Westwood International School Mathematics Department

Year 12 & 13 IBDP Mathematics HL Curriculum 2019-2021 (updated 9/1/19)

Aims
The aims of all group 5 mathematics courses are to enable students to:
1. enjoy mathematics, and develop an appreciation of the elegance and power of mathematics
2. develop an understanding of the principles and nature of mathematics
3. communicate clearly and confidently in a variety of contexts
4. develop logical, critical and creative thinking, and patience and persistence in problem solving
5. employ and refine their powers of abstraction and generalisation
6. apply and transfer skills to alternative situations, to other areas of knowledge and to future developments
7. appreciate how developments in technology and mathematics have influenced each other
8. appreciate the moral, social and ethical implications arising from the work of mathematicians and the
applications of mathematics
9. appreciate the international dimension in mathematics through an awareness of the universality of
mathematics and its multicultural and historical perspectives
10. appreciate the contribution of mathematics to other disciplines, and as a particular area of knowledge in
the Theory of Knowledge course

Assessment objectives
Having followed a DP mathematics HL course, students will be expected to demonstrate the following:
Knowledge and understanding: recall, select and use their knowledge of mathematical facts, concepts and
techniques in a variety of familiar and unfamiliar contexts.
Problem-solving: recall, select and use their knowledge of mathematical skills, results and models in both
real and abstract contexts to solve problems.
Communication and interpretation: transform common realistic contexts into mathematics; comment on
the context; sketch or draw mathematical diagrams, graphs or constructions both on paper and using
technology; record methods, solutions and conclusions using standard notation.
Technology: use technology accurately, appropriately and efficiently both to explore new ideas and to solve
problems.
Reasoning: construct mathematical arguments through the use of precise statements, logical deduction and
inference, and by the manipulation of mathematical expressions.
Inquiry approaches: investigate unfamiliar situations, both abstract and real-world, involving organising and
analysing information, making conjectures, drawing conclusions and testing their validity.

Reference: Mathematics HL Guide, First Examinations 2014

Approaches to learning skills framework

Communication: exchanging thoughts, messages and information effectively through interaction; reading,
writing and using language to gather and communicate information
Collaboration: working effectively with others
Organisation: managing time and tasks effectively
Affective: managing state of mind: mindfulness, perseverance, emotional management, self-motivation,
resilience
Reflection: (re)considering the process of learning: choosing and using ATL skills, consider content, consider
ATL skills development, consider personal learning strategies
Information literacy: finding, interpreting, judging and creating information
Media literacy: interacting with media to use and create ideas and information
Critical thinking: analysing and evaluating issues and ideas
Creative thinking: generating novel ideas and considering new perspectives
Transfer: using skills and knowledge in multiple contexts

Reference: Catherine Jouffrey’s workbook, pp129-130 (workshop @ Westwood, May 2016)

Y12 term 1 – Unit 1: Algebraic techniques
Prior learning: rational exponents; simplifying surds including rationalising the denominator; ratio, percentages,
proportion and similarity; rounding including appreciation of errors; intervals on the real number line using set notation
and using inequalities; expressing the solution set of a linear inequality on the number line and in set notation;
manipulation of linear and quadratic expressions including expansion and factorisation; formulae (including examples
from science); algebraic fractions; linear equations and inequalities; quadratic equations and inequalities; completing the
square and the quadratic formula
Syllabus Content
2.6 parts, 1.2, The discriminant ∆ =b2-4ac to determine the nature of the roots of a quadratic equation
1.3 parts, 1.9, Exponents and logarithms
1.1 Laws of exponents and logarithms, including change of base and logaax=x=alogax
The number e, exponents and logarithms in base e including ax=exlna
Pascal’s triangle, binomial coefficients and factorials
Expanding binomials using Pascal’s triangle and the binomial theorem
Arithmetic and geometric sequences
Arithmetic and geometric series, including infinite geometric series and sigma notation
Applications of sequences and series including compound interest and population growth
Introduction to the graphical display calculator (including connection to computer)
ATL skills Communication, collaboration. organisation, affective, reflection, creative thinking
GDC skills Evaluating binomial coefficients; generating sequence; summing series; using TVM solver in the
context of a savings or investments (money) during a specific period of time. [effects of Amortisation].
IA (The Extending difference of two squares, Patterns in Pascal’s triangle, Binomial theorem for non-integer
Exploration)/ EE exponents, Convergence tests for infinite series, Matrices (applications: simultaneous equations,
starts transformations, determinants, graph theory…), Partial fractions (applications: summation,
integration…), Group theory

Y12 term 1 – Unit 2: Functions and equations

Prior learning: linear functions and their graphs; absolute values; translations, reflections, rotations and enlargements;
similarity and congruence; solving two simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns
Syllabus Content
2.1, 2.7, 2.2, Relations and functions
2.5, 2.6 parts, Domain and range; image (value)
2.4, 2.3 Odd and even functions
Composite functions
The identity function and inverse functions, including domain restriction and self-inverse functions
Solving equations and inequalities, with and without technology, including cases with absolute values
Key features of graphs: maxima and minima, intercepts, symmetry, consideration of domain and
range
Vertical and horizontal asymptotes (optional: oblique asymptotes)
Graphs of linear, quadratic and cubic functions
The algebra of polynomials
Graphs of polynomials, including the graphical significance of repeated roots
The remainder and factor theorems (applications: solving equations, curve sketching, inequalities)
ax+ b
The rational function y= and its graph (optional: rational functions of the forms
cx +d
linear∨quadratic
)
linear∨quadratic
Exponential and logarithmic functions and their graphs, including e x and ln x
The graphs of y=|f(x)| and y=f(|x|)
1
The graph of y=
f (x)
Transformations of graphs: translations, reflections in the axes, stretches
The graphs of f(x) and f-1(x) as reflections of each other in y=x
ATL skills Communication, collaboration. organisation, affective, reflection, creative thinking
GDC skills Making tables; graphing functions and using the Calc menu; investigating domain and range; solving
equations and inequalities; investigating transformations of graphs
IA/EE starts Parametric equations, Polar equations, Difference equations, Oblique asymptotes, Rational functions,
Other transformations of graphs

Y12 term 1 – Unit 3: Circular functions and trigonometry

Prior learning: compass directions; solving triangles using SOHCAHTOA and Pythagoras' theorem; the converse of
Pythagoras' theorem; the terms arc, sector, chord, tangent and segment
Syllabu Content
s
3.1-3.7 The unit circle and definition of circular functions sin θ, cos θ and tan θ
Special angles
The sine and cosine rules, including the ambiguous case of the sine rule
Radians, arc length and sector area
Area of triangles and segments
Applications in 2D and 3D (including navigation and angles of elevation and depression)
Reciprocal circular functions csc θ, sec θ and cot θ
Pythagorean identities
Simplifying expressions
Proving identities
Compound angle identities; double angle identities
Graphs of circular functions and their reciprocals
Composite functions of the form f(x) = asin(b(x+c)) + d (applications: day length, tides, .....)
Inverse trigonometric functions arcsin θ, arccos θ and arctan θ; their domains and ranges; their
graphs
Trigonometric equations in a finite domain (algebraic and graphical methods, and the use of identities)
ATL skills Communication, collaboration. organisation, affective, reflection, information literacy
GDC skills Changing modes; confirming special angles; confirming identities
IA/EE starts Latitude and longitude, Modelling day length and year length of planets, Hyperbolic functions,
Steradians, Spherical coordinates, General solutions of trigonometric equations, Conic sections, Do
circle theorems generalise to other conic sections?
Practice portfolio task to build skills for The Exploration
Y12 term 2 – Unit 4: Differentiation
Prior learning: gradients; the equation y=mx+c; parallel and perpendicular lines including relationship between
gradients; midpoint of a line segment and distance between two points in 2D; area and perimeter of 2D shapes;
volume and surface area of 3D solids
Syllabus Content
6.1, 6.2, 6.3, sin θ
2.4 revisited, Informal ideas of limits, continuity and convergence including lim =1
θ→0 θ
6.6 parts Differentiation from first principles
Both forms of notation for derivatives
4 3
Derivative of xn and differentiation using other variables e.g. A=πr2 and V= πr
3
Differentiation of sums and multiples of functions
The chain rule for composite functions
The product and quotient rules
Derivatives of sin x, cos x, tanx, csc x, sec x and cot x
The derivative interpreted as a gradient and as a rate of change
Finding equations of tangents and normals
Identifying increasing and decreasing functions
The second derivative
Higher derivatives (use in physics as jerk, then perhaps snap, crackle and pop)
Local maximum and minimum points
Testing these using change of sign of f’’(x) and using the sign of f’’(x)
Optimisation problems (examples: profit, time, area, volume...)
Awareness that global maximum or minimum may occur at an endpoint of the domain
Concavity (using concave up for f’’(x)>0 and concave down for f’’(x)<0)
Points of inflection (both stationary and non-stationary – NB need f ’’(x)=0 and changes sign ie
concavity changes)
Graphical behaviour of functions, including the relationship between the graphs of f(x), f ’(x) and f’’(x)
Related rates of change
Implicit differentiation
Derivatives of ln x, ex, ax, logax, arcsin x, arccos x and arctan x
dv
Kinematic problems involving s, v and a (including a=v )
ds
ATL skills Communication, collaboration. organisation, affective, reflection, transfer
GDC skills Evaluating derivatives; graphing tangents; drawing normals; graphing functions; conjecturing and
confirming derivatives
IA/EE starts Formalising the idea of a limit (using δ and ε ), Applications of differentiation (science, engineering,
economics, humanities…), The Newton-Raphson method, Radius of curvature, Maclaurin and Taylor
series, Partial derivatives
Service Learning - Group 5 project: Working day (or 4 periods?)
Y12 term 2 – Unit 5: Integration
Syllabus Content
6.4, 6.5, 6.7, Indefinite integration as anti-differentiation
6.6 parts Indefinite integrals of xn, sin x, cos x and ex
1
Indefinite integrals which can be deduced from known derivatives e.g. ∫ dx=ln|x|+c=ln|kx|
x
1
Integrals of composites with a linear function e.g. ∫(2x-1)5 dx and ∫ dx
x 2+2 x+5
Integration with a boundary condition to determine the constant of integration
The fundamental theorem of calculus
Definite integrals
Area of regions enclosed by a curve and x-axis or y-axis in a given interval
Area of regions between curves
Volumes of revolution about the x-axis or y-axis
Integration by substitution (non-standard substitutions will be provided)
Integration by parts e.g. ∫xsinx dx and ∫lnx dx
Repeated integration by parts e.g. ∫x2ex dx and ∫exsinx dx
t2
Revisit kinematic problems involving s, v and a including total distance travelled= ∫ ¿ v∨¿ ¿dt
t1
ATL skills Communication, collaboration. organisation, affective, reflection, transfer
GDC skills Evaluating definite integrals; shading areas
IA/EE starts Reduction formulae, Trapezium rule and Simpson’s rule, Indefinite integrals, Mean and root mean
square values of functions, Areas of surfaces of revolution, First and second order differential
equations, Double and triple integrals
The Exploration: topic finalised
Y12 term 3 – Unit 6: Statistics and probability
Prior learning: descriptive statistics; collection of raw data; statistical diagrams including frequency histograms (check if
this means with equal intervals) and cumulative frequency curves; calculating statistics from discrete and continuous data
including mean, median, mode, quartiles, percentiles, interquartile range and range; calculating probability of simple
events
Syllabus Content
5.1, 5.2, Concepts of population, sample and random sample
1.3 parts, Frequency distribution of discrete and continuous data
5.3, 5.4, 5.5, Grouped data: mid-interval values, interval width, upper and lower interval boundaries
5.6, 5.7 Mean, variance and standard deviation (see formula booklet)
Concepts of trial, outcome, equally likely outcomes, sample space (U) and event
n( A )
The probability of an event A as P(A)=
n(U )
Complementary events A and A’ (not A)
Use of tree diagrams, Venn diagrams and tables of outcomes to solve problems
Counting principles, including permutations and combinations ( nCr and nPr found by formula, and by GDC)
Use of counting principles to solve probability problems
Combined events; formula for P(A∩B); mutually exclusive events
Conditional probability
Independent events; definition: P(A|B)=P(A)=P(A|B’); use of P(A∩B)=P(A)P(B) to show independence
Bayes’ theorem (for a maximum of three events)
Concept of discrete and continuous random variables, and their probability distributions
Definition and use of probability density functions
Mean (expected value), mode (value where pdf has a maximum) and median of random variables
Variance and standard deviation of random variables
Applications, including games of chance
The binomial distribution, its mean and variance; when a random variable has a binomial distribution
The Poisson distribution, its mean and variance; when a random variable has a Poisson distribution
The normal distribution and its properties
Standardisation of normal variables, the standardised value z giving the number of standard deviations
from the mean
ATL skills Communication, collaboration. organisation, affective, reflection, media literacy, critical thinking
GDC skills Modelling probability experiments; statistical diagrams; evaluating statistics; the Distr menu
IA/EE starts Arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means, Statistics for samples and populations, Bayes’ theorem for
more events, Markov chains, Other statistical distributions, The chi-squared test, Pearson’s product-
moment correlation coefficient
The Exploration: planning tasks completed
Revision for end of year examinations
Service Learning - Group 5 project: Celebration
Y13 term 1 – Unit 7: Discrete Mathematics (Graph theory & Number theory)
Prior learning: factors and multiples; gcd (ie hcf) and lcm; prime numbers; set language and notation (see Y10, plus
disjoint sets); commutative, associative and distributive properties; mappings of the elements of one set to another;
sets of ordered pairs
Syllabus Content
Graph theory: Graphs, vertices, edges, faces
10.7, 10.8, Adjacent vertices (are joined by an edge)
10.9, 10.10, Adjacent edges (have a common vertex)
10.11 Degree of a vertex, degree sequence
The handshaking lemma
Simple graphs (do not assume simple unless specifically stated)
Connected graphs, complete graphs, bipartite graphs, planar graphs, trees, weighted graphs
Tabular representation (adjacency tables)
Subgraphs, complements of graphs
Euler’s relation v-e+f=2 and its proof
If G is simple and planar with v≥3 then e≤3v-6
If G is simple, planar, has no cycles of length 3 and v≥3 then e≤2v-4
Proof that K5 and K3,3 are not planar
Walks, trails, paths, circuits and cycles
Eulerian trails and circuits
A connected graph contains an Eulerian circuit if and only if every vertex of the graph is of even
degree, and its proof
Hamiltonian paths and cycles (simple treatment only)
Kruskal’s algorithm to find the minimum weight spanning tree
Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the minimum connector
Chinese postman problem to find the minimum weight Eulerian circuit on a weighted graph using
each edge at least once (not required: graphs with more than four vertices of odd degree)
Travelling salesman problem to find the least weight Hamiltonian cycle in a weighted complete graph
Nearest neighbour algorithm to find an upper bound for the TSP
Deleted vertex algorithm to find a lower bound for the TSP
Recurrence relations
Initial conditions, recursive definition of a sequence
Solution of first- and second-degree linear homogeneous recurrence relations with constant
coefficients
Cases where the auxiliary equation has equal roots or complex roots
The first-degree linear recurrence relation un=aun-1+b
Modelling with recurrence relations (e.g. compound interest, debt repayment, counting problems)
Number theory: Strong induction
10.1, 10.2, The pigeonhole principle.
10.3, 10.4, Divisibility: a¿b ⇒b=na for some n∈ Z
10.5, 10.6 The theorem a¿b and a¿c ⇒ a¿(bx±cy)
The division algorithm: for a, b ∈ Z there exist unique q, r ∈ Z such that a=bq+r, 0≤r<b
 The greatest common divisor gcd(a,b) and least common multiple lcm(a,b) of two integers
The Euclidean algorithm for finding gcd(a,b)
Prime numbers, relatively prime numbers and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic
Linear Diophantine equations ax+by=c (general solution, and solution subject to constraints e.g. x, y ∈ Z )
Modular arithmetic
The solution of linear congruences
Chinese remainder theorem: solution of simultaneous linear congruences
Representation of integers in different bases (exams will not have questions beyond base 16)
Fermat’s little theorem ap≡a (mod p) where p is prime
ATL skills Communication, collaboration. organisation, affective, reflection, information literacy, creative
thinking
GDC skills Using seq mode to investigate recurrence relations
IA/EE starts Arithmetic in different bases, Divisibility tests in various bases, Adjacency matrices, Eulerian and
Hamiltonian solids, Euler’s formula for solids with holes, Isomorphic graphs, Comparing difference
and differential equations, Comparing Prim’s and Kruskal’s algorithms, Chinese postman problem
with more than four odd vertices, Investigating the travelling salesman problem

Y13 term 1 – Unit 8: Proof by induction

Syllabus Content
1.4 The concept of proof
The idea of a counterexample
Proof by mathematical induction (examples: series, divisibility, inequalities, trigonometry,
differentiation)
Forming conjectures to be proved
ATL skills Communication, collaboration. organisation, affective, reflection, information literacy
GDC skills Looking for counterexamples; justifying conjectures
IA/EE starts Proving irrationality, Proof by contradiction, Proof by contrapositive, Forming and proving your own
conjectures
Term 1, week 4: Submit first draft of The Exploration

Y13 term 1 – Unit 9: Complex numbers

Syllabus Content
1.5, 1.6, 1.7, Definitions and terminology: i, real and imaginary parts, complex conjugate, modulus and argument
1.8 Cartesian form z=x+yi
Sums, products, powers and quotients of complex numbers
Modulus-argument (polar) form z=r(cosθ+isinθ)=rcisθ=reiθ
The complex plane (Argand diagram)
De Moivre’s theorem
nth roots of a complex number; the nth roots of unity
Conjugate root theorem: complex roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients occur in
conjugate pairs
The fundamental theorem of algebra, including the relationship between the degree of a polynomial
and the possible numbers of x-intercepts
n
Sum and product of the roots of polynomial equations (the polynomial equation ∑ a x =0 has sum of
r
r

r=0
roots –an-1/an and product of roots (-1)na0/an)
Proving trigonometric identities using complex numbers
Induction and complex numbers
ATL skills Communication, collaboration. organisation, affective, reflection, creative thinking
GDC skills Mode for different forms of complex numbers; investigating the fundamental theorem of algebra
IA/EE starts Transformations in the complex plane, Loci in the complex plane, Equations with complex coefficients,
Quaternions
Y13 term 1 – Unit 10: Vectors
Prior learning: concept of dimension for point, line, plane and space; properties of triangles, quadrilaterals and
compound shapes; classification of prisms and pyramids including tetrahedra
Syllabus Content
4.1- 4.7 Vectors and scalars; physical examples
Coordinates in 2D and 3D
Representation of vectors using directed line segments
Unit vectors; base vectors i, j, k; components; notation: column vector and i, j, k
Algebraic and geometric approaches to the sum and difference of two vectors, the zero vector 0, the
vector -v, scalar multiplication kv, magnitude |v|, position vectors ⃗OA =a, equal vectors and parallel
vectors
The distance AB as |⃗ AB∨¿; ⃗ AB=b-a
Proofs of geometrical properties using vectors
The scalar (dot) product of two vectors v.w=|v||w|cosθ
Properties of the scalar product: v.w=w.v, u.(v+w)=u.v+u.w, (kv).w=k(v.w), v.v=|v|2
The angle between two vectors
Perpendicular vectors have v.w=0; parallel vectors have |v.w|=|v||w|
The vector equation of a line in 2D and 3D, r=a+λb
Parametric and Cartesian form of the equation of a line; simple applications to kinematics
Relationship between two lines: coincident, parallel, intersecting, skew; points of intersection
The vector (cross) product of two vectors vxw=|v||w|sinθn ^ where n^ is found using the right-hand rule
Properties of the vector product: vxw=-wxv, ux(v+w)=uxv+uxw, (kv)xw=k(vxw), vxv=0
vxw as a determinant (optional)
Geometric interpretation of |vxw|; areas of triangles and parallelograms
Solutions of systems of linear equations using both algebraic and technological methods, e.g. row
reduction (a maximum of three equations in three unknowns)
Systems with a unique solution, an infinity of solutions (general solution required) or no solution
(terminology: systems with solution(s) are consistent; systems with no solution are inconsistent)
The vector equation of a plane r=a+λb+μc
Other forms of the equation of a plane r.n=a.n, r.n=d and ax+by+cz=d (Cartesian)
Intersections, with geometrical interpretation of the solutions: a line and a plane, two planes, three
planes
Angle between: a line and a plane, two planes
ATL skills Communication, collaboration. organisation, affective, reflection, transfer
GDC skills Reduced row echelon form
IA/EE starts Vector spaces, Generalising to more dimensions, Systems with more than 3 equations and/or
unknowns, Nonlinear systems of simultaneous equations, Scalar and vector triple products
Term 1, week 13: Submit final draft of The Exploration
 Y13 term 2
complete Option: Discrete Mathematics
Revision for mock examinations

Y13 term 3 - Revision

Theory of Knowledge, and Service Learning, Links

General
Service Learning: design a CAS experience using your mathematical skills; previous examples:
- maths bites (maths tutorials for Y7-11, with a snack at the end)
- maths lessons on Saturdays at Mmokolodi Primary School
- South African Mathematics Olympiad (helping students train for this contest)
- Primary maths competitions (this was for Y5&6)
Service Learning: Group 5 Project (research an issue of concern in Botswana, model it mathematically
and propose possible solutions)
What are the linguistic origins of the term ‘mathematics’?
What is mathematics? What are the natural sciences? What are their similarities and differences?
What is pure mathematics? What is applied mathematics? Is this distinction necessary? helpful?
culturally universal? Is pure maths ever useful? Is applied maths ever intrinsically interesting?
What is studied in mathematics in IBDP? Compare this with other curricula. How has school
mathematics varied in different times and places? What might it look like in the future?
How does mathematics relate to the ways of knowing? How does it link to the other areas of
knowledge?
Find some mathematical quotes and discuss them.
Who are mathematicians/scientists? Fact and stereotypes – gender, nationality, ethnicity... Media
perception (mad scientists; for mathematicians try the films Beautiful Mind and Proof). What do they
do all day? Write a one paragraph biography of a Fields Medalist.
How were complex calculations performed before modern technology?
“It’s not because we wear skirts. It’s because we wear trousers.” Analyse this quote from the film
Hidden Figures.
How old are the ideas you learn in school? What is the “newest” maths you’ve learned? How does
this compare with other subjects? Thoughts?
Have some areas of mathematics been superseded by technology? Does that mean we should stop
studying them?
Why do you think that IBDP has a non-calculator examination for SL & HL?
Why do universities, employers and society value mathematical skills? Or is this idea exaggerated?
How much mathematics is there? How much of it do we know? Can we ever know it all? What do we
not know? What do we know that we don’t know (the “known unknowns”), and what do we not
know that we don’t know (the “unknown unknowns”)? Is what we know correct? How do we know
that? Is it invented or discovered? Would it be the same elsewhere in the universe?
Does mathematics have a purpose?
Can mathematics be beautiful? Find Hardy’s quote on this.
As a teacher, what would you tell a child who asked why they needed this knowledge? What would
you say to a parent who claimed that they had never been good at maths?
Pick a mathematical idea and explain it to an intelligent non-expert.
Why does mathematics provide such a good explanation for physical phenomena?
Some problems of knowledge: the number system (research: what are transcendental numbers?),
chaos theory, infinitesimals, infinities, non-Euclidean geometry, undecidability...

Algebraic techniques
What are the origins of the term ‘algebra’? What is studied in algebra at school? How is this different
at university?
Research the origins of the use of letters in algebra. Why is x the most common letter for an
unknown?
At Westwood we study exponents before logarithms. Would it be possible to swop this order?
What is 00?
Research why logarithms were developed. Can you find someone who used log tables rather than a
calculator at school? Interview them and report back.
Search the joke about two snakes returning to Noah’s Ark after being told to go forth and multiply
-explain.
Who first developed Pascal’s triangle?
Define the terms ‘necessary condition’ and ‘sufficient condition’. For an infinite series what are
necessary conditions for convergence, and what is sufficient?

Functions and equations

Service Learning: develop a series of lessons whereby Y8 students investigate graphs using Desmos.
Has anyone ever seen a line? How about a line segment?
Are lines a subset of curves, or vice versa or neither?
Evaluate the claims, “Equations are special cases of inequalities” and “Little information results in
great freedom” (Professor László Székelyhidi, Mathematics Association of Botswana workshop 2017).
To what extent can we trust a solution to an equation obtained using technology?
How many pieces of information do we need to determine the equation of a polynomial of degree n?
Can you explain this to a non-mathematician algebraically and/or graphically?
What does Hawking mean when he says’” While physics and mathematics may tell us how the
universe began, they are not much use in predicting human behaviour because there are far too
many equations to solve.”

Proof by induction
What are some similarities and differences between proof in mathematics and in other areas of
knowledge?
Research other methods of mathematical proof.
Find out what Erdos meant of a proof when he said, "This one's from the Book!"
Would you accept a proof that required verification by a computer? Could this actually be more
reliable than verification by a human? Develop claims and counterclaims.
Research different proofs of Pythagoras’ theorem. Challenge: purely diagrammatic proofs. Fun fact:
which President of the USA devised a new proof?
Famous proofs: infinity of primes, irrationality of √2, Konigsberg bridge problem, fundamental
theorem of arithmetic...
The impossibility of squaring the circle, trisecting an angle or constructing a regular 17-gon using
only straightedge and compass.
Some historically recent proofs: four colour theorem, Fermat’s last theorem, classification of finite
simple groups, the Poincare conjecture...
Unsolved problems: Collatz conjecture, infinity of prime pairs, irrationality of e π and πe (check this),
Goldbach conjecture, Riemann hypothesis; see Hilbert’s problems and the Millennium Prize Problems.

Circular functions and trigonometry

Why is trigonometry often introduced via triangles rather than circles? Give advantages and
disadvantages for each approach. What does history tell us?
Why are there 360o in a revolution? How many degrees would there be in a revolution on Mars?
What would change if the Earth’s orbit was completely circular? if it was not tilted on its axis? if it did
not have a moon?
What is the period of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun? Use this to explain the leap year system in
detail. Why did Britain and it colonies skip 11 days from their calendar in 1752?
The number π is irrational and transcendental. What do these words mean? π appears in a surprising
number of seemingly unconnected formulae from infinite series to complex numbers, statistics to
integration. Find some of these formulae. Write some adjectives to describe them – mysterious,
confusing, interesting, beautiful, difficult…
Can you find someone who used trig tables rather than a calculator at school? Interview them and
report back.
Who first developed Pythagoras’ theorem?
What does the sine rule become if a triangle is right angled? How about the cosine rule?
Link to Y10: How did Eratosthenes calculate the circumference of the Earth? How could you recreate
his experiment in Botswana?
Do you believe that the Earth is “round”? What evidence is there for this? Examine the counterclaim
that the Earth is flat. How “round” is the Earth? Is the Earth the centre of the universe? of the Solar
system? Research the history and development of these ideas in different societies.
Research the history, advantages and disadvantages of units for angle – degrees, radians, grades…
Which phenomena do you know that are periodic? To what extent can they be modelled by
trigonometric functions?

Differentiation
Why is division by zero considered to be an invalid operation?
Why might one need to know a rate of change?
Explain clearly the mathematical concept of a limit. What does it mean to say that differentiation is a
limiting process?
We are often told that calculus was developed simultaneously by Newton and Leibnitz. Investigate
this claim; research and develop counterclaims.
What is so special about the number e?

Integration
Why might one need to know the area under a curve?
What does it mean to say that integration is a limiting process?
At Westwood, we teach integration after differentiation. Would it be possible to swop this order?
Popular culture: in English, Tintin’s Professeur Tournesol is translated to Professor Calculus. Why?

Complex numbers
In basic mathematics, why is taking the square root of a negative number an invalid operation?
Reflect on the names of the various number sets. How far do they reflect the everyday meaning of
their adjectives? Do the terms ‘imaginary’ and ‘complex’ numbers put students off from the start?
Complex numbers seem to link so many areas of mathematics. Give examples. Could this be why
they are loved by mathematicians, and feared by some students?
If we consider real numbers as 1D and complex numbers as 2D, research why 3D does not work
neatly. But 4D (quaternions) and 8D do.

Vectors
Service Learning: devise a game on squared paper whereby Y7 students move around a pre-designed
track with limits on their acceleration. See Mr Woodward for details.
Research the development of the concept of vectors. Was it driven by interest in developing these
structures for their own sake, or by the need to develop tools to solve practical problems?
What is a dimension? How many dimensions do we live in (3, 4, 18 or other?).
Is the zero vector really a vector?

Graph theory
Service Learning: Devise a graph theory lesson for Y6 and deliver it. Challenge: Y4.
Service Learning: at Sweet Beginnings/Birthday Bash create an activity with cones and string to show
and explain to the school community that K5 and K3,3 are not planar.
When we draw a graph in graph theory, what is the important information to communicate? What is
not important? Why?
What is an algorithm? Which algorithms do you know? Research other algorithms. Why are
algorithms useful?

Number theory
Service Learning: Devise a number theory lesson for Y6 and deliver it. Challenge: Y4.
Service Learning: at Sweet Beginnings/Birthday Bash create an activity with a manageable number of
participants to demonstrate and explain to the school community the handshaking lemma.
What did Gauss mean by,” Mathematics is the queen of the sciences and number theory is the queen
of mathematics.”?
Is zero a natural number?
How many natural numbers, integers, even numbers, odd numbers, prime numbers, rational
numbers, irrational numbers are there? Note: one answer is different to the other six.
Why do we commonly use base 10? When do we use base 60? base 12? base 24? Research bases
used by societies in different times and places. Research the use of bases such as 2 and 16 in
computing.