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Engineering Circuit Analysis
Circuitos eléctricos en ingeniería, fundamentos prácticos
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Engineering Circuit Analysis
Circuitos eléctricos en ingeniería, fundamentos prácticos
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William H. Hayt, Jr. * Jack E. Kemmerly * Steven M. Durbin VN EZ h5he FA Engineering Circuit AnalysisThis page intentionally left blank‘The Resistor Color Code Band color Blak Brown Red Onunge Yellbw Green Blue Violet Gray Whit Numero OT 2 8S TD vam | Rasp Pinar Tia hg ass 1. Write down the umetic ae corespnding the fit had on the Tt 2 Wie down the numeric valve coesponng tothe second ban from ee ‘3: We down the numberof zeros nat by the ruler band which represents power of 10 (lick = no exva zon down = Ize, ). A ged mlipir bad inate at he dca {sshd oe place oe Ie siber mukpir nd indses that h ec ehied ‘places tie ef. 44 The tolerance bd presents the pression So, fer example, we woul not be sui w i100 5 jocentiokrance esto tht estes anywhete nthe age of 801082, sample ed Med Orange Gold =22,.00 22 10° = 2240. st lence BlaeGray Gall 68 rH x10"! = 6802, 208 terme ‘Standard Percent Tolerance Resistor Vals lace Transform PairsTABLE , 6.1_Summary of Basic Op Amp Circuits lnverting Ampllier Noninverting Amplifier Vela flies tniy can Ampien Summing Amplifier Diference Amplifier Gireuit Schematic my does Input-Output Relation =f Mat = Fete m=(in at = i =-Lutnt vn = — Eto + on 0)ENGINEERING CIRCUIT ANALYSISThis page intentionally left blankENGINEERING CIRCUIT ANALYSIS William H. Hayt, Jr. (deceased) Purdue University Jack E. Kemmerly (deceased) Calfoia State Unversty Steven M. Durbin University o Buffalo The State versity of New York we \Connect oy Learn Succeed ~ma \Connect Learn Succeed ~ [ENGINEERING CIRCUIT ANALYSIS, EIGHTH EDITION Pushed by M:Gaw-Hil a business ui The McGraw-Hill Conyanies tn 1221 Avene of he “Amoi, New York NY 1002, Copyright ©2012 by The McGraw Hill Companies, le All igh ‘No ait of hs pbicauon may be reproduc or dstbuted nan oD ee DY a ans, ‘ore ina abe or eel syste, without the pin ween conn of The Metal ‘Companies. ne ineldng, but not ied to, in any nctwerk or ther lene trae or wansmsion, cr broads forditance erin, Some apelas,tcluding eleczonc an pin componets, may nt be avaabe wo castomesousle ‘he Unit utes “This book printed on ac oe paper 1234567 890DoWmOW 10987654521 ISBN v7s.007 3529578 ‘Vice President & Eten Chie: Moy Lange Vie resien Direct of Spine Publishing: lane M. Roe Ble Eo Dist Michoe Lange {Got Publis: Raphanus Development Elie: Darlene Mf, Seuler ‘Lea Pet Manager Jane Mtr Buyer Kara Kudronice ‘Senior Photo Reearch Coordin: Jon C: Leland ‘Seni Mati Projet Manage: Tony Jura "Typefoce 10/12 Tes Ronan Primer. Dometey Coverage: © Gey Images (Cover Dvinor: Sudo Montage, St Lon, Misowd spice isa egstred wademark of Cadenee Design yates, Ie “Te allowing pon are courtesy of Seve Din: Page 5 Fig, 2.228, 2240-6, 5.4, 6a, 228-6, Zlla-d 1.5, 17.29 Library of Congres Cataloging Pubiation Data Hayt Willa Hart 1920-1909 Enginsrng cicuit analysis Wiliam H, Hay. Je, Jok E Kemer, Seven M Dubin — sine. BN 9RHO7-352057-8 |. Blt oft ana. 2. Eee network arly Kemer Jack . Jack Elswort), 1924-1995, Tessas 2012 ‘womenTo Sean and Kristi. The best part of every day.This page intentionally left blankABOUT THE AUTHORS WILLIAM H. HAYT, Jr, received his B.S. and MS. at Purdue University and his Ph.D. from the University of Ilinos. After spending four years in industry, Professor Hayt joined the faculty of Purdue University, where he served as Professor and Head of the School of Electical Engineering, and as Professor Emeritus after retiring in 1986, Besides Engineering Circuit Analysis, Professor Hayt authored three other tents, including Engineering Electromagnetics, pow in its cighth edition with McGraw-Hill, Professor Hayt’s professional society memberships included Eta Kappa Nu, Tau Beta Pi, Sigma Xi, Sigma Delta Chi, Fellow of IEEE, ASEE, and NAEB. While at Pundue, he received numerous teaching awards, including the univer- sity’s Best Teacher Award. He is also listed in Purdue’s Book of Great “Teachers, a permanent wall display in the Purdue Memorial Union, dedi- cated on April 23, 1999, The book eats the names of the inaugural group ‘of 25 faculty members, past and present, who have devoted their lives to excellence in teaching and scholarship. They were chosen by their students and their peers as Purdue's finest educators, JACK E. KEMMERLY received his B.S. magna cum laude From The Catholic University of America, MS. from University of Denver, and Ph.D. from Purdue University. Professor Kemmerly first taught at Purdue University ‘and later worked as principal engineer at the Aeronutronie Division of Fort Motor Company. He then joined California State University, Fullerton, Where he served as Professor, Chairman of the Faculty of Electrical Engi- neering, Chairman of the Engineering Division, and Professor Emeritus, Professor Kemmerly's professional society memberships included Eta Kappa Nu, Tau Beta Pi, Sigma Xi, ASEE, and IEEE (Senior Member), His pursuits ouside of academe included being an officer in the Lite League ‘and a scoutmaster in the Boy Scouts STEVEN M, DURBIN reosived the BS., M.S. and PhD. degres in Electrical Engincering from Purdue University, WestLafayette, Indiana, Subsequently, be was with the Department of Electrical Engineering at Florida State University anu Florida A&M University before joining the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, in 2000, Since Augus 2010, eas been with the University at BuTa, ‘The State University of New York where he holds joint appointmentbewween the Departments of Electical Engineering and Physics. His teaching interests Include circuits, elecronies, electromagnetics, solid-state electronics and nanotechnology. His research interests are primarily concerned with the
—it ‘was specified as 3 V, We therefore write 3 We now have two (simple) equations in two unknowns, and solve tofind vy = 15 V, ‘An important lesson at this early stage ofthe game is thatthe time it sakes 10 completely label a cireut diagram is always a good invest- ‘ment. As a final step, we should go back and check over our work to censure thatthe result is correct SS 2.9 Find the power absorbed by each element inthe cireuitin Fig. 2.20. 3A i oa, At ra(av Sav mricure 220 ‘Ras: Get igh) ~S6.W; 16 Ws 60 W; 160 Ws GOW.SECHON 25 \OUNGE AND CURRENTSOURCES Dependent and independent voltage and current sources are active ele ments; they are capable of delivering power to some extemal device. For the present we will think of a passive clement as one which is capable only ‘of receiving power. However, we will later see that several passive elements are able to store finite amounts of energy and then return that energy later to various external device; since we still wish to call such elements passive, it will be necessary to improve upon our two definitions a litde Iter. Networks and Circuits ‘The interconnection of two or more simple cireit elements forms an elec- tical network. Ifthe network contains atleast one elosed path, its also an clectrie circuit Note: Every circuit is a network, but not all networks are cireuts (see Fig. 2.21)! © » FIGURE 2.21 (0) Artwork ts rots crat (rea tsa crs A network that contains a least one active element, such as an indepen- dent voltage or current source isan active network. A network tht does not ‘contain any active elements i a passive network. We have now defined what we mean by the term efreuit element, and ‘we have presented the definitions of several specific eieuit elements, the independent and dependent voltage and current sourees. Throughout the remainder of the book we will define only ive additional circuit elements tof, capacitor, transformer, andthe ideal operational ampli- amp.” for short), These are all ideal elements. They are important ‘because we may combine them into networks and circuits that represent real devices as accurately as we require. Thus, the transistor shown in Fig.2.22a andl may be modeled by the voltage terminals designated v,, andthe single dependent current source of Fig. 2.22c. Note that the dependent current ‘source produces current that depends on a voltage elsewhere inthe eireuit ‘The parameter gq, commonly referred to as the transconductance, is calculated using trinsistorspecific details as well asthe operating point de- termined by the circuit connected to the transistor. It is generally a small ‘number, onthe order of 10-* to perhaps 10 A/V. This model works preity well 2a long as the frequency of any sinusoidal souree is nether very large nor ‘very small; the model can be modified to account for frequeney-dependent ANA@- REE EEE EH nan cc ceri ne rRC CRS Meal Steen ob or side ystleon) S103) © ” 6 {FIGURE 2.22 Tees Ose Sencar Fi le Yaris (MOSFET. (0 An FS ane paes MOSFET ina TO-220 cage ae OV and 22K ©) cossctond ew abuse MOSFET logs, Meodecranc Cas es, eC B7; (eis ritmo owe cates effects by including additional ideal circuit elements such as resistors and capacitors. Similar (but much smaller) transistors typically constitute only one ‘small part of an integrated circuit that may be less than 2 mm x 2 mm ‘square and 200 jam thick and yet contains several thousand transistors plus various resistors and capacitors. Thus, we may have a physical device that is about the size of one leteron this page but requires.a model composed of ten thousand ideal simple circuit elements. We use this concept of “eitcuit modeling” in a number of electrical engineering topics covered in other ‘courses, including electrons, energy conversion, and antennas. 2.4, OHM'S LAW ‘So far, we have ben introduced to both dependent and independent voliage and curent sources and were cautioned that they were idealized active ele- rents that could only be approximated in real cireit, We are now ready to meet anotheridealized element, the linear resistor. The resistor is the sim plest passive element, and we begin our discussion by considering the work ‘of an obscure Getman physicist, Georg Simon Ohm, who published a pam- phletin 1827 tha described the results of one of the first efforts to measure ‘currents and voltages, and to deseribe and relate them mathematically. One ‘result was a statement of the fundamental relationship we now call Ohm's Jaw, even though it has since been shown that this result was discovered 46 years cartier in England by Henry Cavendish, a brilint semirecluse. ‘Ohm's aw states that the voltage across conducting materials is directly proportional to the current flowing through the material, or yak 141 Where the constant of proportionality Ris called the resistance. The unit of resistance isthe om, which is 1 V/A and customarily abbreviated by a capital omega,SECMON 24 ons When this equation is plotted on i-versus-v axes, the graph isa straight line passing through the origin (Fig. 222), Equation [4] is a linear equation, ‘and we will consider it as the definition of a linear resistor. Resistance is normally considered to be a positive quantity although negative resistances may be simulated with special cicuiry. ‘Again, it must be emphasized that the linear resistor is an idealized cit element; itis only a mathematical model of a real, physical device. “Resistors” may be easily purchased or manufactured, but itis soon found that the voltage-current ratios ofthese physical devices are reasonably con- ‘tant only within certain ranges of current, voltage, or power, and depend ‘also on temperature and other environmental factors, We usually refer to a linear esistor as simply a resistor; any resistor tha is nonlinear will always bbe described as such. Nonlinear resistors should not necessarily be consid- cred undesirable elements. Although it is true that theie presence compli- cates an analysis, the performance ofthe device may depend on orbe greatly improved by the nonlinearity, For example, fuses For overcurrent protection ‘and Zener diodes for voltage regulation are very nonlinear in nature, a fact that s exploited when using them in circuit design, Power Absorption Figure 2.24 shows several different resistor packages, as well as the most common circuit symbol used for a resistor. In accordance withthe voltage, ccurent, and power conventions already adopted, the product of v and i gives the power absorbed by the resistor. That is, v and i are selected to satisfy the passive sign convention. The absorbed power appears physically a oy re © ® {FIGURE 2.26 (0) evs coraran sor tes (0) A560 8 poveessr ed & p to Sa. (A wlan xsd (1090010050060) wise rare by Ohms. (ait othe stor pelo afte devs) BOW) . AA @® Harps) TESS ere oe veo) FIGURE 2.23 Carex edtostip fran ‘tagle2 war er Not the spect ene SOSA cSmicure 225 CGMPTER2 SAIC COMPONENTS AND ELECTR ORCUNS 5 heat and/or ight and is always positive; a (positive) resistor isa passive clement that cannot deliver power or store energy. Alternative expressions forthe absorbed power are pavini =u 151 One of the authors (who shall remain anonymous) had the unfortunate ‘experience of inadvertently connecting a 100 2, 2 W carbon resistor across 110 V source. The ensuing flame, smoke, and fragmentation were rather disconcerting, demonstrating clearly that a practical resistor has definite limits to its ability to behave like the ideal linear model In this ease, the un- fortunate resistor was called upon to absorb 121 W: since it was designed (0 Inandle only 2 W, its reaction was understandably violent. ‘The voltage across the re stor is given by Ohm’ (560)(0,0824) = 23.7 V ‘The dissipated power can be calculated in several different ways, For instance, wi = (23.70.0424) = 1,005 W Alternatively, 23.1)? / 56 1.003 W > vk p= PR = (0.0424)(560) = 1.007 W ‘We note several things, Fist, we calculated the power in three diferent ways, and we seem twhave obtained three different answers! In reality, however, we rounded our voltage to three significant digits, which will impact the accuracy of any subsequent quantity we calculate with it, With tis in mind, we see that the answers show rea- sonable agreement (within 1%). ‘The other point worth noting is that the resistor is rated to SO W— since we are only dissipating approximately 2% of this value, the resis toris in no danger of overheating. ‘With reference to Fig. 2.25, compute the following: 2.10 Rif i =—2 WA and v = ~44V. 2.11 The power absorbed by the resistor if v= 1 Vand R= 2k. 2.12 The power absorbed by the resistor if/ = 3 nA and R= 4.7 MQ. ‘Aas: 22 MB 500 10, 42.3 pW.Wire Gauge ‘Technically speaking, any material (except for a super conductor) will provide resistance to current flow As all introductory circuits texts, however, we tacitly as- ‘sume that wires appearing in circuit diagrams have zero resistance. This implies that there is no potential differ ence between the ends of a wire, and hence no power absorbed or heat generated, Although usually not an ‘unreasonable assumption, it does neglect practical con- ‘iderations when choosing the appropriate wire diameter for a specific application Resistance is determined by (1) the inherent resistiv- ity of a material and (2) the device geometry. Resistivity, represented by the symbol p, is a measure of the ease ‘with which electrons can travel through a certain mater- ial, Since it isthe ratio ofthe electric field (W/m) tothe areal density of current lowing in the material (/m?), the general unit of is an +m, although metic pre- fixes are often employed. Every material has a different inherent resistivity, which depends on temperature ‘Some examples are shown in Table 2.3; a ean be seen, there isa small variation between differen types of cop peer (less than 1%) but a very large difference between different metals. In particular, although physically stronger than copper, steel wire is several times more resistive. In some technical discussions, it is: more ‘common to see the conductivity (symbolized by a) of a ‘material quoted, which is simply the reciprocal of the resistivity ‘The resistance of a particular object is obtained by ‘multiplying the resistivity by the length & ofthe resistor and dividing by the eross-sectional area (A) as in Eq. (61; these parameters are illustrated in Fig, 2.26, € R=0y (61 tee. — cue ow FIGURE 2.26 Deintona poetical preretes wodte ompeethe reba of ie. The sti of mats ed t besa tr We determine the resistivity when we select the ‘material from which to fabricate a wire and measure the temperature of the application environment. Since a finite amount of power is absorted by the wire due to its resistance, current flow leads tothe production of heat. ‘Thicker wires have lower resistance and also dissipate heat more easly but are heavier, take up larger volume, and are more expensive, Thus, we are motivated by practical considerations to choose the smallest wire that TABLE , 2.3 Common Electrical Wire Materials and Resistivities* Resistivity at 20°C ASTM Specification’ Temper and Shape (u-em) B33 Copper tinned sof, round 1.7654 ars Copper, ube ott, OF copper ira Biss Copper, hard bus tbe, rectangular or square Lsai iso Copper, ead-coated sot, ound L654 B20 Alumina, hard, uo 2.8625, Bar CCopper-lad ste, har, round, 43971 grade 40 HS 335) Copper nicke-costed sft, round 19392 Class 10 Bais ‘Aluminumclad stel, hard, round ‘5805 © Cb Ronan, “Concur mata” Sunn Manto fr hia ag [enV NGG 198 p08 oe‘can safely do the job, rather than simply choosing the largestdiameter wire availabe in an effort to minimize resistive losses. The American Wire Gauge (AWG) is a standard system of specifying wire size. In selecting a ‘wire gauge, smaller AWG corresponds to a larger wire diameter; an abbreviated table of common gauges is given in Table 24. Local fire and electrical safety codes \ypically dictate the required gauge for specific wiring applications, based on the maximum current expected as well as where the wires will be located, TABLE 2.4 Some Common Wire Gauges and the Resistance of (Soft) Solid Copper Wire* Conductor Sie (AWG) Cross-Sectional Area (mm) ey sos ey 0.205 2 0324 18 re} 6 2.08 2 3a 6 133 4 au 2 336 Gin a 193, p- ‘Ohms per 1000 ft at 20° 3 237 162 69 222 19 ons oes 0.1563 Sandon Hab for Becca. the. . Fk a Bey Now Yo Dividing the maximum power (60 MW, oF 600 x 10" W) by the operating voltage (500 kV, of $00 10° V) yields a maximum current of (600 10° 500x107 = 12004 ‘The cable resistance is simply the ratio of the voltage tothe current, oF 500 x 10" Rae = 179SECMON 24 ons mn (28 (2) 2) = Tat) = 3,862,426 em Given tht most of ou information appeats o be val t only two signi icant figures, we sound this 0 3.9 x 10° em, ‘With the cable diameter specified as 25cm, we know its cross-sectional seais 49 cm’, A an( 42 pee ee (a LSS 2.13 A500 ftlong 24 AWG soft copper wire is carrying a current of 100 mA. What is the voltage dropped across the wite? 3260. 120 f2-em Conductance For linear resistor the ratio of current to voltage is also a constant mm ‘where G is called the conductance. The SI unit of conductance is the siemens (S), | A/V. An older, unofficial unit for conductance is the mho, ‘which was often abbreviated 2s 5 and is sill occasionally written as £2! ‘You will aceasionally see it used on some circuit diagrams, as well as in cat- ‘logs and texts, The same circuit symbol (Fig. 2.24d) is used to represent both resistance and conductance. The absorbed power is again necessarily sitive and may be expressed in terms of the conductance by @ is) Thus a 22 resistor has a conductance of $S, and if cumrcnt of SA is flowing trough it then a volage of 10 is present across the terminals and power of 80 W is being absorbed {All the expressions given so arin this section were writen in terms of instantaneous current voltage, and power, suchas 0 —iR and p = vi. ‘We shoud reall that this isa shorthand notation for v) = RIC?) and ‘td) = v(0) 12). The cument through and voltage across a resistor must, both vary with time in the same manner. This, if R= 10S and ‘2sin 1007 V, then .2sin 100r A. Note that the power is given by (4s 1001 W, anda simple sketch wil illustrate the different nature of its variation wit ime. Although the current and voltage are each negative
107! Cis the charge ofeach elton Conveniently relaionshipexsisberween mobility and Np, as showa in Fig. 239, Asume an inch diameter silicon wafer (isk having thickness of 300 jun. Design a 102 resistor by specifying phosphorus concentstion in the range of 2 = 10" em: = Np = 2x 10” em along with suitable geome (he wafer may be cut, but not thinned). | 3 | Fo | 7 | a" 10 10" 10” 10" 10" ss rioune239 Figure 2.39 depits the relationship between electron mobility sy snd dopant density Np for type silicon, With the knowledge that resistivity in his materials given by p = Niy/g, plo resistivity 38 funetion oF dopant densiy ver the range 10" em Np = 10" emvenass 52. Refoing othe data of Table 2.4, design a resistor whose value can be varied mechanically inthe range of 1000 S00 8 (assume operation at 20°C 53. 250 Tong span separates a de power supply from a lamp which deaws 25 A of curent I 14 AWG wire is used (not hat wo wires are needed fora tal ‘oF 30, calelae the amount of power wasted inthe wie ‘54. The resistance values in Table 24 are calibrated fr operation at 20°C. They ‘may be corrected for operation a ter temperatures using the relationship a mas4n Rr Basar where T= reference temperature (20°C in present ease) 1, = desired operating temperature Aj = resisunce a y= resistance at A piece of equipment relies onan external wire made of 28 AWG soft copper ‘which his resistance of $0.0 20°C. Unfortunately, the operating vironment has changed, and itis now 110.5. (a) Calculate the length of the original wire. (b) Determine by how sich the ware should he sored so that cis once again 30.0 8 8. Your favorite meter contains a precision (14 tolerance) 10 resistor. Unfortintely, the ast person who borrowed tis meter sometiow Dlew the resistor, and i needs tobe replaced, Design a suitable replacement, cesuming Teast 1000 fof each ofthe wire gauges listed in Table 24 real avaiable 1 you, ‘56. Ata new instalation, you specified that ll wiring should conform othe ASTM B33 specification (ce Tale 2.3), Unfortunately the subcontractor ‘mise your instructions and installed B15 wiring instead but the sae gouge). Assuming the operating vltage is unchanged («by how much will the curent e reduced, and (3) how much additonal power will he wasted in the lines? (Express both answers in terms of percentage.) ST.1F1 mA of currents feeced though a Imm diameter, 28 meter long pice of hr, round, aluminam-etad steel (B13) wire, how much power is wasied as ‘result of resistive loses? If instead wie ofthe same dimensions but ‘enforming to BTS specications i used, by how mach will he power wasted fe to resistive loses be reduced 58. The network shown in Fig, 240 can be used to accurately model the behavior ‘ofa bipolar jnesion ansisor provid that it operating inthe Forward active mode. The parameter & knowa asthe current gain. Ifo this device Catlesor A, nine | FIGURE 2.40 mtr 2tiptruntin nasser in tad aie mote© umren2 a%si coNFONENTS ND ECT CRCUNS {8 = 100, apd Jy is dterminod to be 100 A, calculate (a) Jo, the current, owing into the collector terminal and (the power dissipated by the ase= emiter region, ‘A100 W tungsten filament lsh bulb funetion by taking avant resistive loses in he lament, absorbing 100 joules each second of energy fromthe wall socket. How much optical ener per second do you expect 0 proce, and does this volte the principle of energy conservation? Batteries come in a wide variety of types and sizes, Two ofthe most common are caled “AA and AAA.” A single batery of ether ype is ated o predce a terminal voltage of 1 V whe filly charged, So what are the differences between the w99, other than Size? (in: Think about enersy)Voltage and Current Laws INTRODUCTION In Chap. 2 we were introduced to independent voltage and current sources, dependent sources, and resistors. We discovered that Adeperdieni sources come in four varieties, and are controlled by a voltage or current which exists elsewhere, Once we know the voltage across a resistor, we know its current (and vice versa): this is not the case for sources, however: In general, circuits must es and currents, bre analyzed to determine a complete set of voltag This turns out to be reasonably straightforward, and only two simple laws are needed in addition to Ohm's law, These new laws are Kirchhof!’s curent law (KCL) and Kirehho’s vol (KVL), and they are simply nents of charge an en conservation, respectively. They apply to any citeuit we will ever encounter, although in later chapters we will lea more efficient techniques for specific types of situations NODES, PATHS, LOOPS, AND BRANCHES ‘We now focus our attention on the current-voltage relationships in simple networks of two oF more cirewit elements. The elements wil be connected by wires (sometimes referred toas Teads"), which have aro resistance, Since the network then appears as a numberof sim: ple elements and a set of connecting leads, itis called a Jumped. parameter network. \ more difficult analysis problem arises when ‘we are Faced with adistributed-parameter network, which contains ‘an essentially infinite numberof vanishingly small elements. We wil ‘concentrate on lamped-parameter neeworks in tis text New Cit Tes: Path, oop, nd Br Acs Curet La KE) . | keh Voge aw kM) asso Bis Series nd Parl Greats Camtinaon of Sees and Parl Sauces ig Reduction of Sens and Parle Rest batons pee | vouge and Garret Di oun Connections
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