Chapter 14

Trigonometric waveforms
(a) y
14.1 Graphs of trigonometric 1.0
functions y 5 sin A
0.5
By drawing up tables of values from 0◦ to 360◦ , graphs
0 30 60 90 120 150 210 240 270 300 330 360
A8
of y = sin A, y = cos A and y = tan A may be plotted. 180
20.5
Values obtained with a calculator (correct to 3 deci-
mal places—which is more than sufficient for plotting 21.0
graphs), using 30◦ intervals, are shown below, with the
respective graphs shown in Fig. 14.1. (b) y
1.0
y 5 cos A
(a) y = sin A
0.5
A 0 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
A8
sin A 0 0.500 0.866 1.000 0.866 0.500 0 20.5

21.0
A 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦
(c) y
sin A −0.500 −0.866 −1.000 −0.866 −0.500 0
4 y 5 tan A

(b) y = cos A 2
150 330

A 0 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ 0 30 60 90 120 180 210 240 270 300 360
A8
22
cos A 1.000 0.866 0.500 0 −0.500 −0.866 −1.000
24

A 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦

Figure 14.1
cos A −0.866 −0.500 0 0.500 0.866 1.000

(c) y = tan A From Fig. 14.1 it is seen that:

A 0 30◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 150◦ 180◦ (i) Sine and cosine graphs oscillate between peak
values of ±1.
tan A 0 0.577 1.732 ∞ −1.732 −0.577 0
(ii) The cosine curve is the same shape as the sine
A 210◦ 240◦ 270◦ 300◦ 330◦ 360◦ curve but displaced by 90◦ .
(iii) The sine and cosine curves are continuous and
tan A 0.577 1.732 ∞ −1.732 −0.577 0
they repeat at intervals of 360◦ ; the tangent
 Trigonometric waveforms 135

curve appears to be discontinuous and repeats at (iii) Let OA be further rotated so that θ2 is any angle
intervals of 180◦ . in the second quadrant and let AC be constructed
to form the right-angled triangle OAC. Then:
14.2 Angles of any magnitude + −
sinθ2 = =+ cos θ2 = =−
+ +
(i) Figure 14.2 shows rectangular axes XX’ and YY’
+ +
intersecting at origin 0. As with graphical work, tan θ2 = =− cosec θ2 = =+
measurements made to the right and above 0 are − +
positive while those to the left and downwards + −
are negative. Let OA be free to rotate about 0. secθ2 = =− cot θ2 = =−
− +
By convention, when OA moves anticlockwise
angular measurement is considered positive, and (iv) Let OA be further rotated so that θ3 is any angle
vice-versa. in the third quadrant and let AD be constructed
to form the right-angled triangle OAD. Then:
908
Y
−
sin θ3 = = − (and hence cosec θ3 is −)
+
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
−
1 1 cos θ3 = = − (and hence sec θ3 is +)
+
−
08 tan θ3 = = + (and hence cot θ3 is −)
1808
2 1 −
X9 0 A X 3608
(v) Let OA be further rotated so that θ4 is any angle
in the fourth quadrant and let AE be constructed
2 2 to form the right-angled triangle OAE. Then:
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4 −
sin θ4 = = − (and hence cosec θ4 is −)
+
Y9
+
2708 cos θ4 = = + (and hence sec θ4 is +)
+
Figure 14.2
−
tan θ4 = = − (and hence cot θ4 is −)
(ii) Let OA be rotated anticlockwise so that θ1 is any +
angle in the first quadrant and let perpendicular
(vi) The results obtained in (ii) to (v) are summarized
AB be constructed to form the right-angled tri-
in Fig. 14.4. The letters underlined spell the word
angle OAB (see Fig. 14.3). Since all three sides
CAST when starting in the fourth quadrant and
of the triangle are positive, all six trigonometric
moving in an anticlockwise direction.
ratios are positive in the first quadrant. (Note: OA
is always positive since it is the radius of a circle.)
908
908
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1 Sine (and cosecant) All positive
A positive
A
1 1
1 1
D 1 08 08
1808 2 2 1 1808
C 3 4 E B 3608 3608
0
2 2 Tangent Cosine
1 1 (and cotangent) (and secant)
positive positive
A A
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
2708 2708

Figure 14.3 Figure 14.4

136 Higher Engineering Mathematics

(vii) In the first quadrant of Fig. 14.1 all the curves y y 5 sin x
have positive values; in the second only sine is 1.0
positive; in the third only tangent is positive; 2078389 3328429
in the fourth only cosine is positive (exactly as
summarized in Fig. 14.4). 0 908 1808 2708 3608 x
20.4638
A knowledge of angles of any magnitude is needed
when finding, for example, all the angles between 0◦ 21.0
and 360◦ whose sine is, say, 0.3261. If 0.3261 is entered
into a calculator and then the inverse sine key pressed (a)
(or sin−1 key) the answer 19.03 ◦ appears. However
there is a second angle between 0◦ and 360◦ which the 908
calculator does not give. Sine is also positive in the sec- S A
ond quadrant (either from CAST or from Fig. 14.1(a)).
The other angle is shown in Fig. 14.5 as angle θ 08
1808
where θ = 180◦ − 19.03◦ = 160.97◦ . Thus 19.03◦ and 3608
160.97◦ are the angles between 0◦ and 360◦ whose T C
sine is 0.3261 (check that sin 160.97◦ = 0.3261 on your
calculator). 2708
(b)

Figure 14.6
908

S A Problem 2. Determine all the angles between 0◦

and 360◦ whose tangent is 1.7629
19.038 19.038 08
1808
3608 A tangent is positive in the first and third quad-
rants (see Fig. 14.7(a)). From Fig. 14.7(b),
T C θ = tan −1 1.7629 =60◦ 26 . Measured from 0◦ , the two

2708 y 5 tan x
y
Figure 14.5
1.7629

Be careful! Your calculator only gives you one of these 0 908 1808 2708 3608 x
answers. The second answer needs to be deduced from 608269 2408269
a knowledge of angles of any magnitude, as shown in
the following problems.
(a)
Problem 1. Determine all the angles between 0◦
and 360◦ whose sine is −0.4638
908

The angles whose sine is −0.4638 occurs in the S A

third and fourth quadrants since sine is negative in 08
these quadrants (see Fig. 14.6(a)). From Fig. 14.6(b), 1808
3608
θ = sin−1 0.4638 = 27◦ 38 .
Measured from 0◦ , the two angles between 0◦ and T C
360◦ whose sine is −0.4638 are 180◦ + 27◦ 38 , i.e.
2708
207◦ 38 and 360◦ − 27◦ 38 , i.e. 332◦ 22 . (Note that (b)
a calculator generally only gives one answer, i.e.
−27.632588◦). Figure 14.7
 Trigonometric waveforms 137

angles between 0◦ and 360◦ whose tangent is 1.7629 Hence α = 37◦ 20

are 60◦ 26 and 180◦ + 60◦ 26 , i.e. 240◦ 26 .
and α = 180◦ + 37◦ 20 = 217◦ 20

Problem 3. Solve sec−1 (−2.1499) =α for angles

Now try the following exercise
of α between 0◦ and 360◦ .

Secant is negative in the second and third quad- Exercise 61 Further problems on
rants (i.e. the same as for cosine). From Fig. 14.8, evaluating trigonometric ratios of any
1 magnitude
θ = sec−1 2.1499 =cos−1 = 62◦ 17 .
2.1499
Measured from 0 ◦, the two angles between 0 ◦ and 360◦ 1. Find all the angles between 0◦ and 360◦ whose
whose secant is −2.1499 are sine is −0.7321.
[227◦ 4 and 312◦ 56 ]
α = 180◦ − 62◦ 17 = 117◦ 43 and
2. Determine the angles between 0◦ and 360◦
◦ ◦ ◦
α = 180 + 62 17 = 242 17 whose cosecant is 2.5317.
[23◦ 16 and 156◦ 44 ]
3. If cotangent x = −0.6312, determine the val-
908
ues of x in the range 0◦ ≤ x≤ 360◦ .
S A [122◦ 16 and 302◦ 16 ]
In Problems 4 to 6 solve the given equations.

1808
08 4. cos−1 (−0.5316) =t
3608
[t = 122◦ 7 and 237◦ 53 ]
5. sec −1 2.3162 = x
T C [x = 64◦ 25 and 295◦ 35 ]
2708 6. tan−1 0.8314 = θ
[θ = 39◦ 44 and 219◦ 44 ]
Figure 14.8

14.3 The production of a sine and

Problem 4. Solve cot−1 1.3111 =α for angles of cosine wave
α between 0◦ and 360◦ .
In Fig. 14.10, let OR be a vector 1 unit long and
Cotangent is positive in the first and third quad- free to rotate anticlockwise about O. In one rev-
rants (i.e. same as for tangent). From Fig. 14.9, olution a circle is produced and is shown with
1
θ = cot−1 1.3111 = tan −1 = 37◦ 20 . 15◦ sectors. Each radius arm has a vertical and
1.3111 a horizontal component. For example, at 30◦ , the
vertical component is T S and the horizontal component
908 is OS.
From trigonometric ratios,
S A
TS TS
sin 30◦ = = , i.e. TS = sin 30◦
08 TO 1
1808 3608
OS OS
and cos 30◦ = = , i.e. OS = cos 30◦
TO 1
T C
The vertical component TS may be projected across
2708 to T S , which is the corresponding value of 30◦
on the graph of y against angle x ◦ . If all such
Figure 14.9 vertical components as TS are projected on to the
138 Higher Engineering Mathematics

y
908
1208 608 1.0
y 5 sin x
T 0.5 T9
1508

Angle x 8
R S9
1808
0 S 3608 308 608 1208 2108 2708 3308

2108 3308 20.5

2408 3008 21.0

2708

Figure 14.10

y
158 08 R 1.0
T 3308 S9
S 3158 y 5 cos x
458
608 0.5
2858 Angle x 8
O9
908
0 08 308 608 1208 1808 2408 3008 3608
2558
1208 20.5
2258
1508 2108 21.0
1808

Figure 14.11

graph, then a sine wave is produced as shown in

A◦ 2A sin 2A A◦ 2A sin 2A
Fig. 14.10.
If all horizontal components such as OS are projected 0 0 0 225 450 1.0
on to a graph of y against angle x ◦ , then a cosine wave
is produced. It is easier to visualize these projections by 30 60 0.866 240 480 0.866
redrawing the circle with the radius arm OR initially in 45 90 1.0 270 540 0
a vertical position as shown in Fig. 14.11.
From Figs. 14.10 and 14.11 it is seen that a cosine 60 120 0.866 300 600 −0.866
curve is of the same form as the sine curve but is 90 180 0 315 630 −1.0
displaced by 90◦ (or π/2 radians).
120 240 −0.866 330 660 −0.866
135 270 −1.0 360 720 0
14.4 Sine and cosine curves
150 300 −0.866
Graphs of sine and cosine waveforms 180 360 0
(i) A graph of y = sin A is shown by the broken line 210 420 0.866
in Fig. 14.12 and is obtained by drawing up a table
of values as in Section 14.1. A similar table may
be produced for y = sin 2A. A graph of y = sin 2A is shown in Fig. 14.12.
 Trigonometric waveforms 139

y y
y 5 cos A y 5 cos 2A
y 5 sin A 1.0
y 5 sin 2A
1.0

0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8

0 90° 180° 270° 360° A°

21.0

21.0
Figure 14.14

Figure 14.12 (iii) A graph of y = cos A is shown by the broken line

in Fig. 14.14 and is obtained by drawing up a
(ii) A graph of y = sin 12 A is shown in Fig. 14.13 using table of values. A similar table may be produced
the following table of values. for y = cos 2 A with the result as shown.
A◦ 1
2A sin 12 A (iv) A graph of y = cos 12 A is shown in Fig. 14.15
which may be produced by drawing up a table
0 0 0 of values, similar to above.
30 15 0.259
y
60 30 0.500
1.0 y 5 cos 1 A y 5 cos A
2
90 45 0.707
120 60 0.866
150 75 0.966 0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8
180 90 1.00
210 105 0.966
21.0
240 120 0.866
270 135 0.707 Figure 14.15

300 150 0.500

330 165 0.259 Periodic functions and period
360 180 0 (i) Each of the graphs shown in Figs. 14.12 to 14.15
will repeat themselves as angle A increases and
y are thus called periodic functions.
y 5 sin A
y 5 sin 1 A
1.0 2 (ii) y = sin A and y = cos A repeat themselves every
360◦ (or 2π radians); thus 360◦ is called the
period of these waveforms. y = sin 2A and
y = cos 2 A repeat themselves every 180◦ (or
0
π radians); thus 180 ◦ is the period of these
90° 180° 270° 360° A°
waveforms.
(iii) In general, if y = sin p A or y = cos p A (where p
is a constant) then the period of the waveform is
21.0
360◦ / p (or 2π/ p rad). Hence if y = sin 3A then
the period is 360/3, i.e. 120◦ , and if y = cos 4A
Figure 14.13 then the period is 360/4, i.e. 90◦ .
140 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Amplitude
Problem 7. Sketch y = 4 cos2x from x = 0◦ to
Amplitude is the name given to the maximum or peak x = 360◦ .
value of a sine wave. Each of the graphs shown in
Figs. 14.12 to 14.15 has an amplitude of +1 (i.e. they Amplitude = 4; period= 360◦ /2 =180◦ .
oscillate between +1 and −1). However, if y = 4 sin A, A sketch of y = 4 cos2x is shown in Fig. 14.18.
each of the values in the table is multiplied by 4 and
the maximum value, and thus amplitude, is 4. Simi-
larly, if y = 5 cos 2A, the amplitude is 5 and the period is y
360◦ /2, i.e. 180◦ . y 5 4 cos 2x
4

Problem 5. Sketch y = sin3 A between A = 0◦

and A = 360◦ .
0 908 1808 2708 3608 x8
Amplitude= 1; period= 360◦ /3 =120◦ .
A sketch of y = sin3 A is shown in Fig. 14.16. 24

y
y 5 sin 3A Figure 14.18
1.0

3
Problem 8. Sketch y = 2 sin A over one cycle.
0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8 5
360◦ 360◦ × 5
Amplitude = 2; period= = = 600◦ .
21.0 3 3
5
3
Figure 14.16 A sketch of y = 2 sin A is shown in Fig. 14.19.
5

y
Problem 6. Sketch y = 3 sin 2A from A = 0 to 2 3
y 5 2 sin A
5
A = 2π radians.

Amplitude= 3, period= 2π/2 = π rads (or 180◦).

A sketch of y = 3 sin 2A is shown in Fig. 14.17. 0 1808 3608 5408 6008 A8

y 22
y 5 3 sin 2A
3
Figure 14.19

0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8 Lagging and leading angles

(i) A sine or cosine curve may not always start at 0◦ .
23 To show this a periodic function is represented
by y = sin(A ± α) or y = cos(A ± α) where α
is a phase displacement compared with y = sin A
Figure 14.17 or y = cos A.
 Trigonometric waveforms 141

(ii) By drawing up a table of values, a graph of Amplitude= 5; period = 360◦ /1 =360◦ .

y = sin(A − 60◦ ) may be plotted as shown in 5 sin(A + 30◦ ) leads 5 sin A by 30◦ (i.e. starts 30◦
Fig. 14.20. If y = sin A is assumed to start at 0 ◦ earlier).
then y = sin(A − 60◦ ) starts 60◦ later (i.e. has a
A sketch of y = 5 sin(A + 30◦ ) is shown in Fig. 14.22.
zero value 60◦ later). Thus y = sin(A − 60◦ ) is
said to lag y = sin A by 60◦ .
608 y 308
y
y 5 sin A 5
y 5 sin(A 2 608) y 5 5 sin A
1.0
y 5 5 sin(A 1 308)

0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8

0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8 308

25
21.0
608 Figure 14.22

Figure 14.20
Problem 10. Sketch y = 7 sin(2 A − π/3) in the
(iii) By drawing up a table of values, a graph of range 0 ≤ A ≤ 2π .
y = cos(A + 45◦ ) may be plotted as shown in
Fig. 14.21. If y = cos A is assumed to start at 0◦ Amplitude= 7; period = 2π/2 =π radians.
then y = cos(A + 45◦ ) starts 45◦ earlier (i.e. has a In general, y = sin(pt − α) lags y = sin pt by α/p,
zero value 45◦ earlier). Thus y = cos(A + 45◦ ) is hence 7 sin(2 A − π/3) lags 7 sin2 A by (π/3)/2,
said to lead y = cos A by 45◦ . i.e. π/6 rad or 30◦ .
y
A sketch of y = 7 sin(2 A − π/3) is shown in Fig. 14.23.
458
y 5 cos A
y 5 cos (A 1 458) y
/6 y 5 7 sin 2A
y 5 7 sin(2A 2 /3)
7

0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8

0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8

21.0 /2 3 /2 2

458
7
/6
Figure 14.21

(iv) Generally, a graph of y = sin(A − α) lags Figure 14.23

y = sin A by angle α, and a graph of
y = sin(A + α) leads y = sin A by angle α. Problem 11. Sketch y = 2 cos(ωt − 3π/10) over
(v) A cosine curve is the same shape as a sine curve one cycle.
but starts 90◦ earlier, i.e. leads by 90◦ . Hence
cos A = sin(A + 90◦ ). Amplitude= 2; period = 2π/ω rad.
2 cos(ωt − 3π/10) lags 2 cos ωt by 3π/10ω seconds.
Problem 9. Sketch y = 5 sin(A + 30◦ ) from
A sketch of y = 2 cos(ωt − 3π/10) is shown in
A = 0◦ to A = 360◦ .
Fig. 14.24.
142 Higher Engineering Mathematics

y
3 /10 rads (ii) A graph of y = cos2 A is shown in Fig. 14.26
obtained by drawing up a table of values, similar
2 to above.
y 5 2 cos t
y 5 2 cos( t 2 3 /10)
y
0 /2 / 3 /2 2 / t 1.0 y 5 cos2 A

0.5
22

0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8

Figure 14.24

Figure 14.26
Graphs of sin2 A and cos2 A
(i) A graph of y = sin2 A is shown in Fig. 14.25 using
the following table of values. (iii) y = sin2 A and y = cos2 A are both periodic func-
tions of period 180◦ (or π rad) and both contain
A◦ sin A (sin A)2 = sin2 A only positive values. Thus a graph of y = sin2 2 A
0 0 0 has a period 180◦ /2, i.e. 90◦ . Similarly, a graph
of y = 4 cos2 3 A has a maximum value of 4 and a
30 0.50 0.25 period of 180 ◦ /3, i.e. 60◦ .
60 0.866 0.75
90 1.0 1.0
Problem 12. Sketch y = 3 sin2 21 A in the range
120 0.866 0.75 0 < A < 360◦ .
150 0.50 0.25
180 0 0 Maximum value = 3; period = 180◦ /(1/2) = 360◦ .
A sketch of 3 sin2 12 A is shown in Fig. 14.27.
210 −0.50 0.25
240 −0.866 0.75 y
270 −1.0 1.0 y 5 3 sin2 1 A
3 2
300 −0.866 0.75
330 −0.50 0.25
360 0 0 0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8

y Figure 14.27

1.0 y 5 sin 2 A

0.5 Problem 13. Sketch y = 7 cos2 2 A between

A = 0◦ and A = 360◦ .
0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8

Maximum value = 7; period = 180◦ /2 = 90◦ .

Figure 14.25 A sketch of y = 7 cos2 2 A is shown in Fig. 14.28.
 Trigonometric waveforms 143

y
14.5 Sinusoidal form A sin (ωt ± α)
y 5 7cos2 2A
7
In Fig. 14.29, let OR represent a vector that is free to
rotate anticlockwise about O at a velocity of ω rad/s.
A rotating vector is called a phasor. After a time
t seconds OR will have turned through an angle
0 908 1808 2708 3608 A8
ωt radians (shown as angle TOR in Fig. 14.29). If ST is
constructed perpendicular to OR, then sinωt = ST/ TO,
Figure 14.28 i.e. ST = TO sin ωt .
If all such vertical components are projected on to a
graph of y against ωt, a sine wave results of amplitude
Now try the following exercise
OR (as shown in Section 14.3).
If phasor OR makes one revolution (i.e. 2π radians)
Exercise 62 Further problems on sine and in T seconds, then the angular velocity,
cosine curves ω = 2π/ T rad/s, from which, T = 2π/ω seconds.
T is known as the periodic time.
In Problems 1 to 9 state the amplitude and period The number of complete cycles occurring per second
of the waveform and sketch the curve between is called the frequency, f
0◦ and 360◦ .
1. y = cos 3A [1, 120◦ ]
number of cycles 1
5x Frequency = =
2. y = 2 sin [2, 144◦ ] second T
2
3. y = 3 sin 4t [3, 90◦ ] ω ω
= i.e. f = Hz
2π 2π
θ
4. y = 3 cos [3, 720◦ ]
2
Hence angular velocity, ω = 2πf rad/s
7 3x 7
5. y = sin , 960◦ Amplitude is the name given to the maximum or peak
2 8 2
value of a sine wave, as explained in Section 14.3. The
6. y = 6 sin(t − 45◦ ) [6, 360◦ ] amplitude of the sine wave shown in Fig. 14.29 has an
7. y = 4 cos(2θ + 30◦ ) [4, 180◦ ] amplitude of 1.
A sine or cosine wave may not always start at 0◦ .
8. y = 2 sin2 2t [2, 90◦ ] To show this a periodic function is represented by
3 y = sin (ωt ± α) or y = cos (ωt ± α), where α is a phase
9. y = 5 cos2 θ [5, 120◦ ]
2 displacement compared with y = sin A or y = cos A.
A graph of y = sin(ωt − α) lags y = sin ωt by angle

rads/s y sin t
1.0
T

t 908 1808 2708 3608

0 S R 0 t /2 3 /2 2 t

1.0

Figure 14.29
144 Higher Engineering Mathematics

α, and a graph of y = sin(ωt + α) leads y = sin ωt by Amplitude = maximum displacement = 2.5 m.

angle α. Angular velocity, ω = 2π f = 2π(60) = 120π rad/s.
The angle ωt is measured in radians (i.e. Hence displacement = 2.5 sin(120π t + α)m.
rad When t = 0, displacement = 90 cm = 0.90 m.
ω (t s) = ωt radians) hence angle α should also
s
be in radians. Hence 0.90 = 2. sin(0 + α)
The relationship between degrees and radians is:
i.e. 0.90
sinα = = 0.36
360◦ = 2π radians or 180◦ = π radians 2.5
180 Hence α = arcsin 0.36 = 21.10◦ = 21◦ 6
Hence 1 rad = = 57.30◦ and, for example,
π = 0.368 rad
π
71◦ = 71 × = 1.239 rad.
180
Given a general sinusoidal function Thus displacement = 2.5 sin(120πt + 0.368) m
y = A sin(ω t ± α), then
Problem 16. The instantaneous value of voltage
(i) A = amplitude in an a.c. circuit at any time t seconds is given by
(ii) ω = angular velocity= 2π f rad/s v = 340 sin(50π t − 0.541) volts. Determine:
2π (a) the amplitude, periodic time, frequency and
(iii) = periodic time Tseconds phase angle (in degrees)
ω
(iv)
ω
= frequency, f hertz (b) the value of the voltage when t = 0
2π
(c) the value of the voltage when t = 10 ms
(v) α = angle of lead or lag (compared with
y = A sin ωt ) (d) the time when the voltage first reaches
200 V, and
Problem 14. An alternating current is given by (e) the time when the voltage is a maximum.
i = 30 sin(100π t + 0.27) amperes. Find the
Sketch one cycle of the waveform.
amplitude, periodic time, frequency and phase
angle (in degrees and minutes).
(a) Amplitude=340 V
Angular velocity, ω = 50π
i= 30 sin(100π t + 0.27) A, hence amplitude =30 A
Angular velocity ω = 100π , hence
2π 2π 1
2π 2π 1 Hence periodic time, T = = =
periodic time, T = = = ω 50π 25
ω 100π 50
= 0.02 s or 20 ms = 0.04 s or 40 ms

1 1
Frequency, f = = = 50 Hz
T 0.02 1 1
◦ Frequency, f = = = 25 Hz
180 T 0.04
Phase angle, α = 0.27 rad = 0.27 ×
π
= 15.47◦ or 15◦ 28 leading 180
Phase angle = 0.541rad = 0.541 ×
i = 30 sin(100πt) π

= 31◦ lagging v = 340 sin(50π t )

Problem 15. An oscillating mechanism has a
maximum displacement of 2.5 m and a frequency of (b) When t = 0,
60 Hz. At time t = 0 the displacement is 90 cm.
Express the displacement in the general form v = 340 sin(0 − 0.541) = 340 sin(−31◦ )
A sin(ωt ± α).
= −175.1 V
 Trigonometric waveforms 145

(c) When t = 10 ms Now try the following exercise

10
then v = 340 sin 50π − 0.541
103 Exercise 63 Further problems on the
◦ sinusoidal form A sin(ωt ± α)
= 340 sin(1.0298) = 340 sin59
In Problems 1 to 3 find the amplitude, periodic
= 291.4 V
time, frequency and phase angle (stating whether
(d) When v = 200 volts it is leading or lagging A sin ωt) of the alternating
quantities given.
then 200 = 340 sin(50πt − 0.541)
1. i = 40 sin(50πt + 0.29) mA
200 40, 0.04 s, 25 Hz, 0.29 rad
= sin(50π t − 0.541)
340 (or 16◦ 37 ) leading 40 sin50 π t
200
Hence (50πt − 0.541) = arcsin 2. y = 75 sin(40t − 0.54) cm
340
75 cm, 0.157 s, 6.37 Hz, 0.54 rad
= 36.03◦ or 0.6288 rad (or 30◦ 56 ) lagging75 sin 40t
50π t = 0.6288 + 0.541 3. v = 300 sin(200π t − 0.412)V
= 1.1698 300 V, 0.01 s, 100 Hz, 0.412 rad
(or 23◦ 36 ) lagging 300 sin200π t
Hence when v = 200 V,
4. A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of
1.1698 120 V and a frequency of 50 Hz. At time t = 0,
time, t = = 7.447 ms
50π the voltage is (a) zero, and (b) 50 V.
(e) When the voltage is a maximum, v = 340 V. Express the instantaneous voltage v in the
form v = A sin(ωt ± α).
Hence 340 = 340 sin(50π t − 0.541) (a) v = 120 sin100π t volts
1 = sin(50πt − 0.541) (b) v = 120 sin(100π t + 0.43) volts
50πt − 0.541 = arcsin 1 5. An alternating current has a periodic time of
25 ms and a maximum value of 20 A. When
= 90◦ or 1.5708 rad time t = 0, current i = −10 amperes. Express
50πt = 1.5708 + 0.541 = 2.1118 the current i in the form i = A sin(ωt ± α).
π
2.1118 i = 20 sin 80π t − amperes
Hence time, t = = 13.44 ms 6
50π
6. An oscillating mechanism has a maximum dis-
A sketch of v = 340 sin(50π t − 0.541) volts is shown in placement of 3.2 m and a frequency of 50 Hz.
Fig. 14.30. At time t = 0 the displacement is 150 cm.
Express the displacement in the general form
Voltage V A sin(ωt ± α).
340 [3.2 sin(100π t + 0.488) m]
291.4 v 5340 sin(50 t 2 0.541)
200 7. The current in an a.c. circuit at any time
v 5340 sin 50 t
t seconds is given by:
0 10 20 30 40 t (ms) i = 5 sin(100πt − 0.432) amperes
7.447 13.44
2175.1
Determine (a) the amplitude, periodic time,
2340 frequency and phase angle (in degrees) (b) the
value of current at t = 0 (c) the value of current
at t = 8 ms (d) the time when the current is first
Figure 14.30
a maximum (e) the time when the current first
146 Higher Engineering Mathematics

and a third harmonic component of maximum value

reaches 3A. Sketch one cycle of the waveform 30 V and frequency = 3ω/2π(=3 f ), the fundamental
showing relevant points. and third harmonics being initially in phase with each
 
(a) 5 A, 20 ms, 50 Hz, other.
 24◦45 lagging  In Fig. 14.31, the fundamental waveform is shown
 
 (b) −2.093 A


 by the broken line plotted over one cycle, the periodic
 (c) 4.363 A


 time T being 2π/ω seconds. On the same axis is plotted
 (d) 6.375 ms  30 sin 3ωt , shown by the dotted line, having a maximum
(e) 3.423 ms value of 30 V and for which three cycles are completed
in time T seconds. At zero time, 30 sin3ωt is in phase
with 100 sinωt .
The fundamental and third harmonic are combined by
adding ordinates at intervals to produce the waveform
14.6 Harmonic synthesis with
for v1 , as shown. For example, at time T/12 seconds,
complex waveforms the fundamental has a value of 50 V and the third har-
monic a value of 30 V. Adding gives a value of 80 V for
A waveform that is not sinusoidal is called a complex waveform v1 at time T/12 seconds. Similarly, at time
wave. Harmonic analysis is the process of resolving a T/4 seconds, the fundamental has a value of 100 V and
complex periodic waveform into a series of sinusoidal the third harmonic a value of −30 V. After addition,
components of ascending order of frequency. Many of the resultant waveform v1 is 70 V at T/4. The proce-
the waveforms met in practice can be represented by the dure is continued between t = 0 and t = T to produce
following mathematical expression. the complex waveform for v1 . The negative half-cycle
v = V1m sin(ωt + α1 ) + V2m sin(2ωt + α2 ) of waveform v1 is seen to be identical in shape to the
positive half-cycle.
+ · · · + Vnm sin(nωt + αn ) If further odd harmonics of the appropriate amplitude
and the magnitude of their harmonic components and phase were added to v1 a good approximation to a
together with their phase may be calculated using square wave would result.
Fourier series (see Chapters 66 to 69). Numerical
methods are used to analyse waveforms for which Problem 18. Construct the complex voltage
simple mathematical expressions cannot be obtained. given by:
A numerical method of harmonic analysis is explained π
in the Chapter 70 on page 637. In a laboratory, waveform v2 = 100 sin ωt + 30 sin 3ωt + volts.
2
analysis may be performed using a waveform analyser
which produces a direct readout of the component waves
The peak value of the fundamental is 100 volts and the
present in a complex wave. peak value of the third harmonic is 30 V. However the
By adding the instantaneous values of the fundamen- π
tal and progressive harmonics of a complex wave for third harmonic has a phase displacement of radian
2
given instants in time, the shape of a complex waveform π
leading (i.e. leading 30 sin 3ωt by radian). Note that,
can be gradually built up. This graphical procedure is 2
since the periodic time of the fundamental is T seconds,
known as harmonic synthesis (synthesis meaning ‘the
the periodic time of the third harmonic is T/3 seconds,
putting together of parts or elements so as to make up a π 1
complex whole’). and a phase displacement of radian or cycle of the
2 4
Some examples of harmonic synthesis are con- third harmonic represents a time interval of (T/3) ÷ 4,
sidered in the following worked problems. i.e. T/12 seconds.
Figure 14.32 shows graphs of 100 sinωt and
Problem 17. Use harmonic synthesis to construct π
30 sin 3ωt + over the time for one cycle of the fun-
the complex voltage given by: 2
damental. When ordinates of the two graphs are added
v1 = 100 sin ωt + 30 sin 3ωt volts. at intervals, the resultant waveform v2 is as shown.
If the negative half-cycle in Fig. 14.32 is reversed it
The waveform is made up of a fundamental wave of can be seen that the shape of the positive and negative
maximum value 100 V and frequency, f = ω/2π hertz half-cycles are identical.
 Trigonometric waveforms 147

Voltage v (V)

100
v15 100 sin t 1 30 sin 3 t

100 sin t

50
30 sin 3 t
30

T
0 T T T 3T Time t (s)
12 4 2 4
230

250

2100

Figure 14.31

Voltage v (V)

100
v25 100 sin t 1 30 sin (3 t 1 2 )

100 sin t

50 30 sin (3 t 1 2 )
30 T T 3T
4 2 4
T
0 Time t (s)

230

250

2100

Figure 14.32

Problems 17 and 18 demonstrate that whenever

Problem 19. Use harmonic synthesis to construct
odd harmonics are added to a fundamental waveform,
the complex current given by:
whether initially in phase with each other or not, the
positive and negative half-cycles of the resultant com- i1 = 10 sin ωt + 4 sin 2ωt amperes.
plex wave are identical in shape. This is a feature
of waveforms containing the fundamental and odd Current i1 consists of a fundamental compon- ent,
harmonics. 10 sin ωt, and a second harmonic component, 4 sin2ωt ,
148 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Current
i (A)
i15 10 sin t 1 4 sin 2 t
10
10 sin t

4 sin 2 t
4
T 3T
4 4
T
0 Time t (s)
T
2
24

210

Figure 14.33

the components being initially in phase with each other. the positive half-cycle about a vertical line drawn
The fundamental and second harmonic are shown plot- through time, t = T/2.
ted separately in Fig. 14.33. By adding ordinates at
(b) if the harmonics are initially out of phase with
intervals, the complex waveform representing i1 is pro-
each other, the positive and negative half-cycles
duced as shown. It is noted that if all the values in the
are dissimilar.
negative half-cycle were reversed then this half-cycle
would appear as a mirror image of the positive half-cycle These are features of waveforms containing the funda-
about a vertical line drawn through time, t = T/2. mental and even harmonics.

Problem 20. Construct the complex current

Problem 21. Use harmonic synthesis to construct
given by:
the complex current expression given by:
π
i2 = 10 sin ωt + 4 sin 2ωt + amperes.
2 π
i = 32 + 50 sin ωt + 20 sin 2ωt − mA.
2
The fundamental component, 10 sinωt , and the second
harmonic component, having an amplitude of 4 A and
π The current i comprises three components—a 32 mA
a phase displacement of radian leading (i.e. leading d.c. component, a fundamental of amplitude 50 mA
2
π
4 sin 2ωt by radian or T/8 seconds), are shown plotted and a second harmonic of amplitude 20 mA, lag-
2 π
ging by radian. The fundamental and second har-
separately in Fig. 14.34. By adding ordinates at inter- 2
vals, the complex waveform for i2 is produced as shown. monic are shown separately in Fig. 14.35. Adding
The positive and negative half-cycles of the resultant ordinates at intervals gives the complex waveform
π
waveform are seen to be quite dissimilar. 50 sin ωt + 20 sin 2ωt − .
From Problems 18 and 19 it is seen that when- 2
This waveform is then added to the 32 mA d.c.
ever even harmonics are added to a fundamental
component to produce the waveform i as shown.
component:
The effect of the d.c. component is to shift the whole
(a) if the harmonics are initially in phase, the negative wave 32 mA upward. The waveform approaches that
half-cycle, when reversed, is a mirror image of expected from a half-wave rectifier.
 Trigonometric waveforms 149

Current
i (A)
10
10 sin t

i25 10 sin t 14 sin(2 t 1 2 )

4 4 sin(2 t 1 2 )

T
0 T T 3T Time t (s)
4 2 4

24

210

Figure 14.34

Current
i (mA)
100

i 32 50 sin t 20 sin(2 t )
2

50 sin t 20 sin(2 t )
2

50 50 sin t

32
20 sin(2 t )
2
20

T
0 T T 3T Time t (s)
4 2 4

20

50

Figure 14.35
150 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Voltage
v (V) 3
v 5 339.4 sin 100 t 1 67.9 sin(300 t 2 )
4
339.4
339.4 sin 100 t

3
67.9 sin(300 t 2 )
4
67.9 15 20
5 10 Time t (ms)
267.9

2339.4

Figure 14.36

three cycles of the third harmonic compon-

Problem 22. A complex waveform v comprises a
ent, 67.9 sin(300π t − 3π/4) initially lagging by
fundamental voltage of 240 V rms and frequency
3π/4 rad. By adding ordinates at intervals,
50 Hz, together with a 20% third harmonic which
the complex waveform representing voltage is
has a phase angle lagging by 3π/4 rad at time t = 0.
produced as shown.
(a) Write down an expression to represent voltage
v. (b) Use harmonic synthesis to sketch the
complex waveform representing voltage v over one
cycle of the fundamental component. Now try the following exercise

(a) A fundamental voltage having an rms value of

240 Exercise 64 Further problems on harmonic
√ V has a maximum value, or amplitude of
2 (240) i.e. 339.4 V. synthesis with complex waveforms
If the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz then 1. A complex current waveform i comprises
angular velocity, ω =2π f = 2π(50) = 100π rad/s. a fundamental current of 50 A rms and fre-
Hence the fundamental voltage is represented quency 100 Hz, together with a 24% third
by 339.4 sin 100π t volts. Since the fundamen- harmonic, both being in phase with each other
tal frequency is 50 Hz, the time for one cycle at zero time. (a) Write down an expression
of the fundamental is given by T = 1/ f = 1/50 s to represent current i. (b) Sketch the complex
or 20 ms. waveform of current using harmonic synthesis
The third harmonic has an amplitude equal to over one cycle of the fundamental.
20% of 339.4 V, i.e. 67.9 V. The frequency of
the third harmonic component is 3 × 50 =150 Hz, (a) i = (70.71 sin 628.3t
thus the angular velocity is 2π (150), i.e. + 16.97 sin 1885t ) A
300π rad/s. Hence the third harmonic voltage
is represented by 67.9 sin(300π t − 3π/4)volts. 2. A complex voltage waveform v is comprised
Thus of a 212.1 V rms fundamental voltage at a fre-
quency of 50 Hz, a 30% second harmonic com-
voltage, v = 339.4 sin 100πt ponent lagging by π/2 rad, and a 10% fourth
+ 67.9 sin (300πt−3π/4)volts harmonic component leading by π/3 rad.
(a) Write down an expression to represent
(b) One cycle of the fundamental, 339.4 sin 100π t , voltage v. (b) Sketch the complex voltage
is shown sketched in Fig. 14.36, together with
 Trigonometric waveforms 151

waveform using harmonic synthesis over one current waveform for one cycle of the funda-
cycle of the fundamental waveform. mental using harmonic synthesis.
 
(a) v = 300 sin314.2t i = 16 sin 2π 103 t + 3.2 sin 6π103 t
  + 1.6 sin π 104 t A
 + 90 sin(628.3t − π/2) 
+ 30sin(1256.6t + π/3) V
5. A voltage waveform is described by
3. A voltage waveform is represented by: π
v = 200 sin377t + 80 sin 1131t +
4
v = 20 + 50 sin ωt
π
+ 20sin(2ωt − π/2) volts. + 20 sin 1885t − volts
3
Draw the complex waveform over one cycle of Determine (a) the fundamental and harmonic
the fundamental by using harmonic synthesis. frequencies of the waveform (b) the percent-
age third harmonic and (c) the percentage
4. Write down an expression representing a
fifth harmonic. Sketch the voltage waveform
current i having a fundamental component of using harmonic synthesis over one cycle of the
amplitude 16 A and frequency 1 kHz, together fundamental. 
with its third and fifth harmonics being respec- 
(a) 60 Hz, 180 Hz, 300 Hz
tively one-fifth and one-tenth the amplitude  (b) 40% 
of the fundamental, all components being  
in phase at zero time. Sketch the complex (c)10%