Q.

No :1

Describe the emotional characteristics of elementary level students .

Ans:

WHAT IS EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT?

Emotional development is the beginning of a child's experience, understanding,

expression, and management of emotions from birth to late adolescence. It also includes
how growth and changes in these processes related to emotions take place.
How do children start to understand who they are, what they are feeling, what they expect
to receive from others? These concepts are the bases of their social-emotional
development. They play important part in a child’s self-confidence and empathy, his
ability to develop significant and long-term friendships and partnerships, and his sense of
importance and value to those around her. Children’s social-emotional development
influences all other areas of development: Cognitive, motor, and language development
are all greatly affected by how a child feels about himself and how he is able to express
ideas and emotions.

Professionals sometimes define healthy social-emotional development in young children

as early childhood mental health. Healthy social-emotional development includes the
ability to:
Form and sustain positive relationships
Experience, manage, and express emotions
Explore and engage with the environmentChildren having well-developed social-emotional
skills are also able to:
Express their ideas and feelings
Show empathy towards others
Manage their feelings of frustration and displeasure more easily
Feel self-confident
More easily make and develop friendships
Social Understanding

Generally around age four children begin to understand that others have internal worlds
where they keep feelings and thoughts, and that certain events/actions are causes for
certain emotional reactions. This major developmental stage allows for perspectivetaking
– the ability "to be in someone else's shoes" which leads to the ability to
empathize.

Relationship management

The knowledge of social norms influences the interaction between children. For example,
it helps a child how to express emotions effectively or to respond to problems.

Social responsibility

Knowing about emotions is not enough. The goal of social emotional education is to
enable children to be internally motivated to act kindly; and to develop a system of
ethical values directed toward feeling for others.

FACTORS AFFECTING EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Environmental and personal problems can hinder social and emotional development. As
you have studied earlier, infants and young children need constant interaction and provision
of basic needs and nurturing in order to develop well and healthily. Every child develops at
his or her own pace. There are many factors, both internal and external, which impact a
child's level of emotional development. Let’s explore what these factors are.
Internally, temperament (the genetic part of an individual's personality) can affect how
children respond to the world emotionally. Children who have more tolerant and relaxed
temperaments incline towards easier learning of emotional management. They can also
positively understand and respond to other people’s emotion.

Children who have difficult temperaments have a tendency to make efforts in order to regulate
their own emotions. They will usually react to other people's strong emotions by becoming
unhappy themselves. Externally, the environment and role models will also impact how children
react to the world emotionally. In previous unit you have studied Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
theory which provides insight into the effect of various environments on social and emotional
development of a child.

ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY OF SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Dear students as you have already learnt, emotional development does not occur in
isolation. Cognitive, behavioral and social developments work together with emotional
development. In this process context also play a role. Various emotional development
theories are offered, but there is general agreement on age-related milestones in emotional
development. In unit 4 you have studied eight stages of Erik Erikson’s socio-emotional theory. In
this section only first four relevant to early childhood age are presented. Let’s have a glance:

ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY OF SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Erikson’s First Four Stages Approximate Description

of Social-Emotional Age
Development Stage Infants need loving and trusting
Approximate relationships with parents and
Age other
Description caregivers to develop a sense of
Basic trust vs. basic trust.
mistrust Birth to 12-18 Infants who do not receive
An infant needs consistent Months consistent
caregivers who provide for their and nurturing care nurturing care
basic needs in a are at
nurturing and caring risk for developing a sense of
environment. mistrust
of others.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt During this stage the child

Toddlers need caring adults becomes
who provide a supervised, more independent, learning to
safe, environment that walk,
provides the child with run, climb, build, draw and talk.
opportunities to learn new 18 months to Toilet learning is a key skill for
physical skills. 3 years this
stage.
Children who are supported and
supervised by adults as they
develop
new skills and independence feel
responsible and capable.
Children
who receive negative messages
from
parents and caregivers may begin
to
Initiative vs. Guilt 3 to 6 years doubt their abilities and lose
Preschool children need a selfconfidence
safe environment that
encourages making choices. At this age children become more
independent, assertive and take
 more
initiative. Teachers and other
adults
need to provide an environment
that
6 to 12 years supports the child’s efforts but
Industry vs. Inferiority also
School age children need an helps guide their activities to
environment with prevent
encouraging adults that “unhappy” endings that may
provides opportunities to create
develop and create their own feelings of guilt.
ideas
School age children are learning
to
develop more complex social and
academic skills.
Children who experience success
discover that being productive is
satisfying. On the other hand,
children who fail in school or
other
settings may begin to feel inferior
and inadequate. Adult guidance
that
deemphasizes mistakes and
focuses
on problem solving helps focus
the
child on accomplishments.
Q.No:2

Suggest some activities which may promote moral development at

elementary school level.

Ans:

.
Erikson’s First Four Stages Approximate Description
of Social-Emotional Age
Development Stage Infants need loving and trusting
relationships with parents and
other
caregivers to develop a sense of
trust.
Infants who do not receive
consistent
Basic trust vs. basic and nurturing care nurturing care
mistrust are at
An infant needs consistent 18 months to risk for developing a sense of
caregivers who provide for their 3 years mistrust
basic needs in a of others.
nurturing and caring
environment. During this stage the child
becomes
more independent, learning to
walk,
run, climb, build, draw and talk.
Toilet learning is a key skill for
this
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt stage.
Toddlers need caring adults Children who are supported and
who provide a supervised, supervised by adults as they
safe, environment that 3 to 6 years develop
provides the child with new skills and independence feel
opportunities to learn new responsible and capable.
physical skills. Children who receive negative
messages from
parents and caregivers may begin
to
doubt their abilities and lose
selfconfidence initiative.
Teachers and other adults
 need to provide an environment
that
supports the child’s efforts but
also
Initiative vs. helps guide their activities to
Initiative vs. Guilt prevent
Preschool children need a “unhappy” endings that may
safe environment that create
encourages making choices. feelings of guilt.

School age children are learning

6 to 12 years to
develop more complex social and
academic skills.
Children who experience success
discover that being productive is
satisfying. On the other hand,
children who fail in school or
other
Industry vs. Inferiority settings may begin to feel inferior
School age children need an and inadequate. Adult guidance
environment with that
encouraging adults that deemphasizes mistakes and
provides opportunities to focuses
develop and create their own on problem solving helps focus
ideas. the
child on accomplishments.

At this age children become more

independent, assertive and take
more

.
Why is this important?

Healthy socio-emotional wellbeing of a child depends on the types of interactions he has

with caregivers. Erickson’s theory helps ECE teachers identify the types of teacher–child
interactions essential for healthy social and emotional development. Erickson’s theory
helps people who work with young children understand the importance of providing
particular types of interactions and environments to indorse positive social- emotional
development for young children.

Summary
This activity provides children with the chance to practice different feelings in a safe
environment.
Materials:
• Pictures representing various feeling faces
• Hat, basket, or large envelope

iv. What to do?

1. Cut out pictures which represent various feeling faces and place them in a hat,
basket or large envelope.
2. Pass the hat among the playmates and play music.
3. Stop the music. The child holding the hat picks a picture of an emotion. 4. Ask the child to
identify it, show facial expressions. The child can also describe a
time when he felt that way.
5. Continue passing the hat until all children get a chance to participate.

Variation:

• Have the children look through magazines and newspapers to find various feeling
faces. They can cut them out and make a feeling-face collection. Adults can help
the children label the different feeling faces.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL

Learners at elementary level may exhibit the following characteristics:

Difficulty in starting things but will continue to end
Worries related to school performance
Beginning of empathy sees others view point
Sense of humor expressed in riddles, practical jokes, and nonsense words
Discrimination between good and bad but still immature
Is sensitive and gets hurt easily
Has sense of possession and takes care of possession (makes collections) .

Activities to promote emotional health at elementary level

A teacher can promote social-emotional development in classroom if he is sensitive to
children’s needs, helps them feel secure and confident, and acts as a model for effective social
behavior. Following activities can be used to develop emotional skills among learners:

Tone of voice
Learning Objective: To help children recognize that how things are said can be just as
important as what is said Skill: Emotional communication, self-awareness
Ask the students what they think “tone of voice” means .write down all of the ideas on
board. Give examples of different tones of voice.

Explain to the students: The tone of your voice—how you are actually saying something—communicates
what you feel. Often, your tone of voice can give stronger message than your words.
Sometimes, how you say something can change the meaning of what you are saying. It
can even give the message that you don’t really mean what you are saying. Ask the children to sit in a
circle.

Going around the circle, ask them to give examples of

voice tone that can change the meaning of what’s being said or communicate the wrong feeling. Example
1: The first child in the circle says, “I love ice cream” in a bored voice. The next
child then says, “I love ice cream” as though she really does love it.
Example 2: The next child says, “I have to do so much homework!” in a happy voice.
The next child says the same sentence in a tone he thinks appropriate, such as unhappy or
angry.Provide every child a chance to participate in the activity.

Facial expressions

Learning Objective: To teach children the difference between facial expressions; to identify
possible causes for these expressions
Skill: Emotional communication, self-awareness
Ask the children, “When you look at people’s faces, what do their expression tell you?”
Brainstorm ideas and write them on the board.

Tell them:

People’s facial expressions show how they feel. The way their faces look can tell you
more than what they are saying. You can often tell whether a person is angry, sad, or
happy, even if you can’t hear her words. When someone is talking to you, it’s important for you
to use an appropriate facial expression. If she is saying something funny, you would probably
smile; sad, you might look serious; fearful. If you look bored, that person probably will not
continue talking with you.

What to do:
Distribute an activity sheet to students which displays various facial expressions • Happy •
Disappointed • Confused
• Angry • Surprised • Proud
• Uncertain • Satisfied • Shocked

Ask children to make their guess about the facial expressions and raise hand to answer.
Support the concept that they can tell how each child is feeling even without any words
being said. When asked the reason for each child’s feelings, children can invent situations by
themselves.
Q,No:3

What is language development ? Explain the transitions and signs of

language development.

Ans:

WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

We all communicate with one another. We share information, convictions, opinions,

wishes, dangers, thanks, promises, guarantees, feelings and emotions. We can laugh at to
express entertainment, joy, we smile to convey our entertainment, delight, support or
zealous sentiments, we shout to communicate our anger, energy or nervousness, we raise
our eyebrows to convey sentiments of shock or opposition, however the system of
communication before everything else is language. We use the language as the system of
communication that relies upon words and composition of words to form sentences.

Language is a method that is mainly used for communication. It is called linguistic

communication. Chuckling, grinning, and screaming are ways that are named as non linguistic
communication. Generally all non human creatures exchange information. However they are not
familiar to such a system of communication which is as complex as the language. They
correspond by non linguistic means taking after our grinning, snickering, shouting, gripping of
tighten hands, and rising of eyebrows.

It is language that differentiates humans from non human creatures. As humans utilize the
language capacity consistently to grip thoughts, share the emotions, comment on the
world, and see one another's personalities. Language can be narrated as an organized
arrangement of uniform signals and rule governed structures that are utilized as means for
communication. Language occurs through reading, writing, listening and speaking. In
order to become fully functioning members of school as well as the society, we must
learn the components, the principles, the structure, and the traditions of language system.
Dear student: As discussed above, we can summarize the language as: We communicate our
different emotions with others
Language is a system of communication
Language differentiates humans from non humans
WHAT IS LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT?

Language development is the process by which children come to understand and

communicate language. From birth up to the age of five, children develop language at a
quick pace. The phases of language development are wide-ranging among people. On the
other hand, the age and the pace of language development vary from child to child at
which they achieve every landmark. As far as the language development in children is
concerned, it should be compared to the standards and not with their fellow children.
Usually the rate of language in girls is speedier as compared to the boys.

As compared to some other aspects of development, it mirrors the growth and development of
mind. After the age of five it generally turns out to be much difficult for the children to learn it.
Receptive language develops quickly than expressive language development. Two unique
styles of language development are as under.

Referential language development:

Children at first express only words and afterward join them together, at first into sentences comprising
of two-word and later into sentences comprising of three-word. It is a style of right time learning K of
language in which children use language for the most part to label objects. This style is useful to
young children because this way extends their understanding of vocabulary.

Expressive language development:

first utter sounds like babbles that copythe rhythm and beat speech. Most kids utilize a blend of these
styles. Another commonly known style involved in language learning is expressive style. In this style
little children apply language to discuss their specific emotions and requirements. Dear student: As
discussed above, we can summarize the language development as:
Language development is the process to understand and communicate language.
Referential language development is denoted as labeling different objects.
In expressive language development children discuss their emotions and needs.

Transitions in language development

There are several transitions that help to explain kid’s acquisition regarding language
development.

First transition occurs when first year ends and it proceeds in the school year with the
emergence of words into essential vocabulary.

Second transition happens when children change from saying one word at once to
joining words into expressions and basic sentence about the end of school year.
A Child first word may be the name of individuals, well known animals, toys, body parts,
garments and family things. Kids regularly express different goals with their one single
word. The baby's spoken vocabulary quickly increases after the first word is pronounced.
One and a half year old baby can talk around fifty words. On the other hand near the age
of almost two years they can have words around 200.

Two words utterances: Children during the age of 18-24 months speak two word
expressions. To go on expression with just two words, the kids depend very much on
motion, manner and the background.
Dear student: As discussed above, we can summarize transitions and the key signs of
language development as:
Children go through the different transitions in language development.
These transitions help him in acquisition of language.
Children follow different patterns in language development like babbling,
recognizing sounds, uttering one then two and then many words.

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

The Learning Perspective

This point of view contends that children copy what they see and hear. Kids learn from
punishment and reinforcement. The main scholar associated with this learning viewpoint
is B.F. Skinner.
The Nativist Perspective

The nativist point of view narrates that people are naturally made to learn knowledge.
Noam Chomsky is the main scholar connected with this point of view. He recommended
that the people contain a language acquisition device (LAD). It is comprised of grammatical
rules which permit the children to understand the principles of language
which they generally listen.
Q.No:4

Explain the associative theories of learning.

Ans:

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

The Learning Perspective

This point of view contends that children copy what they see and hear. Kids learn from
punishment and reinforcement. The main scholar associated with this learning viewpoint
is B.F. Skinner.

The Nativist Perspective

The nativist point of view narrates that people are naturally made to learn knowledge.
Noam Chomsky is the main scholar connected with this point of view. He recommended
that the people contain a language acquisition device (LAD). It is comprised of
grammatical rules which permit the children to understand the principles of language
which they generally listen.

Inter-actionist Perspective
Inter-actionists argue that language development is both biological and social. They
contend that language learning is affected by the desire of children to communicate with
others. Children conceive language with the brain that develops gradually and makes
them to obtain new understandings which they are convinced to report to others. The
main scholar connected with this theory is Vygotsky. This model concentrates on
Vygotsky's model of collaborative learning. Collaborative learning is the way to go
through discussions with more developed individuals and it can help children both
psychologically and phonetically in language development.

Dear student: As discussed above, we can summarize the theories of language

development as:
According to learning perspective, we learn by reinforcement and punishment.
Nativist perspective views that people are naturally inclined to learn language.
Integrationists are of the view that we learn language through our interaction with
others and it views language development in social context.
COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE

Phoneme

A phoneme is a basic unit of phonology. It is the smallest unit of sound that may cause a
change of meaning within a language. It doesn't have meaning by itself. Phonemes match
up to the sounds of the alphabet, although there is not always a one-to-one connection
between a letter and a phoneme. For example, the word “hat” has three phonemes:
1- /h/
2- /a/
3- /t/
However, the word "shape," has five letters but only three phonemes:
1- /sh/
2- /long-a/
3- /p/
English language has around 45 different phonemes, which are associated to letters or
combinations of letters. A phoneme can have a specific pronunciation in one word and a
different pronunciation in another word.

Phonology

Phonology is the branch of language, which is concerned, with the orderly organization
of sounds in language. Generally it has focus on the study of system of phonemes in
language. It covers linguistic analysis either at the level of word or at the levels of
language where sound is assumed to be structure for conveying linguistic meaning.
Phonology includes the study of equivalent organizational systems of signs in language. The
study of verbal communication structure within the language is known as the
phonology. The smallest unit of sound to formulate the language is called the phoneme.

Word “CAT” contains three

Phonemes
Word “HAT” contains three
phonemes.

Word “BAT” contains three

phonemes.

The word phonology also refers to the phonological system (system of sounds) of the
language. This is the fundamental systems which a language is comprised of. Phonology
is very often distinguished from phonetics. Phonetics concerns with the physical
production, audio communication and understanding of the sounds. Phonology describes
the way sounds function within a language to encode the meaning. Phonetics belongs
to descriptive linguistics and phonology to theoretical linguistics.

Morphology

The term morphology is Greek and is a makeup of

Morph Means shape, form.
-ology Means the study of something.
The term is also used in

1. Biology as the scientific study of structure of animals and plants

2. Geology as the study of formation and evolution of rocks and land forms.
Morphemes include base words, like.
“Cat”
“Cow”
“Dog”
“Goat”
Source: Google
“Cow”

“Dog”

“Goat”

And affixes like

Un- Un-planned, Un-seen, Un-pleasant
Re- Re-play, Re-tell, Re-call
Knowledge of the morphology is related to vocabulary development and reflects the
smallest building blocks for comprehension. Morphemes, the basic unit of morphology,
are the smallest meaningful unit of language. So, a morpheme is a series of phonemes
that has a special meaning. Some morphemes are individual words (such as "eat" or
"water"). These are known as free morphemes because they can exist on their own. Other
morphemes are prefixes, suffixes, or other linguistic pieces that aren’t full words on their
own but do affect meaning such as the "-s" at the end of “cats” or the "re-" at the
beginning of “re-play”..
provide the experiences that help
him in this process.
Dear student: As discussed above, we can summarize influence of environment on
language.
Language development is an ever changing process.
Different perspectives exist that explain the effects of environment on language
development.
Skinner believes that language is gained in the same manner as behavior.
Another perspective sees inheritance as vital in influencing language development.
Some view that children learn language through cognitive skills but some others
attach social context to it.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AT PRESCHOOL AND

KINDERGARTEN LEVEL

From birth
Receptive Language Language learning begins since childbirth.
Children at this stage are conscious of the sounds in the surroundings. They pay
attention to the verbal communication of those close to them. They cry if there is an
unforeseen commotion. They wake up by loud noise and feel still due to the noise.
Expressive .
Language.
Children formulate sounds which realize that they are encountering agony or joy.

0-3 months of age

Receptive Language At this stage, children form out how to swing to others when they talk. The children
smiles when listens to the voice. Truth be told, they appear to perceive the well known voice.
They will quiet at the noise of it on the off chance that they are weeping. Children at this
stage will also discontinue their action and go too near to the sound of new voice. The
children frequently respond to soothing tones, it does not matter the voice is familiar or not.
Expressive.
Language.
When an important individual comes in the vision, the child smiles at. The children
repeat the identical sound a lot and “coo and goo” when they are satisfied.

4-6 months

Receptive Language At this stage, the children act in response to "no". The children likewise are receptive
to ups and downs in tone of voice except to the sounds other than speech. For example, they
are intrigued by toys and different articles that formulate sounds. They appreciate
melody and beat. They are interested in ample variety of novel sounds, for example
the sound of toaster or sounds of othermachines.
Expressive.
Language.
Murmuring sounds happen when we play with the children. They produce sounds when they are involved
merrily in activities. The children babble at this stage and the children seems to be talking.
Q,No:5

What do you mean by individual differences?

Ans:

MEANING AND NATURE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Experimental psychology has thrown adequate light on the nature and extent of
individual difference; the findings of modern psychological tests and measurements have
amply demonstrated that individual cannot fall into distinct categories in respect of any
physical or mental trait. On the other hands all measures of individual, whether they be physical,
mental, emotional or some other show that they tend to distribute themselves
according to the law of the normal probability curve.

The normal curve is bell shaped and bilaterally symmetrical on each side of its central
tendency the mean. Just as many persons are above the average as are below it, starting
with the lowest score there is a gradually increasing number of persons making each next
higher score gradually decreases until the highest score is reached. For example, the
following table indicates the distribution of intelligence according to the normal
probability curve.

Individuals not only differ among themselves with respect to a specific trait but
differences may also be noticed within the same individual when he is studied in respect
of various traits. Difference may also be noticed in the same individual with respect to
this performance of a particular task at different time. Runners differ in running the same
distance say 2km. The same runner may cover the same distance taking different times on
different occasions. Thus there are inter-individual differences and the intra-individual
differences, and both must be considered in studying individual differences.

Areas of Individual Differences

Individuals differ almost in every respect. They differ in physical as well as
psychological characteristics. Some of the major areas in which they differ and which
affect their personality growth to a large extent are age, height weight, sensory and motor
powers, intelligence aptitudes or specific abilities, interest attitudes, appreciations and
educational attainments. They also differ in their hereditary, family background and
environmental influences.
Chronological Age

One of the general factor of difference that influences school grading is chronological
age. A child enters school at a certain age, 6 years, and is supposed to progress regularly
in his schooling in terms of age factor. It is assumed moreover, that all children should be
able to profit similarly from instructions that is the same or nearly the same in content
and method of presentation for all learners on the respective grade levels. Apparent in
ability on the part of a learner to master study material is explained in terms of factors
such as laziness or stubbornness, that fail to take into consideration the factor that
learners differ in their ability to perform in any one or more areas of learning material and
at any one stage of development.

Chronological age as it represents the learners level of maturity and hence his possible
education, is and should be a factor of difference. No matter how superior mentally or
physically a child of three may be, he cannot be expected, because of difference in degree
of maturity to engage in learning activities that are suitable for the nine year old. Further,
readiness to engage in a particular learning situation may differ from individual to
individual on any age level.

Intellectual Abilities

Views about the nature of intellectual abilities continue to change. For many decades the
idea of a general intellectual ability was very popular. Then, the idea of a few primary
mental abilities was added. Next, a structure of some specific abilities was proposed. At
present, a major attempt is being made to identify the basic mental processes and learning
strategies that underlie intellectual performances. The testing of intelligence began on a
widespread basis in 1916 in the United States when Terman (1916) adopted the earlier
version of an intelligence test by ‘Binet” and “Siman”.

Terman thought of intelligence as the ability to carry on abstract thinking Thorndike (1926)
defined intelligence as the ability to make good responses from the point of view of truth or fact.
Wechsler (1958) developed on intelligence test to measure the aggregate or global
capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively
with the environment. The Wechsler Scale included performance test as well as typical
verbal and mathematical test.

Jone Miller and Moodie (1934) conceived of Intelligence as in born whereas Hunt (1961)
viewed it as almost totally determined by environmental condition. “Terman” regarded
Intelligence is determined almost solely by heredity.

Accordingly, he believed that the rate of intellectual development was fixed by heredity
and therefore did not change from birth onwards. Cattel (1971) proposed two kind of
general intelligence, fluid and crystallized. Fluid Intelligence is genetically determined
Psychological (Sex Differences)

Maccoby (1966) reviewed approximately 1600 studies that provided some information
about psychological differences between males – females. Subsequently, Maccoby and
Jacklin (1974) arrived at three kinds of conclusions regarding sex differences.
i) Widely confirmed differences
ii) Questionable differences
iii) And unfounded differences

Differences Confirmed by MacCoby and Jacklin/Block

Girls are higher than boys in verbal abilities, such as reading, vocabulary comprehension
and spelling. Boys are higher than girls in spatial abilities, quantitative abilities and
aggressiveness. Girls are higher than boys in tactile sensitivity in expressing fear, in
seeking help and assurance, in maintaining closer proximity to friends are more anxious,
have lower task confidence and are more compliant with adults of younger age.
Boys are higher than girls in solving problems, are more dominant, have a stinger selfconcept,
are more active and are more impulsive.

All these conclusions are based on the average of test scores / other performances of
different groups of boys and girls used in the various studies. The conclusions give no
indication of the amount of the difference between the boys and girls or of the percentage
of one sex that was higher than the average of the other sex.

Social Class Differences

Social class is indicated by the status given to group of persons in a society by other
persons of the same society. Warner, Havighurst, and Loeb (1944) found that person of a
large community could be classified in to the following six socio class group: upper,
upper-middle, middle-lower, upper-lower, and lower-lower. Social-economic status of
the family, as measured by income, occupation of parents, and amount of education of
parents, was found to be an important determinants of social class. These criteria are
generally used in determining an individual’s social class today.

Within any group of learners, differences in social background can be found that facilitate
or retard achievement regardless of individual potentiality to master material. The
learning experiences in which the child engages or has engaged in his home affect his
willingness to participate in a present learning situation. Individual interests, attitude
toward school and towards particular school subjects (sometimes developed as a result of
attitudes at home or in the neighborhood environment), habits of cooperation or noncooperation
ability or willingness to concentrate on learning material, and acquired study
habits-all constitute factors of difference among learners.

The amount and kind of previous experiences and knowledge that the individual brings to
a specific learning situation have much to do with his capacity for further study or his
attitude towards it. If the learner feels that he already know much of the study contents of a
specific course, he may lose interest in it, and fail to gain from further instruction.
Hence, poor study habits are developed in learners, which may result in his failure to
master the new material of the course.

Home condition, contribute significantly to educational achievement factors in the family

(homes which are found to rear cognitive development are less favourable parental
attitudes towards school and education lower parental expectations for their children and
a less favourable in electoral climate of the home.

Racial and Ethnic Differences

Differences in abilities amongst racial and ethnic groups have not yet been studied
sufficiently for the formulation of a general conclusion that will cover all cases. Factors
other than individual ability to master learning material may very easily affect the results
of studies and measurements, moreover, cross-marriages that have occurred for many
generation between persons of different racial and ethnic groups may hamper clear
delineation.

Causes of Individual Differences

There are some psychologists who hold the view that the cause of individual differences or
psychological differences is inherited. These psychologists are called the HEREDITARIANS
or TRADITIONALISTS. On other hand there are some environmentalists or progressivists
who are of the opinion that environment is the sole factor in the development of intelligence.
As a teacher, one should not accept any one of these two viewpoints without examining their
relative importance. If a teacher believes that environment is the complete force and that
heredity is little or nothing, then, his efforts will be directed almost equally for all children. In
that way he will misdirect much of his energy.

There are teachers who believe that “everychild is a diamond in raw who needs only polishing in
order to reflect the light of intelligence. If a teacher believes that children differ in respect of
their potentialities he will feel that his efforts will bring different results with different pupils and
he will have different expectations for different pupils. Such teachers believe that a child will
develop in the direction determined by his heredity and that the guidance and learning by parents
and teachers matter very little. A teacher with such beliefs will miss many opportunities to
develop the extent capacities of his pupils. It is therefore, necessary to examine various causes of
individual differences, so as to arrive at a proper understanding of the problem. To prove that
intelligence is due to heredity or an environment is not possible and can only be estimated
indirectly since the two factors.
are interactive from the moment of conception. The main indirect lines of evidence have
come from the study of family trees. Twin studies and others reared together and apart.