company to
invest in such expensive ships but just to revert them to
convention al operation
' '
which -
sometimes .
were costlierto
operate.
 To answer the questions therefore, the role plaYEd
mainly by the operational and technical managers must be
looked into. The shipping managers and SUPe"i"te“d9”"5
whosupervised the managing of the vessels had little or
no knowledge of automation themselves as they were
trained on the operation of conventional vessels. The
lack of such knowledge created an oversight for the
managers to realize the level of problems they were into
whendecision was taken to build these class of ships.
There was no proper planning to update or develop the
skill of the crew to have the sound electronic background
needed to operate such ships. This shows that automation
with unskilled crew could greatly undermine all the
advantages claimed through automation as highlighted in
the previous chapters.

Another problem was the availability of repair

services at Nigerian port of call was nil. The control
systems fitted required very frequent services with high
degree of skill which could not be provided by the
average quality of maintenance and skill available. Also
the reliability of the installed automatic equipment
could not be ascertained as non—stopfalse alarms and
malfunctioning of automation system were reported almost
from the time of delivery of the vessels. This implies
that the guarantee period was not properly utilized to
removethe faults as well as to draw conclusions to stop
installation of Siemens equipment on preceding vessels.

Someof the problems related to management

concerning the said vessels could be summarized as
follows:­
T Lack 0* Planning in introducing advanced equipment
 while the company was not prepared for such
innovation.
- Trained staff that joined the hand-over team were
replaced after certain period and they themselves
had little electronic backgroundto analyse and to
diagnose automation faults.
- Inflexible restrictions in calling for repairs and
lengthy procedures for ordering spare parts.

As these problems were occurring on the early

delivered vessels, the managementadvice the crews to
operate the machinery by traditional watch-keeping
method, arguing for more security and safety with
relatively cheap labour cost.

Problems related to the vessels can be summarized as

follows.­
- Automation equipment were from a single
manufacturer.
- Periodic maintenance and service of the
installations were irregularly done at European
ports of call and homeport.
- The ship compliment who joined with the hand-over
crew were not kept for long before changing.

Observations derived from the entire experience

could be summarized as:­
- There were lack of experience and expertise in
operation, maintenance and repair of automation
equipment.
- Difficulty existed in the procurement of spare
parts.
- In general, the extent of defective automation
devices ascertained were relatively high.
 - In some of the ships with foreign crews with
automated experience, it was noticeable that the
engine room staff were considerably relieved from
wasteful occupation of watchkeeping and the man
hours were use for maintenance and overhauls much
morethan the conventional vessels in the fleet.

Fromthese evaluation of the operational

experiences, ships equipped with unattended engine rooms
had manyproblems which could be related to the level of
technological circumstances that were prevailing in
Nigeria at the time. These was mainly due to lack of
experienced and well-trained operating personnel cause by
improper training and lack of facilities, absence of
suitable repair facilities at homeport and deficiencies
in the management.

4.1.2 FACTS ABOUT SHIPPING INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA

Initially. shipping in Nigeria was totally in the

hands of colonial operators and private sector, for
example. Elder Dempster and the Nigerian Palm line.
Nigerian National Shipping Lines, the national flag
carrier was established in 1966 by the Federal Government
as a parastatal of the Federal Ministry of Transport.
The ”ati°”a1 Shipping lines introduced 19 modern cargo
VE55E15bY 1980, the fleet strength rouse to 35 ships.
The management of the company is by board of Directors
"1th a Chairman 3PP0intEd DYthe Ministry of Transport.
The 19 modern vessels were of the UMSnotation purchased
d ' th .
“'1"9 9 Year 1977 to 1980. There are also privately
own companies operating coastal, fishery and a few deep
sea going vessels. The Government own ships which stood
at 35 in 1980 has now dwindled to a mere 13 ships. This
could be linked to the poor management and lack of
expertise in the companywhich hurriedly introduced
automated vessels without due planning. Also by the end
of 1970‘s, the automation equipment was still far from
reliable and the managementfailed to notice this too.

Modernization and expansion of the fleet is a

necessity but there are constraints to this. Most of
these problems are of the same nature as faced by other
developing nations. Improvement and expansion would
require high capital investments. At present with the
world experiencing the worse recession since World War
Two,availability of capital in the form of foreign
exchange is scarce in Nigeria. But if Nigeria is to take
its place in international maritime world then investment
is a pre-requisite to achieving this goal.

In terms of technological level at the momentthe

country is better placed than most developing nations.
Lack of finance, improper planning and implementation has
always been the main hindrance in the development
programmes, be it in area of manpower development or
attempt to modernize the fleet or upgrading of repair
facilities to adequately cater for newtechnological
advanced vessels and equipment.

Presently, the ships in the Nigerian fleet are not

dependent on foreign staff for operation and management
as in the past. In fact, recruitment of foreign officers
was stopped since late 80s. Most maintenance work on
board ship are carried out by the ship staff, be it a
conventional or UMSvessel of the fleet except in aFeaS
of automation.

Shore repairs are carried out at homeport by

contract through manyengineering firms operating near
the ports. All the automated equipment repairs are still
being carried out in Europe or by flying staff from the
equipment maker any where in the world the vessel visit.
Also none of the automated electronic equipment or their
parts are manufactured in Nigeria, though most spare
parts are available locally in the market.

The Nigerian merchant fleet has witnessed its

transformation from very obsolete steam/diesel engines to
advance diesel propulsion vessels then to ships with
fairly good amount of automation.

Operational experience with UMSships despite the

initial problems has definitely enhanced knowledge on the
systems and provided training to the ship personnel both
in hardware and software. Self training has always been
the nature of training.

The Maritime Academy in Nigeria only at the moment

provide pre-sea training to cadets and the certification
in competency are obtained either in the United Kingdom
Marine colleges or Arab Maritime AcademyEgypt. There is
an immediate requirement to equipped this establishment
with automated equipment for proper skill training of
officers for future fully automatedvessels. This will
enhanced the country self-reliance in modern technology
and upgrading Nigeria technological statue in the
maritime industry.
 It has been about twelve years since the first
automated vessel was operated in Nigeria. The problem
encountered as describe in the last section shows that it
has not been beneficial to the country. with this
experience in mind. future automated ships in Nigeria
will require careful planning to cater for required
skills and the logistic in spare parts for effective
implementation of automation.

Crew cost at the moment is very low compared to the

developed nations, but there should be no complacency to
sit back. The country should proceed in its quest for
technological advancement so as to be technically and
economically competitive in the shipping trade which can
contribute to a large extent in foreign exchange
earnings.

There is a shipyard in Lagos (Nigerdock) which in

1990repaired a total of thirty two vessels, with
clientele that span a wide spectra of the international
economy. About 43.3% of these vessels were foreign
owned. Still in 1990 the yard veered into ship building.
The first two ferries(Yankari and Badagri) were built
locally for mass transit use. In the same vein, an off­
shore oil loading buoy was built by the yard. Other
construction works which include 280 passenger water
craft buses, two vehicular ferries and nine harbour and
mooring launches also commenced. with improvement in
e“perti59 thr°U9h PV0PErtraining and education at the
Maritime Academy,the stage will be set for the yard to
commencethe building of deep sea ocean going ve5se15_

At thi5 5t39Eg it must not be ignored the fact that

th ere h ad -
been an increase -
in . .
the CDmpet1t1vene55 D;
 developed maritime nations fleet through resort to the
institution of open registries or flags of CONVENIENCE!
over and above the already existing technological edge.
Developingcountries like Nigeria should try to bridge
the gap and move ahead towards technological developments
and self-reliance.

whenestablishing policy targets, Nigeria should aim

initially not to the attainment of highly automated ships
as a measure to reduce the gap but should focus on
improvingtraining, developmentof repair facilities to
obviate dependency on foreign countries and later should
endeavour to enter into manufacturing of parts needed in
automated systems and equipments.

Finally, enthusiasm for purchasing highly automated

ships should be exhibited only at a stage where
dependencyon others can be totally ruled out.

4.2.0 PROPOSAL FOR TRAINING AND SKILL CERTIFICATION FOR

FUTURE NIGERIAN VESSELS.

The members of smaller crew on modern automated

vessels must be more broadly skilled. First. small crew
imply broader individual responsibilities. Second,
vessels designed for smaller crews are generally
technically moresophisticated. Training and
certification of personnel qualifications must reflect
these changes.

In most advanced shipping nations of Asia and

Northern Europe, both officers and unlicensed personnel
 are trained in the broad technical skills demandedbY
evolving technology and crewing practices. In Nigeria by
contrast. mostformal training still reflects traditional
departmental divisions of labour. However, the Nigerian
Maritime Academyshould be updated with equipment and
personnel to meet the requirement of the industry in
training skill labour to a broadly qualified watch
officers ( with training in both navigational and
technical skills. as well as business and logistics) to
take charge of the flagships of the future. This should
be the only way forward in order to avoid mistake of the
past. Shipboard maintenance now the province of highly
trained certificated engineers, should becomethe
responsibility of specialists ( perhaps unlicensed
technicians) and riding crews. Shipping companies should
undertake their owntraining programs to broaden crew
membersskills in response to the new technology.

Newtraining beyond that necessary to inculcate

technical skill will be required. A course at the
Academyshould be instituted in shipboard management for
both deck and engineer officers to cater for the
technical and managementskills as well as watch keeping
effectiveness. Latest new automated shipboard systems
have in-built capabilities for individual and team
training, whichpermit operators to simulate training
exercises and mentally rehearse typical and atypical
conditions. The Academyshould therefore be equipped
with simulators to give the cadets and officers the
opportunities to update their technological skill to
operate the fully automated vessels.

The growing sophistication of crew members

responsibilities on modernships will lead the Nigerian

129
 Maritime Administration to take more control over the
precise qualifications of licensed and unlicensed
personnel. Somequalifications may become more
specialized to reflect differences in vessels type and
service. For example, the administration would have to
permit the introduction of additional skill requirements
as employmentconditions aboard ships will require
specialized knowledge. Periodic re-certification of
skills will becomemore important to ensure that crew
membersdevelop and retain the necessary qualifications.

4.2.1 TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION PROGRAMS OF ADVANCED

SHIPPING NATIONS

Fleet of the Federal republic of Germany, Japan and

The Netherlands are among the most advanced in the world
today. Their training and certification programs
illustrate changesNigeria should anticipate.

JAPAN

Japan has moved much further towards general purpose

ratings and dual-qualified officers than any nation. The
initial experiments, in 1979, were succeeded by carefully
planned steps towards a new "Hypothetical image of
seafarers ". The newest Japanese vessels with crews of
139 lb or 14, are staffed largely with watch-officers,
dual-qualified officers whohold major qualifications in
“3V193ti0n OFEngineering but are operationally qualified
to stand watches in both engine room and navigation
bridge All of them hold a certificate of watch officers»
with appropriate specialty in navigation and engineering.

Uncertified personnel aboard these Japanese VESSEIS

are trained for general purpose work. Specially qualified
officers are trained and certificated to head bridge
watches in the open sea, although not in restricted
waters. Shipping companies themselves have borne most of
the substantial cost of training for these new
position(Yamanaka and Gaffney 1968).

THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

The Germanshipping industry provides another

illustration of training that maybe required. In 1987,
building on shipboard experiments conducted on vessels
operated by Hapag-Lloyd AG, the industry shifted all
programs for uncertified personnel to general purpose
training, eliminating separate deck and engine training,
After three years, the neophyte sailor is qualified as a
ship‘s mechanic. Further training aboard ship and/or in
a technical college can lead to an examination for
position of a ship‘s foreman.

The country has not moved completely to dual­

qualified officers. The shipping industry there,
however, expect highly automated state- of-the—art ships,
with controls and monitors centralized on the bridge
which would required ship managementofficers for the
most efficient operation. This class of officers would
be responsible for the entire ship -caF90. navigation
skills (Froese,1999)­

In 1986, as a first step in that direction. the

industry with governmentsupport, began offering officers
with existing top-level deck and engine training leading
to medium-level credentials in the OPP05itE 5PECi31tiE5­
The course involves eight months of practical training
aboard Ship, +o11owedby one year of study at a technical
university. (All officers are required to complete the
standard ship mechanics course).

THE NETHERLANDS

In Netherlands, all officers are nowbeing trained

in both deck and engine skills. The training is only
partly integrated at present, but Dutch authorities
expect to achieve full integration with only one class of
certificate for newofficers in the near future.

The four year course for officers of large vessels

includes a year at sea with both technical and
navigational experience. The traditional department
distinctions are preserved to the extent that each
graduate receives major and minor certifications ( in
navigation and technical qualifications), depending on
the results of a series of final examinations. Further
optional training is offered to bring graduates to fully
integrated status. This training will soon be included
in the standard four-year course, whose graduates will be
certified as broadly qualified "Maritime officers" or
"ship managers"( Steve cross 1992).

Someuncertified crew members in the Netherlands are

also trained in both deck and engine skills. For
example, skilled ship mechanics, with general-PUFDDSE
qualifications have been employed aboard Dutch ships
since the late 70s. Most vessels, however. carry only
one or two ship mechanics to maintain mechanical systems.
Morerecently, these personnel have been assigned as core
crew aboard vessels mannedlargely with unskilled third
world crew members; in the guise of ship technicians of
whichthey could assumesupervisory responsibilities.

4.2.2 PROPOSED PROGRAMMEOF TRAINING IN NIGERIA

Based on the above analysis of the advanced nations

training and experiences acquired in touring various
Maritime Institutions in Europe and America whilst at the
World Maritime university (WMU),it is my believe that
the right approach is to opt for a programmeof education
that shift emphasis from the descriptive type to a more
analytical one. This will raise the curriculum to a
bachelor‘s degree level. The thought is in the direction
of a very sound science and mathematics base. This will
build a firm and broad-based theoretically oriented
specialization that will include someaspects of social
sciences in the concluding stages of the programme, to be
followed finally by the professional training.

The proposed programme which should address the

issue of upgrading the academic course to the first
 degree level should be an undergraduate four-academic­
9

year bachelor of science in Marine Technology course with

options in Marine Engineering, Electrical Electronics and
Nautical science. The proposed course should be
structured to combinescientific and technological
knowledgewith practical training as outline in annex 1.

This approach aims at producing an officer that will

be a specialist up to the highest level in one discipline
but with adequate knowledge to at least be able to stand
watch in the other. This is to say. a Master mariner by
specialty but can perform the third engineer duty and
Chief engineer -a third officers job. In fact, an
officer suitable for todays‘s operational realities yet
ready for the challenges of tomorrow.

The focus of the course is the training and

education of seagoing officers whoare able to operate,
manage and maintain dynamic systems ranging from heavy
main engines through delicate monitoring and control
equipment to modern merchant marine transport vessels in
conjunction with associated ancillaries shipboard and
port facilities. See annex 2.

This course should be structured to provide the

scientific and technological foundation to manageself­
contained systems fitted on board modern vessels as well
as provide a degree of proficiency in interpersonal
relations and communicationskills. Elements of shore
related industries in which graduates mayeventually seek
employmentare also included.

The main aims of the course is to prepare student

to:­
—Understanding engineering principles based on an
appreciation of natural and applied sciences.

—Manage maritime transport plant and equipment

through analysis and optimization of operation and
maintenance of such systems.

Appreciate and cultivate multi-disciplinary

approach to problem solving.

Accept responsibility for safety of the people and

environment affected by maritime operations.

—Knowthe importance of management principles,

interpersonal relations and communicationskills.

After graduation, the professional training should

continue in line with regulation 3/2 and 3/4 of the
International Convention on standards of Training,
Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers 1978 (STCW).

with the above objective in mind, a working group

should then be established between the Nigerian Maritime
Academyand the Nigerian universities council for
Technology, with a view to preparing a course structure
and detailed syllabus. This to be then considered and
approved by the Board of Governors of the Academy and the
University council. If the programmeshould ever been
considered, the university council should award the
degrees until such a time that the Maritime Academycould
build a competent staff to set up its machinery to award
such degrees.
 PROPOSED FACILITIES TO MEET THE REQUIREMENT OF THE
TRAINING.

The training facilities to meet the requirement of

the stated objectives should include amongothers, an
engine roomand navigation simulators for effective
instruction in automation operations.

- A diesel engine of limited power that could be

coupled to an alternator.

—Automation laboratory- to cater for both

electronics and pneumatic systems training
including programmablecontrollers.

- A layout of engine room with possible old

machinery that can be obtained as scrap from
ships, e.g. refrigeration and air condition
systems, purifiers,steering gears, oil fire
boilers and other ancillaries equipmentetc.

- A machine shop

- Computer laboratory

with these facilities, deep sea training and

experiences required by the Maritime Administration with
regards to STCWconvention 1978 can be reduced. The
student can then spend more time in the college to go
through the degree programme. The course can fit in
within 17 weeks at the academy and it would be sufficient
to meet their training requirement of the Administration.

The Government alone should not bear the cost of

these facilities. The shipping industry especially ship
owners should endeavour to provide some of these
facilities as they will benefit most from the training
offer. Maritime Education should not be considered as a
waste of resources but as an investment on the future
technological advancement in maritime and related
industries in Nigeria.

The regulatory authority and shipowners should

consider the shore-based practical training as superior.
These remove training from the commercial pressures on
vessels as officers barely have enough time to make such
on board practical training to cadets possible. Thus
national shipowners should acquire stepwise ships with
increasing complexity of automation to allow crews to
adapt in best effective way to new technologies.

TRAINING STAFF REQUIREMENT

Presently, Nigeria has a lot of Marine engineers and

mariners of the old school. Most of them could be
recruited into Education and training with the
Possibility to updating their knowledgeat the World
Maritime University to meet present requirement in
maritime transportation. Needless to say that a good
academically sound with practical experience staff is a
pre-requisite to realize the goal of proper and efficient
training to future maritime officers. As such, I
proposed that most of the academic staff should be drawn
from the maritime environment who has had practical
knowledgein ship operations. Specialized lecturers also
required in social and applied sciences.

TRAINING or UNCERTIFIED CREWnsmasas.

Uncertified crew is one with experience at sea as a

rating. They require training to be able to work on
modern automated ships. As done by most countries, their
training initially should reflect traditional shipboard
divisions of labour between deck and engine and finally
to be geared towards the general purpose training as
adopted by the Germans. This will help them to adopt to
the technological innovations that is taking place in the
industry. Introduction of an electronic technician
course for the deck and engine ratings can help meet the
maintenance requirements in automation and communication
systems in direct supervision of an officer.

Courses in the use of computers for managing

steward‘s inventories, oil spill containment and clean
up, marine propulsion automation and sea lift operations
and maintenance can be offered to the uncertificated crew
at the Academy;as increasing flexibility of shipboard
assignments in the future mayrequire uncertified crew
memberto develop and use skills traditionally reserved
for officers. For example, they may be members of a
tight-unit bridge operation team with advanced skill in
radar monitoring and open-sea watch-keeping.
 CERTIFYINB SKILLS FOR FUTURE SHIPS OF NIGERIA

The Nigerian Maritime Administration (Maritime

Inspectorate) procedures in certifying crew members‘
skills will evolve to reflect the changing nature of
shipboardduties. Both officers and rating certificates
and documentswill reflect the departmental distinctions
and specify more precisely crews members‘ particular
skills. To ensure that sophisticated skills remain up to
date. the administration should demandmore comprehensive
recertification of skills on periodic basis.

The crew will be called on to develop specialized

skills to accommodatethe sophisticated technology of
modernvessels. Certificates and documents will
therefore carry endorsements certifying the attainment of
special skills in ship handling, maintenance of
electronic equipment, operation of specific engine types
and so on.

The advance of shipboard technology will tend to

render skills obsolete as time passes, unless crew
membersreceive new training or maintain their skills on
the job. Officers mayhave to be retested every five
years to verify skills. To ensure that sophisticated
skills do not decay, the Administration maybe called
uponto recertify through periodic testing - that skills
remain fresh.

Theexisting training facilities at the Maritime

academyis not enough to achieve these objectives; thus
adequatefacilities are required so that the capacity for
much additional training can be accommodated- which would
1ikE1Yplay a strong role in maintaining and updating
crew expertise.

4.2.3 PROPOSALFOR SHORE SERVICE FACILITIES IN NIGERIA

In addition to the heavy industry of the Nigerdock,

future specialized trained engineers and deck officers
from the Academyshould be utilized to establish shore
service facilities. This could be in the form of either a
national workshopattached to the ship repair yard or as
a privately own companyto service automated equipments.
This will reduce dependability on developed nations and
will certainly conserve our foreign exchange. The
companywill also provide services for foreign flags
ships visiting Nigerian ports thereby bringing in the
muchrequired foreign earnings. This will accelerate the
pace of technological advancement in the shipping
industry. whencarefully managedwill eventually lead to
manufacturing of spare parts. All these are possible, as
experience has shown that most of the Asian countries
started technological development in the servicing
industry and finally into manufacturing whose products
are being consumed worldwide today.

Research into frequency of faults on equipment can

also be carried out by the workshop in close cooperation
with staff from the Academy. If Nigeria is to excel in
maritime and related industries, investment in research
and development is highly necessary as practiced in
advancedmaritime countries. Data on serviceability,
tvpe of spare parts and availability, quality of service
and repair facilities ashore, latest innovation in
Shipping and their service preparedness can be made
available to the industry. This will certainly reduce
dependence on other countries.

4.2.4 CAPITAL AVAILABILITY FOR INVESTMENT IN NEW SHIPS.

Capital availability in developing countries is

scarce to purchase new ships. Capital cost of the ships
remains one of the largest single cost, but is one of the
most difficult to quantify with any precision. There are
large variations in the price of similar ships with
different amount of equipment and automation. Heightened
inflation and economicdifficulties has seriously
affected the supply of capital to developing countries
especially Nigeria. in the form of aid or direct loan.
Aninitial analysis set by the government often reveal,
generally, that shipping does not stand high in the list
of priorities with the scare resources. But it should
never be forgotten that shipping can provide invisible
earning to the nation which can help to offset the high
trade deficit and of balance of payment.

with these lack of capital, most developing

countries shipowners especially Nigerians embark on
second hand ship acquisition from developed nations. It
is also evident that most of these second hand vessels
are either fully or semi automated. Such ships can
present to the owner lot of problems as earlier
illustrated if skill crews are not available. The in­
availability of ships and large losses due to high
maintenance cost will be very prominent and will not
encourage the owner to continue such a business.
The'e+°'9v in t0daY‘s shipping environment, it is a harsh
reality that all ships has one form of automation or the

141
other- thus there is no option not to adopt aUt0mati°" 1”
Nigerian fleet. Finally. despite the hard economic
climate Nigeria still import and export products needed
for its survival. This shows that investment in shipping
is a task that should be fulfilled to remove or reduce
dependency from other nations.

4.3.0 SUGGESTED AUTOMATION LEVEL FOR FUTURE NIGERIAN

VESSELS.

Application of automation onboard ships although not

very old development has been given extensive
consideration by shipowners all over the maritime world
particularly of developed nations.

In the foregoing chapters , attempt had been made to

describe automation as available today on modern vessels;
its development,practical applications and benefit
claimed through its implementation. Analysis and
evaluation of factors that would greatly help in
selecting the extent to which it could be adopted on
future ships of Nigeria has also been highlighted.

Havingconsidered the guiding factors, in this

section , therefore , instead of referring to a
hypothetical country, Nigeria has been selected to state
my personal views with recommendation on the level of
automation that can be feasibly adopted on future
Nigerian ships. Also cargo vessels are selected as these
Feflresent majority of ships in merchant fleet of the
country. Further evaluation and analysis would be
considered in future on automation application for

142
oil/chemical tankers.

SUGGESTED AUTOHATION LEVEL IN THE MACHINERY SPACE

Simple UMSor equivalent machinery automation is

recommendedfor newly build ships and should include the
following:
There should exist a control room inside the
machinery space with air condition unit for
maintaining the electronic components within
acceptable temperature and humidity limits.
Under sailing conditions. including maneuvering,
the direction of engine and speed should be
controllable from the navigation bridge in
addition to control from engine room and local
hand control station.
Suitable safety interlocks on the main engine to
be provided e.g. starting engine without
lubricating oil etc.
Overload protection device for main propulsion
also provided.
Emergencystop/crash maneuvering to be provided on
the navigating bridge and engine control room.
Alarms and displays referring to main and
auxiliary engine and other ancillaries to be
fitted on the bridge and control room. This
should include for critical and non-critical
situations.
Audio/visual alarms to be provided on the bridge,
engine room and in engineer‘s cabin for the UMS
operation at night.
Provision to activate engineers‘a1arm in such
circumstances where an alarm has not been
acknowledgewithin a specified time limit­
Provision for continuous power supplv to alarm
system and automatic change over facility to
stand-by power supply in case of loss of normal
supply.
Normal power supply failure should also be
indicated by an alarm.
Provision for continuous alarm indication until it
is acknowledgeand fault rectified. On correction
of fault, alarm system should automatically reset
to normal condition.
Safety arrangement to be incorporated in the main
propulsion plant, power plants and boiler which
should be capable of initiating automatic shut
down/slow down due to malfunctioning to stop
immediate danger and complete breakdown of the
plants. Alarm must also be incorporated.
Shut downof main propulsion and electrical power
plants should be activated only in case of
condition which could lead to serious damage­
complete breakdown or explosion. Arrangement for
overriding the shut downmust be incorporated at
the controls on the bridge/engine room as modern
diesel plant can accept 110%overload for at least
an hour. Dverriding control only to be operated
to facilitate running of propulsion plant to get
ship out of a disastrous situation e.g. collision.
This control to be used only when it is obvious
that the ship and life there-in are in imminent
danger.
Fuel oil temperature to main engine to be
automatically maintained.
L”briC3ti“9 oil and cooling water/oil temperature

144
of both main and auxiliary plants t0 be
automatically maintained.
Automatic change-over arrangement to be provided
to start and put on load a standby power Generator
in case of malfunctioning of the running plant.
This will ensure continuous propulsion etc., and
alarm to be activated during the process.
Meansto detect and initiate an alarm at an early
stage in case of fire in the scavenge trunk of
both main and auxiliary plant and boiler uptakes
must be incorporated.
Alarmindication for all important pressures,
temperatures, fresh water -fuel oil tanks
including the auxiliary and main engine sump tank
levels etc. must be provide on the bridge and
engine control room.
An alarm for control air failure also must be
provided.
Provision should exist for automatic starting
/synchronization and on to main switch board a
stand-by generator sufficient in capacity to
maintain main engine and steering gears to ensure
safety of the ship with automatic reset of
essential ancillaries.
Automatic starting of main air compressor to
maintain starting air pressure with an alarm
incorporated to indicate whenthe required
conditions are not met.
Provision for monitoring of bilge wells at normal
heels and trim/list accumulated liquid with an
alarm to indicate any abnormality.
Oil fired/exhaust gas boiler must be provided with
automatic controls and alarms to ensure a safe,
reliable and economical operation.

145
 Fire/smoke detectors incorporated with alarms must
be provided in the machinery space and cargo
holds.
Refrigeration and air condition plants and systems
must be provided with suitable automation to
maintain desire conditions. Also alarm to activate
if critical limit occur and a shut downcontrol.
- Provision for indication at the same time more
than one fault conditions with alarms.
Acknowledgementof one should not disrupt other
alarm condition.
Diagnostic features for the main engine and diesel
generator plant as described in chapter one should
be incorporated. Initially automatic on-line
monitoring should not be used but data should be
collected from such sensors and fed manually on
either MIP (MaximumIndicated Pressure) calculator
or computer; for example computer aided
performance analysis of the MAN-B&W
(CAPA). These
feature is very important as it acts as a tool to
the engineer in analysing and planning maintenance
of machinery to achieve the best economical
result.

All the above systems should be integrated to ensure

centralization on the bridge and engine control room
monitoring and control systems display data. The Datamic
marine system of Valmet automation or Siemens/ Norcontrol
offers unique systems which has been proven in service.
Thi5 System would lead to vast reduction in maintenance
and operational cost.

146
 NAVIGATION BRIDGE AND DECK AREAS

There should be fairly reasonable amount of

automation at the navigation bridge to cope with ever
increasing traffic density , rising ship speeds, cargo
values and the ship. This would assist the watch officer
on the bridge to reach better decision more quickly and
accurately.

The navigation bridge is the only position that is

mannedthroughout 24 hours at sea. It is therefore, the
most convenient place to have a fair amount of automation
for alarm condition monitoring of the main and auxiliary
machinerywith steering plant. Fire control station
should also be installed on the bridge for fire/smoke
detection with an alarm. ( Considerable work has been
done by International Maritime Organization (IMD)). It is
therefore necessary that guidance from IMOconventions
should be followed when installation on the bridge is
carried out. ( Suggestion to refer to SOLAS‘74would be
very appropriate).

The integrated bridge system describe in chapter two

could be scaled down initially to accommodatethe
following automation installations:
_ Automatic helmsmanto steer the ship automatically
though not in fog or near coast or in area of high
density traffic and must be incorporated with an
alarm to automatically activate in case of
failure.
- Repeater compassto assist navigation.
- Course recorder to keep a graphical record of all
courses steer.
- Radars which serve a two-fold function combining

147
that of an easy to use position fixing device with
an all-weather lookout functions. (This equipment
has been made mandatory since 1984 by
International Convention)
ARPA(Automatic radar plotting aid); These are
sophisticated radar sets with built-in computers
and is also mandatory.
Log to measure ship speed.
Gyro-compassto give true direction, but being
mechanically sophisticated is carried in addition
to magnetic compass. Mandatory regulation in IMO
since 1974 and entered into force 1984.
Radio direction finder - also compulsory on ships
over 1600grt. with this device, the bearing of
known radio beacons can be taken and also the
bearing of radio distress signal. It has a safety
feature as well as a navigational tool.
Decca, Loran-C or omega as required by
International regulation.
Navigation satellite receiver; it can be used
worldwide and fixes can be obtained on an average
of about every hour. It computes and prints out
the level of accuracy that can be relied on for a
given fix.
Echo sounder; is a sonic device capable of
measuring the depth of water under the ship. It
can display the depth either graphically or on a
visual display monitor. It is recommended by IMD
for all ships over 500grt.
weather facsimile recorder: This facilitate ships
at sea to receive weather forecast charts from the
main forecast centres of the world. It can be
considered as a complementary and in addition to
external weather-routing.
 Main engine revolution and rudder angle
indicators.
INHARSAT- In 1993 GMDSS (Global maritime distress
safety signal) will enter into force. This
satellite system will solve all communication
problems between ship and shore and between ship
to ship. It will therefore facilitate contact
between ship and head office using telephones and
teleprinter via computers concerning matters of
operation, maintenance and spareparts.

This system can be extended to incorporate:

a) Radio-auto-alarm - to listen automatically for
distress calls.
b \.r
Telephone communication between ships, pilots
control, tugs, and canal authorities etc.

Internal communication system within the ship

should also exist.
For mooring winch, self-tensioning type should be
installed. This will automatically tighten the
mooring ropes when vessel is at the quay.
A simple loading calculator should be used. This
will assist in ballasting and de-ballasting
operations by planning and calculating the centre
of gravity of the ship. It can also be use in
1°adi”Q Of Cargo by working out the ship draft,
trim, heel as well as the overall strength and
stability of the ship.

149
 MANAGEMENT AREA

Shipboard managementsystem should be installed in

Nigerian vessels. This is a computerized information and
management system like SPRINTMANdeveloped by DNV. It
covers the following functions:
—Maintenance planning
- Accounting
—Spare parts control and ordering
- Load calculation.

Maintenance planning comprises of the following

functions:
:Long term planning
:Annual planning
:Running hour— based planning
:Job card
:Maintenance history documentation
:Progress report
:Breakdown report
:Classification society report etc.

This type of system will certainly ease the

management work load by dispensing cumbersome paper work
and improving the process of decision making.

4.4.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The above level of automation for Nigerian ships of

the future has been suggested, taking into account the
past experiences with semi-automatedvessels. possibility
of technological advancement in the country that could be
achi9V3b1Estechnical aptitude of the people, 1eve1 of

150
 training already proposed, capital availability, repalr
and spare parts availability, crew wages, social and
other economicalconsiderations in future technological
advanced nation. with these level of automation, it will
be possible to crew such ship with less than 30 people
initiallY- A5progress is madeto establishing a good
shore repair facilities and probably less and less crew
could be employed. It must be understood that the
primarily aim of automation level suggested is for
safety, reliability and economical operation but not for
crew reduction, so that shipping in Nigeria can remain
competitive in world trade. Such a level will, beside
fulfilling the basic requirement of safety, but would
also facilitate maximumrepair and maintenance work by
the crew of which in the long run will ensure extensive
savings.
As already mentioned, all actions to implement the
above suggested automation in Nigerian fleet must be
carefully executed in order to bring the desire benefits
claim through the use of such systems. If not, it could
increase the cost of operation leading to loss of
earnings through maintenance. At the end of 1991
financial year, about 18Zof total earnings from the
present fleet of the Nigerian National Shipping Lines was
used for only maintenance with ample off-hire periods due
to these. This can not be accepted as these cost can be
drastically reduced by careful application of automation
with adequate skill to manthe ships. Evaluation of type
of maintenance being necessary to carry out preventive,
breakdown, planned etc.; most probably commonfailures
and reasons could be revealed and then educationally
oriented towards avoiding such costly breakdowns.

151
CHAPTER FIVE:CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.

The depressed world economy, increased oil prices,

increased labour and operating costs coupled with
stringent international requirements for safety and
environmental protection has greatly influenced the
design and installation of equipment onboard ships.

Developing countries especially Nigeria had

therefore been largely influenced by advanced maritime
nations to adopt automation. These has been done without
due planning for the required manpowerdevelopment, shore
maintenance facilities at homeport and the level of
technological development of the country. Thus
experience with semi-automated vessels in Nigeria was a
complete failure as benefits claimed through the adoption
of automation as a cost reducing measure, energy saving
and reliability of machinery were not realized. It must
be worth noting that shipping is an international
industry and in recent years more sophisticated automated
systems had been applied on ships. Thus Nigerian
shipowners at the present state of technological
development must adopt a fairly amount of automation so
as to remain competitive in the shipping trade.

Automation therefore can be advantageous if Nigeria

is tEch”iCa11Y 9qUiPPEd both in hardware and software
But if this is not achieved, it can diminish efficiency,
'9 1. 13b111tYand
. . Safety of the ship.
' This
. could result in

152
a ccidentswith the possibility of total inveStmEnt 1055
or heavy repairs with ample financial burden to the
DHHEF .

High initial investments are needed for very high

technological ships and the cost of similar ships varies
with suitable level of automation as suggested in chapter
four of this paper. Thus the latter automation level
ships is suitable for the Nigerian industry at the moment
as there are limited access to capital and less skill
manpowerto enhance safe and economical operation.

Presently. Nigeria is plagued with severe

unemploymentproblems; thus with these abundant supply of
manpowerif properly trained can be very economical and
productive to both the country‘s shipping industry and
can supply manpowerto the developed nations of which are
currently experiencing shortage. This will set the pace
for technological development and improvement in shipping
and related industries. It will also provide additional
foreign earnings to the trained crews and reduce
unemploymentin the country at large.

Though crew costs at the moment in Nigeria is very

low as compareto industrialize nations, but it should
not be forgotten that the emerging industrialize nations
of the Far Eastern countries like Japan, Taiwan and
Singapore had similar experience. Today their crew costs
had shut up and have now turn to automation to reduce the
labour cost so as to be economically viable in the
shipping business. Such a situation will likely occur in
Nigeria as the economy and technology improve.
Therefore, there is need to adopt at least minimumlevel
of automation to keep the work force in touch with the

H U1 ‘/1
technology so as to facilitate a smooth change in future­

In an attempt to develop and improve the national

fleet, Nigeria mayrequest developed maritime nation for
their technical and managementexpertise in shipping. It
is wise to suggest that such cooperation in this field
mayhave the potential bad effect of fostering rivals.
As potential shipowners should embark on purchasing
second hand ships which are cheap on the present market,
man them with Nigerian crews and update the present
maritime academyfacilities for training in modernship
operation. Cooperation can be sort with the regional
academies in the West Africa region which has already the
equipment for training and later can equip the country’s
academy to do same. The level of training will be
upgraded so as to familiarize maritime officers and crew
with operating, fault tracing and repair procedures of
modern automated ships. This would eliminate dependency
on developed nations both in manpowertraining and
technological advancement.

It is worth recommendingthat in vessel

certification process for high technology, shipowners
should conduct a thorough assessment of shipboard
functions and tasks required by the particular vessel.
It should also summit a functional analysis (with
specified crew membersand structure, skills and
trainings Voyageprofiles and operational and
maintenance plans) to the maritime administration for
aDDroval. Uponconditional approval, vessels should be
subjected to such sea trails as the Administration deems
appropriate with logs of crew activities. Data from
trials should be used to validate the results obtained
from such model. (see figure 26). Unwarranted barriers

154
 . _ . - ' "r limited manning
to innovation lfi 5hip operation like
should be discouraged too.

e T
TREIKS

IIOUIIIHINT INIIJSIS
RIHSUIJTS

SYSTII IIOUIIIHINTS

TISX NOLYSIS TISI TO I SUTYORTID

uTlISINT
.FUTUl!
‘ nan/no HI
TIIDIOTF STUDIES HAN/HA MINI TRQDI OFF

OIGINIZQTI }Nil INQIYSIS -_‘ HITIIX' CONTRQINTS

ORGANIIOTTONQL

SOITHQII ANALYSIS SOFTHQRI IIIOXDOHN

.INTORHfiTION SYSTIHS
«DECISION SUTPORT SYSTEM
.IXPIIT SYSTIHS

I-MIDHAREANALYSIS mung“ M515” Mu,

SPECIFICATIONS

Figure 2‘.

with the present state of Nigerian shipping,

shipowners also should opt for ships with minimum
automation. The ship should be manned with fairly large
number of Nigerian crews which are not very expensive and
have most of the repairs and maintenance work done by the
Cf'EVi.

155
 Perhaps, elimination of watch standing in engifie
room with adoption of minimum UMSrequirement would
enable day work system. This will create the possibility
for the more important and efficient maintenance work to
be executed as all the engine room staff can work as a
team This would facilitate better plan maintenance
system.

Nigerian shipowners should never be lured into

adoption of highly automated equipments, rather it have
the necessity for a slow, steady adoption to be sure that
equipment have proven to be dependable , reliable and
safe onboard ships. Also the level to be adopted should
be in conformity with technological, operational and
service preparedness with associated social economical
factors of the country.

Finally, it could be concluded that automation can

improve system efficiency by reducing power requirements,
reduce maintenance, increased sensitivity, accuracy and
consistency, improved working conditions and reduced
manpowerrequirement.

A proper design automatic control system can keep

the process operating at maximumefficiency for the
established limitations. A control system is extremely
sensitive to any parameter in that the quality of the
output and efficiency of the process are no longer
limited by or even depend upon the sensitivity of the
engineer. For example, a modern autopilot, in addition
to its manyother inputs, can measure the vessel‘s
acceleration and it therefore can minimize the rudder
applied bY aPP1YinQit early thereby reducing the speed

156
 loss from the use of excess rudder. One very importafit
engine room example is the feedwater and combustion
control for modern boilers. Firemen cannot maintain the
water level or the firing rate as efficiently as a well
designed control system. Because of the high sensitivity
of the feed water control system, modern boilers can be
operated at higher temperatures and with smaller drums
and therefore higher efficiency. Additionally, for
processes which result in a product, use of automated
control systems can improve the consistency of the
product. Becauseall of the little inconsistencies and
variations in the product which were caused by human
fatigue or inattention can be eliminated thereby reducing
the quality control reject rate. Even while changing
ship's speed, efficiency does not have to depend on the
skill of the operator if the proper control system is
installed.

Employers, except those who maintain condition which

are not even humane, tend to consider that improved
working conditions are to both the employer‘s and
emp1oyee‘s advantage because if men can be released from
exceptionally unpleasant environments, job repetition and
from hard physical effort, their efficiency will
improved. workers and watch keepers are normally
positively impressed with new automated control systems
that improve working conditions.

when an automatic control system maintains or

exceeds the efficiency, reliability and safety of a
manual system, then it maybe possible to reduce staff.
Staff reduction aboard ships has a beneficial ripple
effect in that a manpowerreduction implies not only a
salary reduction but it carries with it a reduction in

157
 crew support costs including the initial cost of
accommodations, living and stowage 59359; ‘Bod Etc‘

Processes which are being automatically controlled

at maximumefficiency will probably experience less wear
and fewer breakdowns than manually control systems and
therefore require less maintenance. This comes about
because the stresses and load placed on a system under
automatic control can be less than those created by
manual control. Thoughit is possible for the maintenance
required by the control system to exceed the reduction in
maintenance on process equipment, this is rare , and when
considered in the light of the reduced repair costs
because of reduced damageto equipment attributable to
inexperienced personnel, automatically controlled systems
usually cost less to maintain.

Correctly functioning automated equipment does not

makehumanerrors such as changing the throttle in the
wrong direction or turning the rudder to port when
starboard is ordered. If the system‘s safety is reduced
by automating it, then serious consideration must be
given to leaving it the way it was.

If proper human, technical and economic engineering

design practices are used, there are no disadvantages to
automatic control systems. This does not mean that
everything that can be automated should. Proper design
practices would not recommendautomating systems which do
not need it. It is true that automated systems require
m°'9 d95i9n effort, skilled labour, sophisticated
te5tinQs training and equipment cost. However, if life
time costs do not go downas a result of automating, then
automating is probably not the right thing to do. It

158
should be noted though, that automated systems which are
constantly by-passed because the crews does not know how
to fix it, does not like it or cannot understand its
operation is probably not yielding the benefits the
designer thought was available.

In conclusion, therefore, the main purpose of an

automatic control system can be summarized as follows:­

a) To relieve an operator from the tedious activity

of constantly adjusting a sensitive process by
hand.

b) To improve the quality of the product or

performance obtained from the plant.

c) To increase profit.

d) To exploit an unstable, explosive, or otherwise

intractable process.

159
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 BibliographY

1) Chapmanand Hall; Mechatronics- Electronics in

product and processes.
2) V. Daniel Hunt: Mechatronics- Japan newest threat.
Charles Edquist & staffan Jacobsson: The Global di*tUSiDn
of newtechnology in the engineering industry.
4) Edited by J. Vliestra; Ship operation automation III.
5) C. Kuo & A.J.Thunem; Computer applications in shipping
and shipbuilding.
6) Marine Engineering review March 1985; Energy and cost
saving in ship operation.
7) Minister press briefing ( Federal Ministry Of transport)­
1991.
8) Leslie Jackson; Reeds Instrumentation and control system.
9) Fairplay International shipping weekly, March. 1992.
10) Masato Matsumoto & Tohru Okayama; N.K. tech. bulletin.
“Viewsof the classification society”.
11) M.K.Eberle- Sulzer brothers Ltd: Technical journal:
Diagnostic system for diesel engines.
12) J. Listerwnik (Professor. Maritime University—Po1and;
Technical paper on bearing loads as a diagnostic factor
in diesel engine condition monitoring.
13) A.J.Hind; Automation in merchant ships.
14) A-5399" i Ship operation of the future.Tran. I. Mar.E(c).
15) Y- Iijimai Ship automation - past, present and future.
16) A.Sagen;Veritas world. Satellite assisted ship operation
of the future.
17) Marine Engineering/Log. Meet the intelligent ship.
18) DNV. How can manning go with safety.

162
19) L1oydgRegister Statistics:
1990­
20) aguzaubag H.P. Drewery: shipping statistics.
21) L. Johansson: The application of electronic systems in
engine room: Joint conference I. MarEand N.I. 1974.
22) Marine Technology; Technical Bulletin—1990.
23) Chr. GrumSchwensen; Coagency between piston rings and
cylinder liners N.S. Jan. 1979.
H J3 Otto Martens, Geir Fiska & Helge Santory; Comfluterized
predictive maintenance of diesel machinery IV­
International symposiumon ship automation. Geneva lo
15th Nov.1974.
M, Langballe: Investigations into the thermal loading of
large bore diesel engine. European shipbuilding -1969.
T. Wiborg; wear resistance of cast iron cylinder liner
materials.
27 \.r Sverre Bergmann; Nye sensoreelementer, Teknisk ukeblad
No.8 1974.
28) K. H. Drager; Proceedings of the 27th annual ISA
conference. new York, oct 9-12th 1972.
Captain T.Darkey; Harmonization of the Maritime Education
and Training system. IMLAconference New York 1992.
Barry Talyor & Rashid Klan: Naval Engineers Journal- May
1988. Integrated Machinery control- The way of the
future.
The motor ship Journal Nov.1991. UMSdemands require
better automation.
Interviews conducted in Dec,1992 with Marine Engineers
serving with Nigerian National Shipping Line.
NorwegeanMaritime Research papers Nr.3 vol. 3,
Condition monitoring of diesel engines.
Research papers, United states of America Maritime board
1990.

163
 HDRLD HARITIHE UNIVERSITY

£§I)\IF§hlC2EEI) ]IhJ1'EEG3F?(§'rEEI) C3LJF?F?I[(3lJL_lJr4

FECJF? 1'F1EE 1'F?£\]Ihl]IhJE3
CJF’ F1F§F?]IhJEE EEhJG3]IhJEEEEF?£3 JIFJ PJIICSEEFQIIIA

BY

EFIONG ETIM MFON

NIGERIA

A dissertation submitted to the World Maritime University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

IN

HARITIHE EDUCATION AND TRAINING (MARINE ENGINEERING).

1992
 I certify that all material in this dissertation which is
not my own work has been identified and that no material is
included for which a degree has been previously conferred
upon me.

The contents of this dissertation reflect mypersonal views

and are not necessarily endorsed by the University

Signed:
5%
y

Date: 757*‘ @o&/Lu /33:2» ­

Assessed by:

Masatsugu Himura
/71ifL/1 '

professor,
Maritime Education and Training (Marine Engineering)
World Maritime University

Co-assessed by

Capt. S.J.Cros
Visiting lectu
World Maritime University
Malmo - Sweden.
 I)EEI)IIC3¢§'FIIC3Pd

This dissertation is dedicated to mynephewlate Etim Effiong

Abia. He served me honestly and faithfully, but passed away
from this life during mystudies abroad.
 F§C3FihJCJUJL_EEI)C3EEP4EEPd'T

I take this opportunity to thank mycourse professor,

M. Kimura, Lt. Comdr. S. Dhnstad, Capt. J. Cross, Randall
R. Fiebrandt for their encouragement, detailed and
constructive commentson earlier drafts, which helped me
greatly in preparing final version of the dissertation.

In addition, I thank Dr. I.E. Douglas and Capt. E.D. Agbakoba

for the valuable input that I received from them during the
period of writing this dissertation.

Finally, I thank my colleagues Uy Van Dang, Erdal Adnan,

Parnupong Pattisink and Abebe Araya for the part play to
bring what seems a hurricane task to the successful end.

To mywife and children, I am grateful for the patience, and

the endurance for two year in pursuance of the programme. My
wife Ikwo, was intimately involved with helping me to collect
some of the information. Without which it could not have
been possible. I am forever indebted to these people.
 F\E3E31'F?ۤ(3'r

The existing marine engineering curriculum in Nigeria was

designed and installed between 1977 - 78, but came into
operation in 1979. It is more or less, a pattern of the
United Kingdom’s old system.

The programme focuses less on education but more training

on shipboard operation.

The programmeproved to be very useful, in that it produces

skilled operators needed for ship operation. But fails to
provide flexibility for someone wanting to change for new
jobs ashore.

Curriculum can never be static. Not only is it unlikely

that a single curriculum could ever be agreed upon, but one
curriculum could not satisfactorily meet the legitimately
varied educational goals. A multiplicity of paths to
certificates and engineering degree would be best.

The changes in professional activities have a strong

influence on objectives and contents of engineering
training. The present curriculum is based on the Standard
of Training, Certification and Watchkeepingfor Seafarers,
(STCW),1978. There is a low level of trust everywhere in
the convention. Its prescriptions is not only out of date
with machinery but the ship design, multi-purpose
programme, and automation system.

This dissertation, therefore, is necessitated by the needs

to restructuring and upgrading the existing curriculum to
the bachelor degree level. This is supposed to run in
parallel with Certificates of Competence.
Education (NBTE),in the other hand. The paper. therefore.
suggested means to either bridge or narrow the gaps.

I have used the Standard of Training, Certification and

Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW)1973, as a minimumn
standard for License. This level should be exceeded to
meet the requirements of Nigerian Acceditation Board for
purpose of degree_award.

For the new approach, I have recommended the curriculum to

be divided into knowledgeacquisition and skill training.
The idea being to maintain a balance between the
fundamentahsand specialization.

I have listed out the existing tacilities in the Maritime

Academyand the training scheme. I have also enumerated
the deficiencies connected with the scheme. for_which
reasons the cadets and the industty are getting the real of
time and investment.

For solution. I have shown in my recommendation. how the

proposed curriculum can be implemented. with little_or no
constraint. This proposal is to take account of the
drastic and revolutionary changes in the maritime industry.
 'r¢§E3L_EE CJF= c:c3ru‘r£:rq1's3

Dedicat1on............................iii
Acknowledge...........................iv
Abstract..............................v
Listof Figur¢s.......................xi
Listof Tables........................xii
List of Acronyms......................xiv

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 HistoricalBackground........................1
1.2 Geo-PoliticalInformation....................2
1.3 Social-Economic
Information..................3
1.4 Population...................................4
1.5 Water/Port5..................................7
1.6 InternationalOrganization...................7
1.7 EarlyTrainingMethod........................B
1.8 ColonialInfluenceand Legacy................9
1.9 TheNationalIdentity........................9
1.11 Natureof Curriculum........................1O
1.12 BackgroundProblem..........................11
‘I13 ContentlliolooclloolIIIIIICIIIIIIIII2
1I IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
1.15 Significanceof the Study...................13
1I IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
II17 Met‘-‘odo1°gYIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII16
 CHAPTER II

EDUCATION AND TRAINING

2.1 Introduction.................................1B
2.2 Technical Education and the NewSystem.......20
2.3 National Policy on Technical Education.......21
2.4 Objectives of the Technical Education........21
2.5 Structure of TechnicalEducation.............21
2.6 National Philosophyof Education.............22
2.7 Professional
Certificates....................23
2.9 Existing
Gaps................................26
2.9 Proposalfor Improvements....................26
2.10 Maritime Engineering Training in Nigeria.....2B
2.11 MaritimeInstitutions in Nigeria.............29
CHAPTER III

MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Introduction...................................33
3.2 Shortage of Officers...........................33
3.3 StatiscalEvidence.............................34
3.4 Periodof Seafaring............................35
3.5 PriorityAreas.................................37
3.6 NigerianO{fshoreIndustry.....................3B
3.7 Expensive Components.......................... 33
3.3 OffshoreGeographical Vessel...................39
3.9 NigerianNationalShippingLine................42
3.10 Nigerian National PetroleumCorporation........45
3.11 NigerianPortsAuthority.......................45
3.12 Private
Sector.................................47
3.13 Training
Institutions..........................4B
3.14 CDDCILISIOI1...-..----.a....--.-......---an--u-..49

viii
CHAPTER IV

MARINE ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND TRAINING

4.1 Il'ltf'DdUCtiOfl.o.u..............-...........----.53
4.2 Historical Background: 197a—19BauolIInoIIIcuI53
4.3 QCadEmY..................a.u.-.54
4.4 Organization
Structure.........................54
4.5 Objectivesof the Academy......................55
4.5 ThePowersof the Academy......................55
4.7 Existing MarineEngineeringCurricula..........57
4.3 CoreSubjectAreas.............................58
4.9 Mandatory
Courses..............................63
4.10 Leadershipand Physical Education..............63
4.11 Facilities.....................................65
4.12 TeachingStaff.................................65
4.13 The weaknessof the Existing Curricu1um........66
4.14 Enemyof Competition...........................67
- 4.15 Admission......................................68
4.16 River State Univ., Har.,Engr., Curricu1um......69
4.17 ConclusionsIIIIUICOCIIllolllllllIllIlIll|IIIloI7o

CHAPTER V

PROPOSED CURRICULUM DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Introduction...................................B2
5.2 Approachto the NewCurricu1um.................B3
5.3 Three Phases of the NewCurricu1um............B7
5.4 Curriculumfor the National Aspiration.........B9
5.5 Course
duration................................9T
5.6 4-year Front LoadedCurricu1um.................99
5.7 MajorProgramme...............................100
5.8 certi{icatiDnIuuuIolooneInuooouounouooooouonouiulo
 5:9 ExnmimtionllilIIIIIIIIIIIIlIIIIlUOlOIIlIllOOI111
5.10CrashProgramme
..............................112
CHAPTER VI

CDNCLUSIONICIIIIIIICIIIIIIIIUII127
BIBLIOGRAPHYUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIICIIIIIIOIIIIIII12B
 L.I!B'T CJFE F’I(3lJF?EE£3

CHAPTER I

ANNEX - A

Fig. 1.1 Micro-Bsaed Integrated Ship

SmemlbliilllllllflilliIIIOOIIIIIIB
CHAPTER II

ANNEX - B

Fig. 2.1 OldEducationSystem.............30

Fig. 2.2 A NewSystem Unsatisfactory......31

Fig. 2'3 Recommended

NewSy5tem...........32

CHAPTER III

ANNEX - C

Fig. 3.1 TheSupplyof Seafarers..........51

Fig. 3.2 TheDemandoi Seafarers..........51

Fig. 3.3 Geophysical Physical Vesse1s.....52

CHAPTER IV

ANNEX - D

Fig. 4.1 The Organization Chart, Maritime

Academyof Nigeria - Uron.......B0
Fig. 4.2 The Flow of Chart the existing
Curriculumin Nigeria...........B1
CHAPTER V

ANNEX - E

Fig. Three Distinct Phases of

EngineeringCareer.............113
Fig. 5.2 Philosophical view of the

Curriculumnnunuonnoau-o--u-un--.114

Fig. 5.3 Picturial View, Subjects

COfl'|bI-.natiOnunaanann---auuuu-u--115

Fig. 5'4 Flow Chart, proposed Curricu1a.116

 L.]IE31' CJF= 'T¢§I3L_EEE3

CHAPTER III

Table 3.1 Short Span of Sea Service

RegionbyRegion.................35
Table 3.2 Crude Oil shipped at Nigerian

TE|'fl'|il'|a1Sn-cc-up-ouuuuounnuuu41

Table 3.3 Nigerian Import and Export

from the United Kingdom..........43

Table 3.4 Nigerian and non-Nigerian

International Trade in West

Africacompared..................44
Table 3.5 Container Trafic IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII46
CHAPTER V

Table 5.1 International Comparison of

Maritime Education Training

CourseDuration...................9B

xiii
I_JI£31' CJFF ¢§C3F?CJPJ\/F183

ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific

BIMCD Baltic International Maritime Council
DWT Deadweight Tonnage
ECDWASEconomics Community of west Africa States
FOB Free on Board
FCC Federal Craft Centre
BMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety system
GCE General Certificate of Education
IMO International Maritime Organization
ISF International Shipping Federation
IMLA International Maritime Lecturers Association
MSA Maritime Safety Administration
NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation
NNSL Nigerian National Shipping Line
NPA Nigerian Ports Authority
VTS Vessel Trafic System
FRONT­
LDADEDA standard system of training in which the
basic academic knowledge needed, is given
in one continuous part prior to the skill
training and experience.
SANDWICH­
SYSTEM The system of Maritime Education which is
made up of alternate times of academic
studies and skill training.
 C3F1F\F’1'EEF? ‘I

]IhJ1'F?C3I)LJC31']ICJhl

1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

"Fromthe dawn of history, maritime trade was carried on

by merchants who conveyed their own commodities and
sometimes those of others“ (Rinmanand Brodefors, p.10).

History shows that the geographical position of Nigeria

madeearly contact with the European merchants possible.
Nigeria comprises a number of areas formerly under separate
administrations. Lagos, ceded in August, 1861 by King
Dosumu, was placed under the governor of Sierra Leone in
1866. In 1874 it was detached, together with the Gold
Coast (now Ghana) colony, and formed part of the latter
until January 1 1986, when a separate "colony and
protectorate of Lagos" was constituted".

Apparently, the United African Companyhad established a

British interest in the Niger valley and in July, 1886 the
companyobtained a charter under the name of the Royal
Niger Company. In January, 1900, the greater part of its
territory was formed into the protectorate of Northern
Nigeria.

Along the coast, the Oil Rivers protectorate had been

declared in June 1885. This was enlarged and renamed the
Niger Coast protectorate in 1893, and on 1 January 1900, by
absorbing the remainder of the territories of the Royal
Niger Company,it became the protectorate of Southern
Nigeria. In February 1906 Lagos and Southern Nigeria was
united into the "colony and protectorate of southern
Nigeria“.

In Januarv. 1914 the Northern and Southern protectorates

were amalgamated to form the "colonv and protectorate of
Nigeria". under a governor-General. October 1. 1954
Nigeria became a federal state. In 1960. Nigeria became a
sovereign and independent countrv.

1.2 GEO-POLITICAL INFORMATION

Nigeria is a Federal Republic with thirtv constituent
states as at August 1991. It is located on the west
Africa. and falls whithin latitudes 4 and 14 and longitudes
3 E and 15 E. It covers a land area of 923. 768 sq.km. and
is bordered to the west bv the Republic of Benin. to the
north by the Niger Republic and to the east by the Republic
of Cameroonu Nigeria also shares a commonborder on the
Lake Chad with the Republic of Chad to the north-east.
while the Atlantic Ocean demarcates its southern coast
line.

The Nigerian land mass is drained by many rivers and

waterways incuding the two major ones. the River Niger.
from which the name derives. and the River Benue. The two
rivers form a confluence at Lokoja in the centre of the
countrv from where the River Niger fans out into a delta
before flowing into the Atlantic.
‘C

There are two main seasons in Nigeria: the rainv season

which lasts from April to October, and the drv season.
which runs from November to March. The vegetation of the
countrv ranges from the Mangroveforest in the delta area
of the southern Nigeria through tropical rain forests and
the Sudan savannah in the extreme north. The temperature
in the southern part of the country is somehowstable and
does not normallv exceed 32 degrees centigrade whereas in
the north it goes from 13 centigrade to 40 centigrade.
 Nigeria is a federal state. Origionally, Lagos was the
federal capital, but this status has seen been removedto
Abuja the new federal capital city. Lagos now remains
commercial centre and seaport.

Nigeria comprises of 30 states. The states include

Abia, Adamawa, Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Bauchi, Benue, Borno,
Cross River, Delta, Edo, Enugu, Imo, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano,
Katsina, Kebbi, Kogi, Kwara, Lagos, Niger, Ogun, Ondo,
Dsun, Dyo, Plateau, Rivers, Sokoto, Taraba, Yobe and Abuja
the federal capital territory.

1.3 SOCIAL-ECONOMIC INFORMATION

There are about 252 ethnic groups and languages in

Nigeria. However, Ibo, Yoruba and Hausa are spoken, but
English remains the official language of the country.
Christianity and Islam are the two main religions,
therefore, by the constitution the country is a secular
state.

Nigeria has substantial natural resources. Properly

exploited, Nigeria’s fertiled land is capable of makingthe
country self-sufficient in food. The country also has
substantial quantities of minerals like petroleum, natural
gas, coal, colombite, gold, limestone, manganese, tin and
uranium.

Broadly, Nigeria is one the largest producers of petroleum

in the world. Its production target for the first quarter
of 1991 was 2.1 million barrels per day, while proven
reserves at the end of 1990 were 17.1 billion barrels.
Since then more oil has been discovered. The natural gas
reserve are even more substantial.
 The country is an agricultural country, agriculture
sector of the economy employs nearly 65%of the working
population. It accounts for 28%of the gross domestic
product (GDP). Crude Oil sector accounts for about 30%of
the GDP. However, the economy depends so much on revenue
from the petroleum export, because it accounts for about
822 of the country foreign exchange requirements.

1.4 POPULATION
Nigeria’s population provides a large humanresource
pool and it has invested substantially in education and
training of its manpower. In view of its great economic
potential, Nigeria is a developing country, whose economy
depends largely on the export of petroleum for its foreign
exchange earnings. However, with prudent management the
future of Nigeria is guaranteed. It is nowself-sufficient
in food and its industrial base is large enough to meet
domestic requirements and exports.

Population census has always been a thorny issue in

Nigeria. But Babangida’s administration has succeeded to
produce a census that by and large is acceptable and seems
reasonable to the vast majority of Nigerians. The I
population of Nigeria is 86,514,501. The break down
against the 30 states are follows:
 CENSUS FIGURES

BTATE NAE POPULATION PER STATE

Abin 2,297,978

Adamant 2,124,049

Akun Ibon 2,359,736

Anambra 2,769,902

Bauchi 4,294,413

Benue 2,730,399

Borno 2,596,589

Cross River 1,355,504

Delta 2,570,131

Eda 2,159,349

Enugu 3,151,295

Ina 2,485,499

Jigaua 2,329,929

Kaduna 3,969,252

Kano 5,532,040

Katsina 3,379,344
 Kibbi 2,062,226

- K091 2,099,045

Kuara 1,566,469

Lagos 5,595,791

Niger 2,482,367

- Ogun 2,333,570

- Ondo 3,884,485

- Dsun 2,203,015

- Dyo 3,488,789

Plateau 3,293,704

- Rivers 3,993,957

Sokoto 4,392,391

Taraba 1,430,590

- Yobe 1,411,431

Abuja 373,571

Country Total = 33,514,501.

SOURCE:Nest Africa March, 1992.

1.5 HATER\PORTS
The government has established eleven River Basin
Authorities, for water resources development. The
principal ports are, Lagos, Port Harcout, Tin Can Island,
Onne, Harri, and Calabar. There is an extensive inland
waterway.

1.6 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS.

Nigeria is a memberof the following organizations:

Economic Community of west African States (ECOWAS),
Organization of African Unity (OAU),Organization of Oil
Producing Countries (OPEC), Commonwealth, United Nations
Organization (UN), and the International Maritime
Organization (IMO). Additionally, Nigeria is a party to
fourteen IMOconventions. It holds an African Caribbean
and Pacific (ACP) status in the European Economy Community.

Nigeria is blessed with an abundance of marine

resources. It has manyrivers, lakes, and lagoons. On the
south, it has a coast line of about one thousand nautical
miles. It has also an annaul trade volume worth more than
two million metric tonnes.

It enjoys a status of a maritime state in the west

African sub-region. But it is not a maritime state in a
true sense of such a definition, like Norway,Japan, the
United States of America and others. The fact is that the
ruling colonial power, Great Britain was a great maritime
state, within the true sense of such definition, and
attempted to induce such maritime interests upon Nigeria.
1.7 HEANB OF TRANSPORTATION.

Naturally, seafaring is a learning while you work

occupation. The main reason for this might be because the
seafaring is one the oldest professions knownto man. In
Nigeria, coastal communities, along the bank of Dron, Cross
River, OpoboRivers, et al, used rafters, floating wood,
bamboos,calabash and other forms of floaters, tied
together for transportation. These floaters, were relied
on ebb and flood tides.

Carved canoes (miniature boats) made out of single logs and

powered by means by hand paddles were later introduced. By
1846, the canoes were highly developed and were used freely
to convey passengers and goods from one coastal town to
another. Fishing was prominent and was mainly the
principal occupation for a good number of coastal
communities as a result of improved of canoes.

1.8 THE EARLY TRAINING METHOD.

The training and education of seafarers was purely

informal in approach. Broadly, man has always been able to
use the oceans as a means of transportation. However, he
was not a seafarer in the true sense of the word. Somehow,
life at sea is different from the natural modeof living.
Basically it takes several years of practical experience
for one to adjust to a seaman’s life.

Traditionally, an average Nigerian seafarer in those

days, started a seagoing life in youth as an apprentice.
The young man promised to serve the master obediently and
faithfully, the master was also under obligation to teach
himthe art and tricks of the profession.
It is worth mentioning that international trade was under
the control of the private companies. The only training
schools in the country were organized by the private
companies. The so-called training schools could just
produce quarter masters, river-master, marine engineering
assistants, at a1.

1.9 COLONIAL INFLUENCE AND LEGACY.

In particular, the influence of Britain is felt in

Nigerian shipping and maritime circles up to the present.
Broadly, Nigerian maritime education training must be seen
in that perspective. whenNigeria was a British colony,
and of course even beyond that time when Nigeria was either
self-governing or semi-independent, British shipping laws
became Nigerian shipping laws.

There have been relatively few changes to basic

evolution since then. At at present, wordings of Nigerian
shipping Acts reflect the British system. One is not
suggesting that something was wrong with all this. Nigeria
simply followed what the former British colonies did. In
between early and late 1950s, some remarkable progress was
recorded in Nigerian international trade. This saw the
establishment of a Ports Authority in 1950. It was not
autonomous but was simply placed under the department of
marine affairs.
1.10 THE NATIONAL IDENTITY
As a result of bouyant economyin the maritime sector,
the following departments were created: GovernmentCoastal
Agpncy, Nigerian National Shipping Line <NNSL)and Nigerian
Navy Notably, immediately after independence in 1960, the
Maritime Safety Division and the Nigerian Merchant Shipping
Acts came into effect in 1962. (Otobo, WMU,1985).

The problem, however, was that Nigeria was different from

Britain in manyways, but most importantly, Nigeria did not
have the maritime consciousness which underpinned the
British maritime policy and NET. As Nigeria developed its
own national identity and economy more and more, maritime
considerations became less an issue. However, it also
shows a that long-term Nigerian maritime policy was not in
the forefront of national thinking.

1.11 NATURE OF CURRICULUM.

The pattern for a integrated curriculum for the training

of the marine engineers, which this paper proposes, differs
from the dual-purpose or bivalent programme. what is being
proposed in this paper is a curriculum which will bring
together both instructions designed to makea potential
marine engineer succeed in his profession as well as give
him an Academicdegree. It is also suggested that
consideration be given to the creation of professional
degree programmesfor students inclined towards practice.
Such a programme, without thesis requirement, might offer a
master degree of Engineering (H.E), or might be cast as a
B.SC-M.E. dual degree programme.

As for a bivalent system the Nigerian economy, its work

ethics and culture can not support the dual- purpose MET
system. when we talk about a change in technology, we

10
should also keep in mind that this will bring a disruption
in social settings. we often hear people ask such a
question as “Howhas Japan sustained technological change
without social and organization disruption? In this
consideration, Nigeria should learn from Japan and western
approach. For instance, new technology or development is
normally based on a long term view of the needs of the
nation or organization and relies heavily on appropriate
learning systems. Japanese problem solving ability is
supported by the industriousness of its people, the
standard of education, and a relatively stable labour
management.

1.12 BACKGROUNDPROBLEM.

The Maritime Education and Training is perhaps the least

studied and understood sector of education in Nigeria. The
reason might be because few of those who administrate or
write about Maritime education have been through Maritime
education, or it could be because the market is
comparatively small.

Principally, another factor could be because of all

sectors of education, maritime education is subject to
constant change in response to the pressures of new
technologies. This commonelement of change, together with
other strands, unites widely different developments between
Maritime education and other sectors of education.

The history of Maritime Education and Training in

Nigeria can not be complete without special reference to
METin the United Kingdom. Before the first established
government owned METprogramme in Nigeria, METwas
organized by private companies, and it was badly done.
This system produced mediocre types of seafarers, even
though the system was approved by the law.

11
 In the words of Akinsoji (34), candidates for
"examinations for the certificate of competency"have
always had to study on their own and as a result "the
performances were never commendable.” He stated that in
most cases examiners have had to relax to a " ridiculous
level“ (flkinloji, p. 34).

1.13 ACADEMIC CONTENT

The existing curriculum lacks the necessary academic and

professional contents which is suitable for the training of
today and tomorrow. It is not broad-based, the change
which is being proposed in this paper should result in
cadets focusing on broad rather than concepts, paying more
attention to social, economical and political context of
marine engineering practice, as well as written and oral
communicationskills.

In the words of Gerald, "The engineering curriculum

should be taught in the context of the real world to enable
engineers policy process" the way we legislate technology
today is based on law, and not on technology. Engineers
(ibid) need to play a more responsible role in leading the
society and explaining the technology to the society
(Engin. Edu.vol.l1,19BB).

12
1.14 HYPOTHESIS.

In this case, the hypothesis is to give a short answer

to the problem, to see whether the study is valid or not.
Therefore the hypothesis of this study will be framed as
followsI­

A. There is no relevant difference between the existing

marine engineering curriculum in Nigeria and the
requirements of the Standard of Training, Certification
and watch-keeping for Seafarers (STCN)1978,
International Convention for the Safety of Life at sea
(SOLAS 1974/79).

B. There is a relevant difference between the existing

marine engineering curriculum and the requirements of
the Standard of Training, Certification and
Watch-keeping for the Seafarers (STCN, 1978),
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS, 1974/73).

1.15 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY.

This study is interested in a new approach to the

training of marine engineers in Nigeria. The paper Proposes
that training starts off on a clean slate. The curriculum
of the existing marine engineering programme, both at the
Maritime Academyand at the River State University of
Science and Technology Port Harcout, have no introductory
courses that cover decision making, design, methodology,
time management,study skills, laboratory report writing,
philosophy and ethics an engineer may need during his years
of study and life time practice.

As we observe closely, training too has come a long way

from “chalk and talk". Simulators are capable of
accelerating experience in a way that was never before.
They can provide muchmore than training in radars, to the
operation of main machinery and pump room controls, cargo
control handling and much more. These areas, though
expensive, provide good ingredients for the training of the
new breed of marine engineers.

Godsonargues, “ the status of subjects tends to be

measured by the extent by which they moved away from the
utilitarian or pedagogical traditions and have become
academic" (Godson, 1983).

This becomesrelevant in the sense that the existing

curriculum appears to be running a race against time. The
progress of marine automation and the application of other
technological advancements are likely to be delayed in the
Nigerian Maritime industry by a lack of well trained and
educated personnel. It remains doubtful whether the number
of new breed marine engineers will be sufficient to match
the needs of future ships. This could only be a reality if
a face lift is given to the existing curriculum.

Looking at the dramatic turn of event and development in

the maritime industry, Bryan made the following
observation:

the development of the microprocessors in the

electronic engineering and its impact upon all facets
of mechanical and electrical engineering are proving to
be a watershed; and on that watershed is a signpost
which indicates that the professional marine engineer
needs to add a further competence to the manyfaceted
talents which are required to design, build, and
maintain the very varied structures which operate on,
over or under the sea, (Tran. Imar. E (TM), vol. 97,

14
 p1, 1995) .

when we take a critical look at such areas as machinery

control monitoring, alarm and safety system. optimization
of machinery efficiency and others. It is this wide
spectrum of ship-board use that expedite the wider
introduction of microprocessor and personal computer
(PC). This development calls for upgrading and updating
the existing curriculum.
Figure 1.1 shows areas where micro-based system are
being used in the modern shipboard system and management.

Good engineering combines the quality of commonsense,

good economic, and elegant simplicity. Adequate
improvementsin the latter two qualities are often found
by stepping outside the boundaries of conventional Marine
engineering practices, which have evolved through
optimization rather than innovation.

Manydevelopments in engineering came as a result of

using ideas born in parallel disciplines. For instance,
marine and aircraft automation depend so much on
electronics engineering. Taking advantage of such new
techniques mayinvolve re-tooling and re-education of
large sectors of marine industries. It is only by such
adjustment and adaptation that the marine industry can
survive in Nigeria.

15
1.16 THE BCOPE
The limit in dissertation will be a certificate of
competency in the Maritime Academyof Nigeria and the
bachelor of technology degree in the University of Port­
Harcout Nigeria. whenthe need arises, references will be
made to The International Convention on the Standards of
Training, Certification, and watchkeepingfor Seafarers,
(STOW)1978, International Convention for Safety of Life at
sea, (SOLA).

This paper is not intended to be a report like those of

experts or committees. Rather it is an academic exercise.
Education writing today is in an age when criticism has
overpowered creation. Awedby watchful eyes of my
colleagues in the academic profession, and learned
professors, I will as often as practicable, try to take
refuge in professional magazines, text books, specialized
dissertations, and others which can easily defend me from
attack.

1.17 METHODOLOGY.

Instruments and data collection for this study will be

descriptive, obtained from reference books, marine
engineering journals, newsletter, newspapers, professional
engineering bodies.

Data collection was also largely by means of a

structural interview plan. Items on the schedule sought
answers to the research questions. A random sample of some
seafarers was selected for pretesting of the schedule, and
the split-half reliability co-efficient of 0.72 was
obtained. Someof the items were administered to the
seafarers.

16
 Near a 100 2 response rate was achieved. In addition, one
set of each of the unstructured interview schedules was
administered to someofficials in the Ministries of
Education and Transport, lecturers in the Maritime Academy
of Nigeria and the River State University Port Harcout.
were all inclusive in the interview. A cross section of
the students and cadets in the two Institutions were also
interviewed.

In view of the above, changes in the marine industry,

since the last few years, have been extensive. My
proposal, therefore, is to take account of the drastic and
revolutionary changes.
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2.! INTRODUCTION.

Tanner maintains that, “ the study of the curriculum

history can identify past problems that have interfered
with the curriculum reform, which may provide lessons to
help contemporary curriculum workers“. Curriculum
specialist can, she suggests, overcome immediate
difficulties by searching for similar problems in the East
(Tanner 1982 p.406-O7).

In 1951, Nigeria was divided into three regions namely,

Western, Eastern and Northern, and education became a
regional function, administered by a regional Board of
Education and Ministry of Education headed by a minister.

The curriculum was an integrated one aiming at

socialization and character building. At the lower level,
it was traditional. Fufunwa identified seven common
educational objectives around which the traditional
curriculum was organized:

- to develop the child taleht and physical

skill.
- to develop character.

- to inculcate respect for elders and those

in position of authority

- to developintellectual skills.

- to acquire specific training and to develop a

19
 healthy attitude towards honest
labour.
0

- to develop a sense of belonging and to

participate actively in family and community
affairs.
- to understand, appreciate and promote the cultural
heritage of the communityat large.
(Fufunwa, 1974).

In general, the existing education system provides six

years of primary education, three years of junior
secondary, three years of senior secondary and four years
of University or tertiary system, simply cast as a 6-3-3-4
system.

2.2 TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND THE NEW SYSTEM.

The current structure of the technical education permits

the existence of gaps within the various levels of this
system. These gaps are clearly seen in both the old system
and the present 6-3-3-4 system.

This unorderly structure makes transition from one

level to another difficult. In a well designed system, it
should be possible for a person to enter the system at the
bottom and comeout at the top, if his ability permits.
Someoneshould be able to movefreely within the entire
educational system, sideways or upwards as he may choose.
The author has suggested a way out of this.

20
2.3 NATIONAL POLICY ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

In 1983, the National Policy on education defined

technical education as "that aspect of education which
leads to acquisition of practical and applied skills, as
well as basic scientific knowledge". In his definition,
Olojo, (7) defines technical education as "that education
designed to prepare individuals for entrance into and
progress within technical educations. It requires an
understanding of the fundamental laws and basic principles
of mathematics, sciences and technology supported by
appropriate courses". (olojo, 1987, PP.9).

2.4 OBJECTIVES OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

The objectives of technical education as stipulated in

the National Policy on Education (Ibid.), are as follows:

- to provide people who can apply scientific knowledge to

the improvement of environmental problems for the use
and convenience of man.

- to provide trained manpowerin applied science.

technology and commerce.

- to enable our young men and womento have intelligent

of the increasing complexity of technology.

2.5. STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN NIGERIA.

- University.

- Polytechnics.

° Colleges of education (Technical).

21
 - Technical colleges (Maritime education inclusive)

- Vocational (After primary) and

- Pro-vocational.

2.6 NATIONAL PHlLDBOPHY OF EDUCATION.

In view of what has been said, it is necessary to have a

quick look at the basic philosophies of Nigerian education
so that we can place technical education on its rightful
place. These are:

— free and democratic society,

- a just and egalitarian society,

- a united, strong and self-reliant nation,

- a great and dynamic economy,

- a land of bright and full opportunities for all its

citizen.

Fromthe theoretical point of view, it is hard to fault

the principle, is as they have been put down. But what one
sees in practice is that the country still has a lot of
ground to cover in actualizing these ideals. Andsince
technological progress hinges on technical education, any
obstruction in the way of technical education has to be
removed.

Prior to 1986, the educational system was six years of

primary, five years of secondary and four years of
tertiary, which in short produced a pyramid structure, with
a large number of drop outs. This system was elitist, and
consequently inadequate. worse still, each level of
technical education was almost a terminus. This is shown in
figure 2.1

2.7 PROFESSIONAL CERTIFICATES.

It is observed that vocational schools provide training

for technicians, and the products come out with a Federal
Craft Certificate (FCC),the federal college of education
provides training up to National Certificate in Education
(N.C.E). At present, graduates of this institution are
required to spend two academic sessions for a bachelor
degree.

Competencycertificate, Higher National Certificate

H.N.D, among others, appear not to be wanted in Ngerian
Universities. What, however, is really absurd is that good
HNDholders are admitted straight for higher degrees
DVEFSEEIS ­

If Nigeria sincerely wants to develop technologically,

she has to think over these things. No institution should
be allowed to be an island unto itself. No matter how
difficult the route, every academic institution must be
linked in a continuous chain.

Technical education, no doubt, equips one to fit into

the labour market and many of such are so reabsorbed. But
provision still has to be madefor that percentage of
products of the technical institutions, no matter how
small, whowill have the aptitude and willingness to pursue
further education, without let or hindrance. Apart from
any thing else, this will give psychological relief or
satisfaction both to those who will want to advance and
those whowill be content to stay on the job.
 It is useful to distinguish a vocational education from a
general education on one hand and vocational training on
the other. Mypreference is for a broad concept of
vocational education, which recognises that vocational
education has a "dual mandate" to develop the individual
both in the interests of self and of employment. If we tip
the balance too far in the interest of self, then we cross
the boundary into general education; if we tip it too far
towards employment then we cross the boundary into
vocational training.

I knowthere is an inherent conflict between these two

elements. Its implementation always requires a compromise.
The way in which this conflict is resolved may well be a
question of political phylosophy of national or local
culture, the infuence of culture is surprisingly strong in
general education in Nigeria than in vocational. The way in
which this will be resolved is hard to predict.

"Vocational" is often taken by an average Nigerian to mean

"workrelated", this is fine provided the work is not
always equated with immediate task, but all too often this
is exactly what happens. The author has lived and worked in
the Unted States of America, and has found Vocational
education in the USAas vehicle for the entrepreneurial
spirit. The main goal of the entrepreneurship in maritime
education is to provide a broader look at at the career
options and to identify way to reach these options.

Equally, failure to distinguish between vocational

education and vocational training has led many
educationists in Nigeria to use the adjective "narrow" when
anything vocational is considerd. This tendency
results in Governmentnegative attitudes towards
Vocational Education and Training.

24
 I regard as intellectual arrogance that all vocational
education is "narrow". Take for example, electrical
circuitry. Designof electrical circuit normally requires
a higher level of interllectual skills than its
installation. The same person whodoes the installation,
however, maybe responsible for fault-finding if the
circuit is not functioning correctly; this activity may
require the application of considerable knowledgeand
interllectual skills which are movingclose to those of
design, especially if the circuit is a complexone. This
higher intellectual skill is likely to be developed, and
the knowledge (often based on principles not of obvious
immediateapplication) gained, through "education" rather
than through "training".

The point raised above is necessary, according to Jemie,

(Guardian, one national newspaper, September 1984) "Any
educational system that will be effective must take into
account the psychology of the people. It either tailors
itself to the peoples’ psychology as its exists, or works
hard to transform or modify that psychology to coincide
with the system".

Since rapid industrialization is our professed goal, it

makes no sense to down grade the manpower with practical
skills. Figure 2.2 illustrates a newsystem, which is
also not still better.
2.8 EXISTING GAPS
Manyperceive the gap between the developed and the
developing world in terms of wealth, but the knowledge gap
is great and is increasing just rapidly. The concept of
the knowledge gap is important because it should be less
difficult and costly to transfer knowledgethan to transfer
wealth, and the knowledge so transferred may be a generator
of wealth. Such a means of overcoming the "north-south"
divide alone wouldjustify paying greater attention to the
study of vocational education.

In spite of the new system, gaps can still be identified.

The workingrelationships amongtertiary institutions is
still not harmonious. The Universities sit on the progress
of aspirants for a University education, and prefer to have
nothing to do with each other. The other institutions are
also an assemblage of unrelated parts.

2.9 PROPOSAL FOR IMPROVEMENT.

In any event, it is necessary to start somewhere. The

main constraint in technical education is change. One must
understand the changes which are taking place and the
rasons behind them before one can undertake any helpful
study relating to content or the way in which discipline
are best learn in different cultures. Becauseconsistent
failure to invest in Technical\Vocational education will
bring disastrous consequences to our economy.

At this point, it is worth mentioning to note the remark

madeby the former Secretary of State George Schultz, in
a key note address to the National Academyof Engineering,
December 19937:

"It is as though we have a race between the Engineer and

26
 the politician, the creators of the new knowledge and
the etetemen for the idea of a nation, and the concept
of national sovereignty, is affected. It is long past
time that the politician caught up with reality. But,
if the lag between the political concept and the
technological reality creates problems, the
opportunities which such vast change now offers should
provide us with optimism and inspiration to turn these
times to our advantage"

The blueprint on technical education (1973-79) clearly

puts it. "there should be an opportunity for the admission
of craftsmen to technician courses, and technician to
university or professional courses”. No level of education
should be an island, this is the heart of the matter.

The Bagauda Seminar (1980) highlighted this problem and

suggested a restructuring of technical institutions, as
mountingan excellent public image drive for technicians
and technical education. To illustrate the
interrelationship that is being proposed, a composite
representation is shownfigure 3.

A person should be able to progress from vocational

school through technical college, and advance from craft
school to Maritime Academy, polytechnics and higher
degrees, if chooses. The system should not be designed to
prevent this. HNDholders should have no difficulty in
going straight for higher degrees like his B.sc. holder
counterpart.
2.10 MARINE ENGINEERING TRAINING IN NIGERIA.

Literatures on the training of marine engineers in

Nigeria are hard to come by. Neither the Nigerian Shipping
Act of 1962, nor the legal instrument setting up the
Maritime Academy of Nigeria of 1978, showed how such
training should be organized.

As disputed by Umejuru, in the parts of Nigerian shipping

acts which deal with the competencycertificate of chief
engineer/master, and crews, no mention was made to maritime
education and training, nor was there any provision in the
Act except namesof overseas countries where certificates
of competency may be obtained", (Umejuru, 1988).

This dissertation refers to marine engineering training

as 1) the supply of educated and skilled engineers to
Nigerian shipping 2) the supply of educated and skilled
engineers to non Nigerian shipping, 3) supply of educated
and skilled engineers to Nigerian and non-Nigerian offshore
oil industry, 4) the supply of educated and skilled
engineers to marine related regulatory agencies at the
national and international level, and 5) the supply of
educated and skilled engineers in the consulting, advising
and training areas at the national and international
levels.

All the areas mentioned above require marine engineers

that are educated and trained within the frame work of the
International Maritime Organization, (IMO), as contained in
the Standard of Training, Certification and watchkeeping
for Seafarers(STCN). However, the STCWlevel should be
exceeded for the interest of future jobs mobility and for
the purpose of meeting the requirements of Nigerian
National Accreditation Board for the degree award.

2B
 Evidencepoints to the fact that there is considerable
growth in the regulatory sectors every where, and Nigerian
seafarers are generally welcomedabroad. In the true sense
of the words, if persons are properly trained in these
sectors, they can always be absorbed by the industry and
its related areas.

2.1! MARITIME INSTITUTIONS IN NIGERIA.

The Nigerian Federal Government provides for limited

Maritime training, such as the Maritime Academyat Oron.
The River State University of Science and Technology, Port
Harcourt is run by that State government.

The training of marine engineering cadets takes place at

the Maritime Academyat Dron. The institution prepares the
trainees for the certificate of competency, and none for
the academic degree. Facilities, humanand material
resources are grossly inadequate. Contrary to the
prevailing conditions at Oron, the University of Port
Harcout trains academicengineers, with little operational
exposure.
This is a situation where IMOmandatory courses are not
properly handled. As a result the University cannot
prepare students for licensing examinations (1)

The latter, though State controlled, is provided with

excellent facilities, and enjoys a high academicprestige
like its counterpart all over the country.

29
 Tn
i
I

I
I

v
Pol9.Iech.
4 Yr. HND
Unxuersttu
Sc.'H19her
Deqree
4}
4-j-1
HCE.Iech.]
3 ‘iears

'j—
u

Technxoal F.C.C
College 3 Years
Narxtine
| High School r academy
5 ?ears
4 1/2 Yr.

u.r.c. ‘
3 Years

Ir

PRIMARY SCHOQL (6 YEHRS)

Key: 1 HHD Higher National Diploma

3 FCC Federal Craft Centre
3 vrc Uocational Training Centre ‘
4 WCE National Certificate in Education

Fifi 3.1 OLD EDUCATION SVSTEH (6-5-4)

Fslu. Tech. Un:uer::ta HuElezn.
‘v?——'?:,', all
4 user: l!i 4 ?ee:3 3 rea::

H I:
lj—:—

Iechn1:sl Senxor nARlTlnE

College Second'.-:-;
‘[44 ncnl-En‘!
3 Years 3 Years 4 1:: Hr.

. I .
Uocatlonal Junlor
3School
Years ears
Sscgndarg

PRINHRY SCHOOL

6 YERRS

Fat 2.2 THE HEN SYSTEM (6-3-3-4)

 LWPLOILHLH.

r_
. "
'3-«.—.*-.
I—~——-~e~~
.
=«~———~——~
I f #

I I ;
I I I

I I 5

I HIGHER
9:93;:

I I
POL?.IEaH. | I
. —- - - - --1 !
I I I

I A ' I '

I I I

I
I ago. RAF
uuluensm
-4———
4 vanns
. c nrna J
I I
I I

» I NC: TECH.
I I

: I

L _ rEcHn1cnL l I
COLLEGE
+
I‘ -seuxon
scco DRP?
r nflRIIlnE
RcRDEnY
- 3 YEARS

I I ‘‘ en.11
- IEHCHER

""""'1 COLLEGE
uocnr:eunL JUNIOR
SCHOOL SECONDHRY

II 3 vsnns
II

6 YERRS

PRIHHR?
N09: ——> Existing Path SCHOOL
----P Recomended Pat)
Source: Nigerian Journal of tech. Edu. Uol.-1 1937

Fifi. 2.3 IHPEOUED NEH SYEIEH

 C3F4£§F’1'EEFt I I I

F1F§hJF’C3UOEEF? F?EEGILJ]IF?EEP1EEFl1FE3

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Shipping is an international trade. A glance at the

organization and managementof the industry itself will
prove this right. The financial interests and management
of a ship do not have to be, and often are not located, in
the same country. The crews who operate the ship may come
from different countries. On this point, Edward Agbakoba,
(1-2) successfully argued that, "ship managementdoes not
have to be located, in the same country" (Agbakoba, 1991).

The crews who operate the ship may come from different
countries, the flag under which the ship sails is no longer
reflecting the nationality of the owners ("Ibid., p.2). It
is on the above background, that any study, or projection
of Nigeria’s manpowerrequirements in the near future,
should take into consideration, the present state of the
labour market for seafarers generally and globally.

3.2 SHORTABEOF OFFICERS.

More than half the world's ship managers say there is an

acute shortage of officers. A report by Lloyds Ship
Manager published in "The Sea Newspaper“ (1), of March
1992, showed that some BS percent of maritime management
believe that the shipping industry is facing a serious
skill shortage, particularly of engineer officers.

The worst shortages were reported in North America.

However,the problem extends throughout the industry, both
in the developed and the developing countries.
3.3 BTATIBTICAL EVIDENCE

In October 1989, a joint study by the International

Shipping Federation (ISF) and the Baltic International
Maritime Council (BIHCD), was undertaken. The results were
released in 1990. The statistical reports of the research
indicated that 400,000 were officers, while some 840,000
were ratings, available throughout the world. These
figures were against an estimated 450,000 officers, and
over 600,000 ratings, required to manthe world’s
commercial fleets.

The figures clearly revealed that in 1990 there was a

shortage of some 50,000 officers and a surplus of over
200,000 ratings. The source pointed out that the
anticipated upturn in the global economy, would produce a
33 percent increase in the number of ships, by the year
2,000. This again, would lead to an increase in demand of
some90,000 officers.

The shortage of maritime manpower, which the study

indicated would persist over the next decade. The
situation is already felt. While the study perhaps
naturally concentrated on the numberof seafarers, it is
the new appreciation of the need for improved quality that
is making the numbers even harder to get. Appendix 1a and
lb, show the world-wide demand and supply of seafarers by
region.

The situation in seafaring in Europe, North America and

Japan has two main causes. Firstly, the economic pressures
on the shipowners to recruit labour from the cheapest
source, and second, the reluctance of their nationals to
take up seafaring as a career. Land based marine related
jobs are becomingmore lucrative. Seafaring is no longer
attractive as a profession, to the nationals of rich

34
countries of North America, Europe and Japan. Simply,
because living standards ashore have risen. Conversely,
the working conditions and improved leisure facilities have
also increased substantially.

3.4 PERIOD OF BEAFARING.

The BIMCOand ISF study which I have earlier referred

to, shows the following wastage rate amongthe seafarers
world wide. The percentage represents the total who leave
the profession from all causes (retirement, death, injury,
et al). The percentage due to death and injury is very
insignificant and the figures mainly represent those who
leave by choice. Table 3.1 shows the short span of sea
service region by region.

Region Age Officer Ratings

North America, Europe, Japan 41-45 52% 53%

46-50 78% 79%

Indian sub-continent 41-45 582 35%

46-50 89% 61%

Atrita 41-45 92% 54%

46-50 100% 61%

"or! d-wide 41-45 47: 42'/.

46-50 742 702

Table 3.1 . : Agedistribution due to retirement

SOURCE: BIMCO/ISF, 1990.

35
Considering the figures for Africa, it shows that by the
time the officers are 45 years old, 92%have taken
alternative Jobs ashore. And by 50, a good number have
left seafaring. Empirically speaking. an average Nigerian
at 40, must have taken ashore job. If he stays beyond
that age he must have not been lucky to secure a new job.
The trend is the same all over the world.

The question now is, where do we get manpower to staff

our maritime industry ?. what quality of engineers do we
have in mind to operate Nigerian’s modern ship ?. Answers
to these questions are clear. Maritime technology is not
Just an "item" that can be bought over night to develop
commercial applications. Before it can be taken onboard,
appropriate expertise must be in place to operate it.

Today’s merchant fleet in Nigeria, should not be like

some organizations, that can be "topped" up by the
inexperienced. with little knowledgeof law, safety,
stability, stresses, automation, and commercialoperations.

One does not doubt that a "sea-man" brand trained

officer of the armed forces could operate fully automated
merchant ship, without too much of a culture shock. But
there is muchmore to it than , particularly in the senior
officer roles on board. But one has to ask how seriously
the ship will be operated, or if the intention is merely to
fill the ship with sufficient warmbodies, with a
qualification of somesort.
3.5 Pnxonxrv menus.

The maritime organizations in Nigeria covered in this

analysis can be classified as follows:

- Nigerian National Shipping Line (NNSL)

- Nigerian Off-Shore Industry

Maritime Safety Administration (MBA)

Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC)

- Nigerian Ports Authority

the supply of engineer officers to marine-related

regulatory agencies at the national and at the

international levels.

the supply of engineer officers to the private sector.

- the supply of key engineer officers to the design and

ship construction.

- the supply of engineers to the training institutions.

The supply of engineering personnel to the marine sectors

enumerated, in the foregoing list, shall continue to be a
mirage in the next decade, unless positive action is taken,
within a foreseeable future.

37
3.6 NIBERIRN OFFSHORE INDUSTRY.

History teaches how quickly unforeseen events can change

the direction of society. But it is certain that any
expanding economyneeds energy from one source or another.
In the near future, in the modernworld, neither coal,
water pressure, nuclear power, nor sunlight are likely to
replace the central role of gas and oil. In providing
immediate, clean, comparatively inexpensive sources of
energy. Especially as fuels for special demands, for
commercialtransportation and military machines.

In view of all efforts at diversification, Nigeria depends

increasingly on its earnings from oil. In 1990 oil
constituted 96.12 of total exports (94.6% in 1989).
Surprisingly, the Gulf War had a large impact on the
government,s economic expectations. For instance, in mid
1990, before the Gulf crisis, the price of Nigerian crude
oil was $16 per barrel, by October this had risen to $32.
This windfall resulted in development of a new export
termininal for petroleum products at Bonny, River State, as
part of a major oil rehabilitation plan. The terminal is
expected to reduce bottlenecks.

3.7 EXPENSIVE COMPONENT.

By far the biggest cost component of offshore oil

production, in Nigeria is transportation. Mypersonal
experience with the Mobil Oil Production, at the Qua Iboe
Offshore operation, Eket - Nigeria, led me to this
conclusion. This cost does not refer to the supply of boat
and helicopter aspects of getting supplies and personnel
to the field facilities. But to the daunting prospect of
howto get trained indigenous personnel to moveoutput the
product to the world market from the remote locations.

3B
 The choice between pipelining and tankering depends on
individual circumstances, of each field development, such
as production site location. For instance, at Qua Iboe
Offshore location, there is no gas pipeline and no
insurmountabletechnical barriers to tanker transportation.
In a situation like this, tankers are almost certainly the
transport answer. Securing manpowerto fulfil this area,
remains a distant dream.

3.8 OFFSHORE BEOPHYSICAL VEBSELS.

Twomajor systems have been developed for the offshore

exploration. namely, Marine Geophysical vessels, for
reconnaissance exploration, and drilling rigs for a range
of offshore water depths and sea conditions. These vessels
require marine engineers, with a high degree of intellect
and exceptional ability, to operate the sophistigated
equipment installed onboard.

In the words of Edgard Driver and H. Sholnick:

“geophysical research vessels are the pathfinders in
offshore exploration" (1-7). Their role is to gather the
data needed to guide the drill to the most favorable sites.
Illustrative of the state of the art is figure 3.1 The
diagram of the vessel shows the complement of geophysical,
geological and geochemical equipment on board, which
include the seismic, gravimeter, magnetometer, underwater
seep detector, bottom cover, and computer systems. More
than fifty senior marine engineers will be required in this
single sector before the end of this decade.

Assessing political, economical, and oil prospects in

Nigeria Micheal Ridd made the following comments in Lloyd's
List of May 14, 1992 :

39
 as a result of fiscal reforms, linked to the
implementation of an integrated oil and gas strategy.
experts are confident of substantial growth well into
the 21st century. Major oil field developments are
proceeding rapidly, with such prestigious companies as
Mobil, Chevron, Agip and Shell committing huge volumes
of capital, well in excess of $10bn, between now and
the end of the decade. Production capacity is again
increasing after a year of decline. Nigeria is
producing some 2.1m barrels of crude oil per day.
production capacity is projected to rise further
towards a projected figure of 2.5m barrels per day by
the mid 1990s.

The start-up date for the first Liquidfied Natural Gas

(LNG)project is late 1996, with an estimated construction
cost of $3.7bn. Before then, the oil industry would have
expanded. Proven oil reserves, which currently stands at
17bnbarrels, are expected to rise to 20bn barrels by 1995,
whendaily production should have risen to 2.6m barrels
compared with 2.1m barrels in 1991.

As I did mention in the previous paragraphs that the

space avaliable for the nation’s carriers did not expand
with our growing trend of the volume of trade. Petroleum
export from early 1970s to 1990s is shown in table 3.2

40
CRUDE PETROLEUM OIL SHIPPED AT ALL NIBERIAN OIL TERHINAL8

1970/71 - 1987

Year Crude Oil Shipped Index Number

(in tonnes) (1970-71 as base)

1970-71 50,169,763 100.0

1771-72 77,946,573 155.4

1972-73 92,430,673 184.2

1973-74 94,717,879 188.8

1974-75 102,375,308 204.1

1975-76 97,037,938 193.4

1976-77 100,313,452 199.4

1977-78 93,648,251 186.7

1978-79 102,371,874 204.1

1979-80 105,032,673 209.4

1980! 68,227,943 126.0

1981 61,153,673 121.9

1982 51,824,276 103.3

1983 59,892,104 119.4

41
 1994 61,703,669 123.0

1995 71,084,559 141.7

1996 65,674,867 131.3

1987 57,193,091 114.0

Table 3.2

Source: Nigerian Ports Authority Statistics Section Lagos.

Fromthe above evidence, it will be-seen that as much gas

and oil remain to be found under our ocean, as already has
been found under dry land. The human factor of training
and safety, must be explored.

3.9 NIGERIAN NATIONAL SHIPPING LINE.

The Nigerian National Shipping Line (NNSL),was officially

established in 1959. It all started with two ships, later
five, and presently, it has thirteen as at March, 1992. The
whole fleet are conventional and break bulk types. The
initial concern of the NNSLwas to give liner services to
the Nigerian shippers. The under tonnage of the National
fleet has resulted in Nigeria’s inability to implementthe
United Nations Conference Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
code of 40: 40: 20 policy.

In the United Kingdom- west African Lines Joint Service

(UKWAL), Nigerian cargo accounts for 84 percent of the
overall trade. Yet the bulk of the cargo goes to the U-K
flag ships. This went to the extent that three U-K
companies viz, Elder Demster, Palm and Guinea Gulf were
found guilty of abusing their dominant positions in West
African trade. They were fined FFr105m ($1B.4m)by the

42
European commission, ( Lloyds List April, 1992).

As pointed out earlier, Nigeria is a great generator of

business for liner shipping companies operating in west
Africa, even the so celled Francophone countries. Nigeria
traditionally accounts for about 60 percent of the cargoes
carried. Nigeria is country with a big volume of trade,
but with insufficient tonnage with her national carrier.

Nigeria is knownto be the greatest generator of the

seaborne trade in West and Central African sub-Sahara
region. In a nutshell, Nigerian international trade in
the region accounts for about 60 percent, if not more.
Tables 3.3 and 3.4 show Nigeria foreign trade with U-K
and the whole world respectively.

The trade between Nigeria and U-K, (according to the

British Department of Trade returns):

Commerce:total trade in million Naira Nmfor 4 years; oil

accounts for 97%of exports in 1988.

1984 1985 1986 1987

Lpport (c.i.f) 7,200 8,300 6,700 15694

Exports and Re-exports 8,700 12,600 6,800 29578

(f.o.b)

Total trade between Nigeria and U-K, (according to British

Departmentof Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling):

1987 1988 1989 1990

Imports to U-K: 159,386 128,123 129,406 297,436

43
Exports and re-exP0't _
(pg. UK; 481,563 330,476 388,777 499,338

TABLE 3.3

SOURCE:British Department of Trade.

NIBERIAN AND NON-NIGERIAN INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN METRIC

TONNES
1988 1989 1990

Nigerian cargo 174.3 165.6 175.6

Non-Nigerian cargo 87.5 108.9 85.6

Overall 261.8 264.5 261.2

Nigeria 2 overall 67% 62.6 67%

TABLE 3.4

SOURCE: UNCTAD Year Book, 1991.

Judging by the available records of Nigerian seaborne

trade, it is convincing, that double the existing numberof
ships, in national the fleet, will be acquired. Therefore,
needs for the training of more than 50 engineers for this
sector, is going to be eminent.

44
3.10 NIBERIAN NATIONAL PETROLEUM CORPORATION

Oil was found in Nigeria 1958. The Nigerian National

Petroleum Corporation (NNPC)was established in 1957. The
companyhas four cardinal areas to cover under its
activities, viz; exploration, refining, production.
processing| the Department of marine transportation was
also added to it. Unfortunately, the corporation has no
tankers.

Crude oil is at present shipped out almost excusively by

foreign oil companies at the rate of 1.5m barrels per day,
at the cost of about $1 a barrel in freight. Official
attempts are now under way to stem this flow of foreign
exchange. One of the ways to get this done is for the
government to implement a 1987 law which obliges the
Nigerian Maritime Authority (NMA)to involve indigenous
carriers in the transport of 50%of the crude oil.

The only two tankers of 240,000 GRT. and 400,000 DWT,

the companyowns are being used as storage facilities.
Evidence is very strong. that the corporation will soon go
into transportation. This single area again, will call for
specialized training for engineer officers.

3.11 NIBERIAN PORTS AUTHORITY (NPA)

Nigerian Ports Authority (NPA)was established in early

1960s, so far it controls about 8 container ports.
Container trafic levels at the ports controlled by the
Nigerian Ports Authority increased significantly in 1991.

According to Lloyd’s List, Friday May 15 1992,"the

container traffic throughput at the NPAfacilities totalled
2.42m tonnes in 1991, up 34.4% over the 1990 level of 1.8m

45
tonnes, an increase of 31%, while containerise exports rose
43%from 401,000 tonnes to 575,000 tonnes"

NPA ports handle 223,135 tue in i991, compared with

173,559 tue for the previous 12 months. The Lagos
container terminal accounted for more than half the
country’! box movements. Part of the increase in the NPA
container volumes is accounted for by the inclusion of the
Lagos ro—ro port for the time.

In manyways, the take over of the ro—ro operation at the

Tin Can Island was the main development in Nigerian Ports
industry. NPAmanagement is looking to tackle its manpower
problems by zoning the Ports under its control and
employingthe services of the foreign partners to assist in
the maintenance of plant and equipment in these ports.
This is a typical situation where services of well trained
could have been utilised. See table 3.5 for the Container
traffic in the ports within the NPAcontrolled.

1990 1991
PORT Import Export Total Import Export Total

Lagos 53,803 33,523 87,326 62078 52920 114998

Tin Can
Island 28,846 21,638 50,484 17,829 13,574 31,403

Lagos
ro—ro
Pfirto - - - - 17,339 15,808 33,146

Kirikri 2,389 2,945 5,334 2,672 4,386 7,058

Port­
Harcourt 4,406 4,045 8,451 5,722 5,090 10,812

46
Port­
Harcourt
(3) 4,458 4,581 9039 5,355 4,894 10,249

Onno Fed.
Tlrninll 4,525 4,592 9,117 4,197 4,654 8,851

Caliber 670 154 824 451 296 747

Harri 1,174 1,810 2,984 3,904 1,967 5,871

TOTAL 100,271 73,288 173,559 119,547 103588 223135

Table 3.5 Throughout of Container Traffic (teu) at

Nigertian Ports Authority (NPA). Import and Export 1990­
Bource: Nigerian Ports Authority Lagos.

3.12 THE PRIVATE SECTOR

The Indigenization decree number 4 of 1972 reserves

certain rights in shipping policy for Nigerians. This was
reinforced by the Nigerian National Maritime Authority
decree number 10.

The Nigerian National Maritime Authority has so far

granted National carrier status to the following indigenous
companies: African Ocean Lines, Bulkship Nigeria Limited,
Niger Brass Shipping company and Nigerian Green Lines. The
National Maritime Authority maygrant national carrier
status to the companyif:

- Nigerian individuals or enterprises are fully ownedby

Nigerian individuals whohave at least 60 percent of its
Equity shares and the companyis registered in Nigeria.

47
 the vessel is owned by the company operating on the deep
sea
and on the Nigerian coastal or inland waterways;

the head office of the companyis located in Nigeria and

its managementand control is directed from its Nigerian
head office;

the company owns at least one ocean going vessel of not

less than 5,000 net registered tonnage;

the terms and conditions of the employment of the

seafarers engaged by the companyare in conformity with
Nigerian Lawsand accepted by the international rules and
standards;

the vessels of the companyare registered in the Nigerian

Register of Ships and the vessels satisfy all conditions
stipulated in the Nigerian Merchant Shipping Acts of 1962
as amended; and

100 percent of the crews and at least 75 percent of the

shipboard officers including captain and chief officers
and wherever possible chief engineers, are Nigerians.

Putting together, man power demand in the private sector

mayequally pose a serious threat, to implementation of the
lofty and noble ideas of the indigenization policy.

3.13 TRAINING INSTITUTIONS.

The teaching subjects, such as automation, electronics,

Electrical machines, computer engineering, engine and
bridge simulation training et al, requires lecturers with
outstanding ability and qualification and additionally,
59a90in9 experience.

48
 The question now is, who will be the trainers. ind how
will they complementtheir academic degrees with industrial
experience and professional qualifications. To addres this
question, lectures must regularly update their knowledge
through research and contacts with industries. Since this
sector is worst hit by the shortage, special fund should be
created to take care of the situation.

3.14 CONCLUSION.

Inspite of the apparent national need for trained Marine

engineers, the goverment and many companies have failed to
provide muchencouragement. Both sectors need to recognize
and react to the challenge by working with the Maritime
Academyand professional societies toward solutions. The
initiative probaly must be taken by the latter two groups.
The federal is the largest single employer of technical
personnel. Despite protestations in support of
technological excellence, however, the government has yet
to take the lead in promoting continuing education and
training amongits ownengineers or those of its major
contractors. Both attitudes of the federal government and
that of the professional Union can probaly be best
described as being neglect.

Area like dock yards which are the life blood of the
shipping industry have a teething problems of manpower
shortage. Niger Dock, which started operation in 1986 had
a turnover in 1990 of Naira20m ($2.12m). It is to be
upgraded into a ship building yard capable of constructing
vessels up to 1,000 dwt before the end of 1992. According
to its project director, NamdiDzobia, Nigerdock has
already constructed a passenger ferry, but its main
operations involve the repair of vessels owned by the NNSL,
the Nigerian Ports Authority (NPA)and Mobil.
 The Ship construction sector is seasonably oriented or
dependent on economic factors, beyond direct control of the
industry. Conversely, marine engineering orientation
requires a certain basic, well-trained labour force which
is available to serve Nigerians and, if required,
international demands. However, it takes time to train a
"front loaded" marine engineer, so that if economy
improves they can be found just any where.

Regulatory and Safety Administrations are yet to get

sufficient manpowerfor their activities. To speak
frankly, a country which has maritime interests is
manifested by a marine industrial base by the nine sectors
outlined above, consequently, it requires fairly
centralized marine training to ensure a stable, well
trained personnel base to meet its own and its
international commitmentsand obligations.
 .
Total world seafaring supply - 1.2 million in 1990

Fig‘ 3'1 S”PP1YOf Seafarers.

Mun: ICSIBIMCO |

Ol whlch Panama
and other control American
coon voolunu
account lot was

0! union Llboua
aeoeunle lo: 6‘!

Total world demand for seafarers in 1990 is estimated at 1.06 million

Fig. 5.2 Demandof Seafarers."

( Cour‘te5Y of Bimco/ISC ).

SI
 ----— colnpubn
"'--- Unilu-andSum
Dcucuon Syn-n

:3
u-no...“Tam.­
D Gurity

Fju. F " Genphvsiral Fpsearch Veasels.

S(_'n__I_r'cfr2:
Gt,-r‘;-_lt‘dM.=.'\I'\I]r‘C‘\/E. Qf
Ga: and Q1;
 C3F4¢§F°'rEEF? ]I\/

HARINE ENGINEERING EDUCATION AND TRAINING.

4.1 INTRODUCTION.
As pointed out in chapter two, technical education came
into thinking of Nigerian government between late fifties
and sixties. By 1900. colonial government existed almost
exclusively to guarantee the repatriation of profits from
commercial venture to England. Maritime education
including the curriculum was left in the hands of the
missionary societies. -* ­

The "Tuskegee philosophy", (237) developed by Booker

Washington (ibid), was exported to Nigeria. A curriculum
was to be designed for vocational training. The curriculum
was designed to foster a differentiated educational system.
that is one to train African leaders. the other for masses.
This curriculum model was based on the premise that African
would forever doom to backwardness of rural servitude,
while a privilege few would be trained to administrate and
conduct the business of the colonist. Therefore. nothing
was done about MET,nor Marine engineering in particular.

4.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:1978-1988

Haritime Academy of Nigeria Oron, Akwa Ibom State, was

established in October 6 1979. But Babangida’s
Administration in April 22 1988. promulgated the Maritime
Academy Degree as contained in the Federal Government
gazette number 27 of 1978, volume 75. This instrument then
changed the name of the institution from the Nautical
College to the Maritime Academyof Nigeria Oron.
4.3 LOCATION OF THE MARITIME ACADEMY

The Maritime Academyof Nigeria is sited in ancient town

of Oron. Oron is a boarder town between Nigeria and
Western Cameroon. It is of one the two busiest fish market
town after Port Harcourt in Nigeria. Oron can be reached
by air, road and water, it is also a gate way to the
ancient town of Calabar the capital of Cross River State of
Nigeria.

4.4 ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

The Academyis under the federal Ministry of Transport.
Fromthe inception, the affairs and policies affecting the
destiny of the premier institution were directed by the
ministry. It was in 1988 that the so-called autonomy was
granted to the institution. since then it took nearly two
years before the governing council was appointed. The
policy making and management now rest with the governing
Council of the Academy.

The day to day administration of the institution is done

by the full-time rector. who is assisted by the vice
rector. The Registrar and the Bursar are also key officers
of the Academy,students’ supervision and orderliness is
assured by the Regimental unit of the Academy. See fig.
4.1. The Organization Chart.

MISSION- To train young men as officers in the Nigerian

Merchant Marine and as leaders in the Maritime industry.
4.5 THE OBJECTIVES OF THE ACADEMY

To admit and train the various levels of personnel

required for running and operating ship of the
Merchant navy;

To train technical manpower for Ports Marine

Engineering, workshop, piloting and navigation,
Marine Insurance, Hydrography and related
services;

To provide such other forms of instruction as the

Academymay from time to time decide to undertake.

4.6 THE POWERS OF THE ACADEMY

"To provide courses of Instruction and training;

In marine technology, including marine Engineering,

Navigation, Applied Marine Sciences, Shipping
Business and the management thereof and any other
courses as may be approved by the council from time
to time;

In maritime sciences related to the needs and

development of Nigeria in areas associated with
Maritime Affairs; and

In applied research in Maritime Technology and

related activities.

To arrange conferences and seminars;

To encourage and promote in-service training and

study groups;
- To hold examinations and grant or award diplomas

and other distinctions to persons whohave pursued

course of study approved by the council and have

satisfied such other requirements as the council

may lay down;

- To demand and receive from any student or from

other person attending the Academyfor the purpose

of instruction for such fees as the council

may, with the prior approval of the Minister, from

time to time, determine,

- To hold public lectures and undertake

printing, publishing and bookselling;

- To makegift for any charitable purpose;

- To undertake any other activity appropriate

a Haritime Academyof the highest standard".

56
4.7 EXISTING HARINE ENGINEERING CURRICULUM

Maritime Academyof Nigeria provides four and half years

academic programmeleading to the class two certificate of
competency (foreign going). From the Maritime Academy’s
brochure, the curriculum is sub-divided into 5 parts and
spread over four and half years. This means that each part
constitutes one academic year duration (i.e approx. 9
months), followed by 2 months industrial Training
Programme. Every Academy year is further broken into 3
modular terms.

The Education and Training period of 4 1/2 years

comprises of four phases:

Phase la -The first two years, comprises four semester of

basic academic and professional studies.

Phase 1b- 6 months of industrial training in marine or

mechanical workshops and dockyards.

PHASE2 - 18 months sea training.

PHASE3 - 20 weeks mandatory and preparatory courses,

before proceeding for the certificate of competency
examination. This arrangement is shown in fig.4.2

The curriculum for the basic studies at the lflaritime

Academy Nigeria covers courses required for the
cmfidfication of marine engineers in accordance with the
International Convention on the Standards of Training and
Certification and Natchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW1976).

57
4.9 cons suaascra AREA

The composition of the engineering core subjects are as

follows:

Control engineering;

Electronic

- Electrotechnology

- Engineering drawing

- Fluid Mechanics

- Internal Combustion engines

- Naval Architecture

- Steam engines

- Strength of material

- Theory of machines

- Thermodynamics

The curriculum structure for the academic study and

practical training for the above course is subdivided into
five parts and spread over 4 1/2 years. As pointed out
earlier, each part is for one academic year duration,
followed by a 2-month SummerIndustrial Training Programme.
Dne academic year is further broken up into three modular
terms.
 The subjects to be studied for each part of the programme
are given below. followed bv a detailed outline of the
modular courses for parts 1. II, and 111.

Course subjects Total N0. of Terms

Hours 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Hathematics 28 6 6 6 6 - - - - ­
Physics 12 - 4 4 4 - - - - ­
Chemistry 9 5 4 - - - - - ­
Communications 6 - 4 2 - - - - ­
Liberal Studies 6 4 - — 2 - - - ­
Naval Science 3 3 - - - - - ­
Fluid Mechanic: 6 - - - - - - - - ­
Theory Hachines 12 - - - - 6 7 - ­
Steght.of Hats. 12 - - - - - - 6 6 ­
Thermodynamics 12 - - - - 5 - 6 - ­
Elect.Technology 12 - - - 6 - 6 ­
Engin. Knowledge 18 - - 6 - 6 6 - - ­
Humanities 12 - - - - — - - 4 8
Control Engineering 6 - - - - - - - 6 ­
Theo.&Constr. 18 - - - - 6 4 - 4 4 - ­
Knoueldge 6 - - - 4 - - - 2 - ­
Engin.Drauing/Design 30 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2
Boat Work 12 4 4 4 - - - — - ­
Horkshop Practice 36 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Project/Elective 10 - - - - - - - 4 10

Total practical (vocational) Training for Engineers:

(i) In the Academy workshop from term 1 to 9 - 360

(ii) On National Flag vessel un the summer between term

3 and 4
In the Industrial workshop during summer
between term 6 and 7 - 320­

COURSE STRUCTURE IN THE SCHOOL or MARINE ENGINEERING

Term I TEFM 2
(OCT.-DEC.) (JAN.-MAR)

Subject Hrs/Heek Subject Hrs/week

Descript.----- -- Descript.------­
L P T Total L P T Total

Maths.I 4 - 2 6 Maths.II 4 - 2 6
Chemistry 3 2 - 5 Phys. 1 3 1 - 4
Lib.Stud. 4 - - 4 Comm. 4 - - 4
Boat Hork - 4 - 4 Boat work - 4 - 4
H/S Pract.- 4 - 4 W/SPract.- 13 - 4
Naval Sci - 4 4 Engr.Draw. 4 - - 4
Term Hrs/wk. 30 27 Total Term Hrs/wk. 26

FIRST SUMMERVACATION (JULY T0 SEPTEMBER)

Cadets will be required to make a short voyage of 2
months duration on National Flag Ships. During this period
they receive practical training on various aspects of
Running and Maintenance of Marine Machinery.

TERM THREE TERM FOUR

Subject Hours/Week Subjects Hours/Heek

D¢3C'iPt- ----- Descript. ---- -­
L P T Total L P T Total

Mathematics 4 - 2 6 Mathematics 4 - 2 6
PhYSics 3 1 — 4 Physics 3 1 4
Conmuns. 2 - - 2 Liberal Studies 2 - - 2

60
n¢r1naEn9in.6 - - 6 Fluid Mechanic: 4 - 2
En9in.Drau. - 4 - 4 National Knouled. 4 - ­
Boatuork - 4 - 4 En9in.Drauin9 1/2 3 1/2 4
H/8 Pract.1/2 31/2 4 workshop Pract.1/2 3 1/2 4

Tera hrs/Mk 30 Total TERMHrs/Wk 30

TERM FIVE TERM SIX

Subject Hours/Week Subject Hours/week

Descript. -------- -- Descript- ------------ -­
L P T Total L P T Total

Mathematics 3 - 1 4 Theory of Mach. 4 1 1 6

Tharmodyna. 4 1 1 6 Srength of Mats.4 1/2 1/2 6
Marine Engin. 5 1 - 6 Electro. Tech. 4 1 1 6
Ship Theory 3 1 2 6 Theory of mach. 4 1 1 6
Construction 3 - 1 4 Construcion 3 - 1 4
En9in.Drau. 1/2 31/2 4 Engin.DraHing 1/2 3 1/2 4
workshop pract. 4 — 4 Horkshop Pract. - 4 - 4

TERM SEVEM TERM EIGHT

(October to Dec.) (Jan. to March)

Subjects Hours/week Hours/Week

Description ---—------ —-—
---— —-­
L P T Total L P T Total

Theory of Mach. 4 1 1 6 Electro.Tech.4 1

Strength of
Materials 4 - 2 6 Engin. Econ. 4 ­
Thermodynamics 4 1 1 6 Control Engin.4 1
Marine Engin. 5 1 - 6 Ship Theo. &
Construction 3

61
Engin. Design 1 1 - 2 Engin. Design 1 1-2

NorkshopPract. 1/2 3 1/2 - 4 Horkshop Pract.1/2 31/2 4

Design Project - - — 4
Total Tere Hours/Heek 30 Total Tera Hours/Hk. 30

TERH NINE
(April to June)

Hours/Week
Course Subjects ­
Description L P T Total

Haritime business 4 - - 4
4 Personnel Management 4 - - 4
Ship Theory 3- 1 - 4
Nautical Knowledge 1 1 2 4
Engineering Design 1 1 2 4 6
Horkshop Practice 1/2 3 1/2 4 4
Design Project/Elective 2 - 1 3

Total Term Hours/Week 29

KEY: L - Lecture Hour

p - practical

T - Tutorial

62
4.9 HANDATORY COURSES

This is the final stage of the programmeand is always

given in the Arab Transport Maritime AcademyEgypt. The
approved subjects within Mandatory courses are:

FA01 First Aid: 20 total hours

FF 020 Fire Fighting: 30 total hours

PS 030 Personal Survival: 30 total hours

As stated earlier the Mandatory courses are done in AHTA

in Egypt, however. arrangement has reached an advanced
stage for the courses to be conducted in Nigeria. before
the end of 1992/93 academic year.

4.10 LEADERSHIP/PHYSICAL EDUCATION TRAINING

The leadership and physical education plav decisive roles

in education and training of cadets in the curriculum.
This is seen as means to implement the whole training
processes, through discipline and loyalty. Hence. the
institution is a para-military.

The Regiment is led by a senior naval officer, assisted

by junior naval personnels of the commandant. This system
helps to set a high standards of personal appearance,
conduct, team work and leadership that are in keeping with
the finest tradition of the seagoing service. As some of
us are familiar, regimental system is a process which
assists in developing the leadership potential of cadets
through:
 Ability to perform well under variable conditions

Obedience and prompt response to instructions

- Pride in oneself and in one’s profession

- Knowof one’s professional duties

- An unyielding sense of duty

Military bearing and pride of one’s personal appearance

Physical fitness and mental adjustment

- An ability to work with other people

Anunderstanding of positive leadership skills.

The Regimental system is also a means through which upper

midshipmenpractice leadership through interpersonal skill
example. It is the goal of the regimental system to
develop leadership trails ir1 upperclass cadets that will
enable them lead other cadets through positive motivation.
In keeping with this objective, the Regimental system
assist the cadets in developing:

- concern and interest in the development of junior ones

- Professional knowledge and skill

- The techniques of firm but considerable leader

- Soundexperience in teaching and counselling.

64
4.11 FACILITIES

The Maritime Academyhas the following facilities :

1 A training ship
2 2 stand by generating plant
3 36 class rooms (including lab.)
4 2 technical drawing rooms
5 2 radar simulators
6 1 engine room workshop
7 1 engine room simulator
8 1 workshop for Lathe, Welding and forge machines
9 1 library
10 2 sports ground
11 1 accommodation for 200 students
12 2 restaurant
13 1 students’common room for with bar
14 1 typing pool office.

4.12 TEACHING STAFF

This area has been the major problem that plagued the
14-year old institution. Frankly, this has also been the
most neglected sector right from the inception of the
Academy.The staff strength of the engineering faculty as
at now stands at:

Lectures - 2 (full time)

Assistant lecturer - 2 (full time)

Senior instructors - 2 (full time)

65
Part time lecturers- 2

TOTAL - B

1.13 THE HEAKNES8 OF CRRICULUH

Broadly. before an attempt is made to assess the

success or failure, its merits and its drawback, its pluses
and its minuses. we need evaluation as limit to an
assessment of the outcomes of this curriculum, or, even
more narrowly do an appraisal of the extent to which it had
been successfully delivered. And how much it has solved
the Maritime goals of the nation and meeting the IND
requirements on Standard of Training Certification and
Watchkeepingfor Seafarers.

There have been no worked out plan for the training and
retraining of teaching staff. The curriculum has stagnated
for more than a decade without a singe review, and there is
no prescribed means to evaluate it. On this point, Kelly
madethe following observations:

developments in evaluation theory in recent years

have shown the evaluative process within education to be
a highly sophisticated and complex matter.

He has, among other things, revealed the need for

evaluation to be seen as part of the process of the
curriculum change or development from the very onset. The
current curriculum lacks a mean of constant feed back of
understandings to inform the process of revising,
modifying, adapting and indeed, restructuring, the original
plans to reflect the experience of attempting to implement
them.

66
4.14 ENEHY
or conpsnnou

Few desperate Nigerians have tried to give different

reasons why the Academy remains so long without enough
teaching staff. Out of desperation they complained about
the sitting of the Academyof at Oron. For those who were
honest enough, they talked about poor salary structure,
that they should be paid the previous salaries they earned
while working 24 hours onboard ship.

Someof these are people who were trained with the public
fund. Obviously. the salary is poor. but this is a global
problem in class room situations, the story is the same
world-wide. At least a college professor in Nigeria earns
same salary as his director-general counterpart in the
Ministry. Generally, the salary structure in tertiary
institutions in Nigeria is far more loetter than in the
civil service.

What I will try to avoid is building bridges between what

I said in the previous chapters and what I have written
recently. Some foreign experts were seconded by the
International Maritime Organization (IMO). to the Academy
the same Nigerians Seafarers intimidated the said experts,
and they left without replacement. From the author
personal experience an average Nigerian seafarer finds it
extremely very inconvenience to work with academicians.
Whereas in Europe, America and Japan the University
lecturers and maritime experts are working hand in hand to
promote maritime education programmes in their Academies.

There is an obvious basic hypothesis that whatever

67
interferes with the competitive process is bad. There is
seemly. however, an implicit view that these things might
have hit the cadets harder than they did to the image of
the Academy.The classical example of this assertion is a
case of Dr E. Emmah. a veteran Naval Architect and a
Consultant. He came in briefly as a partimer, but rendered
invaluable services within a very short time. At the end,
he was badly treated and he left, since 1989 that he left,
the subject has remained without qualified lecturer to
teach it.

As Benard Crossland. (5) pointed out, " It should no

longer be possible to have people who are proud of their
ignorance of Mathematics, Science and technology" The
acceptance of broad based education for the Academywould
impose considerable strains on our maritime education
system, which is even now suffering from a chronic
shortage of lecturers in relevant subjects. There is no
alternative to paying the going rate if we are to over come
this shortage, even if this has to be achieved by a
scarcity award on top of normal teachers’scale. What is
important is that people must be patriotic, most probaly
those whowere trained with public fund.

4.15 ADMISSION

Generally, admission to the Academy is by competitive

entrance examinations. Academyadmits 40 - 50 students a
year, but admission is strictly based on the qualifications
of the applicant and is granted without regard to ethnic,
religion and state of origin. Successful applicants should
meet the requirement for the admission as stated below:

The applicants must be high school graduates or holder of

a high school equivalent certificates, preferably west
African School Examinations Certificate (WAEC),or BCE"0"

68
level. The following courses are the minimumrequired for
admission without exception:
Mathematics- credit or distinction

English Language- credit or distinction

Physics - credit or distinction and

Chemistry- credit or distinction

The entry level has been raised since 1989 with

abolition of the remedial programme.
Additionally, applicants must be medically fit to withstand
the strenuous training and exercises. It should be borne in
mind that the entry qualifications for the Maritime Academy
in Nigeria is the same as University.

4.16 MARINE ENGINEERING CURRICULUM IN RIVERS STATE

UNIVERSITY PORT HARCDURT

The Marine Engineering Department offers a 5 years

programme leading to bachelor of Technology degree in
Marine engineering. The first two years of the’ 5-year
programmeare devoted to advanced courses in basic science
and fundamental engineering concept. Lectures, tutorials
and laboratory work are routed in broad-based, strong
scientific backgroundto enable the students to acquire the
necessary skill in analyzing and solving complex
engineering problems.

The minimum duration of the B.Tech. programme in marine

Engineering is five years (10 semesters) comprising both
classroom lecture and supervised industrial work experience
scheme period. Nine semesters of course work are spent in
the University made up of two semester in each of years I,

69
 II. III, and V and the first semester of year IV.

The long vacation periods of 3 months at the end of each

year of years 11 and III are spent in shore-based
establishments. A 6- months sea-training period from the
end of the first semester of year IV is spent on board
sea-going or coastal vessels owned by shipping. fishing or
oil-rig servicing companies.

4.17 PROGRAMMESTRUCTURE

The programme and the summarised versions of the syllabus

are under Faculty courses. Someof the courses are Faculty
courses while others are Departmental courses. The courses
are common engineering courses taken by all students
studying in the Faculty.

4.18 FORMAT FOR COURSE NUMBERING

A. Faculty courses

The Faculty courses are numbered according to the sanate

curriculum and Instruction committee recommendation on
course numeration. The course numbers start with FEC
followed by (3) digits:

i) the first letter indicates (F)acult

ii) the second letter indicates (E)ngineering, and

iii) the third letter indicates (C)ommon

courses

iv) the first digit indicates course level;

i.e. 0 - Diplomacourses

70
 first year B.Tech. course

second year B.Tech. course

third year B.Tech. course

fourth year B.Tech. course

fifth year B.Tech. course

first year M.Tech. course

second year H.Tech. course

v) the second digit indicates the Department the

particular course;

Chemical/Petro-chemical Engineering
Department

Civil Engineering Department

Electrical Engineering Department

Marine Engineering Department and

Machanical Engineering Department.

vi) the third digit indicates the subsequent numberof

commoncourse offered by the particular department.

In view of the above format, the numeration of the common

courses are as follows:

(a) Courses to offered by the Mechanical Engineering

Department:

71
 FEC 250 Engineering Drawing I

FEC 251 Engineering Drawing II

FEC 252 Applied Mechanics I

FEC 253 Thermodynamics I

FEC 254 workshop Technology I

FEC 255 Workshop Technology II

FEC256 Materials Science

FEC257 Introduction to Engineering practice.

b) Courses to be offered by Civil Engineering

Department

FEC 120 Technical Drawing I

FEC 121 Technical Drawing II

FEC222 Strength of Materials I

FEC 223 Fluid Mechanics I.

C) Courses to be offered by Electrical Engineering

Department:

FEC230 Electrical Technology.

Departmental courses to offered by Mechanical

Engineering Department.
 The courses listed in the following group of subjects are
ggkgn by the Marine Engineering students. The courses
numberstart with MEC.indicating (M)echnical (E)ngineering
(clourles, followed by 3 digits which have the following
conotation:

i) the digit first indicates the year in which courses are

offered;

ii) the second digit indicates the course group: the

following groups are employed;

Group 1 : Applied Hachanics and Design

Group 2 : Thermal Engineering

Group 3 : Fluid Hachanics

Group 4 : Strength of Materials

Group 5 : Materials Science

Group 6 : Production Engineering

Group 7 : Industrial Engineering

iii) the third digit indicates numberof courses whithin

the group.
 4.19 snows or-' SUBJECTS

GROUP NO. GROUP TITLE/COURSE

1. APPLIED MACHANICS AND DESIGN

MEC310 Applied Machanics II

MEC311 Mechnics of Machines

MEC312 Machanical Engineering Design I

MEC313 Mechanical Engineering Design II

MECMechanical Vibration

THERMAL ENGINEERING

MEC320 Thermodynamics II

MEC522 Thermodynamics III

5. FLUID MECHANICS

MEC 330 Fluid Machanics II

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

MEC 340 Strenght of Material II

MATERIAL SCIENCE

MEC350 Metallurgy I

74
 PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

HEC255 Workshop Technology II

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

HEC370 Economics for Engineers

HEC 571 Engineering Management

Departmental Courses to be offered by Electrical

Engineering Department

EEE320 Electronics Instrumentation

EEE375 Marine Electrical Technology.

Marine Engineering Courses

The course numbers start with MARindicating (MAR)ine

Engineering courses followed by three digits which
have the following connotations:

i) the first digit indicates the year in which the

course is offered:

ii) the second digit indicates the course group; the

following groups are employed:

Group 1 : Ship Power Plants

Group 2 : Naval Architecture

Group 3 : Ship Building

75
Group 4 1 Ship Auxiliary Systems

Group 5 I Ship Automation

Group 6 I Nautical Science

Group 7 : General Marine Engineering.

iii) the third digit indicates the numberwhithin the

same group.

GROUP N0. GROUP TITLE/COURSE YEAR

SEMESTER
1. SHIP POWER PLANTS

MAR410 Marine Diesel Engine I IV - 1

MAR411 Ship Power Plants I IV - 1

MAR412 Engines and power plants IV - 1

MAR413 Marine Steam and Gas Turbines IV - 1

MAR514 Marine Diesel Engine II V- 1

MAR515 Ship power Plants II V- 1

MAR516 Running and Maintenance of Ship

Power Plants V —2

76
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

MAR420 Naval Architecture I IV - 1

MAR521 Naval Architecture II V- 1

MAR522 Naval Architecture III V- 2

MARS23 Ship Proplusion V- 1

SHIP BUILDING

MAR430 Ship Structures IV - 1

MAR431 Ship Strength IV - 1

MAR432 Ship-Yard Technology I IV - 1

MAR533 Shipyard Technology II V —1

MAR534 Ship Design I V - 2

MAR536 Ship Design II V- 2

Ship Design Construction V- 2

4. SHIP AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

MAR441 Marine Auxiliary Machinery IV - 1

MAR442 Heat Transfer Iv — 1

MAR543 Refrigiration and Air-Conditioning IV - 1

SHIP AUTOMATION
 MAR$50 Ship Automation V- 2

6. NAUTICAL SCIENCE

MAR360 Navigation and Meteorology III - 2

6. GENERAL MARINE ENGINEERING

MAR570 Marine Operations IV - 1

MAR571 Project V

4.20 CONCLUSION

The Engneering curricula in the Maritime Academy has

stagnated for nearly 14 years without a single review. As
we are aware shipping is a dynamic activity, which is under
constant pressure to change. Most of humanfactors cited in
Marine accidents were related to a lack of experience with
the onboarb technology. Failure to use available
equipments. inadequate numbers of qualified personnel,
inability to operate highly automated systems. Properly
functioning equipment is not the major problem, having
crews who are able to make use of such equipment may be
the heart of the matter.

Today. more sophistcated equipment is being developed to

further aid the Mariner. Often such equipment is installed
even before it is required by requlations. Creating the
impression that all possible measures to provide for safety
of the vessel have been implemented.

Additionally, steering systems have been greatly improved

5Ub5EQuently to the AmocoCadiz casualty. Redundant power
units and duplicate Control systems with associated failure
alarm Svstem to lessen the likelihood that casualty will

78
result from the loss of steering control.

ships are changing in sizes and shapes to take advantage

of the advanced technology. It then means that the
training of the Marine Engineer must be developed
correspondingly with time. This means updating
instructional material, which will involve reducing
subjects of less significance to make way for subjects of
increasing values in the current Maritime technologies.

In part of shortage of qualified lecturers, what this

implies is that there must be all-out effort on the part of
the authorities to motivate and induce the needed
lecturers. To solve this problem, the authorities must be
prepared to attract well qualified technical and maritime
lecturers by placing them on salaries comparable with those
of their colleagues in business and industry in order to
keep them in teaching.

we should also remember that, our competitor countries

are Ghana, Ivory Coast, Egypt, Britain, France to mention
just are a few. The Britain which we copied the present
curriculum from has since moved away from rigidity to some
thing flexible and new.

Nigeria must understand therefore, recognize the

instrument of the current policies and note some of the
inadequacies in the current curriculum. Our Shipping
industry must reflect the technology of the 1990s. Wehave
to understand that Nigerian engineer is going to compete
with European, Japanese, and American engineers. On the
1i9ht of this, our system have to be restructured to
reflect the global aspirations.

79
 MARITIME ACADEMY OF NIGERIA ORGANIZATION CHART

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80
 EXRH/THESIS

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Studies
nar.En9.

CHIEF
ENGINEER

12 MONTHS
Hon1hs_
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 C3F1F\F’1'EEF? Kl

PROPOSED CURRICULUH DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Introduction
The term "Curriculum" has a wide variety of
definitions. The Latin root for the word "Curriculum"
means "race course”. presently, there is no commonly
accepted definition for the term. The definition varies
with the concepts that a researcher or practitioner uses in
his or her curricula thinking and work. .

Goodson (39) defined curriculum as follows:

- A general over-all plan of the content or specific

materials of instruction that the school should offer
the student by way of qualifying him for graduation or
certification or for entrance into a professional or
vocational field (Goodson, 1966, p. 29).

By contrast, many curriculum writers have developed

curriculum designs which have deliberately focussed on
process skills. The major thesis of this approach is that
there are skills that students should learn that are not
only useful in learning specific competencies within the
school curriculum but will be useful in none-school related
contexts, and helpful in future learning situations.

Among the type of processes that have served as

organizers for curricula are problem solving, social
processes. and valueing processes. Advocates of process
oriented curricula have argued the following to support
their views:

- Since the most significant goal of the school is the

developmentof life long learning skills and interests
 central;
- the curriculum should be planned and organized so as to
have maximumcarry-over into life processes and skills;
greater carry-over is likely to be whenthe curriculum
design directly reflects these processes and skills;

- the process of valueing and other processes having a

high effective element can be taught as well as
essentially cognitive skills: the former should be as
well represented in the curriculum as the latter.
(Saylor and Alexander 1974 p. 227)

5.2 THE NEW CURRICULUM

The principal aim of the new curriculum is that of

educating the cadets generally, while simultaneously
providing professional competence in marine engineering and
naval architecture. To this end the curriculum is designed
to be of such depth and quality that all
cadets would be fully prepared to enter directly the
practice of their profession or go straight into graduate
studies and research.

The content of the new programme is made to develop the

cadet’s capability for independent study and original
thought as well as to foster those work habits which
contribute to professional excellence.

Changes can be rough, and at times turbulent. Wesimply

need to recognize the competitive threat in the- global
maritime industry, therefore, making the change is
inevitable. I knowthat economyand culture may play their
roles, but the latter is dynamicand variable with time.

In Nigeria. marine engineering education developed more as

a professionally oriented subject. while in developed world
the emphasis has been on engineering science. In a fast
changing maritime technology it is disturbing to see
certain things remaining constant when they should not.
Training in the world of marine engineering is the case in
point.

Considering the state of Nigerian economyand the present

dynamic nature of maritime technology, the new training
scheme should be able to produce a_marine engineer, who
should be able to measure up academically and
scientifically with his land-based engineers. For
example, in Electrical, Mechanical, Aviation and Civil
counterparts, to mention just a few. Conversely, such
development will remove once and for all cultural stigma
associated with the professional certificate without
academic degree backing.

It is not always and not only the money which attracts

particularly young people tc: go into certain profession,
but the professional pride. Additionally, high reputation
enjoyed in the society may make the decision in favour of
that very profession. The image of the seagoing
professional is badly neglected in Nigeria. compared with
his colleague in the Air craft industry. This needs to be
polished up with sound academic and professional education.

The author’s personal observation in the class room with

the cadets, reveals that midshipmen aim toward obtaining
bachelor degree that could give them wider job
opportunities in their future lives. Technical training
alone is not enough. Engineering educators and the society
owe it to their students, and to the nation, to help them
become not only good engineers but responsible world
potential leaders.
 At this point, one would like to ask will Nigeria
organize creative educational programme to develop the
skills and innovative abilities in our marine engineers?
will we at the long run break the traditional pattern by
recognizing that education and training of marine engineers
is a life long process?

Firstly, we must maintain a balance between fundamentals

and specialization. Shakespeare wrote that during a life
time, an individual goes through seven ages. But that of
an engineer should be something in the neighbourhood five.
Similarly, Anthony Giordano, president of American Society
of Engineers, 1969-90 disputed that, in their professional
lives. engineers pass through certain ages. These ages
illustrate the spectrum of values that must be considered
in design of a career-long system of engineering training
following graduation:

- the age of the application engineer:

- the age of the design engineer;

- the age of the engineer supervisors

- the age of the engineering manager and

- the age of the engineering vice-president and

president.

Generally, the author does not expect new graduates

engineers from the Maritime Academyto be seasoned veteran
engineers, but we would like the graduates to knowat least
what engineers do and why. Looking critically at the
marine engineering discipline, a discipline can be defined
based on what is expected of those trained in that
discipline. A list of competencies also serves as a
guideline to the building of an engineering curriculum.
Competenciesfor the marine engineering are classified as
those expected to be met by all graduates of the programme.

The late philosopher Sidney Hook (7-9), suggested that

amongthe characteristics all college graduates should have
effective communication, knowledge, about the world and
humanity, a grasp of physical principles that explains what
they observe, and awareness of the function of the society.

Going by these principles, the proposed new curriculum

should be able to produce engineers with the following
ability:

- Solid fundamental knowledge of engineering sciences;

- Reasonable familiarity with computers, computational

techniques, and computational aids:

Ability to reduce data, concepts, and designs to clear

picturial form;

Ability to approximate solutions, makereasonable

engineering assumptions when required, and produce

specific recommendations in determining data;

- A developing sense of engineering ethics and some

principles by which moral choices may be made within

a professional context;
- Ability to carry design processes from problem

definition to solution, including the ability to gather

pertinent information and deal with incomplete problem

definition and constraints involving esthetics,

reliability. economics.politics, ecology, law,

sociology, and general safety.

5.3 THREE DIMENSIONS OF THE NEW CURRICULUM

There are three distinct phases at all the real marine

engineering student is supposed to pass through to become
and acceptable engineer. This is illustrated in figure 5.1

Movementfrom one phase to the next requires a shift in

paradigms. Engineering education should promote this
shift, not inhibit it. whenan engineer begins his or-her
education, the emphasis should be placed seriously on the
-ics, this means:

Mathematics:

- Physics

- Mechanics

- Electronics

- Chemiques

- Acoustics
 —Elastics

The -ics at the end of each word signifies that the

gubject is scientific. analytic, synthetic. mathematic and
academic. The key characteristic is the absence of concern
for human values. No one can be considered a competent
engineer who does not have a good grounding in the -ics.

The second phase of development occurs when a student

graduates and move into gainful employment, where the key
encounter with what I call the - ing phase:

—Operating

- Planning

—Designing

- Creating

- Delivering

- Servicing

- Optimizing

- Scavenging and above all managing.

Because each of the words has a very root, it connotes

action. The -ics subjects are concerned with knowing and
understanding. The -ing subjects are concerned with doing,
or more accurately, with delivering to customers the
promises of engineering education and training.

In the -ing phase, engineers are confronted with human

values. The matter was put succinctly in 1857 by A.
Wellington. in the Art of Railway Location in the United
States:

" It will be well if engineers were less generally

thought of, and even defined, as art of operation
or constructing. H1 a certain important sense it is
rather the art of not constructing; or, to define it
rudely, it is the art of doing well with one dollar".

It is the third phase, the -tion phase, that best

prepares engineers to play significant roles in the
governance of the systems required to support the society.
In this phase engineers deal with society functions and
institutions, which include transportation, communication,
habitation and environmental protection. It is at this
final stage, that humanvalues, in all their
complexity play the central role.

5.4 Curriculum for National Aspiration

The proposed new curriculum is intended to take into

consideration the new development in the National economy.
As Nigeria is marching into culture of ship building and
repairs, the newcurriculum. by and large must reflect this
aspiration. Therefore, areas like Naval Architecture .and
Design must be given top priority in the new curriculum.

Curricula changes dictated by the future trends, as

elaborated in the previous section, are more evolutionary
than revolutionary. These curricula changes call for
addition of manysubjects and skills; in view of an
already bulging four years curriculum, their incorporation
will require fundamental restructuring of the engineering
curricula.

To answer future needs, the following changes are suggested

for incorporation into engineering curricula.

Hathematicss The mathematics base in marine- engineering

education needs to be broadened to emphasize subjects such
numerical methods, approximate methods, finite mathematics,
non-linear analysis, asymptotic methods, and mathematical
principles of graphics.

This need has been brought about by advances in the

engineering Sciences and computer technology. The author
feels that these subjects should be part of future
engineering education even at the expense of more classical
mathematical subjects. Course content must be carefully
scrutinized to eliminate less relevant subjects and
mathematical rigour where it is not absolutely necessary.

Also to be encouraged is the use of computer software in

symbolic algebra and calculus for both teaching mathematics
and routine engineering analysis irn engineering sciences
that enables students to deal with "tougher" problems.

Natural Sciences: There is a fast growing body of

knowledgein the natural sciences that engineering student
must learn. The present and future technologies will be
based on a broader spectrum of scientific subjects and
disciplines. In teaching physics and chemistry, emphasis
should be placed on this broadening scope of the scientific
base, rather than on the standard subjects. some of which
are ‘taught in engineering sciences in greater depth and
sophistication.

The commondenominator of ‘these Irequirements, together

with those aspects of natural sciences that are an
indispensable part of the general education of a modern
engineer, should form the requirements.
Simulator:
On the present trend. there will be no meaningful
training for real sea operation, in the absence of
simulator. On the side of simulator training, warrent
Lebeck, (1) of the United Merchant Marine Academy, Kings,
NewYork, made the following observations in the paper he
presented to the 7th International Maritime Lecturer
Association (IMLA) Conference held in New York 1992:

simulator is a useful tool that can duplicate stressful

and critical situations and sharpen our skills to deal
with such real emergencies. Simulators can put deck and
engineering officers through crises and emergencies that
they would be training, including rectification of
skills, it has a vital role to play in our efforts to
create and maintain a strong competitive American
Merchant marine.
(Leback, 1992, pp.1).

We will expect the new curriculum under the new

dispensation to produce an engineer who can compute trim
and stability, in addition, make reasonable calculations
using personal computers (Ibid., p.52. And, we will also
need bridge officers who not only can plot a true course.
They need to understand and direct the appropriate actions
when the bridge-mounted engine console lights Lu: with a
plot "hot bearing" or other crucial malfunctions in a
readout on one of the dozens of remote sensors. They will
have to knowbecause it is likely that there will be no one
in the engine room.

The modern ships are becoming Electrical/Electronics

oriented oweing to a departure from the traditional method
to automation. The remote controls, in most cases rely so
muchon the electronics devices and circuitry.
 Engineering Ethics and Humanities: The philosophy of the
new syllabi would provide adequately for the study of
engineering ethics and good grounding in humanities.
Humanity is equally important as professional. many
engineering students often wonder why they should be
"bothered" with courses other than those professional ones
they are admitted to read. Even amongthe senior academic
staff, there are some intellectuals whoalso question the
reason of humanist studies in the institution which, in
their opinion should be devoted every bit of their time in
attention to professional or technological courses.

what this actually means is that an engineer requires much

more than just his engineering or professional knowledge to
operate effectively in his society.

Anengineer responsible for an organization of say, 30 or

more crew members under him is faced with a professional as
well as organizational problems. His success in such a
task depends on his knowledge and understanding of the
simple mechanics of group behaviour just as much as his
expert knowledge of engineering.

In his part, the engineer also requires some extra­

professional skills in the tafficial or formal medium of
expression. He should be able to communicate meaningfully
and effectively with the group, more especially if the
composition is a multi-ethnic setting.

A chief engineer either afloat or ashore will certainly

rely more on communication skill than on his engineering
know-how. Any marine engineer officer who is faced with
such a challenge, shy away with what can be considered an
integral part of his official responsibility, is no more
than a " ship mechanic"
 In the words of Paulo Freire, every human being no matter
how "ignorant" or submerged in the culture of science" he
maybe, is capable of looking critically
at his world in a dialogical encounter with others.
Provided with the proper tools for such encounter, he can
gradually perceive his personal and social reality.
with reference to the words of Freire, one can advance
opinion that it is the humanist studies more than physical
science that provide the tools for critical social.
economical and political awareness.

Emphatically, the philosophy of the proposed new

curricula should look like the pictorial view shown in
figure 5.2. From this arrangement, the modern ships’
officer is a professional and must understand the
procedures and judgements of practice. It is primarily due
to the education in fundamentals that enables him to
satisfactorily cope with the variety and rapidity of
technological change of the Inodern times. Multipurpose
education includes engineering science education.

It has much to do with thinking, and identifying the

essence of problems, and choosing logical solutions.
Frequently in professional practice, "how you think about
what you think about" may be more important than "what you
think about".

Navigation: The change of standards in Maritime education

training will place more emphasis on navigation. Due to
automation, navigation as subject will become more
important than ever. Based on the present standard status
(1992) which may be characterized by not yet satisfying
position determination, Arpa, auto-pilot (course control),
Satcom, GMDSS,VTS, are areas which must be fully exploited
in the new engineering curriculum, as long as the fully
integrated bridge system is the general and popular concept
for today’s and tomorrow's ship. All officers, being deck
or engine must be able to execute or monitor the navigation
process, plan the passage, and assess critical situations.
Examples: France, Germany/hamburg/Netherlands.

Computer: A substantial increase of computer—related

subjects and skills lfl the curriculum is needed. These
include fluency in computer languages, computer graphics,
database management manipulation, ’familiarity with a
standard operating system, text editing, construction and
critical of large software packages. Someunderstanding of
hardware elements, and computer controlled processes. The
students should learn to apply these skills to solving
engineering problems.

Effective data handling requires the capability to use a

computer (Garbage in - Garbage out) and data processing
techniques (example, filters), to acquire, store, analyze
and assess data, and to have a thorough understanding of
the controlled process and the ship as a total integrated
system.

These changes in professional activities have a strong

influence on objectives and contents of engineering
training. It is observed that:

- operating systems using electronics technology and

man-machine interfaces like keyboards, screens, and
software tools, like flow diagrams, icons and menues
have becomevery similar in different applications such
as bridge operation, engine room operation, loading
office operation and radio operation

the skill to operate electronics based systems is also

desirable in the proposed system.
 Automation I No where do the words automation and computer
appear in the existing curriculum. There are poliferation
of automation processes on the modern ship. They appear in
the engine room in bridge control systems, they appear on
the bridge in the integrated navigation system, and they
appear in cargo operations in such areas as mechanical
hatches and automatic warning systems.

The computerized engine room automation system has the

following advantages in the modern ship:

Reduced fuel costs by limiting the usual gradual

increase in specific fuel consumption through continous
componentcondition control, proper cylinder balancing
and optimal injection and combustion;

- Reduced maintenance costs through extended maintenance

intervals by ensuring good operating conditions and by
maintenance planning based on accurate information
rather than on assumptions and statistics;

Effective use of maintenance crew;

Reduced risk of machinery breakdown and consequently

"off-hire";

- safety against black-out because of extensive power

consumption monitoring;

It has unlimited advantages in the operation of the modern

ship.
Enginooring Designs The movement toward the sciences in
marine engineering training was, however, motivated by what
Herbert Simon, (2) of Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT), called the "desire of academic respectability". In
terms of the prevailing norms of general culture as
existing in France, Japan, United States, Netherlands and
Germany,Simon said academic respectability calls for such
subject matters "that are intellectually tough, analytic,
formalizable and teachable".

It is right to say that, engineering design or synthesis

is the central theme of the engineering activity. In the
existing curriculum, the subject has always been treated as
"intellectually soft, intuitive, informal and cookbooky”
and was by and large purged from engineering curricula.

The design element of the curriculum urgently needs to be

strengthened by adding courses uuherever possible on the
fundamentals of design. within the generic ream of Computer
Aided Design (CAD). major efforts should ¥ocus on improving
the cadets’ understanding of engineering principles, the
design process and proper use of the computer in finding
optimal solutions to engineering design problems.

English Language: The teaching of technical English

should be replaced by the teaching of the English Language.
Where necessary more attention should be paid to report
analysis.

Communication: Greater emphasis should be placed on

improving the written and oral communication skills of
students. I will like to suggest that each year stress
oral presentation, and at least one course each year have
substantial writing requirements and several literature
surveys.
 Interdisciplinary Exposure: Marine engineering students
are handicapped in this regard. Efforts should be made to
incorporate elements of interdisciplinary work into the
curriculum. One way to approach this problem is by forming
small research or project team from different disciplines
carrying out or engineering project.

Apparently, the same argument goes for other subjects in

the curriculum, they must be reviewed in line with the
other courses as the pressure from‘ the high technology
continues to influence the maritime industry.

Parallel to these changes, it is suggested that overall

course load for the 4 years curriculum should take the
following form:

- Hathematics and Natural Sciences - 30 to 35 Z

- Engineering Sciences - 35 to 40 Z

- Design and Computer technology - 15 to 20 Z

- Humanities, Social Sciences,

- English language and communication - 10 Z

The pictural view of the above arrangement is illustrated

In fig. 5.3.

5.5 COURSE DURATION

Since the traditional 4 — year programme cannot be
further stretched, newapproaches are required to alleviate
the situation. The approaches require significant changes
in the Philosophy, attitudes, goals, curricula contents and
methodology of the Marine Engineering Department. The
materials must be simply repacked to achieve economy of
prosontation. Marine Engineering also must try to develop
intellectual curiosity. creativity and cohesive
understanding of the fundamentals of the marine engineering
profession.

4 years seem reasonably for the most countries. Duration

of theoretical training, total duration of practice
before/within theoretical education, total amount of
engineering training, supporting and professional syllabi
subjects, Certificate(s) of competency, academic degree
differ considerably from country to country. Some of the
relevant data can be taken from table 5.1:

Country Entrance Year Educational Academic

Level Educ. Level Degree

France Bacc P+4 Polytech Hsc/Bsc ?

Holland 11 Y 2+P+1 Polytech Bsc/Ing

U.K. 12 Y - Polytech ­

Ger/Hamburg 12 Y P+4 Polytech 1ng_

Ber/Flensbg. 12 Y P+3+1 Polytech 1ng_

U59 12 Y P+4 Academy Bsc

Japan 12 Y 4 Univ.'? 35.;

Table 5.1
( Courtesy of 7th IHLAconference, 1992. )

The author assumes that these data might have been

Updated. As shown in the table, "12 Y indicates entrance
requirements for either polytechnic or Lmiversity 9
while
"p" stands for practical training.

The significance of the point raised in the above systems

are sea time, total duration of theoretical education, for
example, Germany, France, United States and Japan use four
years. while Netherlands uses three years for theoretical
training. Going by the popular standards, the four years
duration should be maintained.

5.6 4-YEAR FRONT LOADED

The existing programme in the Academy is Sandwich. On
the basis of time, it takes approximately 8 - 10 years,
from cadetship to train first class engineer. Considering
the level of knowledge, professional and academic
achievements, most of the useful time must have been wasted
on shipboard training. It is not suggested that we should
abandonsea-training. It is the critical link between the
classroom and the "real world". The focus of training
remains at sea. It is what we teach aboard is becoming the
critical question.

In sea training, academic is not emphasized at all. It

serves as a background to practical tasks faced by the
cadets in the "real world". The advantage of this system
is that it is relatively cost-effective, does not require a
high level of education for entrants. It provides ‘the
industry with a "Captive" work force of trainers. The
disadvantages are the system, in general, is based on
outdated needs, pre-supposes an on-board training which is
not always available. It prescribes high standard, short
term modular shore training, which in many states,
including Nigeria, is not fully provided.
5.7 MAJOR PRBRAHHES IN THE CURRICULUH
The changing in the seafaring over the past years, have
meant that many who do not see themselves remaining at sea
need to acquire higher qualifications. It is still, very
often, regards any one with more than a handful "GCE" "0"
level as being too clever to remain at sea. Nevertheless,
seafarers have relatively short career afloat of around
seven years at the average.

Horeso, the existing programme in Nigeria and in most

countries, do not makeprovision for the land-based side of
the industry. It is on the light of this situation that
prompted D. M. Waters, rector World Maritime University ­
Malmo, to make the following remarks:

In this regard it interesting that - despite the

considerable amount of debate currently being generated
about the training of the seafarers - so little is said
or done in respect of the shore-based positions,
traditionally occupied by the ex-seafarers. There are,
of course. a few countries where comprehensive University
undergraduates Courses in maritime studies prepare
students not only for seagoing positions, but also
recognize that many of them will progress to managerial
positions in the shore-side of the industry. However,
the majority of the advanced countries appear to assume
that the fleet managers, harbour masters, surveyors,
maritime lecturers et al., will continue to be adequately
Drepared by the education they received for their
certificate of ‘the competency followed, hopefully, by
extensive seagoing experience (D.M. Waters, 1991, p.4).

Considering the fore-going arguments, it is now suggested

the new c urriculum
' -
be reconstructed into -
2 MBJDF .
areas viz,
 A. Harino En91necring- Focus on shipboard engineering
operations;

8. Naval Architecture - Attention directed towards A,

with more emphasis on ship
building and construction.

The structure of the degree programmeis suggested to take

the following arrangement:

PHASE1: For the first two years, all students from the two
major areas take commoncourses in the following component
core areas and also courses from

A. Hathematics- Four courses in calculus (I, II, III,IV)

B. Sciences - Divided into:

i) physics - 4 courses

ii chemistry - 2 courses

C. English - 3 courses

D. Humanities- and Social Sci. - 6 courses

E. Naval Sci.- 4 courses

F. Physical Education/First Aid - 8 courses

9. Computer Science - 2 courses

The first phase will also include workshop technology and

greater part of natural, applied, and engineering sciences.
Introduction to some aspects of major areas will be
included.
since technical courses often require a sequence of
prerequisites, it might be necessary for some engineering
science courses to be extended into the second and third
year. Each area of specialization would have exact course
requirements. Most of the lecture courses would not differ
substantially from courses currently taught in bachelors’
degree programmes. Except that with strong pre-engineering
preparation, the courses should be taught at a higher level
and would include more materials.

Phase II

The main theme of phase two will be on major area of

specialties and in-dept approach to natural and applied
sciences and engineering science. This period will be
directed towards land-based and shipboard training, and it
should be at the ratio of 1:1 to maintain the equitable
balance. Principally, such areas as marine propulsion
machinery, automation, electro-technology, electronics,
integrated bridge and engineroom control system et al.
Equal amount of time should also be spent in the shipyard.

Phase III

This period will be the final phase of the programme. Here

it will be mainly focused on deeper approach to the
professional training and intellectual training.
Additionally, the training must meet the following
requirements:

Training to meet STCW

provision, as contained inarticles:

X and regulations 1 —4 of the convention;

Training to meet the STCWConvention requirements

 broadened to include non-STCNcourses:

— Training to meet the STCNConvention requirements and

expanded to enable candidates who wish to continue
after bachelor degree and Certificate Competence
respectively to continue to pursue higher degree.

The proposed restructuring degree programmeis illustrated

in tables, 5.1, for general Courses, table 5.2, for Naval
Architecture and table 5.3 for Marine Engineering ship
operation.

Restructuring Programmes for Bachelor Degree in Naval

Architecture and Marine Engineering

COMMON:For the first two years, all students irrespective

of the Department, must successfully achieve a minimum
mastery level in the common subject areas. The maximum
great point average must not be below 2.00 GPA, in each of
the courses. However, if particular courses are not
relevant to the student’s need, they may be waived:

- Mathematics

- Phys.I, Elem. Hech & II

- Chemistry I & II

- Data processing (basic)

- Automation

- Engineering grahics

- Strenght of materials
 lntroduction to Engr. Design

- Sip operation system

Navigation

WorkshopTech./practice

Naval Arch. and propulsion

Electrical Machinery

—Electronics / digital

Solid / Fluid Mechanics

- Safety

- Computer programming

- Physical Education

- Seamanship

- Engr. Ethics

- Engr. Sci., Elective

- Engr.Han.Proc.

- Engine Simulator

Table 5.1 CommonCurriculum

 CURRICULUH FOR NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

SEHESTER I SEMESTER II

Subject SEH Classs subject SEH Class

hrs. hrs. hrs hrs.

English/Comm. 2 Har.Engr.II 3 3

Chem. I 2 1/2 Calculus II 4 4

Calculus I 4 Comp.Program. 3 4

Engr.Draw. 3 1/2 Applied Chem.II 3 3

Naval Arch. 1 1/2 Physics II 3 4

Har.Engr. 1 1/2 Elective 3 3

Physics I 4 4 _______ __
19 21
19 23

It is obligatory that at the end of every semester the

student must complete two months practical work.
 BEHESTER III SEMESTER IV

Subjects SEH Class Subjects SEN Class

hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs.

Elective II 3 3 Calculus IV 4 4

Calculus III 3 3 Literature 3 3

Engr.Ana1y. 2 2 1/2 Phy. IV 3 4

Haterial
Science 4 5 Fluid Hech. 3 3

Strenght of 4 4 Thermo. 3 3
Mat.

Physics III 3 3 16 17

Successful completion of two months practical work is

required.

106
 SEMESTER V SEMESTER VI

Subject SEH Class Subject SEH Class

hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs.

- Economics 3 3 Ethic & P01. 3 3

- Probabli. Modern Phys. 2 2

& Rand.Pro. 3 3 Naval Arch IV 4 4

Hach.Design 2 2 Engr.Lab. 2 1/2 4

Electra-Tech.3 4 Naval Arch. 4

Harine Engr. 3 3 E1ect.Engr. 3

Naval Arch. 2 2 Thesis ­

Thesis - 1 21 1 /2 24
 SEMESTER VII SEMESTER VIII

Subject SEN Class Subject SEH Class

hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs.

Ethic; & Naval Arch.IX

profession 3 3 (ship design) 3 1/2 6
Communcation 2 2 Naval Arch.X
5h.Vibra. 3 3 (propell.design) 3 3
Naval.Arch. 4 7 Har.Engr. VI
Har.Engr.V (Steam plants). 4 1/2 5
(Design ) 4 1/2 5 Thesis 2
Thesis 2 1/2 5 Seminar 3 2

18 25 17 21

Table 5.2 Naval Architecture Curriculum.

 MARINE ENGINEERING CURRICULUM

SEMESTER I SEMESTER II

Subject SEM Class Subject SEM Class

hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs.

Englishl Comm.2 2 Mar.Engr.II 3 3

Calculus 4 4 Calculus 4 4
Ship System 3 4 Chemistry 3 3
Physics 4 4 Comp.Prog. 3 4
Chemistry 2 3 Physics 3 4
Naval Arch. 2 3 Engr.Design 1 1
Mar.Engr.I 1 2 Elective 3 3

1B 22 20 22

SEMESTER III SEMESTER IV

Subject SEM Class Subject SEM Class

hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs.

Elective II 3 3 Literature 3
Calculus 3 3 Calculus 4 4
Elect,Engr. 3 4 Humanity 3 3
Thermo. 3 3 Material
P/E 1 1 Strenght 3 3
"3"-De5i9" 3 3 Workshop 1 2
Engr.Man.proc. 1 1 P/E 1 1
-------- -- E1ect.Mach.3 4
17 18 ————————
-­

18 20

109
 The Summersea term of 4 credits hours must be maintained.

SEMESTER VII SEHESTER VIII

Subject SEH Class Subject SEH Class
hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs.

Humanity 3 3 Humanity 3 3
Naval Arch.3 3 Engr.Econs. 3 4
Engr.Desgn 4 5 Har. Law 2 4
Automation 3 3 Pern.Hangt. 3 3
Navigation 3 3 Engr.Design 3 5
Materials Engr.Analy. 3 3
Strenght 1 2 Thesis 2 2

--------- -- 19 24
17 19

Table 5.3 Marine Engineering Curriculum.

5.8 CERTIFICATION

A question frequently asked is what are the personnel

requirement for a ship and what standards the personnel
should be trained?

The obvious answer to this question is that a ship should

carry sufficient crew to enable it safely Iwavigate ‘the
oceans, without accident or loss to the crew, cargo itself
and without damage to the environment. 85 74 of marine
accidents have been attributed to the human errors, and
lacked proper training.
RECOHHENDATION

with the high level of professional and academic standards

proposed in this dissertation only three levels of
certificates are recommended. These are third class,
secondclass and first class (all unlimited).

5.9 Examination

After four years of studies, with more than six months of

accumulative sea-service training, class three engineer
officer certificate should be given to the student after
oral examination.

For the class two certificate, for the second engineer

umlimited 750 - 3000 kw ), the candidate should have a
minimum of 12 months approved sea-training and 8 weeks
simulator training as engineer Watckeeping officer. Three
out of the 12 months must have been on ship above 3000 kw.

Chief engineer (unlimited). Any person seeking for

examination at this stage should have a minimum of 15
months approved sea training and 8 weeks simulator training
as second engineer and 4 months out of 15 must have been on
ship above 3000 kw.

Simulator training is regarded by the author as integral

part of sea training. This approach has since been adopted
by France, which maritime training system is one of the
best the world.
5.10 CRAH PROGRAHE

This is a short term arrangement. under this condition

University graduate engineers in Mechanical and Electrical
engineering. are admitted for short courses. The duration
of such courses should be lasting between 3-4 months in the
Academy,before a prolonged sea - service is embarked upon.
This proposal if given a chance can go a long way to
alleviate our manpowerproblems.

The Flow chart of the entire training Schemeproposed in

this dissertation is shown in figure 5.4. Diagram A, shows
programme for Engineering graduates, B illustrates
programme for Naval Architecture and C, indicates Marine
engineering scheme.
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F?EEC3C3F1F1EEhJE)F\1'IICJBJEB F§hJI) C3CJF4C3L_LJE3]ICJF4

Introduction: The decline in number of Nigerian flag ships

and jobs for Nigerian Seafarers has seriously reduced the
support of our land-based marine industry. Also the
training Schemeand the teaching staff, has been something
of a serious threat to the Shipping industry in Nigeria.
It is this unusual turn of events that has prompted me to
propose a new approach to Marine engineering education in
Nigeria. I believe that the opportunity has offered itself
to remedy the deficiencies in the existing system, and to
adopt a front loaded system into future. However, in doing
so, we must maintain whatever is good about the present
sandwich system and be flexible enough to allow for changes
and innovations that will take place in the industry.

In assessing deficiencies, I noted an overburdened

curriculum; insufficient integration of both early natural
sciences. engineering sciences, Mathematics .and problem­
solving orientation. This limited cadets’ appreciation of
the diversity of subjects engineers need to cover;
insufficient integration of engineering with non­
engineering aspects of communications, business,
technology, policy, arts and sciences; and virtually no
exposure to the culture and practice of lifelong learning.
RECOMMENDATION

My assessment led me to conclude that pressure on the

curriculum required the educational experience to be
significantly restructured, and this restructuring should
focus on the lower division. Such a focus nuould also
b
ecome a driving force for changes in the |'ESt of the
. . _

t" ­
c”rr1c”1”m- Tnie Papers therefore, recommends
re alfilng a”d Strengthening elements of Mathematics,
engineering sciences. “3tU'a1 5¢iEnCe5s and ‘U"d3m9”ta1
concepts of engineering analysis and design.

Additionally, it is also suggested that, however, more

emphasis should be placed on synthesis and maintenance of
depth and strength in technical subject matter: stronger
emphasis on non-technical education to develop historical
and societal perspectives; development of management
skills.
While I acknowledge the inter-dependence of theory and
practice, the focus of my analysis is the curriculum in
action. This stance reflects my own experience as a long
time teacher of engineering technology for nearly two
decades, and which has given me an opportunity to share in
the development of a curriculum. As a maritime teacher, my
function here is to critically examine curriculum theory
and practice in the light of each other. It has been a
hard decision. in which theory has been forged on the anvil
of practice. Myapproach is analytical, the aim here is a
ratio of 1:1 for theory and practice.

The 4 - year cannot be further stretched, new approach are

required to alleviate the situation. These approaches
require significant changes in the philosophy, attitudes,
goals, curricula content, and methodology of marine
Engineering Department. The material must be simply
repacked to achieve economyof presentation.

The Engineering Department must try to develop intellectual

curiosity, creativity, and cohesive understanding of the
fundamentals of the marine engineering profession.
RECOMMENDATION
I
” the 11Qht of the disadvantages associated
‘ - .
with the
.

exlstlng 53"dWiCh Programme, I recommend the abolition of

the present sandwich system. This should be replaced with
one-tier system of 4 years academic degree programme.
loading to bachelor of science (Bsc), in marine
Engineering. Naval Architecture and 3rd Class certificate
of competency. The programme will include a period of
guided sea-training. The entry qualification will be
General Certificate Education GCE"A" level certificate or
its equivalent.

IHPLEMENTATIDN

To speed up the process of the degree programme, it is

suggested that the Authorities of the Maritime Academyin
collaboration with the Federal Ministry of Transport,
should open discussion with the River State University,
Port Harcourt. Such discussion should centre on modalities
for immeadiateaffiliation. The allegiance will permit the
Academy to go under the umbrella of the University
Accreditation to award the degree, until the time it could
do it alone.

The choice of the River State University, Port Harcourt,

is based on proximity to the Academy, its long standing
recognition by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO), and the Institute of Marine Engineers London.

There is a substantial flow of seafarers from the

developing countries to ships owned and managed from the
developed world. In recognition cfi the situation, some
shipowners’ associations from Europe, Scandinavia and Japan
have entered into agreement with the seafarers unions in
the Philippines, Indonesia and India on salary structure
for their seamen. In some cases assistance is offered for
the training of the seafarers. Such agreed assistance has
been rendered to the training institutions and some ship
management companies. For this Ireason, the standard 0;
t ra ining provided should be acceptable to the intEV“3t1°“31
shipping community.

Th. proposed new programme is designed to produce an

officer who is scientifically sound. and professionally
good enough to do the work of a 3rd engineer immediately
after graduation.

FUNDING FOR THE SHDRTAGES

The federal government alone cannot give enough fund to

meet the needs of all it para-statal today in the present
world of accelerating marine technology and tougher
competition.

Recommendation

If essential training in marine engineering sector is to

meet its real needs, both in terms of quality and quantity,
it is recommendedthat the government, shipowners and the
Union make choice between two main options:

- Bring in new, more rigorous rules designed to meet

current and future training needs;

- Introduce a levy/grant system to all marine related

industry in Nigeria to pay toward training.

As said earlier, the present method of funding and

encouraging training has great limitations and hardly
adequate for an institution which is changing beyond
recognition. Onegets worried about the attitudes of the
private companies which are doing nothing and, like
vultures, are just waiting to makelucrative offers to
 the trainee to entice them away while not spending a
dollar on their training.

For foreign - going service, the shipowners should play

greater overall role by, for example, paying one third of
the general training fund. No organization within the
industry should be exempted from the levy.

On the broader scale, industry, government and the

University should collaborate effectively in research
through consortia. In such alignment, the research body
receives fund from both government and industry to support
practical research of values to the industry.

SOLUTIONS TD MANPOWER SHDRTAGE

The skill shortages are badly affecting all sectors of the

marine industry in Nigeria. This is a symptomof failure
of government, Shipowners and industry itself to invest in
its future manpower needs. However, merely pouring more
resources into training and buying unrelated equipment is
not the whole answer, they must be backed up with changes
in attitude. The old pattern would not do. Something much
more flexible to meet the immediate needs is required.

Recommendation (general)

To arrest the present situation generally in all sectors

of marine economy of the nation, it is suggested that
government should organize crash pre-sea training
programmes for the holders of the following academic
degree:

Bsc.- Mechanical Engineering;

Bsc.- Elect/Electronics Engineering;

 _ Bsc.- Haths/Physics.

These candidates spend about one semester of 16 weeks in

the Academy.this period should include simulator training.
Later on, they go on sea-service for one year. On return,
they go to the Academyfor 6 months duration, for third
class engineer officer examination and Certification.
There after, the trainee follows the laid downpolicy and
proceduresfor getting higher certificates.

The idea of putting Bsc. engineering graduates through an

accelerated cadet programme at the Maritime Academyshould
be considered as a priority.

TEACHING STAFF

As in all training situations, the ability, co-operation,

skills and dedications of the teachers are the key
componentsin the transfer of knowledge and skills to those
being trained. In attempting this analysis I have come to
the following conclusion that the current curriculum lacks
means cw evaluation, feed back and implementation. The
teachers whowere supposed to be key figures in the process
of curriculum implementation were not considered. The
welfare of teachers as well as the training to cope with
ever increasing new technologies in the industry was not
important to the administration. There will be no
curricula if there were no teachers to interpret and
execute them.

Recommendation

In view of the multi-functional roles of the teachers in

transfer of knowledge, not even in the «ordinary school
system but in the sophisticated and complicated marine
Engineering settin0­ I recommend the following for
immediateimplementation to attract right calibre of
maritimeteachers into the institution:
Remedial measurers should be taken by the
governmentto improve lecturers’ salaries generally
and to adjust them periodically. Salary level.
comparableto other professionals with similar
qualifications. corresponding to knowledgeand
competence in teaching, should be considered as one
of the keys to retention of qualified teachers in
the profession;
I
Governmentshould consider “scarcity award" to
maritime lecturers. Period of training. hazard and
harsh environment associated with the maritime
profession. should be a determining factor for such
award:

A programme should be worked out which allows senior

engineers to accept full-time teaching or research
position at the Academywhile remaining on the
payroll. as a last assignment before retiring:
a

Special funds should be provided to the Academyto

encourage experimentation and establishment of new
programmesand curricula that will lead to improved
industrial competitiveness between the industry and
the academy.

A professional approach to teaching should be seen

in the same way as a professional approach to law.
medicine. or engineering. It is not enough for a
lecturer to be an exceptional Seafarer. advocate. or
designer. He or she must be a distinguished
- Entry into the teaching profession should be
maintained at a high level in order to avoid a
a decline in the quality of education:

— Teachers need to be, or to become, committed to any

planned change if it is to work. The motivation of
teachers to make it work is crucial, because any
change as far-reaching as the implementation requires
that they be prepared to put in it more extra work:

- Involve individual departments in curriculum

development and review every two years;

Encourage curriculum communication with other sister

Academies world-wide;

The rector should spend time visiting teachers in the

classroom;

As the change will be based on the school and

implemented not from- above, teachers should be
involved in the process o{ installing and
implementing new programmes:

- The Academyshould promote good interaction with

the Accreditation Board, such as National Board of
Technical Education (NBTE), the National Science
Association of Nigeria and other appropriate agencies
to advance issues important to engineering education
and training.

" The Nigerian Society of engineers should talk

straight to the government, arousing sympathy for the
engineering education. Most specially in marine
engineering which seems to be operating outside the
 national educational system.

_ "any objectives should be drawn on students education

and their level of training by systematic
qualification upgrading of the teaching staff
including their sea going experience

As the technology becomes more important in National life,

we must educate the supporting structures of the society
especially government about the potential impacts and
importance of technological change. For example, the
engineering society should be able to tell Federal
government to borrow lead from Japan’s situation. Japan
spends just 1 74 on defence, thereby making enough funds
available for engineering and research.

Implementation

It is worth repeating that non-implementable programmes

probably do more harm than good when they are attempted.
The most responsible action may be to reject certain
innovations which are bound to fail and work earnestly at
those which have a chance to succeed.

In other words, change is not a fully predictable process.

The answer is found not by seeking ready - made guidelines,
but by struggling to understand and modify events and
processes whichare intrinsically complicated, difficult to
pin down. Some of the ways in which we should attempt to
effect the change include:

- Hiring or promoting new teachers who possess conceptual

abilities, and whowill in turn develop them in others;

- Adding training in the processes of implementation to

in—service workshops and other project training
 activities directed at programmechange;

- Adding courses in the theory of practice of change to

pre-service programmesfor lecturers, rector and other
administrators.

CONCLUSION

The need for adequate training has again been highlighted

by Lloyd’s Register, whose latest casualty statistics show
that 256 vessels of 1.5m gt. were totally lost during 1991,
the highest total since 1986. It marked an increase of
422,000 gt. on the previous year. More than 1,200 people
died in these losses, although structural or other
technical failures may have played an important part, as
well as humanerror through fatigue, inadequate training is
recognised as the major contributing factor.

A maritime nation like Nigeria cannot prosper without

good shipping. we are in danger of ignoring that simple
truth. For some time now shipping in general, and the
Merchant Navy in particular, has not had a high priority,
except in a crisis. For example, that of River Quorra’s
accident in 19BB in which many Nigerians were killed and
goods and property worth million of dollars perished. That
is something we may all come to regret.

MBHY
highly placed Nigerians do not know that nearly 98 Z
of our foreign trade is sea-borne. It has been so many
Years back and will continue to be so for foreseeable
future.

Be"E'311Ys there is nothing Inore gratifying than being

ab1 E t9 makeChanges
, -
in .
the important .
issue that affect the
l‘ . .
ives of hundreds of thousands or millions of people. I
‘ll l'k - .
W1 1 e to conclude with what American poet Ralph waldo
Emerson wrote more than a century age. "what lies behind us
and what lies before us are small matters compared with
what lies within us". It is only through dedication and
commitmentthat we will accomplish impossible tasks. Let
us join to shape the future.
 £3]IE3L.JICJG3F?£\F’F4\f

Anarah, H. Qggglgggggg Qfi Maritime Education ig

gigggig; World Maritime Univ., Malmo, 1985.

Akinsoji. 0- Ins Iceining Qi menaewecin the net’

Eisning iuggstcx Qt HlQ§Cl§; W-H-Univ-Ma1 1

Allan, Pepper. Q9 Iceining Needs : management the

Iceining sag 92221929222­ Aldershort, England,19B4.

Agbakoba, E- Eégsétien 229 Icéining £9: the vanities

lggggggx; Assn. of Master Seminar. Lagos,1991.

Bryan, H. "Marine Engineering and the

Microprocessor"- lusitusg Qfi fl§E;EQQifl§§E§L1985­

Brodeiors and Rinman- Ins Qemmesiel Eistgcx Qi

§Q;QQiQg; Rinman and Linden AB, Bortenborg, 1983.

Cranch, T. Edmund. "An Overview and Assessment"

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é

Faiunwa. A-B- flissgcx Qf Uigecien §Q2sa§i9n­

Carton Press, Lagos, 1997

Qg:[igg;gg; Flensburg, Germany 1991.

10.
Greg, Keansley. Dn Validity gf Icéigiflg gag
Igghflglggy; Addison Wesley Publishing Coy., 1984.

”U"t9'- Brain- Ins §:a:em§n:§ lea: EQQE;

Macmillian Press Ltd., London 1991.

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 International Labour Organization. flggggcggflfi9 I-h

Bggiecscis Megesienal 1:219:99; Geneva. 1967­

Ikcjiani. 0- 592992192 in 819251: NewYork. 1965­

John, Matthew. Quccisglgm Eaeesegl

David Fulton Publishing Ltd., London Wc 13, 1939­

150 Kelly, A.V. The National Curriculum. A critical

1990.

Mbanefo, L.N. Nigerian ggiooing gay;

Professional Book Limited, Lagos, 1983

Moloney, S. "African Lines pledge support for UKWAL"

Llgxg gist; 6 Hay. 1992­

Mcmasters, JI and Ford, 8. "An Industry View of

Design Education" Engiueecing Egugetigu 62. 1987.

19. Nigerian Shipner’s Counci1- what and Bax Eneceigcel

Victoria Island Lagos, 1987.

20. "a"9r°Ves Bererd- EQEHEEQt Egg and Q11­

Van Nostrand, Melbourne , Australia, 1983.

21 Nwaogugu, A.c. “ why Humanities and Social Sciences"

An address to incoming students of the College o¥
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