An Introduction to

Stylistics
URSZULA CLARK

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 An Introduction to

Stylistics
URSZULA CLARK

RICHMOND UPON THAMES OOLUBOF

STANLEY THORNES (PUBLISHERS) LTD

Text © Urszula Clark 1996
Original line illustrations © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd 1996
The right of Urszula Clark to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy,
recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency
Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be
obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of 90 Tottenham Court
Road, London W1P 9HE. However, pages 50, 79, 80, 99,100,109,142-149,
151-152,154-164 and 166-174 may be photocopied by the purchasing institution
for its own or its classes' immediate use within the teaching context.
First published in 1996 by:
Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd
Ellenborough House
Wellington Street
CHELTENHAM GL50 1YW
England

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
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Printed and bound in Great Britain at The Bath Press
 CONTENTS
Acknowledgements v
Introduction vi

PART ONE:
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEXTUAL ANALYSIS
1 Categorising written language
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Categorising written language: where to start? 3
1.2 Analysing and describing individual texts 1 1
1.3 Register 16
2 What's in a sentence?
2.0 Introduction 19
2.1 Word classes 19
2.2 Phrases 25
2.3 Clauses 27
2.4 A functional analysis of sentences 31
2.5 Categorising sentences by function and form 34

3 More about words and word classes

3.0 Introduction 37
3.1 Nouns 38
3.2 Pronouns 41
3.3 Verbs 46
3.4 Compounds 54
4 Beyond the sentence: cohesion and coherence
4.0 Introduction 55
4.1 Cohesion 56
4.2 Coherence 69
4.3 Imagery 71

5 Who's telling the story?

5.0 Introduction 75
5.1 Perspective: narration, authorial voice and point of view 75
5.2 Representing speech and thought in fictional texts 81
5.3 Representing speech and thought in factual reporting 87
6 Analysing scripted dialogue
6.0 Introduction 91
6.1 Spontaneous and scripted speech 91
6.2 Scripting factual speech texts 94
6.3 Scripting dialogue in plays and films 95
6.4 Presenting point of view in scripted speech 97

7 Written language change

7.0 Introduction 101
7.1 A framework for analysing language change 102
7.2 Graphology and vocabulary 103
7.3 Syntax 107
7.4 Phonology 114
7.5 Engineering language change 116
7.6 Language change and the literary canon 11 7

PART TWO:
RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS
8 Re-representing texts
8.0 Introduction 121
8.1 Strategies, considerations and approaches 122
8.2 Text organisation 129
8.3 Summary: a successful text 137

9 Practice activities
9.0 An overview 139
9.1 Evacuees 141
9.2 Hazel trees 149
9.3 Claude Monet 153
9.4 Aromatherapy 165

Appendices
1 Answers to selected practice activities 1 75
2 Additional material for Activity 6.4 1 79
3 Specimen NEAB examination questions, answers and
comments 180
Glossary 196
Suggestions for further reading 201
Index 202
 Acknowledgements
I should like to thank the staff who teach English Language at A level at The Trinity School,
Leamington Spa, and The Joseph Rowntree School, York.

The author and publishers wish to thank the following for permission to use copyright
material:
Ronald Carter for an extract from Ronald Carter and Mike McCarthy, Language as Discourse,
1975. Copyright © FDA Consumer; Casarotto Ramsay Ltd on behalf of the author for material
from Willy Russell, Terraces. Copyright © 1973 Willy Russell. All rights whatsoever in this play
are strictly reserved and application for performance etc., must be made before rehearsal to
Casarotto Ramsay Ltd., National House, 60-66 Wardour Street, London W1V 4ND. No
performance may be given unless a licence has been obtained; CompuServe Magazine for
material from Cathryn Conroy, Getting the Idea Across to a Boss, CompuServe Magazine, Feb. 1995;
Gites de France for material from their holiday brochure; Faber and Faber Ltd for Ted Hughes,
'Snowdrop' from Lupercal; Gareth Grundy for material from his interview with Irvine Welsh,
Select Magazine, Feb. 1996; Greek National Tourist Organisation for their advertisement;
HarperCollins Publishers for material from Shirley Price, Practical Aromatherapy, pp. 11-15,
Thorsons Publishers, 1983; David Higham Associates Ltd on behalf of the author for Louis
MacNeice, 'To Hedli' from Collected Poems; The Independent for material from Danny Penman
and James Cusick, 'Police get tough in the battle of Brightlingsea', The Independent, 19.4.95;
Lancaster University for material from their Postgraduate Prospectus 1994-95; Land Rover and
Bates Dorland for material from a Land Rover advertisement; London Management on behalf
of the author for material from Peter Shaffer, Equus; Macmillan General Books for material
from Thomas Hardy, Tess of the D’Urbervilles; The National Magazine Company Ltd for Penny
Rich, 'Personal Guide to Aromatherapy', Good Housekeeping Magazine, Aug. 1994. Copyright
National Magazine Company; Oxford University Press for Anne Stevenson, 'Resurrection'
from Selected Poems 1956-1986,1987. Copyright © Anne Stevenson 1987; Pentel Stationery Ltd
for material from an advertisement; Peters Fraser & Dunlop Group Ltd on behalf of the author
for material from Ruth Inglis, The Children's War, HarperCollins, 1989; The Post Office for
material from their Customer Charter; Random Century UK Ltd for material from Gill Martin,
Aromatherapy, Vermilion, 1989, Arnold Wesker, Roots from The Plays of Arnold Wesker Vol. I,
Jonathan Cape, and Mark Thompson, A Paper House, Hutchinson Radius, 1992; Reed Books for
material from Angus Wilson, Anglo-Saxon Attitudes; Royal Academy of Arts for teachers'
material from their Monet in the '90s information pack; Royal Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals for material from an RSPCA leaflet; George T. Sassoon for Siegfried
Sassoon, 'The Kiss'; The Society of Authors on behalf of the Estate of E. M. Forster and King's
College, Cambridge for material from E. M. Forster, A Passage to India; Solo Syndication for
material from a horoscope by Jonathan Cainer, Daily Mail, 16.12.95, and Chris Tarrant,
'Floating safari to the lake full of monsters'. The Mail on Sunday, 2.4.95; Times Newspapers Ltd
for material from Geordie Greig, 'President Clinton to be sued for sexual harassment'. The
Sunday Times, 1.5.94. Copyright © Times Newspapers Limited 1994; Slendertone Ltd for an
Ultratone advertisement included in Cosmopolitan, Oct. 1995.

Hulton Deutsch Collection, for the photograph on page 142.

John Feltwell/Garden & Wildlife Matters Photo Library, for the photographs on pages 151
and 152.
Wigmore Publications for permission to reproduce artwork on page 166.

The cover picture is Various Activities No. 1 by Jack Smith (b. 1928). Courtesy Bonhams,
London/Bridgeman Art Library, London. Reproduced with permission of the artist.

Every effort has been made to trace all the copyright holders but if any have been
inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements
at the first opportunity.
 Introduction
This book is intended to introduce students to the linguistic analysis of written
texts. As such, it presupposes little prior knowledge of either grammatical or
linguistic terminology, or of their application to written text analysis. It is
designed as a practical and accessible introduction to the various areas of
linguistic analysis needed to produce a stylistic description of written language.
The book is not intended as either an introduction to linguistic theory or a
grammar of the English language. An introduction to linguistic theory can be
found in the accompanying volume to this book. The Nature and Functions of
Language by Howard Jackson and Peter Stockwell. However, since many students
studying language and linguistics will have little or no knowledge of basic
grammatical concepts and their accompanying terminology, these are explained
whenever they are used in this book. In other words, as much grammar is
introduced and described as is needed by students studying English at an
advanced level in order to undertake an analysis of written texts.
A further underlying principle of the book is that a textual rather than a
grammatical approach to the analysis of written language is adopted throughout.
Grammatical analysis tends to concentrate on describing and analysing units of
language up to the level of a sentence, whereas textual analysis includes the
description and analysis of units of language larger than a sentence which make
up a text. It is this further analysis of text, as well as of sentences and words, that
characterises stylistic analysis.
Each unit illustrates the points it makes with examples taken from actual, rather
than invented, written texts and includes practice activities for students to do
themselves. The texts used in both the examples and the practice activities are
taken from a wide range of written material. This material is not divided into
categories, such as those traditionally described as literary and non-literary.
Accompanying explanations of linguistic features are similarly applied to a
variety of types of text, rather than associating particular kinds of language with a
particular type of text.
The book is not primarily designed to be read on its own, unit by unit, although
it is possible to use it as such. It is intended as a resource for teachers and
students alike, which can be used at various times during a course either as set
course reading or as the need arises. Most of the units which make up Part 1 of
the book can be worked through independently. Part 2 of the book can be used as
a self-contained unit at any time, although references are made in the units within
it to the points covered in Part 1.
Part 1 deals specifically with the description and analysis of written language,
within a textual framework. It takes a stylistic approach to the study of written
texts: that is, it looks at texts from the perspective of their style and at the
relationship between style, content and form. After the introductory unit, two
units cover the terms associated with sentence grammar. Unit 4 considers aspects
of description and analysis at text level, while the two subsequent units consider
different styles of writing. The final unit of Part 1, Unit 7, considers aspects of
language change in writing and introduces a framework for analysing texts
VI
written in earlier times. The examples used in all the units to illustrate the points
made are taken from actual written texts and each unit contains activities for
students to undertake in groups or on their own.
Part 2 concentrates on developing students' ability to write their own texts,
specifically those based on a range of pre-selected material and written for a
specific audience and purpose. It focuses on the processes and skills required to
transform a variety of texts, derived from various sources, into a new, coherent
text. Unit 8 looks at ways in which writing on a particular topic can be changed
into a different format and style for a specific target audience. The final unit.
Unit 9, consists entirely of practice activities.
Appendix 1 at the end of the book provides answers to selected activities in
Part 1 of the book, while Appendix 3 contains examples of marked answers
written for part of the stylistics section in an NEAB English Language
examination paper.

vii
ggl Principles and Practice
ts\ of Textual Analysis

Categorising written language

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Categorising written language: where to start?
1.2 Analysing and describing individual texts
1.3 Register

1.0 Introduction
We are used to reading different types of written text every day, so much so that
we probably take many of the forms of writing we encounter for granted. Over
the years, you will have learnt to recognise the many and varied ways a text has
of signalling what kind of text it is - for example, a novel, a newspaper or a
magazine - often before you have read a single word of it. Each of these different
kinds of text may also contain further varieties of text within it: a novel may
include poems and letters, a newspaper may have comic strips, cartoons, adverts
and poems as well as news items, and a magazine may contain letters, poems,
adverts and problem pages as well as feature articles. Each of these different
kinds of text has its own distinguishing features, which help us to identify it as a
particular type or kind.
Studying the ways in which language is used in different types of writing
means just that: looking at the very things we have learnt to take for granted. It
involves considering how language is patterned and structured within written
texts and the relationship between that structure, its content and its purpose in
conveying its message.
Anything that is written takes the form of a text of some kind, written with a
particular purpose in mind and within a particular context. Shopping lists, notes
passed round the classroom, diary entries and letters to friends are all examples
of texts, as are published novels, poems and newspaper items. The writer of each
one will have been motivated by a different purpose, be it to entertain, inform,
instruct or persuade. The degree of shared knowledge of the context between the
 2 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE

writer and the intended audience will also have some bearing on what is written.
In a note passed between two friends, certain information will probably be taken
for granted and will not need to be explained, whereas in a text where the
distance between writer and audience is greater, as in a novel, there will probably
be a greater degree of explanation. The context will also determine the degree of
formality or the language register (see 1.3 below) in which the text is written.
Certain ideas will also be taken for granted and so not fully explained in virtually
any text, especially those ideas which relate to the cultural and social background
against which the writing takes place.
Approaching the study and analysis of the stylistic elements of written
language involves bringing together the grammatical structures of language and
the meanings of words within a textual framework. However, language study has
not always been approached in this way. In the past, the study of the written
structures of the English language developed separately from the study of words
and their meanings, as well as ignoring the social dimensions of writing. In recent
years, the study of language has begun to bring these different dimensions
together.
The study of language structures and patterns has traditionally been called
grammar. The study of grammar was divided into two categories: syntax and
morphology. Syntax explained how words combined to make a sentence: it is
mainly with this particular area of study that the word 'grammar' is associated.
Morphology explained how parts of words combined with one another, using
units known as morphemes (e.g. adding an 's' to form a plural: see 1.2.3 below).
Grammar books generally dealt with explaining 'rules' of syntax and
morphology, without paying much attention to the meaning of the words and
sentences themselves.
The study of vocabulary was divided into two categories, lexis and semantics.
Lexis is the Greek for 'word', and describes all the individual words in a
particular language, sometimes called lexical items. Semantics explains the
meaning or meanings of words themselves. Dictionaries generally form a
collection of lexis or lexical items and their associated meanings. The following
diagram represents the traditional relationship between these different aspects of
language study and the texts which describe them.

Grammar Vocabulary

syntax morphology lexis semantics

1-1-1 1-773—;-1
Grammar books Dictionaries

More recently, linguists have become much more concerned with how the
grammatical forms of syntax and morphology connect with lexis and semantics,
so that the term grammar describes not only how words link together to form
sentences, but also the meanings of the words themselves. In modern grammar
systems, grammar covers both syntax and morphology as before, but also
incorporates the study of semantics alongside syntax, so that:
grammar = syntax + semantics (including morphology and lexis)

Modern linguistics has shown that, far from being a transparent medium
through which information is given, language itself forms an important part of
 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE 3

the message being conveyed. Studying the grammar of a written text in this way
involves not only identifying patterns of words in sentences, but also examining
how these patterns and the meanings of the words within them combine to
convey a message: in other words, to 'see through' the language to discover its
actual meaning, which may or may not be the same as its surface or intended
meaning. This sort of grammar is called functional grammar, since it aims to
describe how language is actually used, rather than making language fit 'rules'.
This is what traditional, prescriptive grammar aimed to do, with all sorts of
regulations about what you could and could not do with language.
Another difference with such an approach is that whereas the traditional units
of grammar were words and sentences, modern, functional grammar extends
beyond the sentence to the text itself. Thus, it describes not only the grammar of
words and sentences, but also that of texts. All the units in this book adopt a
functional approach to describing and analysing written language, aiming to
describe the interrelationship between words, sentences and text to discover how
they construct their message.

1.1 Categorising written language:

where to start?
You have a piece of writing in front of you. How can you tell what kind of writing
it is? Take stories, for example. We are probably more familiar with stories than
with any other type of writing, and you can probably easily recognise a story
when you see one, but how do you do this? Is it simply a matter of layout: that is,
how it is printed on the page? What is it about the text that tells us that it is a
story? Are all novels and short stories examples of stories? In which case, is it true
that if a piece of writing tells a story it has to be either a short story or a novel and
nothing else?
The following activity invites you to consider the answers to these questions.

ACTIVITY 1.1
] Individually or in pairs, compile two lists of texts. In the first, list texts which
you think contain a story, and in the second list texts which you think do not.
You could do this as a table. Two examples are given below to start you off.

Texts which contain a story Texts which do not contain a story

a novel, e.g. Gone with the Wind a driving licence

2 a Compare your lists with those of your partner or another pair. Are the lists
the same, or different?
b How do you account for any differences?
 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE
4

o In pairs or as a group, compile lists of features that helped you to decide which
column to put each type of text into. The lists have been started for you below.
Texts that tell a story Texts that do not tell a story
• Describe events or happenings • Describe facts or states
• These happen in a sequence • Facts can be given in a particular
order rather than sequence

Doing this activity should make you aware that different types of writing
usually have distinctive features, but that very different kinds of writing can
share common characteristics. Because of this, it is very difficult - some would
say impossible - to list the definitive features of a particular kind of text. For
example, you could say that novels are texts that tell a story. Does that mean,
then, that newspaper and magazine articles that tell stories are also examples of
novels? Or that if a novel contains a letter or poem it is no longer a novel? Clearly
not. It is evident that whilst a particular form of writing, such as a poem, has
certain distinctive characteristics, any of these may also be used in different forms
of writing in a different combination. Rather than concentrating on defining the
characteristics of particular kinds of text, therefore, this book considers the ways
in which different texts use particular features and their effect.
Another way of identifying the type of text you are reading could be by the
conventions of its visual layout: for example, a novel is usually a certain size and
thickness, with a front and back cover, and with the text within it running from
left to right across each page with indentations for paragraphs and speech. An
application form usually has blank spaces for you to fill in; a newspaper comes
written in columns broken up by photographs, headlines and adverts. The page
layout by itself, however, doesn't produce meaning, since you could in theory
take one type of text, such as a poem, and write it out again as a piece of prose or
an insurance policy, or package it as a novel. Nevertheless, although it is quite
clear that conventions can be altered or changed, texts generally conform to the
layout normally associated with their particular type, unless they wish to make
some special effect.
Everything else being equal, closer reading of a text will usually confirm your
initial response as to the particular type of writing you are reading. This closer
reading will usually include taking in such things as the content, the vocabulary,
the sentence structure and the ways in which words are used in sentences.
Knowing what kind of text you are reading involves you in picking up a whole
variety of signals with which you have become familiar. Even though it may be
difficult or impossible to list a set of characteristics which appear only in a
particular type of text, a given text type will generally have enough defining
features, both of visual layout and of style, to make it possible to recognise it as a
poem, a leaflet, a textbook, a magazine or whatever.
To go back to the example in Activity 1.1, it is clear that working out what
counts as a story and what type of text is associated with telling a story is not as
straightforward as you might have thought at first. The first list you made for
question 3 probably looked something like this:

A story usually has:

happenings or events
a sequence of events
 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE 5

a relationship of cause and effect between the events

characters (usually human)
patterning between characters and events
a particular point of view (or several), from which the events are told
a narrative voice
an opening, where something happens which starts off a sequence of
connected events
a closure, where something happens to bring the sequence of events to a close,
often bringing with it a restoration of order.
Does this mean, then, that for a text to count as a story it has to have all of these
features? The following activity asks you to consider the idea of a story further.

ACTIVITY 1.2
1 Individually or in pairs, take each text you have listed in the table for Activity
1.1, and note which of the features above are present within it. Make a note of
what leads to your decisions (e.g. why you think Gone with the Wind has an
opening, etc.). Also record any problems you encounter in deciding whether
any text has a particular feature.
2 a Do all the texts you intuitively classified as telling stories include all the
elements of the definition listed above?
b Do all the texts you intuitively classified as not telling stories have none of
the elements of the definition?

From this activity, you should see that it is not as easy as you might first have
thought to decide what kind of writing a particular text is. For example, there is a
'story' in a driving licence, especially if it has penalty points, or in a passport,
particularly if it is covered with entrance and exit visas. With texts such as these,
though, you have to use inference - guesswork - to discover the story.
Although we can generalise about patterns of language and their characteristics,
and write abstract sets of lists or principles about particular kinds of texts, these
can never be completely fixed. Features of different kinds of writing may overlap,
as in the concept of a story, or patterns may be broken and new ones formed.
Even a single identifiable kind of writing, such as fiction, usually associated with
novels, may have further distinct variations within it, such as science fiction,
detective fiction, thrillers, romance fiction or gothic fiction. Letters form another
seemingly distinct category of writing, but within it there is a variety of different
kinds of letter, such as business or personal, formal or informal.
However, even though it may not be possible to define every different kind of
text, nevertheless the fact that we recognise them as being different points to them
having certain distinguishing characteristics. These can provide a broad
framework for analysis. They also help us to begin to divide texts into groups
with similar characteristics. These categories are as follows:
fiction or fact
narrative or non-narrative
chronological or non-chronological
You may also come across the categories literary and non-literary.
 6 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE

1.1.1 Fiction and fact

One way of describing texts is to divide them into those which describe
imaginary events or happenings, called fiction, and those which describe actual
events or happenings, called fact, or non-fiction. Unlike the term 'literary' (see
1.1.4 below), the term 'fiction' has no associations with 'worth' or being 'good'.
Under the category of fiction would come all novels, short stories, poems, stage
play scripts, television and radio drama scripts and film scripts. Non-fiction
would include texts such as news articles, adverts, letters, documentaries, travel
writing and biography.
The categories, though, are not as clear cut as they may first appear to be.
Drama-documentaries, for example, imaginatively re-create real events, as may
some biographies or autobiographies. Creating fiction out of facts is called
factional writing. News reports may also select events and quotations which are
true but which stress one particular point of view over another, resulting in a
biased presentation of actual events (see 5.3 and 6.2).

1.1.2 Narrative and non-narrative

Texts which tell a story, in the traditional sense of recounting a plot with events
that happened over a period of time, in space and involving characters, in the
way described above, can also be called narrative, while any other kind is non¬
narrative. This may seem similar to the distinction between fiction and non¬
fiction, and in many ways it is, but there are stories in real life as well as in fiction.
Narrative texts usually have a plot with a definite beginning and end. The
beginning starts a series of events connected with the plot, which the ending
brings to a close. Often this ending sees a return to order. Narrative involves
characters, and the story is told from a particular point of view; like fiction, it
generally incorporates the elements of a story listed above. Under this definition,
films as well as novels can be classified as narratives. Certain kinds of factual
writing, such as autobiography or biography and drama-documentary, are also
narratives.
Texts traditionally classified as non-narrative, however, may use a narrative
form. Adverts are a good example of this. Sometimes, adverts interweave a story
containing all the classic elements of a narrative - plot, action and characters -
with information about the product. A television advert for a particular brand of
coffee did just this, telling a boy-meets-girl story with a plot that continued over a
series of adverts.
Non-narrative texts do not have a plot in the same way as narrative writing.
They refer to states of things rather than to series of events. Examples might be
instructions and legal documents.

1.1.3 Chronological and non-chronological

A further classification of texts can be made on the basis of whether their writing
is chronological or non-chronological. These terms describe different ways of
ordering content within texts.
Chronological writing, as the term implies, is to do with time, and describes
writing whose order and sequence is dependent on time. In chronological
writing, events follow one another forwards - or backwards - through time. Time
 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE 7

connects the events to one another, so that their sequence depends to a great
extent on what has happened before. This in turn determines what is happening
now and in the future. Novels, for example, as well as short stories and plays, are
usually examples of chronological writing, although not always. Chronological
writing is often associated with narrative, since they both share the common
feature of being linked to time. Non-narrative texts, however, can also be
chronological. Reports of science experiments and cookery recipes, for example,
follow a chronological sequence of events, recorded in a particular time-
dependent order.
Non-chronological texts are those which are not dependent upon time for the
ordering of their content. Instead, a different ordering principle applies, for
instance alphabetical order in encyclopaedia entries, telephone books and address
lists. How content in non-chronological texts is ordered depends on an entirely
different set of conventions, within which various options are available to the
writer. Even history books, for example, may be ordered according to the themes
of a period: they are not themselves dependent on time, although they are
describing events which happened in time. Poems may be either chronological or
non-chronological, depending upon what they are about. A ballad, for example,
which tells a story, would be classed as chronological, whereas a poem which
describes a state, such as Burns' My Love is like a Red Red Rose, would be classed as
non-chronological.

1.1.4 Literary and non-literary

Literary texts are usually defined as those which have been written for an artistic
purpose, to give pleasure or to provoke thought. They tend to deal with thoughts
and emotions which make the text 'worthy' in some way, as well as, or instead of,
characters and events. Deciding whether a text is literary or non-literary,
therefore, is a matter of judgement which relates more closely to the message of a
piece of writing than to whether it describes real or imaginary events.
Until fairly recently, the study of literature was mainly concerned with
explaining why some texts were more 'worthy' of study than others, and with
making sure that their worth was interpreted in a particular way. The texts chosen
for study made up what is called a literary 'canon', where those included were
deemed worthy of study and by implication those not included were 'unworthy'.
This canon included novels by established writers such as Jane Austen, the
Bronte sisters, George Eliot, Charles Dickens and William Thackeray; poems by
poets such as Dryden, Shelley, Keats, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Browning and T.S.
Eliot; plays by playwrights such as William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Sheridan,
Oscar Wilde and Arthur Miller. It also included writing which has survived from
Old and Middle English, such as Pearl and Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, non¬
fiction such as diaries and letters, including Samuel Pepys' diary, and historical
and philosophical writing, such as that of Francis Bacon and Edmund Burke.
The decision as to whether a text merits the label of 'literary' or not is largely a
cultural one, and as such is influenced by social changes, which may challenge an
established position. For example, feminists have questioned the inclusion of a
disproportionate number of male writers, who are generally also white and dead.
Similarly, the existence of English-speaking communities outside the British Isles
has broadened the range of writing in English: newer works have backgrounds in
 8 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE

widely different geographical locations and lifestyles. As literacy has become

established amongst sections of society which hitherto did not have access to it,
such as males from a working-class background and women from most classes,
and as both men and women have become more highly educated, so writing is
beginning to reflect the ideas and concerns of a much wider cross-section of
society than ever before. All these various changes in modern life have challenged
a single concept of literariness'. For these reasons, categorising texts as non¬
literary or literary is not a useful distinction.
Another claim made for 'literary' writing has been that its use of language is
somehow special, and that its surface meaning hides a deeper, less obvious
meaning. But texts recognised as 'literary' are not the only ones that do this:
analysis of a diverse range of texts, such as political speeches, newspaper articles
and television reports, not usually recognised for their literariness, can also reveal
meanings below the surface. Similarly, the use of devices such as metaphor and
simile, most often associated with literature, occurs in every type of text, not just
in literary texts.
That 'literary' language is different from other kinds is not really in dispute. It
generally displays a particular style of narrative patterning and an interaction
between a variety of linguistic levels, producing a more complex message and a
more intellectually demanding experience for the reader. Its difference lies,
however, in its 'function', rather than its 'worth'. In other words, it should be
judged on whether it succeeds in achieving what it set out to do: to give pleasure,
to provoke thought or to achieve an artistic effect.
The means of approaching the study of written texts adopted by this book is to
think in terms of text and textuality rather than literature and literariness. Such
an approach involves analysing the way a text is constructed from language,
including coherence (see 4.2 below), and the degree to which the writer makes
language an issue in itself rather than just a tool. Evaluating the quality or worth
of a text would then depend on its success in conveying its particular message.

1.1.5 Conclusion
Whether a piece of writing can be classed as narrative or non-narrative, fiction or
non-fiction, chronological or non-chronological depends largely upon the way in
which an individual text, such as a novel, advert, letter or poem, is written,
rather than being a defining characteristic of the form itself. It is true that a novel,
for example, is more likely to be fictional, narrative and chronological and an
information leaflet non-fiction, non-narrative and non-chronological, but it does
not have to be.

ACTIVITY 1.3
In pairs, read through the following extracts, then do these activities.
1 Write down the kind of text you think each one is taken from (e.g. extract 1 is
an example of a horoscope).
2 Categorise each one according to whether you think it is fiction or non-fiction,
narrative or non-narrative, chronological or non-chronological. Remember that
each text should end up with three categories (e.g. extract 1 is non-fiction,
narrative and chronological).
 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE

3 Discuss which particular features of the language led you to make your
decisions (e.g. layout, vocabulary, length of sentences).
4 Did every extract conform to your initial expectation of its text type? If not,
why not?

1 Aquarius (Jan 21-Feb 19)

The planets seem keen to make you an early Christmas present. Expect not so much a
material gift as a psychological boost. You are understandably worried about the
precarious nature of a certain arrangement. You sorely want to hear or see something
that will put your mind at rest about this matter. Soon, you will get, at the very least,
the reassurance you seek, and possibly quite a bit more.
Daily Mail, 16 December 1995
2 To Hedli
Because the velvet image,
Because the lilting measure,
No more convey my meaning
I am compelled to use
Such words as disabuse
My mind of casual pleasure
And turn it towards a centre -
A zone which others too
And you
_m choose to enter._Louis MacNeice

3 Handling Ponies
Understanding of, and sympathy with, a horse's mentality, is essential to success. A
horse is very much a creature of habit and favours the same thing being done in the
same way every day. Picking out feet, for example, is much more easily accomplished if
carried out in the same rotation each time it is done.
The Manual of Horsemanship. British Horse Society, 1961
4 Dear Madam
Re: VEHICLE REGISTRATION MARK XXXX XXX
Thank you for your letter concerning the unlicensed use/keeping of the above-
numbered vehicle on 7 May 1994. Its contents have been noted.
It is an offence under section 8 of the Vehicles (Excise) Act 1971, which on conviction
carries a maximum penalty of £1000.00 or five times the annual rate of duty,
whichever is the greater. Payment of the duty after the offence does not absolve you
from liability to penalty.
In view of your explanation the Department has decided to offer a reduced penalty of
£26.00. _
5 To John Hamilton Reynolds
Sunday 3 May 1818
...I will return to Wordsworth - whether or no he has an extended vision or a
circumscribed grandeur - whether he is an eagle in his nest, or on the wing - And to
be more explicit and to show you how tall I stand by the giant, I will put down a simile
of human life as far as I now perceive it; that is, to the point to which I say we both
have arrived at - Well -1 compare life to a large Mansion of Many Apartments...
John Keats
 10 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE

6 ‘“Save yourselves,’ I
cried. But no one listened.
Then midnight struck
and the virus was unleashed.
People moaned and
prayed in every house in
the village... but too late.
Without protection,

you’re scuppered when a virus

sneaks into your hard drive.”
IBM’s labs have a mas¬
sive collection of computer
viruses, all being dissected
under tight lock and key.
This research has led
to IBM AntiVirus, one of
the most powerful security
programs available on the
market today.
We’re also developing
an antidote that simulates
the human immune system.
When a virus invades,
computers will be able to
meet and neutralise the
attack.
It may not save lives.
It’ll definitely save data.
Protect yourself. Call
xxxx

Solutions for a small planet

Sunday Times Magazine, 17 December 1995
 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE

7 'Hebe,' the old man called.

'Yes?'
‘Take these letters to the post for me.' He had sat in his room writing his letters as if
nothing untoward was happening, filling in his time usefully while waiting for the
arrival of his elder granddaughters and their husbands. With a flip of his hand he
indicated the pile of letters. Hebe took them. She did not look up.
Mary Wesley: Harnessing Peacocks

1.2 Analysing and describing individual

texts
As pointed out in 1.1. above, the study of a particular language such as English
has traditionally worked on the principle of studying a hierarchy of units, where
the largest unit is a sentence. These units are:
morpheme
word
phrase
clause
sentence
A modern, functional grammar system includes all these units, but rather than
studying each one individually and in isolation it also takes account of how they
relate to one another. As a result, a further unit is frequently added to the list, that
of text.
In modern, functional grammar, the units of language listed above have been
replaced by three distinct, though related, levels of language: text, sentence and
word. The descriptions of each level, and of sub-sections within them, are based
on considerations of how language itself is actually used. To a certain extent, how
we use language is determined by convention rather than by strict rules. This
allows for flexibility and change within each category and between categories, as
well as uniformity. Categorising language in this way has been likened to
biological classification, which describes broad, flexible categories whilst
recognising that there may be both exceptions to them and the possibility of
crossover between categories.

1.2.1 Text
One important way in which functional grammar differs from more traditional
grammar is in its recognition that texts, as well as sentences and words, have
distinct, recognisable patterns or features. Furthermore, these patterns interrelate
with the content and vocabulary of the sentences that make up the text.

Visual Layout
What a text looks like on the page can provide us with a lot of information about
what sort of text we are looking at, before we have read any of its words. How a
 12 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE

text is laid out, or its design, is usually closely connected with its purpose and its
intended audience. A comic strip, for example, is instantly recognisable by its
distinctive layout, as is a newspaper article; there is a limited number of texts
where we would expect such a layout to appear. The size of the print, together
with other considerations such as use of colour, will generally depend upon who
the writing is intended for. Comic strips intended for young children are made
much larger than those intended for adults, quite apart from the choice of
vocabulary and subject matter.
Other aspects of layout include the use of conventions such as headings or
headlines, sub-headings and numbered points. We expect certain kinds of
writing, such as textbooks and magazine articles, to make use of such
conventions in displaying their content, and others, such as novels and plays, not
to use them.
Similarly, we expect some texts to use diagrams, tables, photographs, graphs
and maps. Texts such as atlases, instructions and art or cookery books would be
likely to do so, whereas poems and letters might not.

Thematic structure
The primary intention of any text is first and foremost to communicate
something, though the complexity of what is being communicated will vary a
great deal. A shopping list, for example, is a straightforward list designed to jog
the memory, whilst the report of a scientific research project may be extremely
complex. Nevertheless, however simple or complicated, the content of a text must
be organised in such a way that its main message is conveyed clearly and
coherently if it is to succeed in putting this message across.
This organisation usually relates to the overall metatheme of the writing, that is,
what it is about, which provides a thematic structure enabling the writer to
pursue different directions without losing the reader. For example, a shopping list
may refer to items that need to be purchased at different shops grouped by shop
rather than alphabetically or as they occurred to you when writing them down,
whilst a scientific research report would be organised into different related
sections and sub-sections.
In a narrative, this framework can be used to create tension and interest within
the plot and between the theme or themes.

Paragraphs
Visually, the division of a text into paragraphs is part of the text's layout, with
markers such as indentation and spaces between one paragraph and the next, but
paragraphs also break up the content of a text into more manageable 'chunks'.
However, simply starting a new line is not enough to make a paragraph: a
paragraph's content will be part of the overall thematic structure. A new
paragraph indicates a change of direction of some kind, usually linked to what
has just gone before in the case of an academic essay, or continuing an earlier
theme begun in a novel.
There is in theory no limit to how long a paragraph can be, and it can be as
short as a sentence or one word. What determines where one paragraph ends and
another starts is the direction that the content of the text is taking.
 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE 13

ACTIVITY 1.4
Read the two extracts below. For each one answer these questions.
1 Re-write the text into paragraphs, or indicate where it would break into
paragraphs.
2 Compare your suggestions with one another.
3 For each break you suggest, say why you made it where you did.
4 a What is each extract's metatheme?
b Can you draw a diagram of the text's thematic structure?
5 What kind of texts are the extracts taken from? Which particular features of the
writing led you to your answer?

1 The biggest hurdle you're likely to face as a telecommuter is persuading your boss to
let you try it. 'Even managers who are supportive of the concept in their heads have
butterflies in their stomachs,' quips Gil Gordon, a telecommuting consultant with Gil
Gordon Associates in Monmouth, New Jersey. Gordon and Nick Sullivan, the
telecommuting senior editor of Home Office Computing magazine, offer these tips to
telecommuting wannabes when negotiating with the boss: Look at telecommuting from
your boss's perspective. How will a telecommuting schedule help your company and
your supervisor? Perhaps telecommuting will help you to do better-quality work, shift
your hours to provide improved service for your company's customers, or help you stay
in a job you might otherwise have to leave. Sell your boss on quantity and quality.
You'll get more and better work accomplished from home. Define your goals. Write a
formal proposal that includes detailed information on your telecommuting schedule,
how you will accomplish the work, and anticipated expenses. Devise a foolproof way to
stay in touch with the office. Send daily e-mail and fax messages to keep the office
updated on your work progress. Encourage your colleagues to call you at home, and be
available to them when they do. Begin telecommuting with a modest request, such as
working from home one day a week for a month. That's a trial period of just four days
with minimal risk. Or, suggest an initial telecommuting period in order to complete a
special project or report. Once the trial is successful, gradually expand the time you
telecommute. The boss may counter all your good arguments with: 'If you
telecommute, everyone will want to. And we can't have that.' The fact is, not everyone
will want to telecommute, not everyone's job is suited to it, and not everyone has the
self-discipline and independence to work from home.
Getting the Idea Across to a Boss. CompuServe Magazine, February 1995

2 I had scarcely crossed the hall and gained the corridor, when Mdlle Reuter came again
upon me. 'Step in here a moment,' said she, and she held open the door of the side-room
from whence she had issued on my arrival; it was a salle-a-manger, as appeared from
the buffet and the armoire vitree, filled with glass and china, which formed part of its
furniture. Ere she had closed the door on me and herself, the corridor was already filled
with day-pupils, tearing down their cloaks, bonnets and cabas from the wooden pegs
on which they were suspended; the shrill voice of a maitresse was heard at intervals
vainly endeavouring to enforce some kind of order; vainly, I say: discipline there was
none in these rough ranks, and yet it was considered one of the best-conducted schools
in Brussels. 'Well, you have given your first lesson,' began Mdlle Reuter in the most
calm, equable voice, as though quite unconscious of the chaos from which we were
separated only by a single wall. 'Were you satisfied with your pupils, or did any
 14 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE

circumstance in their conduct give you cause for complaint? Conceal nothing from me,
repose in me entire confidence.'
Charlotte Bronte: The Professor. Penguin

Cohesion and coherence

Essentially, these terms describe ways in which writers link their subject matter
within and between sentences in a text to make it coherent. Sections 4.1 and 4.2
below explain in more detail ways in which this is done.

1.2.2 Sentence
All texts are made up of sentences. A text can be as short as one sentence, as in an
advertising slogan on a street hoarding ('Go to work on an egg', 'Beanz meanz
Heinz'), or may consist of thousands of sentences, such as the Bible or the
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Similarly, there is no limit to the number of words there
may be in a sentence, as long as its sense is maintained. A sentence can have as
few as one word {Shoot! Stop!), or it may have tens and hundreds, as in legal
documents or a novel such as James Joyce's Ulysses.
In a language such as English, word order is very important for a group of
words to make sense as a sentence. For example, the words

saw round bridge corner the a I

do not make sense when placed in this particular order. Placed in a different
order, they do:

I saw a bridge round the corner

If we take each word individually, it becomes clear that some of the words may
have different meanings, depending on the context in which they are used. For
example, the word 'saw' by itself could mean either the past tense of the verb see,
or the noun used to describe a tool used for cutting. 'Bridge' could mean a
structure for crossing a road, river or railway, or a game of cards, again
depending on the context in which it was used, or it could be part of the verb to
bridge. With the words I, a and the, there is not the same problem with meaning,
but we would usually expect these words to accompany at least one other word,
and would not expect to find them used on their own.
The ways in which words are organised into sentences and the terminology
associated with the description of sentences occupy most of Units 2 and 3 of
this book.

1.2.3 Word
Graphology
The marks on a page which we read as words, punctuation, tables, graphs, maps
and so on are called graphic elements. They make up different aspects of
graphology, just as the raw materials of speech are known as phonemes and the
study of the speech of a particular language is phonology. The graphology of a
text includes the use of punctuation markers such as full stops, commas, capital
letters and speech marks, as well as other visual aspects of the text. Punctuation
marks the divisions between parts of sentences and between sentences
themselves. These divisions are linked to the organisation of the sentence. Just as
 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE 15

a sentence isn't just a string of words in any order, so, too, a capital letter and full
stop do not by themselves demarcate a sentence, but are linked to the syntax of
the sentence.
The visual appearance of the words themselves is known as typography.
Features of typography include the print size, the font or typeface used, and the
use of columns, dashes, underlining and bold or italic type.

Morphology
Words are made up of segments called morphemes. Some words are composed of
a single morpheme, such as single, word, marry, eat, gone. Many words, though, are
made up of more than one morpheme, or have morphemes added according to
how they are used in syntax. Many nouns, for example, may have more than one
morpheme, whilst verbs will change their shape according to how they are used.
For example, in English we usually turn a single word into a plural by adding
an 's': e.g. table, tables; son, sons; daughter, daughters.
However, because of the different influences that have gone into making the
English we use today, this rule doesn't always apply and there are other
variations. For example, words which end in a 'y' usually replace the 'y' with -ies:
e.g. baby, babies; country, countries.
Another reason for variations is that the English spelling system is not a
phonetic one; that is, words are not always spelt as they sound, as they are in
other European languages, such as Italian or German. English is semi-phonetic,
with some words spelt as they sound and others not. The reasons for this are
varied, and relate to the way in which English has developed historically.
Morphemes can be added after words, where they are known as suffixes, and
before words, where they are known as prefixes, with some words having both:

im-possible possib-ility im-possib-ility

Common prefixes are un-, im- and re-, as in un-repentant, im-polite and re-turn.
Common suffixes are -able, -ing and -ly, as in love-able, rain-ing and loud-ly.

Tense and participle These particular aspects of words are to do with verbs,
and are explained in Units 2 and 3.
Very briefly, verbs describe an action. They have what is called a root, stem or
infinitive, which alters according to the tense in which the verb is used. There are
two main tenses in English, the present and the past, and the form the verb takes
will be different in each case. For example, the present tense of the verb to walk,
using the first person, would be I walk.
In the past tense, walk would have the morpheme -ed added to it to make I
walked. Walking is called the present participle, and walked the past participle.
The different ways in which verbs are altered to create tenses is probably one of
the most complex areas of English grammar. While this book aims to provide you
with enough information to be able to describe their use and effect within most
kinds of writing, it is by no means exhaustive.

Semantics
The grammatical ordering of words and sentences does not by itself produce
meaning: the words combine to make semantic as well as grammatical sense. Unit
4, particularly Section 4.1, looks at the semantic properties of words in more
detail, with especial regard to collocation and figures of speech.
 16 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE

1.3 Register
Finally, an important point to make is that, just as in speech there is a spectrum of
speech styles ranging from formal to informal, so there is a range of different
kinds of register in writing.
As a means of communication, the English printed writing system has a much
shorter history (about 500 years) than speech itself (perhaps a million). The
codification of speech into a written system has had a standardising effect on the
written form, particularly its spelling and syntax. Although there are many
dialect variations in spoken English, there is nothing like the same degree of
variation within writing. Written standard English originates, for historical
reasons, from the spoken dialect known as the East Midlands dialect, which has
become known more widely as spoken standard English. Written standard
English is generally characterised by the vocabulary to be found in dictionaries
such as the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), and its grammar is the one that is
described in grammar books and generally taught to non-native speakers of
English.
Nevertheless, varying degrees of formality exist in writing as well as in speech.
Contrary to a widely held belief, the grammar of written English operates in
distinctly different as well as similar ways to that of speech, and writing is not
just speech written down. Written standard English is not at all the same thing as
spoken standard English.
Writing that is very formal tends to be that which is not meant to imitate natural
spoken conversation in any way, such as an academic essay or a legal contract.
These also require a fair degree of clarity and are less dependent on context than
other forms. Less formal writing tends to imitate spoken natural speech more
closely: examples would be articles in tabloid newspapers, plays, prose and
adverts. Terms that are often used to describe informality in written language are
colloquial, non-standard and dialect. However, they mean very different things.

1.3.1 Colloquial language

If you really want to hear all about it, the first thing you'll probably want to know is
where I was born, and what my lousy childhood was like, and how my parents were
occupied and all before they had me, and all that David Copperfield kind of crap, but I
don't feel like going into it, if you want to know the truth.

In this opening sentence of J.D. Salinger's novel The Catcher in the Rye, the
character Holden Caulfield 'speaks' without any regional or non-standard forms.
However, the language is very casual and informal, and it is this casualness that
identifies the speech as colloquial. Its use of contractions ('you'll for 'you will'), its
string of loosely connected clauses, the interjection of personal evaluation such as
'lousy' and 'if you want to know the truth' and the use of a swear word, 'crap',
with its social insult, all contribute to the character's rejection of the reader and
his or her expectations. Its language is still within the forms of standard English,
but its register is informal and casual.
 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE 17

1.3.2 Non-standard language

You don't know about me, without you have read a book by the name of 'The
Adventures of Tom Sawyer' but that ain't no matter. That book was made by Mr.
Mark Twain, and he told the truth, mainly. There was things which he stretched, but
mainly he told the truth. That is nothing, I never seen anybody but lied, one time or
another, without it was Aunt Polly, or the widow, or maybe Mary.
This extract, taken from The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain, uses
the same kind of colloquial features, for example contractions, as the character
Holden Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye. Huckleberry Finn, however, also uses
common non-standard features of language, such as double negatives - 'that ain't
no matter' - and a plural subject with a singular verb - 'There was things'. Even
so, there is nothing distinctly regional to link Huck to a particular dialect, since
the features which appear here are syntactic ones that are common to many
dialects rather than belonging to any particular one.

1.3.3 Dialect
Well, they sure got a whole lotta coloured faces into that promo. He and Patricia
ended up passin out one-dollar bills left and right to keep some of the brothers and
sisters from clutterin up the set and ruinin everything.
'Yall gon play this flick over television?' one particularly obstreperous teenager come
askin Crews just when we bout to do a take.
'That's correct,' Patricia answer, runin interference.
T wasn't talkin to you, sister,' the little dude say, 'I was askin this white man that's
actin like he is in charge.'
'I am in charge here,' Crews say. 'What can I do for you?'
'Yall comin down in the community, exploitin us to make this picture and we wanna
know what's in it for us?'
This extract is taken from a novel by A1 Young called Their Eyes Were Sitting Pretty
Watching God. It has features of colloquialism such as contractions, as in the
extract from The Catcher in the Rye, as well as non-standard features such as
dropping 'g's from the ends of words. In addition to these syntactic differences,
the extract uses lexis that is not part of standard English, which characterises it as
a dialect, in this case Black English. The contraction of two words to make one
('Yall' for the colloquial 'you all') and the use of words such as 'dude' for a person
and 'brothers and sisters' are all identifiable features of Black English.
It has been within literature - plays, poems and novels - that written non¬
standard forms have been most commonly used. Although writers of prose have
long represented characters' actual speech in dialect - for example Emily Bronte
in Wuthering Heights and Thomas Hardy in his Wessex novels - the narrative itself
has generally followed the conventions of written standard English. Writing such
as A1 Young's and more recently Alice Walker's breaks the norms of standard
written English in narrative as well as in represented speech. Indeed, changing
attitudes towards literary writing have resulted in greater attention being paid to
the use of non-standard forms such as Black English, which, it is thought, may
eventually establish new norms of writing in their turn.
Whether or not this in fact happens, it is important to remember that 'getting
the message right' in any text is more than simply using vocabulary and grammar
 18 1. CATEGORISING WRITTEN LANGUAGE

in an appropriate way. It is also a question of writing in an appropriate style or

register that best conveys the intended meaning. The reasons why particular
conventions have come to be associated with particular kinds of writing are often
more to do with reasons of history, as Unit 7 explores, than with fixed 'rules'.

ACTIVITY 1.5
] In pairs, go back over each of the extracts in Activity 1.3.
2 For each extract, decide whether its register is formal, colloquial, non-standard
or dialect, and list the reasons that led you to make your choice. For example,
there may be differences in vocabulary and the length of sentences, and direct
or impersonal address may be used.
3 Decide the audience for which each extract was primarily intended and try to
relate it to the language style of the extract. Can you make any connections
between them?
4 Compare your answers with those of other pairs.

Units 2 and 3 take a closer look at the patterns of standard English words and
sentences, before we return to broader considerations of language in and across
whole texts.
2 What's in a sentence?

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Word classes
2.2 Phrases
2.3 Clauses
2.4 A functional analysis of sentences
2.5 Categorising sentences by function and form

2.0 Introduction
This unit, together with Unit 3, moves further into the text to consider different
sentence patterns. They look at the terminology associated with the syntactic
analysis of sentences: the units which you may have heard called parts of speech
but which in modern grammar tend to be called word classes. This unit considers
combinations of words known as phrases and clauses, as well as sentences, while
particular word classes are described in more detail in Unit 3. These two units are
intended to provide a sufficiently full introduction to the main word classes to
enable you to undertake your own stylistic analysis of the written text extracts in
the first part of this book.

2.1 Word classes

A word class or part of speech is a collection of words which have certain
characteristics in common. Where a word appears in a sentence determines how
it functions grammatically and so which word class it belongs to. Words generally
conform to particular word orders if they are to make sense as a sentence. As was
discussed in 1.2.2, a string of randomly selected words may not make sense,
whereas in a different order they may. But to make sense the words have to be re¬
ordered in such a way that they make grammatical (that is, semantic as well as
syntactic and morphological) sense, as the following activity shows.

ACTIVITY 2.1
] Divide into groups of four or five. Ask each member of the group to say a
word, and write it down.
2 Do these words make a sentence? Why not?
3 Can they be re-ordered to make a sentence? Why or why not?
 20 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

4 Can the following words be re-ordered to make sense?

a goes bought town maybe I to and hospital now
b justification experience arguments the from of
c Hamlet information the and long interaction opening of short is on on
d Manchester at the on north road be city and countryside
e journey the catch car people in sometimes under grass

It is worth remembering that it is not the number of words used that makes a
sentence. A single word, such as 'Fire!', is a sentence, consisting of one clause
made up of one phrase made up of one word. Although most sentences contain
several words, usually grouped into smaller units of clauses, phrases and words,
it is the way in which the words are used that makes them into a sentence, not
their number.
Each word that is used in a sentence can be classified according to the word
class to which it belongs. The most common word classes are:
noun
adjective
verb
adverb
determiner
pronoun
preposition
conjunction

2.1.1 Nouns
Words which tell us which people or things are being talked or written about are
called nouns. Nouns are sometimes defined as 'naming words'. They are a very
large class of words which can be divided into different categories. (See 2.2 below
and Unit 3 for more on nouns.)
Some examples of nouns are: eggs, woman, boy, girls, horse, Lucy, Warwick,
Woolworths, shops, etc.
Nouns can be compound, with two words functioning as one noun, e.g.
handbag, textbook, hod-carrier.

2.1.2 Adjectives
Words which give more information about something or someone than is already
given by the noun are called adjectives. They usually appear before the noun
they are describing. Like nouns, adjectives are a large class of words.
Some examples of adjectives are: large, small, funny, anxious, green, big, little, etc.
Adjectives, like nouns, can be compound, that is two adjectives which together
function as one, e.g. bright blue, or complex, that is made up of an adverb followed
by an adjective, e.g. well known.
Present and past participles of verbs (see 1.2.3 and 3.3) can also be used in an
adjectival position: e.g. screaming voice, glistening gold, broken ankle, fitted kitchen.
As the last two examples show, adjectives usually give us more information
about a noun; that is, they modify nouns, e.g. cold water; dark, clear night.
 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

2.1.3 Verbs
Words which tell you what sort of action, event or state is being talked or written
about are called verbs. You might also have heard these described as 'doing
words'. Like nouns and adjectives, they are a very large class of words, which can
be further sub-divided.
Some examples of verbs are: go, see, sleep, feel, be, grow, walk, shine.
Verbs have a base form, or infinitive, from which other forms are derived. For
example, the infinitive to run becomes I run, I am running, I ran, I will run.
(See 2.4.1 below and Unit 3 for more about verbs.)

2.1.4 Adverbs
Words which give more information about a verb, in the same way as adjectives
give more information about nouns, are called adverbs. It would be very unusual
to see an adverb being used without a verb, whereas verbs can be used without
adverbs.
An adverb may appear either after the verb or before it, where it may be
separated from the verb by other words and where the emphasis is placed on the
motion or action of the adverb, rather than that of the verb: e.g. she ran quickly;
slowly he walked up the stairs; Linda said that she felt better today than she had
done yesterday.

2.1.5 Determiners
Nouns are usually accompanied by a determiner, which tells you whether the
noun is something specific or something more general; that is, a determiner
modifies a noun.
A sub-category of determiners is known as the article. The word 'the', as in the
road (that is, a particular road) is known as the definite article, whereas the word
a, as in a road (that is, any road) is known as the indefinite article.
The articles a and an are the most common determiners. Whether a or an is used
depends upon the spelling of the noun it accompanies. The difference between a
as in a ball and an as in an antelope is that antelope begins with a vowel letter (a, e, i,
o, u) and ball with a consonant (every other letter of the alphabet). An 'n' is put
after the 'a' to avoid having two consecutive vowel sounds. Note that the vowel
'u' has moved to become associated with the consonant group of letters, and
many words beginning with 'u' take the article a, as in a unicorn.
Other determiners are: all, some, any, no; every, each, either, neither; one, several,
enough, such; many, much, more, most.

2.1.6 Pronouns
Words which stand in place of a noun instead of the noun being repeated are
called pronouns. They too can be divided into different categories, although they
are not such a large class of words as nouns (see Unit 3 for more information
about this).
Some examples of pronouns are: I, me, mine; we, us, ourselves, ours; you, yourself,
yours; he, him, his; she, her, hers; it, its.
 22 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

2.1.7 Prepositions
Prepositions are relational words; that is, they are usually to do with time,
sequence or the position of something.
Some examples of prepositions are: up, on, in, through, after, of, since, despite.
(See 2.2 below for more about prepositions.)

2.1.8 Conjunctions
Words which join together clauses within a sentence are known as conjunctions,
sometimes called connectives.
Some examples of conjunctions are: and, because, although.
(See 2.3.2 below for more about conjunctions.)

2.1.9 Open and closed word classes

These eight main word classes can be further divided into two categories: open
and closed word classes. The first four, noun, adjective, verb and adverb, are
open word classes. This means that the number of words belonging to each class
is not limited: words are constantly being added to each one and falling out of
use. It is also possible for a word to belong to more than one of these four classes,
e.g. I went for a walk (noun); She walked to college (verb); The sun blazed (verb);
the blazing fire (adjective). Together, they form the largest part by far of the
English lexicon, vastly outnumbering those belonging to the closed word classes.
Note that although the majority of verbs are open-class words, a small number,
called auxiliary verbs (see 3.3.1), form a closed class.
Determiner, pronoun, preposition and conjunction are closed word classes. This
means that a limited number of words belong to each class, and it is not possible
to add to them. They are used a great deal in the basic syntactic structures of
sentences. It is not possible for a word belonging to one closed class to belong to
another.

Open word classes Closed word classes

adjective determiner
noun pronoun
verb auxiliary verb
adverb preposition
conjunction

ACTIVITY 2.2
Each of the poems below has words missing from it.
1 The first poem is missing most of its determiners and prepositions. Copy the
poem, filling in the missing words, and categorise each one according to its
word class.
2 The second poem is missing its verbs. Copy the poem and fill them in.
3 Compare your work with that of the originals (Appendix 1). Are your versions
very different from the originals? Which one is the closest? Why do you think
this is?
4 Which of the two exercises was easier to do? Why? Did your choice of words
alter the meaning of either poem in any way?
 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE? sip : ini 23
pffe ifilil

1 The Garden of Love

I went-Garden — Love,
And saw what I had never seen:
— Chapel was built-midst.
Where I used to play-green.
And — gates-Chapel were shut,
And 'Thou shalt not’ writ-door;
So I turned-Garden — Love
That so many sweet flowers bore;
And I saw it was filled — graves,
And tomb-stones —flowers should be;
And Priests — black gowns were walking their rounds,
And binding — briers my joys and desires.
William Blake

2 Snowdrop
Now is the globe — tight
Round the mouse's — wintering heart.
Weasel and crow, as if— in brass,
— through an outer darkness
Not in their right minds,
With the other deaths. She, too, — her ends,
brutal as the stars of this month,
Her pale head heavy as metal.
Ted Hughes

2.1.10 The functions of words

You have seen that every word in a sentence can be categorised according to the
word class to which it belongs. Usually, though, we tend to group words into
larger units, known as phrases, and these larger units into what are known as
clauses. Sentences can then be made up of any combination of phrases and
clauses.
The fact that sentence patterns and structures follow conventions rather than
strict rules is illustrated by the way in which newspapers in particular structure
their headlines, using words in an unconventional way. The main purpose of a
headline is to grasp a reader's attention, so that he or she will continue to read the
article. Because of this, headlines tend to be pared down to the minimum number
of words that can be used in a sentence and yet still make sense, leaving out
closed word classes such as determiners and prepositions much in the same way
as telegrams used to do. Headlines are usually no more than one sentence long,
and to get all the information in writers of headlines may alter the grammatical
functions of words. For example, they may reverse the normal word order, or
change words commonly used as nouns into adjectives and vice versa. For
example, take the following headline:

TEACHERS RISK SEX LESSON PROSECUTIONS

 24 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

The way in which these words are organised does not conform to conventional
sentence patterns (see 2.4 below). Their particular patterning, as well as their
graphology, leads us to recognise that the clause is a newspaper headline.
As an ordinary sentence, it might be written as: Teachers risk prosecution if they
give sex lessons to pupils.' There are no such things as 'sex lesson prosecutions'.
The writer of the headline uses the compound noun 'sex lesson' (see 3.4 below) and
puts it in an adjectival position to describe another noun, 'prosecution'. Forming a
compound adjective like this is not in itself unusual, but this particular
combination is not generally used in this way.
'Teachers risk prosecution' is not such an exciting headline as 'Teachers risk sex
lesson prosecutions' or even 'Prostitutes risk sex lesson prosecutions', since
teachers are not normally associated with activities that lead them to break the
law as part of their job. The mention of sex adds a risque element to the story, and
we understand the phrase 'sex lesson' when it is used in this way.
Newspaper headlines have a syntax of their own, which we have come to
accept, even though it works by 'breaking' more conventional syntactic patterns
to form alternative ones.
Whatever a writer writes is drawn from an infinite range and variety of
possibilities to do with the choice of word, the patterning of words into sentences
and the arrangement of sentences into texts to create a particular meaning for a
reader to share. Usually, what is written will also be influenced by the overall
style of a particular text type, but even so any writer has a vast range of language
upon which he or she can draw to achieve particular effects, which usually
exploit our shared understanding of the world within which we live.
The following activity explores this further.

ACTIVITY 2.3
"I In pairs, discuss the text type you would expect the following heading to be
taken from: 'M.P. involved in cover up.'
2 What would you expect the writing to be about?
3 Now read the text.
4 a Compare your reaction to the text with the one you anticipated above,
b Which particular features of the headline are exploited in the text?
5 What comments can you make about the use of words in this text (e.g. the use
of the word you)?
6 Share your ideas with the rest of the class.
7 Playing with words, as this text does, by exploiting the different contexts in
which a word may be used is known as a pun. What is the point of using a
pun in this advert?

If you want to be sure

of an effective cover up
our MICRO CORRECT
POCKET pen gets
the vote.
You can issue your
manifesto confident
that any blunders are
masked beneath an
 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE? 25
, ' M

even film of opaque

white fluid - rather than
a thin film of
gobbledygook. There's
no mess or waste and
its advanced tip
design ensures the
fluid gets to the point
without drying up.
And how many MP's
can you say that about?
PENTEL

2.2 Phrases
Phrase is the term used for a word or group of words, based on a particular word
class, which are ordered in a certain way. Just as every word in a sentence can be
described according to its word class, so too can a sentence be divided into
different kinds of phrase.
They can be classified into three main kinds:
noun phrase
verb phrase
adverbial phrase

2.2.1 Noun phrases

Phrases that are built around a noun are known as noun phrases. A noun phrase
is a word or group of words which functions as a noun. It can do all the things a
noun can do. The general pattern for a noun phrase is to have a determiner
followed by a noun, or a determiner followed by an adjective (or adjectives)
describing the noun, followed by the noun itself. For example:

a ball a green ball the dirty, green ball some fruit

Semantically, the noun phrase gives us the participants involved in the process
given by the verb phrase (see 2.2.2 below); that is, who or what is involved in
what is happening. This can be an event, state or object, as well as a person.

ACTIVITY 2.4
Copy and complete the table below to make eight examples of phrases with a
determiner, adjective or adjectives and noun. You may find that some phrases
have more than one adjective or lack a determiner, but that otherwise they will
conform to the overall pattern. Use a class text or other source of written material
to do this. The first example is done for you.

article adjective(s) noun

the broken window

 26 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

2.2.2 Verb phrases

A verb phrase is a word or group of words which functions as the verb. It
includes the main verb plus any other words related to it, called auxiliaries; that
is, other words that form part of the verb form, such as be, do, will, may, etc. For
example:

The bull was charging at the people in the field.

They had been shaken by the noise.

A verb phrase usually comes after a noun phrase, or in between two noun
phrases, the first of which forms the subject of the verb (see 2.4 below). The two
noun phrases will relate to one another semantically (e.g. as subject and object of
the same verb). The verb phrase gives us the process; that is, what is happening.
(See Section 3.3 for more about verbs.)

2.2.3 Adverbial phrases

Syntactically, for a sentence to make sense, it usually has to have at least one noun
phrase and one verb phrase. An adverbial is an optional or extra bit: it is not
necessary in a sentence in the same way as noun and verb phrases.
Most commonly, adverbials provide information relating to the following
elements:

place where something happened, e.g. Andrew left his coat in the restaurant,
time when something happened, e.g. She went to the cinema yesterday,
manner how something happened, e.g. He dived into the pool gracefully,
frequency how often something happened, e.g. Lucy drove to town twice.

Sentences can have more than one adverbial, e.g. Lucy drove to town twice
yesterday.
Often, adverbials take the form of a prepositional phrase. A prepositional
phrase is a noun phrase with a preposition coming before it: on, after, under, before.
For example:

on the table after the prolonged rainburst before my homework

Semantically, adverbials and prepositional phrases give us the circumstances

associated with the process; that is, how the process given in the verb phrase is
taking place.

ACTIVITY 2.5
1 Read the sentences below. The first set is taken from a short story by Graham
Greene called The Innocent and the second set from Jane Austen's novel
Mansfield Park.
2 Divide each one into phrases using the syntactic categories given above,
namely noun phrase, verb phrase and the different kinds of adverbials. The
first one is done for you as an illustration.
 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE? 27

3 Can you make any observations about the language style of each set of
sentences from such an analysis?

1 a The first men were miners.

noun phrase verb phrase noun phrase

The first men were miners

b I could hear the piano.

c It was the smell of innocence.
d The little girl performed her long journey in safety.

2 e The first event of any importance in the family was the death of Mr. Norris.
f The Miss Bertrams were now fully established among the belles of the
neighbourhood.
g Fanny had no share in the festivities of the season.

2.3 Clauses
The main syntactic difference between a phrase and a clause is that a clause
contains both a verb phrase and other types of phrases. Generally speaking, the
longer a sentence is, the more clauses it is bound to contain.
There are four different types of clause:
single or independent clause
coordinate clause
main clause
subordinate or dependent clause

2.3.1 Single or independent clause

A single or independent clause is a phrase or group of phrases which forms a
sentence by itself and makes sense on its own. For example:
I (noun phrase) lingered (verb phrase) at the bottom of the road (prepositional
phrase).
Next morning (adverbial noun phrase) the serious destruction (noun phrase)
started (verb phrase).
Place (verb phrase) the screw (noun phrase) in the hole (prepositional phrase).

2.3.2 Coordinate clause

Coordinate clauses are two clauses of equal status joined by a conjunction such
as and, or or but, as in the following examples:

I shivered there in the mist and turned my collar up.

I used to go to her birthday parties and she used to come to mine.
We had several drinks at the bar, but there were several hours to go before
dinner.
 28 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

Although syntactically the status of the two coordinate clauses is equal, we tend
to think of the first one as describing the more important aspect, so that the first
coordinate clause is often 'read' as being more important than the second.

2.3.3 Main clause

A main clause is a phrase or group of phrases which, like a single clause, could
form a sentence by itself, but which has a subordinate clause added to it.

2.3.4 Subordinate clause

As its name suggests, a subordinate clause is one that is in some way dependent
on the main clause for its meaning. Hence they are sometimes called dependent
clauses. In theory, there is no limit to how many subordinate clauses may be
linked to a main clause. Generally speaking, the longer a sentence is, the more
likely it is to contain subordinate clauses. The subordinate clause can come either
before or after the main clause.
A single clause can stand on its own as a sentence, and the two parts of a
coordinate clause can stand on their own as sentences, but a subordinate clause
cannot, whereas its main clause usually can. A rough-and-ready way of working
out whether a sentence contains subordinate clauses is to identify the part (or
parts) that could stand alone as a sentence, then see what is left. In the case of
relative and comparative clauses (see below), the subordinate clause is one which
begins with a relative pronoun or with than.
The three most common kinds of subordinate clause are:
adverbial clause
adjectival or relative clause
comparative clause

Adverbial clause
Like adverbial phrases, adverbial clauses often begin with a preposition (see 2.2)
and can be identified according to the questions they answer:

Adverbial clause of manner This answers the question How? For example:

As I did every morning, (adverbial clause) I looked up at the sky (main clause).

Adverbial clause of time This answers the question When? For example:

When the weather improves, (adverbial clause) we are going on holiday (main
clause).

Adverbial clause of place This answers the question Where? For example:

They went (main clause) wherever they could get work (adverbial clause).

Adverbial clause of purpose or reason This answers the question Why? and
often begins with the conjunction because (see 2.1.8 and 4.1.1 page 60). For example:

I lent her my savings (main clause) because she was short of money (adverbial
clause).

Relative clause
A relative clause usually begins with one of the pronouns who, which or that. The
pronoun relates (hence its name) the clause to the noun in the main clause. It can
 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

also 'interrupt' the main clause, and be put in the middle of it - that is, be
embedded in it - as in the second example:

Fanny was the only one of the party (main clause) who found anything to
dislike (relative clause).
The old coachman, (start of main clause) who had been waiting about with his
own horse, (relative clause) now joined them (end of main clause).
See also Section 3.2.5 on relative pronouns below.

Comparative clause
A comparative clause, as its name suggests, compares aspects of the main clause
with something else. It follows a comparative word such as more, less or bigger,
and is introduced by the conjunction than:
In this country, we eat more food (main clause) than we can grow (comparative
clause).
His hands were bigger (main clause) than she remembered them to be
(comparative clause).

2.3.5 Conclusion
There are many other sub-categories of clauses, about which any modern
grammar book will give you more information. The ones, described here are the
main categories, and no claim is made for them as an exhaustive list.
When you are analysing a text, one of the things you can do is to see what types
of clause are used, and to discover whether any pattern emerges. This will help
you decide whether particular text types use particular clause structures and why.
For example, legal documents, such as hire purchase agreements and insurance
policies, tend to use multi-clause sentences. This is because they have to make
certain that absolutely everything covered by the terms of the agreement is
explained; otherwise, legal action could be taken against the companies issuing
them. Advertising slogans, newspaper headlines and book titles, on the other
hand, tend to use short single-clause sentences to attract the reader's or listener's
immediate attention.
The following activity asks you to identify clauses in a variety of extracts and to
comment on the effect they have on the writing style.

ACTIVITY 2.6
] The following five sentences all contain more than one clause. For each one,
analyse it into its constituent clauses.
2 What is the effect of any coordinate or subordinate clauses? The first one is
done for you as an example.

1 The afternoon was fine, and Yeobright walked on the heath for an hour.

The afternoon was fine (coordinate clause) and (conjunction) Yeobright

walked on the heath for an hour (coordinate clause).

Effect: although the two clauses are syntactically equal, the fact that Yeobright
is outside seems to depend on the fact that the weather was good, because the
description of the weather comes before his action.
 30 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

2 He had often come up here without stating his purpose to his mother.

3 Mushrooms and toadstools are names given to a large group of gill-bearing, fleshy
fungi, which are collectively given the scientific name of 'agarics'.

4 When going for country walks, one often comes across a railway line, and it is
tempting to walk along either beside the rails or stepping on the sleepers between the
rails.

5 Stella Artois Dry has linked up with one of the UK's top street fashion labels, Dr
Martens, and will be bringing their gear direct to your local watering-hole.

The sentences given in the activity all have two or more clauses. You probably
found them straightforward to read and understand. Sometimes, though, writers
construct sentences that contain lots of clauses, which makes it difficult for us to
retain the link between the main clause and its subordinate clauses. In addition,
the main clause might not appear at the beginning of the sentence, or it might
have a subordinate clause embedded within it, making it even more difficult for
us to work out how all the parts of the sentence relate to one another.
The following activity asks you to analyse extracts with multi-clause sentences.

ACTIVITY 2.7
1 Read the two extracts below.
2 Summarise each text in one sentence.
3 What is the effect of the texts on you? Were they easy or difficult to read? Why?
4 Are the sentences written in a straightforward way?
5 Write down the first and last word of each sentence in both texts.
6 Write out the first main clause in each sentence.
7 Try to explain why each writer wrote in this way. Were there any other
options?

1 Mr Pickwick and his three companions stationed themselves in the front rank of the
crowd, and patiently awaited the commencement of the proceedings. The throng was
increasing every moment, and the efforts they were compelled to make, to retain the
position they had gained, sufficiently occupied their attention during the two hours
that ensued. At one time there was a sudden pressure from behind, and then Mr
Pickwick was jerked forward for several yards, with a degree of elasticity highly
inconsistent with the general gravity of his demeanour; at another moment there was a
recjuest to 'keep back' from the front, and then the butt-end of a musket was either
dropped upon Mr Pickwick's toe, to remind him of the demand, or thrust to his chest,
to ensure its being complied with. Then some facetious gentleman on the left, after
pressing sideways in a body, and squeezing Mr Snodgrass into the very last extreme of
human torture, would request to know 'vere he vos a shovin' to’, and when Mr Winkle
had done expressing his excessive indignation at witnessing this unprovoked assault,
some person would knock his hat over his eyes, and beg the favour of his putting his
head in his pocket. These, and other practical witticisms, coupled with the
unaccountable absence of Mr Tupman (who had suddenly disappeared, and was
 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE? 31

nowhere to be found), rendered their situation upon the whole rather more
uncomfortable than pleasing or desirable.
Charles Dickens: The Pickwick Papers

2 If at any time during the term of this Policy, but before the Insured attains the age of
55, further life insurance to cover an additional loan becomes necessary, the following
Options are available to the Insured without any evidence of health being required. The
loan must be used to purchase, or to change or improve, a property to be owned, or
already owned, and occupied by the Insured as his/her main residence.
The Options are limited to making such changes in the terms of this Policy as are
compatible with the requirements of Paragraph 3 (3) Schedule 2 Finance Act 1975 for
a qualifying policy and any additional Policy effected pursuant to Option B must be a
qualifying policy within the terms of the Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1970.
Norwich Union life insurance policy

2.4 A functional analysis of sentences

Every word, phrase or clause used in a sentence can be described according to its
grammatical function, as described above. As well as this, however, the elements
of a sentence can be analysed according to their function as subject, verb, object
or complement, and adjunct. A phrase may perform different functions in
different sentences.
The pattern of sentences usually follows a set order. The subject (s), which is
usually a noun phrase, comes first, followed by the verb or predicator (v), which
is usually a verb phrase, followed by the rest of the sentence, if any, as an object
(o) or a complement (c), followed by an adverbial or adjunct (a).
The subject and object(s) of sentences are usually noun phrases. Complements
describe or identify the subject; their structure is usually built around either an
adjective or a noun. Adverbials and adjuncts add information about the
circumstances of an event or situation.
To function as a sentence, then, a group of words usually has a subject, a verb
and an object or a complement, which link the parts semantically as well as
syntactically. The use of adverbials or adjuncts is not so frequent.

subject verb object

The children (noun phrase) finished (verb phrase) their homework (noun phrase).

2.4.1 Subject and verb

Verbs usually have a subject, and the form of the verb can change according to
who the subject is. In English, the subjects of verbs are:
I first person singular
You second person singular
He/she/it third person singular
We first person plural
You second person plural
They third person plural
 32 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

One way of categorising verbs is by whether their form is regular or irregular.

Regular verbs follow a straightforward pattern, whilst irregular ones do not
conform to any particular pattern. For example:
I run I am
You run You are
She runs She is
You run You are
We run We are
They run They are

2.4.2 Object
Verbs usually have objects as well as subjects, and these are of two kinds: direct
and indirect.
As its name implies, a direct object relates directly to the action of the verb.
Examples are: I like ice cream; He stroked the cat.
An indirect object relates to the action of the verb, but, rather than being directly
related, it is distanced from the verb.
For example, in the sentence The nurses gave her ice cream, 'The nurses' is the
subject, 'gave' is the verb, 'her' is an indirect object and 'ice cream' the direct
object.

Subject verb indirect object direct object

The nurses gave her ice cream.
The children ran to the shops.

A good way of deciding whether a sentence has an indirect object or not is to

see whether you can put the preposition to before the noun:
The nurses gave ice cream to the children.

2.4.3 Transitivity and intransitivity

Transitivity and intransitivity are terms which describe the verbs used in
sentences where the action involves one or more participants. Transitive verbs
are those which need an object to complete their sense, whilst intransitive verbs
do not. Whether a specific verb is transitive or not often depends upon the
semantics of the clause. For example:

Pat smokes those awful cigarettes.

Smoke here is transitive, because the act of smoking is directly related to the
cigarettes. But in the sentences Pat smokes, or Pat smokes to keep calm, the
relationship of smoke to the sentence changes, so that no object at all is needed.
Analysing whether verbs are used transitively or intransitively in a text can reveal
a great deal about whether actions occur in a vacuum or whether they are
directed at a particular object.
 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE? 33

ACTIVITY 2.8
] Add phrases which involve another participant (person, thing) to the
following intransitive constructions to make them transitive:
the river flows
children play
planes drone
apples fall
the sky reddens
2 How do your sentences compare with the original sentences?
3 What is the effect of the change from intransitivity to transitivity?

2.4.4 Complement
Instead of an object, verbs may take a complement; that is, something that adds
more information about the subject. A complement usually follows the verbs be or
become. For example:

My clothes are fashionable.

Awkward adolescents become sophisticated adults.

A complement may also give more information about the object, especially after
the verbs consider and regard.

2.4.5 Adverbials or adjuncts

These add more information about the action of the verb, and perform much the
same role as adverbs and adverbial phrases, as described in 2.1.4 and 2.2.3. They
generally come at the end of the sentence, although sometimes they appear at the
start. For example:

Lucy slept soundly.

Uncle Tom has seemed rather preoccupied lately.

ACTIVITY 2.9
] Analyse the following sentences according to both their grammatical function
(see Sections 2.2 and 2.3) and their semantic functions (see Section 2.4).
2 What comments can you make on the effect each particular structure has on
the meaning communicated?

a The year began with lunch.

b The proprietor of the restaurant was dressed for the day in a velvet smoking jacket and
bow tie.
c He beamed.
d Henriette was a brown, pretty woman with a permanent smile and a spinster's
enthusiasm for reaching the finishing line of each sentence in record time.
e The cold weather cuisine of Provence is peasant food.
f Over the next four or five days, we came to know the chemist well.
Peter Mayle: A Year in Provence
 34 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

Generally, the SVO/CA (subject, verb, object/complement, adverbial) pattern of

sentences is the one we are most familiar with in prose, especially as it is widely
used in published reading schemes that are used to teach children to read. Just as
we read from left to right, so we expect sentences to order their information in a
particular way from left to right. For example, we expect to find the subject of a
sentence at the beginning, or very near to it, with the verb following close after it.
When we come across sentences that violate this pattern, such as in poetry or
legal contracts, it may take us longer to understand the message being conveyed.
Insurance policies, for example, may embed the subject of a sentence in the
middle or towards the end of a sentence and separate it from the verb by
complements, adverbials or both, since they have to be, by nature of their
function, highly explicit. Scientific writing tends to use passive constructions (see
3.3.3), which might do away with a subject altogether, in order to focus on the
event. Similarly, poetry may alter the SVO/CA pattern to achieve, among other
things, a particular rhythm or rhyme.
One of the fascinating things about how language is used in sentences is its
ability to contravene or break any rule or convention. Nevertheless,
understanding the general principles of language organisation will help you not
only to identify where certain forms are used but also to see where there are
variations and the effect of this.

2.5 Categorising sentences by function

and form
Finally, as well as looking at sentences in the ways outlined above, we can also
consider them from a communicative point of view: that is, according to the type
of information they are giving. There are four different forms of sentence,
sometimes called moods, which correspond to four different functions. These are:

form function

declarative statement
interrogative question
imperative command
exclamatory exclamation

2.5.1 Declarative sentences

Declarative sentences proclaim a statement about something or someone, and are
most likely to follow the SVO/CA pattern described above. Descriptive narrative,
textbooks, information articles and leaflets are all likely to use a high proportion
of declarative sentences.
 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE? 35

2.5.2 Interrogative sentences

Interrogative sentences ask a question. They often begin with the question words
which, who, what, where, when or how. If the question word is the subject, or forms
part of the subject, the sentence pattern is the same as for a declarative sentence;
otherwise, the position of the subject and verb is reversed, with the subject
coming after, instead of before, the first verb in the sentence. For example:

Winch mattress is best?

What am I going to do without you?

Interrogative sentences can also be used to issue a command, more usually

associated with imperative sentences (see 2.5.3 below). Turning a command into a
question is considered a polite way of issuing a command: an answer is not
expected. For example, when a teacher or lecturer says, 'Can I see your essay?', he
or she does not expect to receive the answer 'No'. Using interrogative sentences
as commands is a particular feature of classroom discourse and of conversation
generally, both in spoken and written language.
Declarative sentences can be turned into questions by using tags or question
tags. A tag is a short structure added to the end of a statement, which turns it into
a question. The whole sentence is then known as a tag question. They are usually
used in spoken English or in scripted speech. They consist of forms of the verbs be
or do, using the negative if the main statement is positive (or affirmative) and the
affirmative if the main statement is negative. For example:

It is quite warm, isn't it?

You didn't know I was an artist, did you?

Like interrogative sentences, they are often found in speech and in other kinds
of text that address the reader or listener directly, such as adverts, political
speeches, advice leaflets and articles.

2.5.3 Imperative sentences

Imperative sentences give orders, instructions, advice and warnings. They can
begin with the verb: for example. Put that gun down.
They can begin with the word 'let': for example. Let me have a look.
They can also be made negative by using don't or do not or never in front of the
verb: for example. Do not move out of your home without legal advice; Never leave your
car unlocked.
In writing, such sentences are often found in instruction books, such as a
textbook of this kind.

2.5.4 Exclamatory sentences

Exclamatory sentences express something with emphasis, usually in speech or as
a form of direct address to a reader. In speech, we do this by our tone of voice,
whereas in writing we show it by the use of an exclamation mark: for example.
What a whopper!
 36 2. WHAT'S IN A SENTENCE?

ACTIVITY 2.10
] a Think of an example of each of the four different types of sentence described
in Section 2.5 and write it down. You should do this in groups of four, where
each one of you writes a sentence of a different kind.
b For each sentence, discuss the type of writing in which you would expect
such a sentence to appear. Discuss your ideas with the rest of the class.

2 a In pairs, find two or three examples of each of the four types of sentence in
texts that you have in your library or at home.
b Swap your sentences with another pair, and see if you can determine the
type of text from which each sentence came.
c Work together as a four, telling each other what your answers are.
3 More about words and word
classes

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Nouns
3.2 Pronouns
3.3 Verbs
3.4 Compounds

3.0 Introduction
The open word classes of nouns, verbs, adverbs and adjectives described in 2.1
are very large, and together they contain the majority of words to be found in any
dictionary. As open word classes, their content is not fixed, and it is constantly
being added to as, for example, words are borrowed from other languages or
compounds are formed (see 3.4 below).
Some words can also belong to more than one word class, depending on how
they are used. In the case of verbs or adverbs, their form might also change. For
example, in the sentence I sleep lightly these days, 'sleep' functions as a verb. In the
sentence I'm going for a sleep, 'sleep' functions as a noun. It can also function, with
morphological additions, as an adverb - He yawned sleepily - or as an adjective - A
sleepy toad lay in the long grass. It is important to remember, therefore, that if you
recognise a given word as belonging to a particular open word class in one
sentence, you cannot assume the next time you come across it that it will belong
to the same one. Which word class a particular word belongs to is determined as
much by its syntactic function as by its lexical and morphological form.
Nouns and verbs are two open word classes that can be sub-divided further
according to their form and function. The closed word class of pronouns can also
be further sub-divided and classified. It is with these three word classes, nouns,
verbs and pronouns, that this unit is primarily concerned.
The grammatical explanations given in this unit aim to give you an overall
description of different sub-sets of word classes. These are accompanied by
activities that illustrate further the points made. You should then be able to use a
more comprehensive modern grammar book to find out further information on
the finer details of the points covered.
 38 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

3.1 Nouns
Nouns can be divided into two major categories, common and proper, with
common nouns sub-dividing further into the three categories of concrete, abstract
and collective.

noun

proper common
i | i

concrete abstract collective

3.1.1 Proper nouns

Proper nouns refer to individual persons, places or titles. Whereas concrete nouns
classify things into types, such as person, man, women, street, town, city, bands,
shops and so on (see below), proper nouns refer to actual people, places and titles,
e.g. Lucy; Harry; High Street; Leamington Spa; North Yorkshire; The Beatles; Wet,
Wet, Wet; Next; etc.
Proper nouns do not usually take a determiner or article, e.g. a Lucy (one
exception is names of pop groups, e.g. The Beatles), nor do they usually take a
plural form (one exception is when a family is referred to by its surname, as in
keeping up with the Joneses). Graphologically, proper nouns can be distinguished
from any other kind of noun in that they usually begin with an upper-case
(capital) letter, e.g. Coronation Street; Vanity Fair; August. However, some titles or
names, particularly those of bands, album, titles and shops, use lower-case (small)
letters throughout, rather than upper-case, e.g. shades of blue; jumping the gun; is,
etc. It is very rare, though (except as a mistake), to see a proper noun that mixes
upper- and lower-case letters, e.g. the Smogs or Johnny winter. The exception to this
is where the main words of a title are marked with an upper-case letter and 'little'
words with a lower-case letter, e.g. Little House on the Prairie.

3.1.2 Common nouns

Common nouns, as their name implies, form the largest category of nouns; they
include every kind of noun apart from proper nouns. They typically refer to
physical phenomena, that is, things you can see and feel, e.g. cat, baby, girl,
window, table, and to things we cannot actually see, such as feelings, concepts and
events, e.g. justice, truth, love, hate, birthday. They refer to things generally rather
than uniquely (see proper nouns above).

Concrete nouns
Concrete nouns refer to physical phenomena that we can see and feel. They name
things which we perceive externally in the world, and their meaning is often
unproblematic, e.g. eye, window, plate, car, aeroplane, etc.

Collective nouns
Collective nouns refer to collections or groups of people, animals or things which
have something in common, e.g. family, government, herd, gaggle. Although, strictly
 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES 39

speaking, collective nouns are singular, they can take either a plural or a singular
verb form, as in Her family live/lives in Birmingham. The difference is usually to do
with whether the collective noun is seen as an individual unit in its own right or
as made up of a collection of individuals. This example illustrates the idea of a
grammatical convention that is determined by the meaning being conveyed.

Abstract nouns
Abstract nouns refer to more general things, such as events, states, processes,
concepts and occasions, e.g. birth, happiness, revival, birthday. As their name
implies, they are usually used to name less tangible phenomena than concrete
nouns, and their meanings may be more fluid and less fixed than those belonging
to any other type of noun.

The use of nouns

How nouns are used in a text can give us lots of clues as to the writer's meaning
or intention and how we should interpret it. For example, it can make a difference
whether a noun takes the definite or indefinite article, or whether a proper noun
is used instead of a common noun. A writer may use a girl, or the girl, rather than
Joan or any other actual name of a character, and each of these gives us slightly
different information.
Similarly, adverts tend to use and often repeat proper nouns more than other
kinds of texts, in order to get the reader, listener or viewer to remember the name
of the product or to link the product's name to a general category associated with
a common noun, e.g. Hoover/vacuum cleaner.

3.1.3 Count, uncount and mass nouns

Another way of categorising nouns is by whether they are singular or plural.

Count and uncount nouns

Many nouns have two forms, a singular form, used to refer to one thing, and a
plural, used to refer to more than one thing, where the number can be counted,
e.g. table/tables; hour/hours; lesson/lessons. Plural forms are usually distinguished
from their singular forms by adding an 's' at the end, although a few, like sheep,
have the same form for both. These are known as count nouns, since what they
refer to can be counted. Most nouns can be included in this category.
Uncount nouns are those which refer to general things, rather than to
individual ones, e.g. death, money, religion, industry, care. Uncount nouns refer to
things that cannot be counted, although it is possible to quantify an amount by
putting a determiner in front of the noun, such as some or little, e.g. She needed
some money.

Mass nouns
Some uncount nouns can be quantified, in which case they are known as mass
nouns. For example, beer, coffee, tea and wine are uncount nouns, but if we are sure
that a listener or reader will understand that a specific quantity is being referred
to, they become countable, as in two beers; one tea; two coffees; two red wines.
Types of substance or commodity, such as soil, steel or cloth, are generally
categorised as uncount nouns, but in certain circumstances, usually to do with
 40 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

food, industry and work, a distinction may be made between different varieties of
the commodity, and these varieties are made countable. For example:
Cloths such as linen, cotton and silk are produced from natural fibres.
The use of small amounts of nitrogen in making certain steels
Technical writing to do with food and materials is usually typified by using
uncount nouns as mass nouns.

ACTIVITY 3.1
1 Read the three extracts below.

1 The car ploughed uphill through the long squalid straggle of Tevershall, the blackened
brick dwellings, the black slate roofs glistening their sharp edges, the mud black with
coal-dust, the pavements wet and black. It was as if dismalness had soaked through and
through everything. The utter negation of natural beauty, the utter negation of the
gladness of life, the utter absence of the instinct for shapely beauty which every bird
and beast has, the utter death of the human intuitive faculty was appalling... The
Wesleyan chapel, higher up, was one of blackened brick and stood behind iron railings
and blackened shrubs. The Congregational church, which thought itself superior, was
built of rusticated sandstone and had a steeple, but not a very high one. fust beyond
were the new school buildings, expensive pink brick, and gravelled play-ground inside
iron railings, all very imposing, and mixing the suggestion of a chapel and a prison.
D.H. Lawrence: Lady Chatterley's Lover

2 SAME SEA, SAME PASSION, SAME LIGHT. STILL, SOMETHING'S

MISSING... REMEMBER GREECE?
Regardless of how many places you've seen or how many resorts you've been to,
certain experiences are exclusive to Greece. The secluded bay you can have all to
yourself; the warm hospitable smile of the people; the breathtaking sunset; the night
brimming with excitement; Experience Greece.
GREECE
Makes your heart beat!
OLYMPIC AIRWAYS
THE NATIONAL CARRIER
Good Housekeeping, April 1995

3 SUNDAY, ALL THIS COULD BE YOURS.

The Land Rover Discovery is the best vehicle on earth. And none too shabby on
tarmac. It could be yours to own for just £190 a month (plus deposit and final
payment). And yours to drive away this weekend. The package is called Freedom
Finance and it gives you the following:
The freedom to choose the amount of deposit; a guaranteed future value leaving you
with positive equity at the end of the scheme; a Land Rover Discovery for only £190 a
month; a choice of five mileage bands; insured payments with Freedom Cover; a Land
Rover Discovery for only £190 a month; the reassurance that all costs involved are
known from the start; a Land Rover Discovery for only £190 a month; and three end-
of-agreement options (pay the final payment and keep the car; give the car back and
walk away; or put the equity towards a new Discovery). And if you register the car
 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES 41

between 01.10.95 and 31.12.95 well give you 2 years free service and warranty back¬
up. If you're interested in Freedom Finance, there are only two things you need do.
Contact your nearest dealership. And cancel Sunday lunch at Aunt Jemimah's.
Sunday Times, 17 December 1995

2 For each extract, pick out all the nouns that are used and categorise them into
the seven categories: common, proper, collective and abstract, count, uncount
and mass. Use a table format like the one below. Remember that some nouns
may appear in more than one category.

Passage 1 Passage 2 Passage 3

proper

concrete

collective

abstract

count

uncount

mass

3 Look carefully at each category of nouns. What can you say about the number
of each and the effect of this for each extract? For example, is any category
used more than others in any one extract? Are any nouns repeated? What is
the effect of this?
4 a For each extract, write out the noun phrases. Does a pattern emerge?
b How does the use of adjectives within each noun phrase contribute to the
overall effect of each extract?
c All three extracts repeat certain words and phrases. Why do you think this
is? Is the reason the same for each extract?

3.2 Pronouns
Writing, like speech, constantly refers back to people and things already
mentioned or forward to things about to be mentioned (see also Section 4.1). One
way of doing this is to repeat the noun we are talking or writing about each time,
but more often than not we use a pronoun to stand in place of the noun. The use
 42 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

of pronouns is, therefore, grammatically and semantically linked to that of nouns.

For example:

Take three apples and peel them.

Deborah recognised the knife as hers.
Shilton was pleased with himself.
This is a very busy place.

If more than one thing has been mentioned, however, you usually have to
repeat at least one of the nouns, so that it is clear which one is meant. For
example:

Leaflets and scraps of paper were scattered all over the floor. I started to pick
up the leaflets.

If the second sentence had said I started to pick them up, it would be ambiguous;
that is, we would not know whether 'them' referred to the leaflets, the scraps of
paper or both.
Although pronouns are a relatively small class of words and a closed word
class, they are used a great deal in sentences. Their form changes according to
their grammatical function in the sentence, among other things. The list of
different forms and functions is fairly large, given how few pronouns there are.
Pronouns can be categorised into at least seven different types:
personal
possessive
demonstrative
indefinite
relative
reflexive
interrogative

3.2.1 Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to yourself, the people you are talking to, or the people
or things you are talking about. There are two different kinds of personal
pronouns, subject and object; which one is used depends on whether the noun it
replaces functions as a subject or object in the sentence (see 2.4 above). As their
names imply, subject pronouns refer to a noun used as the subject of a clause,
while object pronouns refer to a noun used as the object of a clause.
The following examples show subject pronouns:
1 think / made the wrong decision.
Mary came in. She was a good-looking woman.
How many people saw the BBC when it started broadcasting in 1937?
The following examples show object pronouns:

The nurse washed me in cold water.

A man gave her the car.
We were all sitting in the cafe with him.

As you can see, different pronouns are used for the same person depending on
whether they are subject or object pronouns. The pronouns are shown in this table.
 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES 43

Notice how the second person pronoun stays the same in both singular and
plural forms and how there is no third person singular pronoun which is neutral
in its gender apart from it. In English, the male singular pronoun he or his can
refer to either male or female where the precise gender referred to is not known,
whereas she or her is taken to refer to the female only; for example. The student
must feel that the essay belongs to him.
Recently, feminism has influenced the use of personal pronouns in English, by
making us more aware of their use. Because of this, he and him are no longer
always used to refer to both male and female. One way of avoiding this is to use a
plural pronoun, which is gender neutral, instead of a singular one, as in The
student must feel that the essay belongs to them. (See also 3.2.8 below.)

3.2.2 Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns, as the name implies, are used to show that something
belongs to someone or is associated with them. For example:
The baby is hers.
Her father fought in the war, and so did mine.
Possessive pronouns sometimes have the word of in front of them, to show that
they are one of a group of things:
She is a friend of mine.
Barbara Cartland? I've read a book of hers.
The following table sums up the different forms of possessive pronouns:

singular plural

first person mine ours

second person yours yours

third person his

hers theirs
its
 44 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

Note that the words my, your, her, our and their, while looking like the
possessive pronouns, are actually possessive adjectives, since they usually
describe a noun, e.g. my pen, his book, rather than standing in place of a noun.

3.2.3 Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are used when there is a sense of pointing things or
people out. This and that refer to one thing, being singular forms, and these and
those refer to more than one thing, being plural forms. For example:

He paused at a photograph which stood on the dressing table. 'Is this your
wife?'
Vitamin tablets usually contain vitamins A, C, and D. These are available from
any child health clinic.
That looks interesting.
Those are easy questions to answer.

Note that the words this and that and their plural forms these and those can also
function as determiners in front of nouns, e.g. this coat; these people; that table; those
children. In some grammar books, you might find them being called
demonstrative adjectives.

3.2.4 Indefinite pronouns

If we want to refer to or talk about people or things but do not know exactly who
or what they are, or it is not important, we use an indefinite pronoun. For
example:

What was needed was someone practical.

'Everybody stand still and put your hands up! No-one move!'
Before doing anything please read the instructions.

Indefinite pronouns include words such as:

anybody everybody nobody somebody
anyone everyone no-one someone
anything everything nothing something

3.2.5 Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns can do two things at the same time. Like other pronouns, they
refer to somebody (who, whom and whose) or something (which and that). They can
also, at the same time, be used as conjunctions, because they join clauses
together, so that a relative clause begins with a relative pronoun:

...a region which was threatened by growing poverty.

The difference between who and whom is that, in the past, who was used to add
information about the subject of the sentence, e.g. Pilgrims who had come to pray at
the shrine of a local saint disembarked, while whom was used as a direct or indirect
object, e.g. The person to whom I referred earlier.
However, this distinction is not as strictly adhered to in either speech or writing
as it once was. Who is more likely to be used these days with both the subject and
the object, and whom is used less.
 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES 45

Nowadays, the distinction between who and whom is observed mainly in formal
writing styles, as in academic, legal or religious texts, rather than in more
informal contexts, such as tabloid newspaper articles and contemporary fiction.
In speech, who is becoming much more common than whom, except in the speech
of speakers who believe it to be more correct to use whom.
The main difference between which and that is that which is used to refer to
things, while that is used to refer to both things and people.
Wlw and which can also function as interrogative pronouns, depending on how
they are used within a sentence (see 3.2.7 below).

3.2.6 Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are used when the object of a verb is the same as its subject,
e.g. They gave themselves a holiday; I treated myself. You can usually recognise them
because they end in -self for singular forms and -selves in the plural.
The reflexive pronouns are:

singular plural

first person myself ourselves

second person yourself yourselves

third person himself

herself themselves
itself

3.2.7 Interrogative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used when asking a question. Wlw and whose are
usually used when the question relates to a person, and which and what if it refers
to anything else. For example:

Who was that at the door?

What is the answer to the question?

3.2.8 Nouns, pronouns and gender

Unlike the nouns of most other European languages (for example, French,
Spanish or Polish), English nouns are not generally associated with or assigned to
a gender, and are usually thought of as neutral with regard to gender. Even nouns
that apply to people can be gender-common, applying to both male and female
(e.g. doctor, teacher, lawyer, etc.).
In recent years, however, the influence of feminism has caused some people to
look at how gender is associated with words in English, and in particular at the
relationship between nouns and the pronouns which stand in place of them. For
example, gender-common words, particularly those to do with occupation, such
as doctor, lawyer, nurse, housekeeper or builder, have tended to be associated with a
particular gender, when either sex can do the job. Contemporary writing,
therefore, generally tries to avoid using a gender-specific pronoun to relate to a
noun that can apply to either sex, to avoid any charges of sexism in language.
 46 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

Some nouns can be gender-specific, applying either to male or to female, e.g.

actor, actress; warder, wardress; cow, bull, etc. Others may take a feminine pronoun:
ship, country and car may be referred to as she. Again, the influence of feminism
has led to the gender-specificity of these words being abandoned, so that women
are just as likely to call themselves actors as men, and objects previously assigned
a gender, such as cars, are more often referred to as it than she.

3.2.9 The use of pronouns

Being able to identify different types of pronouns in texts should help you to
recognise any ambiguity, and to identify how pronouns are used to make links
within and across sentences (see 4.1.1 below). Different types of text may also
favour one type of pronoun over others, whilst others may not use them at all,
and you should be able to recognise this and comment on its effects.

3.3 Verbs
Verbs, like nouns, are a major word class in English and are the central or pivotal
element of a clause: in other words, they are very important. There is a lot that
can be said about verbs and their various forms and functions, but this section
will limit itself to a consideration of three of the more common aspects of verbs:
auxiliaries, including modality; tense; and the active and passive voice.

3.3.1 Auxiliaries
The majority of verbs, sometimes called full verbs, belong to an open word class.
A verb is the main element of a verb phrase, with other words in the phrase
usually functioning as auxiliaries, sometimes called operators, before the main
verb, or as adverbs following the main verb. Auxiliary verbs fall into two main
categories: primary and modal verbs. These are generally considered to be closed
word classes.

Primary verbs
There are three primary verbs in English, whose use is very important: be, have
and do. It is important to remember that these three verbs can function either as
full or main verbs when used on their own, or as auxiliaries when used with
other verbs. They are very irregular, as the following table illustrates:

infinitive present past present past

participle participle

be am, are, is was, were being been

have have, has had having had

do do, does did doing done

A primary verb can be used as an auxiliary and be followed by a main verb

which is another primary verb: for example, What have you done? What are you
doing? What do you have?
 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES 47

Modal verbs
Modal verbs are those which signal attitudes, concerns, requests, suggestions,
wishes or intentions, or are used to be tactful or polite. Unlike primary verbs, they
are always used in conjunction with a main verb.
The list of modal verbs is generally thought to be invariable; in other words it is
a closed word class. There are ten of them:
can
could
■ may
might
must
ought to
shall
should
will
would
Could, would, might and should, confusingly, are also the past tense forms of can,
will, may and shall.
The degree to which any text uses modals can be significant, since their use
with a verb alters the meaning of a sentence from a definite statement of fact or
question, allowing for degrees of uncertainty or choice. Similarly, we tend to use
modals to soften commands and requests. We would not normally say to a
stranger, for example, Shut the door, but something like Will you please shut the
door? or Shut the door, would you?
Some texts, such as horoscopes, hypotheses, fiction and political speeches, are
more likely to use modals than others, such as instructions and legal documents,
particularly if they contain speculation and are considering alternatives.

3.3.2 Tense
In any piece of writing, or whenever anyone makes a statement of any kind, it is
usually necessary to indicate whether the situation being referred to exists now,
existed in the past, or is likely to exist in the future. The point in time to which a
statement relates is usually indicated in part by the verb phrase, which is written
in a particular tense. Two main tenses are recognised in English: the present and
the past.

Present tense
The present tense is used to discuss or describe an existing state of affairs. For
example:

I'm awfully busy.

T is the subject and the abbreviated'm' for am is a present tense form of the verb
be, used here as a main verb.

He lives in the French Alps.

'He' is the subject and 'lives' is a present tense form of the verb live. The present
tense used in this way is sometimes called the simple present.
 48 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

When a process is happening now and will go on happening, a present tense

form of be is added before the present participle of the verb to form the present
continuous tense. For example:

The village is changing but it is still undisturbed.

The village' is the subject and 'is changing' the present continuous form, which
tells us that the change carries on. It is formed by using be with the present
participle, in this case is plus changing. In the second clause, the pronoun 'it' refers
to the village as a subject, while 'is' is the simple present tense of be, with the
adjective 'undisturbed' as the complement.

Past tense
The past tense is used to discuss or describe events that have happened in the
past. To describe something that happened at a particular time in the past, the
simple past is used.
A time expression usually appears somewhere in the clause or sentence to
specify the particular time you are referring to. A common way of doing this is to
use a time adjunct. For example:

The Israeli Prime Minister flew into New York yesterday to start his visit to
the US.

'The Israeli Prime Minister' is the subject and 'flew' is a simple past tense form of
the verb fly. 'Yesterday' tells us the time when the event happened.
Not all time adjuncts are so specific: later, earlier, shortly and punctually are all
adjuncts that can be used.
If you want to describe something that happened in the recent past and over a
period of time, the present perfect tense is used. The auxiliary have is placed in
front of the past participle of the main verb. For example:

They have raised £180 for a swimming pool.

They is the subject and 'have raised' is a present perfect form of the verb raise.
We do not know exactly when this happened, only that it was in the recent past
and still has some connection to the present (for instance that the money has not
yet been spent).

Talking about the future

The future is not as certain as the past or present. It concerns what might happen
or what is intended to happen. Talking or writing about the future is not as
straightforward as talking about the present or the past. When we describe the
future, the modal will or shall is often used in front of the base or infinitive form of
the verb to indicate a future state. For example:
Nancy will arrange it.

'Nancy' is the subject and 'will arrange' a future tense form of the verb arrange.
I shall do everything I can to help you.

I is the subject and 'shall do' a future tense form of the verb do.
The following activity asks you to consider tense in more detail.
 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES 49

ACTIVITY 3.2
] Photocopy page 50 and read the six extracts.
2 For each extract:
a Underline the verb phrases, using a different-coloured pen for each different
tense: past, present or future. Identify the subject of the verb phrase and any
adjuncts used.
b Identify which tense, past or present, is used in each sentence where there is
also a future aspect.
3 What is the effect of any change of tense in an extract?
4 a Do any extracts use modals?
b What is their effect?
You could do this activity in pairs, with each pair working on one or more
extracts, and discuss your work all together at the end.
 50 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

1 Many insurance companies will only pay you the original cost of the items for which
you make a claim. With Royal Insurance, however, you enjoy extra peace of mind with
'new for old cover.' This means that we'll replace items claimed for at today's prices, if
they cannot be economically repaired.
Leaflet for Royal Insurance

2 The rectory stood halfway up the hill, with its face to the church and its back to the
High Street. It was a house of the wrong age, inconveniently large, and faced with
chronically peeling yellow plaster. Some earlier Rector had added, at one side, a large
greenhouse which Dorothy used as a workroom, but which was constantly out of
repair. The front garden was choked with ragged fir-trees and a great spreading ash
which shadowed the front rooms and made it impossible to grow any flowers.
George Orwell: A Clergyman's Daughter

3 When it comes to customer service, no organisation can claim to have all the answers.
So with the help of regular research, we have made it our business to ask you, the
customer, exactly what you want from your Post Office.
As you may have already noticed, there is now a poster which gives you the latest
information on waiting times at this Post Office. We also plan to keep you up to date
on our performance in other important areas of activity.
The idea behind this brochure is that we let you know what our service aims are and
that you, in turn, let us know where you feel we're succeeding or falling short.
At the back, you'll find a reply card which we hope you'll use to let us have your
comments and ideas.
Post Office brochure: The Customer Charter

4 McDonald s cheese slices are made exclusively for McDonald's to our own exclusive
recipe. English cheddar-cheese is the starting point: A blend of cheeses of different ages
which gives a mouth-watering smoothness and bite.
McDonald's advert

5 Just before noon he had garaged the Cooper Bristol in Lexington Street and was
walking towards Bloomsbury and the Cadaver Club.
The Cadaver Club is a typically English establishment in that its function, though
difficult to define with any precision, is perfectly understood by all concerned. It was
founded by a barrister in 1892 as a meeting place for men with an interest in murder
and, on his death, he bequeathed to the Club his pleasant house in Tavistock Square.
The Club is exclusively masculine; women are neither admitted as members or
entertained.
P.D. James

6 They crossed by night on the ferryboat to Dover, and since Lord De La Wan, then Lord
Privy Seal, had arranged that they be accorded diplomatic privileges, none of their
luggage was examined there or in London. He also arranged with the railzvay
authorities that the train to Victoria should arrive at an unusual platform so as to
circumvent the battery of cameras and the huge crowd of welcoming or curious visitors.
Ernest Jones in The Pelican Book of English Prose, Volume 2

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1 996.
 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES 51

3.3.3 The active and passive voice

Verbs can be used either actively or passively, and the effect in each case is very
different, as the following explanation shows.

The active voice

The active voice of a verb will have a recognisable subject, who performs the
action of the verb in any clause or sentence. The subject can also be called the
agent of the verb. For example:

The dog ate its dinner.

The dog' is the subject and the agent of the verb 'ate', and 'its dinner' is the object
of the verb.
The active voice of a verb will make it quite clear who or what is performing the
action of the verb, and who or what the action is done to, if this is appropriate. A
sentence in the active voice is also more likely to follow the SVO/CA pattern
outlined in Section 2.4.

The passive voice

A writer may want to change the focus of the sentence from the subject to the
object; that is, to the thing or person being affected by the action. This is achieved
by doing two things. Firstly, the order and function of the subject and object is
reversed, so that the object becomes the subject of the verb. Secondly, a passive
verb form is used. This is made up of the appropriate tense of the verb be (am, is,
are, has been, were, etc.), followed by the present or past participle of the main
verb. (Remember, though, that be is also a verb in its own right, so that
recognising a passive involves more than simply identifying use of the verb be.)
For example:

Their dinner was eaten by the dog.

Here, 'their dinner' is the subject of the verb 'was eaten', but 'the dog' is still the
agent, since it performed the action.
Changing the voice from active to passive means that the agent can be made to
disappear completely:

Their dinner was eaten (by the dog).

Their dinner was eaten.
Using the passive form of the verb is a very useful way of hiding the agent of
the verb. For example, instead of saying, 'Sorry, I've just broken a plate', which
makes it quite clear who has done the breaking, you could say, 'Oh dear, the plate's
been broken', thus putting the emphasis on what has happened rather than on the
person who caused the plate to break.
When you use the active form of a verb, you cannot avoid mentioning both the
subject and the object of the clause or sentence. Using the passive voice gives you
the option of whether or not to mention the person or thing, the agent,
responsible for the action, as in the example given above. One effect of the passive
voice is that it puts the focus on what happens or has happened, the consequences
of the action, rather than on who or what makes something happen. Reports of
 52 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

scientific experiments and processes generally use the passive voice because of
their need to emphasise what happens. For example:

The principle of bottling is very simple. Food is put into jars, the jars and their
contents are heated to a temperature which is maintained long enough to ensure that
all bacteria, moulds and viruses are destroyed.

Using the passive voice is also a useful way of hiding the agent's identity. This
is a device which certain kinds of text, such as newspaper headlines and political
speeches, typically use to achieve a particular effect, such as deliberately creating
ambiguity.
The practice of paring structure down to the minimum in newspaper headlines
gives us phrases such as:

Black Youths Shot

This is a contraction of the passive sentence Black youths were shot; it leaves out
the agent of the verb, the person who did the shooting, and throws the emphasis
on the victims. In this instance, there may be political or social reasons for hiding
the identity of the perpetrators of the crime.
Leaving out the appropriate tense of the verb be needed to make a passive
construction makes the phrase black youths take on the subject position. This is
then followed by an active form of the verb shoot. Thus in syntactic terms the
victims of the crime are placed in the position of being its perpetrators, which
may lead us to think that they in some way caused the shooting.
The following activity asks you to consider the active and the passive voice in
more detail.

ACTIVITY 3.3
1 In pairs, read the following sentences.
2 a For each one, write out the verb phrases and decide whether each one uses
the active or the passive voice.
b Discuss what the effect is in each case of using either the active or the passive
voice.
3 a Decide on the type of text from which each sentence is taken.
b How, if at all, did the voice in which each sentence was written inform your
decision?

a He knocked at the door, sick with fear and embarrassment.

b The government was forced to say that the report would be implemented.
c She escaped uninjured, but her boyfriend was shot in the chest and died.
d My grandfather was a most extraordinary man.
e The average Briton moves house once every seven and a half years.
f More people have been treated in hospital this year than at any time since the start of
the Health Service.
g Such items should be carefully packed in tea chests.
h If you are studying part-time (21 hours or less a week) you can claim supplementary
benefit.
Collins Cobuild Grammar. HarperCollins, 1990
 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES 53

ACTIVITY 3.4
1 Read the following extracts.
2 Write a brief summary of what each one is about and any comments you might
have about it.
3 For each extract, identify:
a the verbs used, their tense, whether they are in an active or passive voice
and any modals used
b the nouns and pronouns used, within the categories described in Sections
3.1 and 3.2 above.
4 How does your analysis contribute to your understanding of each text?

1 Lancaster has a population of about 50,000; in the whole built-up area and
surrounding villages there is a population of some 130,000. Lancaster is an
administrative centre and market town, with some manufacturing industry.
The city centre has been extensively restored and now has a large and picturesque
pedestrian area, and a maze of small streets and alleyways full of interesting shops. It
is dominated on one side by the Castle, where visitors can see the Georgian courtrooms,
the medieval dungeons and the beautiful Shire Hall, and nearby the fifteenth century
Priory Church; and on the other side by the Ashton Memorial, an Edwardian baroque
folly set in Williamson Park, a landscaped quarry. In the late 18th century St. George's
Quay was at the heart of a thriving port but today its restored stone warehouse and the
Gillow Custom House, now converted to house the Maritime Museum, serve as a vivid
reminder of the past.
Lancaster University Postgraduate Prospectus, 1994/95

2 I have never been made homeless. To have nowhere to go, perhaps for the rest of my life,
to face every day the uncertainty of the night and fear of the elements, is almost
unimaginable. I say 'almost', because in writing about the homeless I have gleaned
something of their powerlessness once they are snared in what used to be known as the
'welfare state'. This was true before Thatcher.
The difference these days is that there are no 'typical' homeless any more. They are also
from the middle classes and the new software classes. They are both old and young - an
estimated 35,000 children are homeless in London alone. My friend is typical in that he
bears the familiar scars of homelessness: such as a furtiveness that gives the impression
of a person being folloived; a sporadic, shallow joviality that fails to mask his anxiety;
and a deferential way that does not necessarily reflect his true self. The latter, because
it is out of character, is occasionally overtaken by melodramatic declarations of
independence. When he told me he had to go to hospital one day for a stomach
operation and I offered to take him, he said, 'No! 1 can walk! Of course I can!' And
he did.
John Pilger: Distant Voices

3 'Oh, you wicked wicked little thing!' cried Alice, catching up the kitten, and giving it a
little kiss to make it understand that it was in disgrace. 'Really, Dinah ought to have
taught you better manners! You ought, Dinah, you know you ought!' she added,
looking reproachfully at the old cat, and speaking in as cross a voice as she could
manage - and then she scrambled back to the armchair, taking the kitten and worsted
 54 3. MORE ABOUT WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

with her, and began winding up the ball again. But she didn't get on very fast, as she
was talking all the time, sometimes to the kitten, and sometimes to herself. Kitty sat
very demurely on her knee, pretending to watch the progress of her winding, and now
and then putting out one paw and gently touching the ball, as if it would be glad to
help if it might.
Lewis Carroll: Through the Looking Glass

3.4 Compounds
One way of making new words in English is to combine two lexical items to make
a new one, which is then seen as a single unit, often with a different meaning
from its separate 'parts': e.g. greenhouse from green and house; handbag from hand
and bag. Confusingly, compounds can be written as a single word - handbag -
hyphenated - green-eyed - or written as a phrase - green belt. Generally,
compounds are formed by combining:

a noun + a noun: pear tree

an adjective + a noun: redbrick
an adjective + an adjective: readymade
a noun + a verb: horseride

In clauses or sentences, compounds are classified according to whether they

function as nouns, verbs or adjectives.
In poetry, compounds can be used deliberately to describe a different object, a
practice common in Old English poetry and riddles, where such words are called
kennings, as in swan-path to mean sea, or battle-adder to mean a sword.

ACTIVITY 3.5
1 Read the three extracts in Activity 3.4. For each one:
a Identify any compounds used.
b Say whether they function as nouns, adjectives or verbs.
2 How are they different from other adjectives, nouns and verbs used in the
extracts? What is their effect, if any?
1 Beyond the sentence: cohesion
and coherence

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Cohesion
4.2 Coherence
4.3 Imagery

4.0 Introduction
Section 1.2 above describes how written language can be studied at the three
distinct, though related, levels of text, sentence and word. Units 2 and 3 explain
the main ways in which words can be classified within sentences, the ways in
which words combine into clauses and phrases, and how these combinations
interact with the meanings produced by the words themselves. This unit will
concentrate on analysis of the text as a whole.
Any piece of writing, if it is to make sense at all, uses vocabulary and syntactic
structures to bond or connect its sentences together. Just as a random selection of
words does not in itself make a sentence, so too a random selection of sentences
does not of itself create a coherent text. There are two main ways in which
sentences combine together within texts, known as cohesion and coherence.
Cohesion refers to the ways in which syntactic, lexical and phonological
features connect within and between sentences in a text, while coherence is more
to do with semantic features, referring to the way or ways a text makes consistent
sense to the reader with or without the help of cohesion.
The two concepts work together rather than independently in helping us to
understand ways in which texts make sense. They are relatively new ideas, which
have been developed from the 1960s onwards. Before then, patterns of language
within texts beyond the level of the sentence were dealt with largely within the
study of literature. These well-established patterns are usually grouped under the
heading of imagery or figurative or literary language. The different aspects of
imagery are explained within Section 4.1.3, which is to do with sound, and
Section 4.3, which is to do with semantics.
Underlying all these different textual elements is the notion of textuality.
Section 1.1.4 above introduced this idea, namely that a text is not just a random
collection of sentences. Textuality refers to the ways in which connections within
and between sentences form a coherent piece of writing, rather than a series of
unconnected ideas. Here stylistic analysis really comes into its own, analysing
how words and sentences combine to make the text into something meaningful
and coherent.
 56 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE

4.1 Cohesion
As well as thinking about subject matter, its associated vocabulary and the
syntactic structure of individual sentences, a writer will usually help you to read
his or her writing by using direction signals to make connections in and between
sentences. These include the ways in which sentences are sequenced, how one
thing leads to another, implication and so on.
These signals act as markers of cohesion or cohesive ties in a text; that is, the
writing is held together not only because of relationships between the ideas or
events (represented through lexis, semantics or syntactic structure), but through
connecting forms in the lexis and syntactic structure themselves.
Cohesion can be divided into three different kinds:
grammatical cohesion
lexical cohesion
phonological cohesion
The following sub-sections take each of these in turn.

4.1.1 Grammatical cohesion

Grammatical connections between individual clauses and between sentences can
be classified into three broad types. These are:
deictics/reference
ellipsis and substitution
conjunctions (or connectives)

Deictics
Deictics is a term used in stylistics to describe words or phrases which refer to a
specific time, place, person or thing in a text, without actually naming them by
using a noun. Typically, speech often uses deictics, since we tend to rely on
context a great deal in natural conversation; for example:

Come here and look at this mess.

Go over there and look at that mess.
These two statements point to two different scenarios: one where the mess is
physically close to the speakers and one where it is further away, although both
are within sight.
Deictics is also used to describe the ways in which a text links the world of the
narrative with that of the reader. For example, in poetry, deictics can be used to
imply that the reader takes part in or watches a scene or events alongside the
poet, as in this extract:

Say what you will, there is not in the world

A nobler sight than from this upper down,
No rugged landscape here...
Wilfred Blunt: Chanclebury Ring
In plays or prose, as well as within poetry, deictics or deictic expressions help
to create and sustain the world of the play or narrative by referring to places,
people, times and events that have occurred within it. Equally a further important
 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE 57

function of deictics is to extend the world of the play or narrative to places, times,
people and things we have not seen, rather than confining us to the world created
by the text in front of us, as in the extract above.
Words which indicate the use of deictics include personal pronouns (I, you, we,
they, etc.), the demonstrative pronouns (this, that, etc.) and adverbs of time and
place. (Section 6.3 below considers the use and effects of deictics in scripted
dialogue in more detail.)
Deictics can be divided into three different kinds:
' anaphora or anaphoric referencing
cataphora or cataphoric referencing
repetition

Anaphoric references Anaphora or anaphoric reference is the term given to

the use of words to refer back to somebody or something that has already been
mentioned, usually by using personal pronouns such as he, she, they or it or
possessive pronouns such as mine or hers. Once a referent has been established
(that is, the person or thing referred to) it is usually replaced with a pronoun the
next time it appears, unless, of course, using a pronoun would make the sense
unclear or ambiguous.
The most common occurrence of anaphora is where a pronoun refers to a noun
already mentioned in the same sentence or in the preceding sentence. If the noun
is a male or female, or a group of people, then the pronoun used 'matches' the
gender and number of the noun it replaces: she for Mary, he for John and so on.

ACTIVITY 4.1
1 Read through the following short extracts.
2 In each one, identify each pronoun and match it to the noun phrase to which it
refers.
3 Where one of the pronouns it, this, that, those or these is used, does it refer to a
noun phrase in the text, or to a situation?

1 Connie always had a foreboding of the hopelessness of her affair with Mick, as people
called him. Yet other men seemed to mean nothing to her. She was attached to Clifford.
He wanted a good deal of her life and she gave it to him.

2 Davis opened a door. 'Here's your room. I'm afraid it's a bit untidy.' He picked up a
dirty handkerchief off the floor and stuffed it in the drawer.
The keeper came loping softly up the lane with the dog padding at his heels, and we
watched them through the hedge as they went by. I held her very close. My cheek was
against hers.

3 More and more money is being pumped into the educational system, and it is
reasonable to assume this will keep on happening.

4 Only small pines are left. Many of these have twisted and stunted shapes.

5 'It was here one young prisoner was sold for a bag of corn,' said the old woman. 'That
was me.'
 58 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE

Anaphoric referencing can also have the effect of implying a previous existence
for the text's characters. Its use plunges us immediately into the world of the text,
assuming that we are familiar with the person for whom a pronoun stands when
this could not possibly be the case unless we were re-reading the text. For
example, the following extract, taken from the beginning of the first chapter of
William Golding's novel The Inheritors, uses anaphora in this way:

He was struggling in every direction, he was the centre of the writhing and kicking
knot of his own body...

As this is the beginning of the novel, we have nothing to which we may refer
back to know who 'he' is other than a male: starting the novel in the middle of a
supposedly existing state of affairs immediately plunges us into the world of the
narrative, rather than leading us gently into it. We are left to draw upon our own
knowledge and experience to make sense of what we are reading.
Such a technique can be used to keep the reader in suspense and so reading on
to discover who the he or she is. Alternatively, it may be used as a kind of delaying
tactic, as in the following example:

'Where's that boy gone, I wonder? You, Tom!'

In this line, the 'boy' of whom the old lady is thinking or speaking becomes the
'Tom' she can see in front of her.

Cataphoric references Just as anaphoric references refer back to a person,

thing or situation in a text, cataphoric reference or cataphora refers forward.
Saying that something appears 'below' in a text, for example, directs the reader to
something that is about to be encountered: the reference is made before the
referent itself appears. Similarly the adjective 'next' can be used to refer forward
to subsequent sections of the text itself. For example:

In the next chapter, we will examine this theory in detail.

Cataphoric references delay more precise information, thus creating an element

of suspense. In the following example, cataphoric referencing gradually reveals
information about a particular woman, before naming her. A pronoun is used
first, followed by a noun phrase, followed by the proper noun of the person being
referred to, followed by a reflexive pronoun for even more emphasis.

And slowly down the steps in her magnificent ballgown comes the young
woman of the moment we have all been waiting for, Princess Diana herself...

Repetition Anaphoric and cataphoric referencing use pronouns to refer

outwards, backwards and forwards to something, someone or some situation, in
place of the noun or noun phrase (the referent). Sometimes, though, a noun or
noun phrase is repeated rather than being replaced with a pronoun. In narrative,
using repetition reinforces description and emotional effects; in public speeches
and adverts, it can be used to hammer home a point or a product.

ACTIVITY 4.2
1 Read the following extracts and identify the kind of text from which each one
is taken.
2 For each one, discuss what effect the repetition has, bearing in mind the type
of writing it is.
 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE 59

1 The rain fell heavily on the roof, and pattered to the ground... The rain fell, heavily,
drearily. It was a night of tears.
Charles Dickens: Little Dorrit

2 We are fighting for the rights of the little man... We are fighting, as we have always
fought, for the weak as well as the strong. We are fighting for great and good causes...
Mrs Thatcher. Guardian, 13 October 1984

3 Mine - by the Right of the White Election!

Mine - by the Royal Seal!
Mine - by the Sign in the Scarlet prison
Bars - cannot conceal!
Emily Dickinson

4 A new venture initiated by the RSPCA, it aims to give farm animals five basic
freedoms:
1. Freedom from fear and distress.
2. Freedom from pain, injury and disease.
3. Freedom from hunger and thirst.
4. Freedom from discomfort.
5. The freedom to behave naturally.
RSPCA leaflet

Ellipsis and substitution

Ellipsis This is the name given to the omission of part of an utterance or a
grammatical structure which the listener or reader is assumed to understand
easily from its context.
Because it leaves out information already given, ellipsis can help the listener or
reader to focus on new or important information. It is often used where economy
of words is needed, such as in note-taking and personal newspaper adverts
(Wanted: Mother's Help. Three children, 2, 4 and 7. Must drive). The omission of
words such as determiners and auxiliaries is also common in representing interior
monologue in narratives; it suggests a rapid succession of thoughts or images, as
the following extract from James Joyce's novel Ulysses, which cryptically
describes the thoughts of one person, illustrates:
raised his eyes and met the stare of a bilious clock. Two. Pub clock five minutes fast.
Time going on. Hands moving. Two. Not yet.

This extract uses no referencing beyond his. Instead, a degree of cohesion is

achieved through repetition and lexical cohesion (see 4.1.2 below). However, we,
as the reader, have to infer far more than we are accustomed to in order to make
sense of the text (see also 4.2.1 below).
Where ellipsis is used to avoid unnecessary and tedious repetition, it is typically
anaphoric (see above). This is extremely common in everyday conversation,
which is far more dependent on context than writing. One of the most striking
differences between natural, spontaneous conversation and written dialogue that
aims to represent it is the use of ellipsis. Dramatic dialogue in particular tends to
be far less elliptical than natural conversation, since it lacks the context of
 60 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE

ordinary speech (see 6.1 below). In writing which has to be explicit, such as legal
contracts and advertising, there is far more repetition and referencing and
consequently far less ellipsis than in other types of writing.
Ellipsis can also be used in narratives and plays, not only in the form of
grammatical omission or substitution, but also as a means to speed up the action
or pace of a narrative by leaving out events assumed to have happened but not
described or enacted. This can be done either by omitting events altogether or by
explicitly marking that they have happened: for example, two years later... Used in
this way, ellipsis links closely with inference, as described in 4.2.1 below.

Substitution This works in a similar way to ellipsis, except that, rather than
working by omission, one word is substituted for another word, phrase or clause.
The items commonly used for substitution are:
One(s) I offered her a seat. She didn't want one.
Do Did Frank take that letter? He might have done.
So/not Do you need a lift? If so, wait for me; if not. I'll see you there.
Same He chose the roast duck; I'll have the same.
Like ellipsis, substitution assumes a knowledge of the context in which it is
used, and, also like ellipsis, it is a much more common feature of speech than of
writing. In writing, its use is mainly in dialogue that aims to represent
spontaneous speech, although again, like ellipsis, this depends upon the context
having been made explicit so that it can be understood by a listener or viewer.

Conjunctions (or connectives)

Conjunctions work in a way that is different from reference, ellipsis and
substitution, in that they do not search backwards or forwards for their referent;
rather, they signal a relation between segments of discourse. Section 2.1.8 above
described the word class of conjunctions. Conjunctions join clauses within a
sentence, which can lead to ellipsis being possible in coordinating clauses. For
example: Mary walked to the car and got in (to the car). They also indicate that what
follows in a sentence bears some relation to what has already been said, as well as
grammatically joining the clauses together. As such, they commonly act as
elements of coherence (see 4.2 below) as well as cohesion.
Within a text, conjunctions signal different types of relation between sentences.
They can be of four different types.

Additive These add more information, e.g. She's intelligent. And she's very reliable.
Other conjunctions signalling such cohesion are in addition, besides and so on.

Adversative These qualify the information already given, e.g. I've lived here ten
years but haven't ever heard of that pub. Other conjunctions signalling such cohesion
are however, nevertheless and so on.

Causal These conjunctions introduce the reason why something happened, e.g.
He caught a cold because he fell in the river. Other conjunctions signalling such
cohesion are consequently, therefore, etc.

Temporal These signal a temporal sequence; that is, that one thing happened
before or after another, e.g. I got up and made my breakfast. Other conjunctions
signalling such cohesion are: then, subsequently, etc.
 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE 61

ACTIVITY 4.3
1 Read the following extract and find conjunctions linking one sentence with
another.
2 Using the four categories given above, can you say what type of conjunctive
relation is signalled in each case? How do they help to develop the argument
put forward?

Nicotme Addition
Nicotine is a colourless, oily compound and is the drug contained in tobacco which addicts
the smoker. It is the fastest addictive drug known to mankind and it can take just one
cigarette to become hooked.
Every puff on a cigarette delivers, via the lungs to the brain, a small dose of nicotine more
rapidly than the dose of heroin the addict injects into his veins.
If there are twenty puffs for you in one cigarette you receive 20 doses of the drug with just
one cigarette.
Nicotine is a quick acting drug and levels in the bloodstream fall quickly to about half
within 30 minutes of smoking a cigarette. This explains why most smokers average about
20 per day.
As soon as the smoker extinguishes the cigarette, the nicotine rapidly starts to leave the
body and the smoker begins to suffer withdrawal pangs.
I must at this point dispel a common illusion that smokers have about withdrawal pangs.
Smokers think that withdrawal pangs are the terrible trauma they suffer when they try to
stop smoking or are forced to stop smoking. This is in fact mainly mental and is due to the
smoker feeling deprived of his pleasure or prop.
Allen Carr: The Easy Way to Stop Smoking. Penguin, 1985

The following activity asks you to consider all the aspects of grammatical
cohesion - reference, ellipsis, substitution and conjunctions - covered in this
section.

ACTIVITY 4.4
] Read the following three extracts.
2 For each one, write a fifty-word summary.
3 a Note the cohesive elements within each extract.
b Group them according to the various different types outlined in the section
above.
4 For each extract, explain how cohesion helps to bind it together into a text.

1 November 29th, a chic cafe near Edinburgh's Waverley Station: Authors aren't
supposed to be recognised in public. Pop stars yes, but definitely not people who write
books, unless you're Salmon Rushdie holidaying in Mecca. It's happening to Irvine
Welsh a lot recently, a bit too often for the semi-reclusive writer's peace of mind. Welsh
is known to disappear abroad for months at a time. But it's happening now. A scruffy
student type strides towards him, as he's nursing a coffee in the corner, disguised as an
Endsleigh Football League coach - thick red sports parka and pale blue eyes peering
from beneath a woolly hat.
'Excuse me, er, Irvine... er, thanks very much for the books, they're great.'
 62 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE

Bemused, clutching his coffee in defence, Welsh doesn't quite know what to make of the
attention. The extent of his recognition unsettles him and Welsh was shocked at the
attention he attracted on visiting London and Manchester earlier this year. The 37
year old former TV repairman only picked up a pen seriously five years ago, to write
the stories that'd later become his debut novel, Trainspotting. Now he's 'the most
important writer in Britain.' (©the national press). Only Irvine's never been a big fan
of literature.
Select Magazine, February 1996

2 The main course was dried lamb chops, dried mashed potatoes, and tinned spaghetti in
tomato sauce. Cassandra, leaning across to address someone, entangled her dangling
crucifix in the spaghetti. It had to be wiped clean. Julia was rigid with embarrassment;
obsessed by an image of bloody loops of paste over the rigid, jewelled arms of the cross,
she saw her sister ludicrous, even grotesque, and could not meet her eye. She thought
she remembered, disproportionately, absurd facts of this kind; they made her books.
They distracted one's attention, she thought, from the essence - although it was surely
from such titbits of facts that one's attitude to people was built up? She watched,
hungrily, a pair of trembling blue-veined hands, clumsy, fragile, crumble the corner of
a crust. Well what was, she wondered, this essence she was missing? She looked from
face to face along the table. Sexless, timid, judging, anxious, drawn-up faces, what did
they want? Had they ever been like the screaming, scrawling girls beneath them? Were
they, like Cassandra, in retreat from another world where things happened more
perfectly and more intensely? Across the table two women had prolonged a
conversation about brands and durability of sewing machines throughout the meal.
Did they want knowledge or power, were they hungry for the academic praise that had
singled them out in youth?
AS. Byatt: The Game

3 LEN: This ain' the bedroom.

PAM: Bed ain' made.
LEN: Oo's bothered?
PAM: It's awful. 'Ere's nice.
LEN: Suit yourself. Yer don't mind if I take me shoes off?
(He kicks them off.) No one 'ome?
PAM: No.
LEN: Live on yer tod?
PAM: No.
LEN: O.
(Pause. He sits back on the couch.)
Yer all right? Come over 'ere.
PAM: In a minit.
LEN: Wass yer name?
PAM: Yer ain't arf nosey.
LEN: Somethin' up?
PAM: Can't 1 blow my nose?
(She puts her hanky back in her bag and puts it on the table.)
Better.
(She sits on the couch.)
Edward Bond: Saved. Methuen, 1966
 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE 63

This activity shows that, taken together, these various cohesive elements create
what is often called the texture of a text: that is, they hold it together as a
connected entity, rather than it appearing as a random or accidental sequence of
sentences.
Different types of text may use different kinds of cohesion to a greater or lesser
extent, creating different types of texture. For example, conversations typically
draw on material that is shared or taken as given, because it can be retrieved from
the immediately surrounding situation; thus they generally use a lot of pronouns
and ellipsis.
Fiction, such as novels and plays, depends less upon situational references and
tends to use expressions referring to things which have already been mentioned
in the text itself, rather than to anything outside it. For example, novels will tend
to use more anaphoric reference, determiners and conjunctions and less ellipsis
and fewer condensed or omitted verb forms than conversation.

4.1.2 Lexical cohesion

Lexical cohesion, as its name implies, describes ways in which items of
vocabulary relate to one another across clause and sentence boundaries to make a
text work as a whole. It refers to the part played by certain semantic relations
between words to create textuality (that which distinguishes a text as opposed to
a random sequence of unconnected sentences). The relations between vocabulary
items in texts are of two main kinds: reiteration and collocation.

Reiteration
Reiteration means either repeating the same word in a later section of the text or
else reminding the reader of it by exploiting lexical relations. These are the stable
semantic relationships that exist between words and which form the basis for
definitions in a dictionary or groups of words in a thesaurus. These relations are
of two main kinds: synonymy and hyponymy. For example, zucchini and
courgette, or bachelor and unmarried man are related by synonymy: they both refer
to exactly the same thing or state. Courgette and vegetable, or jumbo jet and
aeroplane are related by hyponymy: in each case the second is a superordinate in
the family tree of the first.
Consider this example of synonymy:
The meeting commenced at six thirty. But from the moment it began, it was
clear all was not well.
In this example, 'commenced' and 'began' apply to the same event, the meeting.
They do not always do so, however. For example:
The meeting commenced at six thirty; the storm began at eight.

In this second example, 'commence' and 'began' refer to separate events; the
semantic relation of synonymy between them is being exploited stylistically to
create humour or irony.
Now consider this example of hyponymy:
There was a fine old rocking chair that his father used to sit in, a desk where he
wrote his letters, a nest of small tables and a dark, imposing bookcase. Now all
this furniture was to be sold, and with it his own past.
 64 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE

Direct repetition of words is something we do not commonly use other than for
a particular effect, such as those described in 4.1.1 above. Instead, we tend to vary
items, in this case with hyponyms of the superordinate furniture, which taken
together build a mental picture of the kinds of furniture being described.
Such variation can add new dimensions and nuances to meaning, building up
an increasingly complex context. Every paraphrase of an earlier word brings with
it its own semantic connotations. Where reiteration is done by superordinate, as
in the example above, various elements are brought together under one, more
general term. This is more likely to be a conscious choice than a chance event:
both speakers and writers deliberately choose whether to repeat directly, to find a
synonym or to use a superordinate.
The following newspaper report uses several types of lexical cohesion.

Police toughened up their anti-protest tactics at Brightlingsea yesterday and arrested

12 demonstrators who had defied their warnings against trying to block the
continuing export of live animals from the port in Essex.
Around 400 demonstrators, a lower turnout than the 1,000 anticipated by the
organisers, failed in their attempt to turn back three lorries containing around 1,500
sheep. Following a clear police warning that arrests would be made if the paths of
vehicles were blocked, the lorries containing the sheep began the final 400 yards of
their journey to the quayside at Brightlingsea. A line of police riot vans protected the
convoy, as they have through the months of protest.
Independent, 19 April 1995
Toughened' is being used as a superordinate of 'arrested' to indicate a
hardening of the police's attitudes towards the protestors. 'Live animals' is
reiterated as the hyponym 'sheep', which is itself repeated, making it clear that it
is this particular live animal that is being discussed in the article. 'Lorries',
vehicles and convoy are also used synonymously, whilst the word 'vans' (as
used by the police) is a reiteration to distinguish them from the 'vehicles' used to
transport the sheep. 'Demonstrators' is repeated; a more sensationalist style of
reporting might have used more lurid synonyms.

Collocation
Collocation describes the way in which certain words commonly (or
uncommonly) associate with others in a semantic way. Some adjectives, for
example, are used with some nouns and not with others. The adjective beautiful
collocates with the noun woman rather than with man, as do other adjectives such
as frumpy, bitchy, slender and pretty. The phrase a pretty man is syntactically
accurate but semantically rather suspect, unless used in an ironic way, since pretty
and man do not normally collocate.
Similarly, we would expect to see the adjective shabby applied to the nouns clothes
and treatment rather than to water or to a baby. Some verbs regularly collocate with
particular nouns, particularly those associated with animal and insects: bees buzz,
dogs bark and ducks quack. Similarly, we drive a car but ride a bike.
The reason why some words have particular associations is not all that clear. We
only know that some words are more likely to combine with specific items to
form natural-sounding combinations, while others do not, even though they are
possible or understandable. For example, we call milk that has gone off sour,
whereas butter that has gone off is rancid and eggs rotten. All these adjectives
 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE 65

describe foodstuffs, yet they are not interchangeable; we would think it odd for
someone to describe milk as rotten or butter as sour, yet these words essentially
describe the same process.
Section 4.3 below looks at further aspects of collocation under the heading of
imagery.

ACTIVITY 4.5
1 Read the following extract taken from a travel article in the Mail on Sunday.
2 Make lists of words which create lexical cohesion in this extract, through
reiteration and collocation.
3 One of your lists will include wild animals and another words to do with
politics or aspects of government. How do these two seemingly disparate
groups contribute to the overall meaning of the text?

Before I left my Nairobi hotel, the nice lady from Abercrombie & Kent warned me: 'You
must ask permission of the locals before you use your camera.'
Then she added: 'And if you bump into the president, whatever you do, don't even try to
take his photograph.'
Since the chances of bumping into the president somewhere in the 224,900 square miles of
Kenya was about as likely as me bumping into Hillary Clinton in Tesco in Borehamwood
High Street, it was not going to be a problem.
Certainly, the locals were no problem - Kenyans are some of the nicest people on the
African continent. And everywhere I went on my hunting and fishing safari they couldn't
have made me more welcome.
I had been invited to spend a frenetic week hopping from one remote airstrip to another,
trying to see as much of Kenya as possible and hunting big game with my camera and
giant Nile perch with my fishing rod, hoping it would be strong enough to handle the
reputed monsters.
I spent three nights in the Masai Mara game reserve, staying in one of the tents in Siana
Springs camp.
The tents are permanent structures, 12ft high, with double bed, separate dining room,
veranda and shower, and probably about the same size as the average semi-detached in
Guildford.
We drank wine every evening and watched the spectacular African sunsets, and were
woken in the night by the roar of hunting lions and leopards in the jungle.
We were up every morning just before sunrise, and saw every aspect of nature, red in
tooth and claw - lions eating a freshly killed buffalo, hyena, jackal, zebra, cheetah, leopard,
elephant, and a large number of rhinos. All in the Kenyan game parks is clearly well now
that the poaching has been stopped.
But the government will have to do something about the increasing number of tourists in
their Land Rovers, putting fresh pressure on the animals - no longer with guns but now
with their video cameras.
On day three, we moved on to start fishing, and if I'd had any doubts about whether we'd
catch any fish, particularly big fish, they were dispelled within minutes.
My powerful rod was wrenched almost off the back of our boat and my first Nile perch
was landed some 20 minutes later, weighing more than 40lbs.
Michael, my gangling Kenyan boatman, who fishes every day, shook me solemnly by the
hand and said: 'This could be a very good day. We might even catch some big ones.'
 66 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE

Frankly, with a 40-pounder already to my credit, I was more than happy, but there are
some absolute monsters out there.
I was based at Mfangatio Island on Lake Victoria - the fishing was tremendous and the
food and wine in this luxurious camp in the middle of nowhere was superb.
The fish couldn't have been more obliging - unlike most species, Nile perch don’t even
require you to get out of bed early.
A typical day was a leisurely breakfast, a long, luxurious swim in water that averages
about 21C (70F), and then off in the boat to hunt for the Nile perch which usually started
feeding around 11 am.
They were introduced to Kenya in the Fifties, and since then they have bred and bred.
The biggest fish taken out of Michael's boat last year was caught by a woman, Jocelyn
Stephens, from London. There was barely room for it in the boat and it weighed 1631b.
The biggest so far caught on rod and line was also caught by a woman, from the USA, and
it weighed 2031b.
And even huge fish like that have only really scratched the surface of the Nile perch
potential.
Most of the bigger fish caught by the locals break free, but one monster snared a couple of
years ago weighed 5401b and fed the island for a fortnight.
Mfangano Island itself is one of the most beautiful places I've ever stayed in, although if
you don't like eating fish it's probably not the place for you.
Rupert Finch-Hatton, my host at the camp - an amiably eccentric young man from
Horsham, Surrey, who has lived on the island for three years - boasts that he has 365
different recipes for Nile perch.
Chris Tarrant. Mail on Sunday, 2 April 1995

4.1.3 Phonological cohesion

The aspects of text cohesion considered so far in this unit have concentrated on
the grammatical and lexical elements of words. There is, however, a further
important consideration which influences a writer's choice of words: how they
sound, including the sound patterns they make. Sound patterns are particularly
important when it comes to writing verse of any kind. For example, alliteration,
where the first letter of two or more words is the same, is often favoured as a
poetic device in languages where stress falls on the first syllable of every word.
This was particularly so in Old English poetry, as in the example below:

Over breaking billows, with belly sail,

And foamy beak, like a flying bird
The ship sped on.

Alliteration was regularly used as a means of cohesion in a form of poetry

known as alliterative verse, which was common in England both before the
Norman Conquest in the eleventh century and again in the fourteenth century,
when poems such as Piers Plowman and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight were
written. The alliterated syllables are usually strongly stressed ones, so that they
relate to the rhythmic pattern of the rhyme, as in this extract:

The snaw snitered ful snart, that snayped the wilde

(The snow came shivering down very bitterly, so that it nipped the wild animals)
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE 67

Assonance is where a vowel sound is repeated in a word with different

consonants, as in Break! Break! Break! On the cold grey stones, O Sea! The 'o' in 'cold'
and 'stones' is repeated again as the single word 'O', stressing the poet's anguish.
The linked words 'break' and 'grey', 'cold' and 'stone' also, by the use of
lengthened vowels, suggest the steady movement of the sea. (See 4.3 below for
other ways of patterning words.) Cough drop and fish and chips are further
examples of assonance.
Phonology can therefore be a source of cohesion in a text; alliteration, assonance
and rhyme, in particular, involve textual patterning created by the repetition of
the same or similar sounds. An extreme form of phonological cohesion is the
basis for tongue-twisters such as She sells sea shells on the sea shore.
Alliteration, assonance and rhyme are among the most obvious and easy ways
in which a poem can be made phonologically cohesive. This means that such
cohesion is often very superficial. Where these phonological aspects form the
strongest element of the structure of a poem, as in the rhymes that appear in
commercial cards for birthdays, Christmas and other seasonal events, then the
meaning is often banal. A more complex kind of cohesion is that which is created
through the interaction of phonological patterns with patterns of meaning. Even
though sounds in themselves have no meaning, and the association between
sound and meaning in language is arbitrary and conventional, there are ways of
using sound so that it complements meaning. For example, onomatopoeia is the
name for another kind of phonological patterning, where the sound of a word
imitates the sound of the thing it refers to, e.g. whisper, rustle.
This kind of cohesion is discussed and exemplified in the following passage,
taken from Alexander Pope's Essay on Criticism, written in the eighteenth century.
The use of underlining in the poem reflects an eighteenth-century convention for
showing emphasis, while nouns tended to be capitalised then (see 7.2 below).

True Ease in Writing comes from Art, not Chance,

As those move easiest who have team'd to dance.
'Tis not enough no harshness gives Offence,
The Sound must seem an Eccho to the Sense.
Soft is the Strain when Zephyr gently blows,
And the smooth Stream in smoother Numbers flows;
But when loud Surges lash the sounding Shore,
The hoarse, rough Verse shou'd like the Torrent roar.
When Ajax strives, some Rock's vast Weight to throw,
The Line too labours, and the Words move slow;
Not so, when swift Camilla scours the Plain,
Flies o'er th'unbending Corn, and skims along the Main.

Pope's key advice here is that 'sound must seem an echo to the sense'. The
sound, according to this advice, supports the meaning by triggering associations,
with the syntax contributing further to the total effect. For example, the word
'smooth' in line 3 associates through alliteration with the 's' of 'stream', creating a
sound like the ever-flowing stream itself. In line 7, the word 'loud' cues us in to
the significance of low vowels, especially the diphthong 'ou', intended to echo the
roaring of the waves. However, as Pope's use of the verb 'seem' in line 4
acknowledges, sound symbolism of this kind is based not on any systematic
feature of language, but rather on vague and subjective impressions.
 68 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE

Meter
One further form of phonological patterning is meter. Meter in this sense refers to
patterns of stress in lines of verse. Stress is a feature of language which we
internalise as we learn to speak it; meter is something which is imposed on
language, making the stresses fit a particular pattern. Using meter imposes a
constraint upon language that we do not normally use in everyday speech. This is
particularly true in a language such as English, which has a variety of patterns
and degrees of stress. The most common metrical types in English are the Iamb,
the Trochee, the Anapest and the Dactyl.
Pope's poem on page 67 is written using the iambic pentameter, which is the
most common metrical form in English poetry. This meter arranges words in lines
containing ten syllables, beginning with an unstressed syllable and then
alternating stressed and unstressed:

The sound | must seem | an ec I cho to I the Sense

The Trochee reverses the unstressed-stressed pattern to form a stressed-

unstressed one:
7 w I 7 v I / w I / ^

And be I fore the I Summer I ended

7 v»/ I / I / \ / \j

Stood the I maize in I all its I beauty

The Anapest has two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed one:

Not a sound I hath escaped | to thy ser I vants,

w 7 u v 7

of prayer I nor of praise

The Dactyl reverses the Anapest, with one stressed syllable followed by two
unstressed ones:

Lulled by the | coil of his I crystalline I streams. I

Rhythm and meter Using meter produces rhythm in a text, but a text does not
have to be metric to be rhythmic. Free verse and prose are types of text which by
definition do not use a fixed metrical scheme, but in both rhythm is often a source
of cohesion and sound-sense connections. Virginia Woolf, for example, is a writer
whose prose is often very rhythmic, as the following extract from her novel Mrs
Dalloway shows:

What a lark! What a plunge! For so it had always seemed to her, when, with a little
squeak of the hinges, which she could hear now, she had burst open the French windows
and plunged at Bourton into the open air. Flow fresh, how calm, stiller than this of
course, the air was in the early morning; like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill
and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as she then was) solemn, feeling as she did,
standing there at the open window, that something awful was about to happen...
Much of the rhythm in this passage comes from the repetition of similar stress
patterns, either within a phrase or between two consecutive phrases. The first two
sentences, 'What a lark! What a plunge!' introduce repetition, the phrases being
identical in their syntax, syllable structure and stress. The fourth sentence
contains two pairs of parallel phrases, 'How fresh, how calm...' and 'like the flap
of a wave; the kiss of a wave', in which the similarity of stress pattern accompanies
 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE 69

virtually identical syntactic and syllabic structure. Although this is not verse,
some phrases within the prose use the iambic pentameter; for example, 'and
plunged at Bourton into the open air' and 'that something awful was about to
happen' at the end.
These repetitive rhythmic patterns and mirror image phrases strongly associate
with one of the novel's main themes: life as an alternation between a joyous 'lark'
and a 'plunge' into despair, and the search for an equilibrium between the two.

ACTIVITY 4.6
1 Read the following poem by Anne Stevenson.
2 a Comment on the use of rhyme, alliteration and assonance in this poem,
b How do they contribute to the content of the poem?
3 a Look more closely at the meter in the first stanza. How does it contribute to
what the poet is expressing in the poem?
b How and where does it work against our expectations?
4 How does the title of the poem relate to the rest of the poem?

Resurrection
Surprised by spring,
by the green light fallen like snow
in a single evening,
by hawthorn, blackthorn, willow,
meadow - everything
woken again after how many thousand years?
As if there had been no years.
That generous throat
is a blackbird's. Now, a thrush.
And that ribbon flung out,
that silk voice, is a chaffinch's rush
to his grace-note.
Birds woo, or apportion the innocent air they're made for.
Whom do they sing for?
Old man by the river
spread out like a cross in the sun
feet bare
and stared at by three grubby children,
you've made it again, and yes we'll inherit a summer.
Always the same green clamouring fells you that awakes you.
And you have to start living again when it wakes you.
Anne Stevenson: Enough of Green. Oxford University Press, 1977

4.2 Coherence
A text 'makes sense' because there is continuity within the information it
contains, whereas a text is 'senseless' or 'nonsensical' when there is a serious
 70 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE

mismatch between what it describes and our prior knowledge of the world,
including the textual 'world'. For example, we would find it odd if a report
suddenly changed to become a narrative about something completely unrelated
to the original subject of the report. Similarly, we would find it odd in a novel if
characters were described who took no part in the events which followed.
As the previous section has shown, cohesion goes a long way towards
establishing the coherence of a text. But a text does not have to include cohesion
in order to be coherent. For example, the two sentences Term ends next week. I've
got a pile of essays to write are coherent, even though there are no conjunctions or
other commentary items such as nevertheless or hut which might indicate a causal
or adversative relation between the two statements. They make sense because the
concepts to which they refer (term, week, essay) imply a relationship of cause and
effect: the idea of students having essays to write because of term ending is
consistent with our knowledge of the world. If we subsequently discovered that
the T was a teacher, lecturer or airline pilot and not a student, then we would
have to rethink our interpretation of the two statements.
One important element of coherence is that known as inference.

4.2.1 Inference
Coherence, unlike cohesion, is not simply a matter of the grammatical, lexical and
phonological features of texts. It also involves a degree of interaction between the
text and the reader, when we read a text of any kind, we draw on our experiences
of the world to make sense of what we read. We use our own existing knowledge
to fill in the gaps or discontinuities which exist in a textual world. This is called
inference. For example, take the following sentences:

Everything was ready. Scientists and generals withdraw to some distance and
crouched down behind earth moulds. Two red flares rose as a signal to fire the rocket.
The second sentence gives us a clue as to what the 'everything' is in the first,
namely preparations for some kind of scientific experiment connected with
warfare. We also infer that the 'scientists and generals' were watching the
preparations being made before they withdrew to the earth moulds, and that this
withdrawal had something to do with what was about to happen. Most texts we
read require us to fill in gaps for ourselves in this way: they assume that a certain
amount of inference will take place on the part of the reader. To record every
detail would make texts repetitive and could distract the reader from the thread
of what is being recounted, because it would get lost amongst all the detail.
In narratives, inference is nearly always necessary, since without taking for
granted facts, details and cultural knowledge, a story would be very tedious to
read. Much information is presupposed on the basis of our understanding of
what happens in the real world. For example, we assume that characters go to
bed at night, wash, use the lavatory and get dressed in the morning, as well as
eating regularly every day, even though these events may not be described. The
events that are described then have far more significance for the plot and
characterisation in the story. This selection is known as foregrounding. In turn,
the events which are described or foregrounded require inference in terms of their
potential significance for the theme or events of the story.
Texts which do make everything explicit, such as legal contracts and Acts of
Parliament, can be very repetitive and difficult to understand, for the very reason
 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE 71

that they do have to include every detail. This makes it difficult for us to sort out
what is relevant to us as opposed to irrelevant. On the other hand, instructions
may be difficult to follow if the amount of inference demanded of the reader is
too great: previous knowledge of car mechanics may be assumed in a car repair
manual or computer literacy in a booklet on word processing. Letters between
friends often assume a considerable amount of shared knowledge, which makes
them perfectly understandable to the intended reader but meaningless to anyone
else. Similarly, texts which do not make it clear for which particular kind of
reader they are intended may lead to confusion. For example, a leaflet about drug
abuse may mix information intended for the drug addict with that intended for
those living with drug addicts, thus leaving the implied reader confused as to
which bits of information relate to his or her particular situation.
A text, therefore, does not make sense by itself, but rather by the interaction of
text-presented knowledge with readers' stored knowledge of the world, which
can be very different from reader to reader. Thus the same text can be interpreted
in a variety of ways, depending upon the relationship between the world
presented in the text and the reader's own experience of the world within which
he or she lives. Some texts are more liable to different interpretations than others;
a poem, for example, may be interpreted in various ways, whereas an advert
usually has far fewer possibilities.
Whatever interpretation a reader puts upon a text may be valid, rather than
there being a single 'right' interpretation. In the past, literary criticism often
aimed to interpret texts in the 'right' way. Since ways of approaching literary
criticism have themselves become diverse, and growing attention has been given
to the interaction between the reader and the text, this is no longer the case.
Instead, analysis can provide an alternative means of evaluating a text, which
takes much greater account of its fitness for its purpose than of its 'worth' or
'literariness'.

ACTIVITY 4.7
1 Re-read the three extracts in Activity 4.4 above.
2 Find examples of places where inference is required to make each text
coherent.
3 Analyse each extract, taking into account all the elements covered so far in this
book.
4 How does your analysis contribute to your own interpretation of the texts?

4.3 Imagery
Imagery is a term with which you may be familiar. It has been used in literary
analysis to describe language that aims to achieve a particular, often poetic, effect.
Often imagery works through exploiting unusual collocations. It may also create
coherence within a text. For example:
I am aware of the damp souls of housemaids
Sprouting despondently at area gates
T.S. Eliot: Morning at the Window
 72 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE

We do not normally associate the words 'damp' and 'sprouting' with the noun
'soul', or think of such an action as a 'despondent' one. Damp and sprouting are
terms usually associated with gardening, rather than spirituality, which might
lead us to think of a soul's growth in gardening terms. However, the word
'despondently' gives the growth a particular human feeling, thereby
personifying it. These two lines deliberately exploit the connotations of various
words by making them collocate with one another in ways which they normally
would not do.
But poetry is not the only kind of text to exploit words in this way: it is also a
common feature of advertising. Here, products are often linked with particular
words or images which invite a particular inference on the part of the reader or
listener (tigers with petrol, women with aftershave, etc.). One of the ways in
which advertising is very like poetry is in its use of so-called poetic devices.
Unlike poetry, though, which uses them to form layers of possible interpretations,
advertising uses such devices to put a simple message across. Examples of such
poetic devices, which often use collocation to produce more vivid visual images,
are simile and metaphor.
A simile is the term given to an expression which compares one thing to
another in order to describe it more vividly, using the word like or as: for example,
as white as snow; as warm as toast; hair like a black raven's wing.
A metaphor goes one stage further than a simile and describes one thing as
another. For example, Hamlet says that the world:

is an unweeded garden,
That grows to seed...
Act I scene 2
This metaphor applies the features of a garden to the world, as Eliot does to souls
in the example given above. An extended metaphor is one which, as its name
implies, extends an image over several lines of text.
Metaphor and simile are both ways of using language in a defamiliarising way,
expressing the familiar by comparing it to or describing it as the unfamiliar; this
makes them a powerful source of multiple meanings. Some similes and
metaphors, though, have become so habitual or common that they are known
as cliches.
A mixed metaphor is one in which the combination of qualities suggested is
illogical or ridiculous, usually because two different metaphors are applied to the
same thing: for example, those vipers stabbed us in the back.
Other unusual word associations are ones which work through metonymv and
synecdoche. Metonymy is where a writer (or speaker) replaces the name of one
thing with the name of something else that is closely associated with it: for
example, the press for journalism, the bottle for alcoholic drink, the Oval Office for
the US presidency. Visual images as well as words can be metonymic, as in a tree
representing a forest on stage, or a row of houses standing for a town. A common
form of metonymy is known as synecdoche; here, the name of a part is
substituted for a whole, as in hand for worker and names for famous people. In
both metonymy and synecdoche, the associated meanings belong to the same
semantic area, unlike metaphor, which transfers the field of reference.
All these forms of imagery may be found in all types of text, and are not
restricted either to literary language or to other self-conscious forms of language
 4. BEYOND THE SENTENCE: COHESION AND COHERENCE 73

such as advertising. We use or come across hundreds of similes, metaphors and

metonyms every day in different kinds of text, both spoken and written, ranging
from everyday speech such as slang to public speeches, poetry and novels. The
difference is that in poetry such imagery is generally used self-consciously,
whereas in everyday speech and writing we do not think of it as being anything
unusual (the pound recovers; the war against inflation; green issues, etc.).

ACTIVITY 4.8
1 Read the poem below, which is by Robert Browning.
2 Write a brief summary of about thirty words saying what you think the poem
is about and what happens in it.
3 Why do you think the poem is called Meeting at Night, without either a definite
or an indefinite article?
4 a Identify and list examples of cohesion and coherence.
b How do these different features contribute to the meaning of the poem? Do
they all contribute in the same way?
5 a Identify any imagery the poet uses.
b How does this contribute to the meaning of the poem?

Meeting at Night
The grey sea and the long black land
And the yellow half-moon large and low:
And the startled little waves that leap
In fiery ringlets from their sleep,
As I gain the cove with pushing prow,
And quench its speed i' the slushy sand.
Then a mile of warm sea-scented beach;
Three fields to cross till a farm appears;
A tap at the pane, the quick sharp scratch
And a blue spurt of a lighted match,
And a voice less loud, thro' its joys and fears,
Than the two hearts beating each to each!
5 Who's telling the story?
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Perspective: narration, authorial voice and point of view
5.2 Representing speech and thought in fictional texts
5.3 Representing speech and thought in factual reporting

5.0 Introduction
So far, the units in this book have given a general introduction to grammatical
structures and the terminology associated with analysing words, sentences and
texts. This unit begins to look at some of the different ways in which texts and
the sentences within them are structured, starting with aspects of narrative
structure.
Even the simplest narrative follows a pattern of development, with the listener
or reader being steered through the course of a tale by the teller or author, as
Activity 1.1 demonstrated. Generally, we are unaware that we are being guided,
and it is only when we begin to look more closely at the way in which the
language is structured that we begin to realise it. Two important aspects of the
way in which a narrative develops are the way in which the writer chooses to tell
the story and the way in which speech and thought are represented within it.
Sections 5.1 and 5.2 of this unit consider these two aspects in terms of fictional
narrative, whilst 5.3 considers them in connection with factual reporting.

5.1 Perspective: narration, authorial voice

and point of view
Texts which tell a fictional story usually describe the events, characters and
setting from a particular perspective, which may be the author's, a character's or,
more usually, a combination of both. This sense of perspective is conveyed mainly
through the authorial voice and the point of view. As the following explanations
describe, there is a certain amount of overlap between these terms, according to
how the writer has chosen to use them.

5.1.1 Narration and authorial voice

Any written text has an author, whether known or unknown. In factual texts, the
author is usually at pains to keep him or herself at a distance from what is
written, whereas in fiction the author can take a more active and positive role in
 76 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY?

telling the story. The degree to which a writer makes him or herself known to
readers as the narrator of the story can vary, according to how much he or she
chooses to intervene directly in the telling, creating either a personal or an
impersonal narrator. In either case, the author must then choose to have a
narrator who knows everything about the characters and events (authorial
omniscience), or to restrict the narrator's perspective (authorial reportage). Both
these perspectives can be referred to as an authorial voice. Taken altogether, the
way in which the narrative is told, with either an impersonal or a personal
narrator, and an omniscient or reporting authorial voice, contributes to the
particular perspective or point of view from which a story is told.

Personal narrator
A personal narrator may be the author or a character within the narrative, who
intrudes into the story to address us, the readers, directly, making comments,
passing judgements or moralising about the characters and events. This type of
personal narrator often appears as an / outside the story. Such an intrusion was
fairly common in early novels, such as Henry Fielding's Tom Jones (1749). In this
novel. Fielding interrupts the telling of the story for whole chapters whilst he
passes comment on the events that have just occurred. A very general
characteristic of the development of the novel is that this kind of personal
intrusion has been used less and less often, and has now virtually disappeared, so
that where it does reappear, as in John Fowles's novel The French Lieutenant's
Woman, its appearance is startling and seems something new.
Another category of personal narrator appears in narratives which are or
purport to be autobiographical. Using the personal pronouns I and we, the author
or the main character tells an autobiographical story about himself or herself:
examples are J.D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye and Roddy Doyle's Paddy Clarke
Ha Ha Ha. This is known as a first-person narrative.

Impersonal narrator
An impersonal narrator is one who is less intrusive, simply reporting the events
of a story without passing comment on them. This narrator is much more likely to
use the third person in telling the story; that is, to use characters' names and the
personal pronouns he, she and they. Written narratives are unlikely to use the
second person, you.
It is perfectly possible for both types of narrative reporting to be used within the
same text. For example, the nineteenth-century novelist George Eliot generally
uses an impersonal narrator in her novels, but occasionally she addresses her
readers directly, changing to a personal narrative style.

Authorial omniscience and authorial reportage

Telling a tale also involves a writer in deciding the extent to which details of
characters are to be portrayed. He or she may choose to be authorially omniscient,
deliberately entering the characters' minds and thus telling us, the reader, the
characters thoughts as well as their actions. The nineteenth-century writer
Thomas Hardy, for example, uses a generally impersonal narrative style but is
authorially omniscient, able to reveal his characters' innermost thoughts and
feelings. Alternatively, an author may choose to report only events which are
external to the characters, leaving their thoughts alone, as does the twentieth-
 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY? 77

century writer Graham Greene. What characters think or feel is represented only
through their speech, rather than through descriptions of their thoughts.

5.1.2 Point of view

A writer may choose to tell the tale from the perspective of a particular character
(or characters), with whom we as the reader are invited to identify. This character
may or may not be the chief narrator of the tale, but is usually the first one to
whom we are introduced in the book. Usually, narratives are told from the point
of view of the main character, and the events of the story are told as they relate to
him or her. Other characters appear in relation to the main one, and our opinion
of them tends to be formed by that of the main character. Examples would be
novels such as Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, Emma by Jane Austen and The
Passion of New Eve by Angela Carter. Such novels are often written in the first
person, where the point of view is that of the I telling the story, but may also be
written in the third person, with an omniscient author presenting the point of
view of the main character.
Alternatively, and especially where there appears to be no one main character in
a story, a writer may choose to tell a tale from more than one perspective, moving
from one character's point of view to another's. A novel such as Wo?nen in Love by
D.H. Lawrence does just this, moving between descriptions of the actions,
thoughts and feelings of two sisters and those of two men with whom they form
relationships, using an omniscient authorial voice. Telling the tale from more than
one character's perspective provides authors with the opportunity to develop
different narrative strands or sub-plots within the main one, which may be used
to keep the reader guessing, as in detective fiction, or to create suspense, as in
thrillers. It also enables the author to create a wider text world than one seen by a
single main character, as in Little Dorrit by Charles Dickens or The Man WIw Made
Husbands Jealous by Jilly Cooper.
Often, particularly within twentieth-century fiction, writers may use different
varieties of authorial voice and different points of view within the same novel, or
even within paragraphs of the same novel. Throughout this century, novelists
have experimented with language and narrative technique in a much more self-
conscious way than in previous periods. Language is no longer seen as a
transparent medium through which a tale or some universal moral truth shines;
instead, language itself and how it is used are important parts of the author's
concerns. Analysing the way in which language is used to tell a story can tell us
as much about the assumptions, social values and prejudices of the period in
which it was written as its content and intended point of view, in ways which the
writer probably never realised.

ACTIVITY 5.1
Photocopy pages 79 and 80 and read the four extracts. Then answer the following
questions on each one.
1 Decide whether it is written in the first or third person.
2 Decide whether its narrator, authorial voice and point of view are consistent or
not. If they are, decide what they are.
 78 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY?

3 For those extracts which are inconsistent, mark any changes in authorial voice
or point of view that occur within each extract by underlining each separate
point of view with a different-coloured pen. You should end up by underlining
all the text. Mark any passage about which you are unsure two or three times
with different-coloured pens.
4 For each extract, consider what the effect of the particular point or points of
view within it is. What is the effect of changing the point of view or not
changing the point of view?
5 What does what you have done so far tell you about the kinds of
considerations writers need to take into account when presenting action
through a particular point of view?
6 Choose either extract 2 or extract 3 and continue writing the story from a
different point of view, using any other character already mentioned or
introducing a new one of your own. What effect does this have on the story?
 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY? 79

1 I took off my jumper so there wouldn't be a smell of smoke off it. It was cold now but
that didn't matter as much. I looked for somewhere clean to put the jumper. We were at
the building site. The building site kept changing, the fenced-in part of it where they
kept the diggers and the bricks and the shed the builders sat in and drank tea.
Roddy Doyle: Paddy Clark Ha Ha Ha

2 The High School term ended on the Wednesday before Easter. On Good Friday Miss
Sigglesthwaite attended the Three Hours' Service, listened, during the afternoon, to
Bach's St Matthew Passion broadcast from York Minster, then went to tea with Miss
Burton in her office at the school. After tea she wandered out along the cliffs south of
Kiplington, wondering what she really ought to do.
I ought to resign. She's quite right. She's a good girl.
Agnes Sigglesthwaite had been trained in justice and charity. She recognised the
quality of her new head mistress. The school was a different place since she had been
there.
She's intelligent - modern, enterprising; the children like her; she stands up to the
governors, yet they don't quarrel with her. She's clever enough to give way about the
things that don’t matter; but she stands firm as a rock for those that do.
She's quite right that the staff should be sacrificed to the girls. 'I'm thinking of the
girls, Miss Sigglesthwaite.' She meant that. There was no malice in her. She said that
she respected my mind. She told Miss Jameson that the school was lucky to have such a
distinguished scientist on its staff. But that sigh when she said, 'I’m thinking of the
examination results.' That told everything.
Winifred Holtby: South Riding

3 When his interview with the barrister was over, it was too late to go back to the office.
His sight of Katherine had put him queerly out of tune for a domestic evening. Where
should he go? Go walk through the streets of London until he came to Katherine's
house, to look up at the windows and fancy her within, seemed to him possible for a
moment; and then he rejected the plan almost with a blush as, with a curious division
of consciousness, one plucks a flower sentimentally and throws it away, with a blush,
when it is actually picked. No, he would go and see Mary Datchet. By this time she
should be back from her work.
To see Ralph appear unexpectedly in her room threw Mary for a second off her balance.
She had been cleaning knives in her little scullery and when she had let him in she
went back again, and turned on the cold-water to its fullest volume, and then turned it
off again. 'Now/ she thought to herself, as she screwed it tight, 'I'm not going to let
these silly ideas come into my head... Don't you think Mr Asquith should be hanged?'
she called back into the sitting room, and when she joined him, drying her hands, she
began to tell him about the latest evasion on the part of the Government with respect to
the Women's Suffrage Bill. Ralph did not want to talk about politics, but he could not
help respecting Mary for taking such an interest in public questions. He looked at her
as she leaned forward, poking the fire, and expressing herself very clearly in phrases
which bore distantly the taint of the platform, and thought, 'How absurd Mary would
think me if she knew that I almost made up my mind to walk all the way to Chelsea in
order to look up at Katherine's windows. She wouldn't understand it, but I like her
very much as she is.'
Virginia Woolf: Night and Day

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1 996.
 80 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY?

4 It was a fine and quiet afternoon, about three o'clock; but the winter solstice having
steadily come on, the lowness of the sun caused the hour to seem later than it actually
was, there being little here to remind an inhabitant that he must unlearn his summer
experience of the sky as a dial. In the course of many days and weeks sunrise had
advanced its quarters from north-east to south-east, sunset had receded from north¬
west to south-west; but Egdon had hardly heeded the change.
Eustacia was indoors in the dining-room, which was really more like a kitchen, having
a stone floor and a gaping chimney-corner. The air was still, and while she lingered for
a moment here alone sounds of voices in conversation came to her ears directly down
the chimney. She entered the recess and, listening, looked up the irregular shaft, with
its cavernous hollows, where the smoke blundered about on its way to the square bit of
sky at the top, from which daylight struck down with a pallid glare upon the tatters of
soot draping the flue as sea-weed drapes a rocky fissure. She remembered: the furze-
stack was not far from the chimney, and the voices were those of the workers.
Her grandfather joined in the conversation. 'That lad ought never to have left home.
His father's occupation would have suited him best, and the boy should have followed
on. I don't believe in these new moves in families. My father was a sailor, so was I, and
so should my son have been if I had had one.'
Thomas Hardy: The Return of the Native

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1996.
 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY? 81

5.2 Representing speech and thought in

fictional texts
You may have noticed in doing Activity 5.1 that one way in which point of view
is represented is by the reporting of speech and thought. Speech that we speak to
one another face to face is very different to speech that is written down. One
immediate and important reason is that they use different mediums of
expression: speech uses sound and our hearing, whereas writing uses graphology
and our sight as the vehicle for words. Once spoken speech has been spoken, it is
gone forever, unless it is recorded, whereas written language is much more
permanent: it can be returned to again and again, and altered and changed as
spoken speech can never be.
Spoken speech is also interactive, usually involving at least two people taking
turns to speak, which makes it a dialogue. Depending on the situation, there is no
limit to what will be talked about. Where speech requires little or no interaction,
as in a lecture, an after-dinner speech or a parliamentary speech, then it has
usually been scripted and rehearsed, and is more in the form of a monologue
than a dialogue. Written dialogue and thought is interactive in a completely
different way. The interaction happens on two levels: between the reader and
what is read, and between the characters represented. A writer is also far more in
control of what characters say than participants in 'live' speech.
The most extreme case of the representation of speech in written form is the
dramatic text, where the entire story unfolds through talk. In a film script,
dialogue may be interrupted with camera shots, presenting aspects of the story
in a way unavailable to written fiction and drama (see 6.4 below). The report of
what someone has said is also a major feature of many factual texts, such as
police statements, court proceedings and news items in the press and on
television. Section 5.3 below considers the reporting of speech in these texts in
more detail. In the case of fictional texts, there is a narrator who reports any
conversation: what is said is either attributed directly to the characters or
presented indirectly by the narrator. The narrator is, therefore, in charge of
selecting what to report and of organising how it is reported in ways that simply
are not possible for participants of the everyday conversation which the reported
speech seeks to imitate.
The other characteristic of written speech is that we are given more than the
actual words that are spoken. Information that we can see and hear in 'live'
speech - such as who is speaking and their tone of voice - has to be written
alongside the words themselves, to give us more details about what was said and
how it was said.
There are four main ways in which speech or thought can be represented in
narrative. They are:
direct
free direct
indirect
free indirect
 82 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY?

5.2.1 Direct speech or thought

Direct speech or thought reports someone's actual words. Consider this example:
'Do you see her much?' she said, half-concerned.

In this sentence, there are two independent voices at work. One is the quote,
which gives us the actual words spoken, bound by speech marks: 'Do you see her
much'. The other is the narrator's voice in a clause which reports information
about the quote, in this case who said it, with further information on how it was
said: 'she said, half-concerned'. This clause could also tell us to whom the
question was addressed.
Reporting speech in this way is called direct speech: the actual words spoken by
a character are given, within a sentence which provides further information about
the speech. Punctuation marks are used to identify the actual words spoken. The
reporting verb (the verb which describes the process of speaking) may well tell
us a lot about the purpose, emotions and intentions of the utterance. It may also
tell us about the expression on a person's face and his or her emotional state. For
example:

'Go away,' she screamed.

'Go away,' she said.

Adding an adverb or a prepositional phrase after the reporting verb, as in the

following examples, is another way of conveying more information about what is
said.

'Most of them were too young/ she replied.

'Most of them were too young,' she replied sorrowfully.
'Most of them were too young,' she replied with disgust.

5.2.2 Free direct speech and thought

Throughout this century, writers have increasingly experimented with speech
representation, for example presenting speech directly but without the usual
accompanying punctuation or the reporting clause characteristic of direct speech.
Such variations from the representation of direct speech are known as free direct
speech or thought. For example:

She said, 'I want to see the elephants.'

'I want to see the elephants.'

Sometimes, writers may use dashes instead of conventional speech marks, or

omit punctuation altogether, depending on the particular effect they want to
achieve. This tends to make actual speech appear more like free indirect speech
(see 5.2.3 below). For example:

— I found it, I told him.

My finger was in the hook, where George Best's autograph was.
— Did you? he said. — Good man. What?
— What?
— What did you find?
— The autograph, I told him.
 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY? 83

He was messing.
— Let's see it, he said.
I put the book and opened it on his knees.
— There.
Roddy Doyle: Paddy Clarke, Ha Ha Ha. Minerva, 1993

Representing speech in this way tends to minimise the narrator's role and
foreground the character and his or her speech.
In free direct thought, speech marks are omitted from a character's thoughts.
'What was to become of him?' she wondered becomes WJwt was to become of him, she
wondered.

5.2.3 Indirect speech or thought

Indirect speech or thought is the narrator's report of what was said, rather than
the actual words spoken. Consider this example:

She asked him whether he saw her much.

Here, there is only one voice and one point of view. The narrator is using his or
her own version of the speech rather than the words that were actually used by
the character. There is a reporting clause ('she asked him') and a reported clause
('whether he saw her much'). No speech marks are needed. Reporting speech in
this way usually has the effect of foregrounding the narrator rather than the
character who has spoken.

5.2.4 Free indirect speech or thought

Sometimes, speech or, more often, thought is reported in the narrator's words,
but from the character's point of view. This is called free indirect thought.
Consider this example, from Women in Love by D.H. Lawrence.

He thought of Ursula, how sensitive and delicate she really was, her skin so over-fine,
as if one skin were wanting. She was really so marvellously gentle and sensitive. Why
did he ever forget it? He must go to her at once. He must ask her to marry him. They
must marry at once, and so make a definite pledge, enter into a definite communion.
He must set out at once and ask her, this moment. There was no moment to spare.

Here, although the character's thoughts are being narrated, the narration shifts
to the character's point of view. We can hear the voices of the narrator and of the
character speaking at the same time, but at different strengths, a bit like the
instruments of an orchestra. The use of free indirect thought or speech within
narrative has become more common in modern fiction, particularly in stories
which aim to present events through the characters' eyes and minimise the
presence of a narrator.
 84 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY?

5.2.5 Summary
The different ways in which writers represent speech and thought in writing are
summarised in the table below.

speech thought

direct He said, 'I'll come back 'What will they say of me?'
tomorrow.' she wondered.

free direct 'Am I too late?' Am I too late, she wondered.

indirect He said that he would She wondered what they

return the next day. would say of her.

free He would come back What would they say of

indirect tomorrow. of her?

Generally, the narrator's role or function is to inform the reader of what is going
on and/or to interpret a particular or whole situation for the benefit of the reader.
The characters' role or function is usually to make claims, express doubts and
desires, display all sorts of emotions, and evaluate themselves and/or others
and/or a particular situation from their individual point of view.
A writer may represent speech or thought in any of these four ways to varying
degrees, and may use two or three of them in one paragraph.
The following activity asks you to consider the use of speech and thought in
more detail.

ACTIVITY 5.2
1 Read the extract below.
2 What is being reported?
3 What kind of speech or thought representation is being used? What is its
effect?
4 What does 'here' relate to in line 2?
5 How can you explain the use of parenthesis (dashes) and brackets in terms of
who is speaking?
6 Why does the narrator use 'ought to be happy' instead of 'would be happy'?
7 What does the last sentence mean?

Nor had Adela much to say to him. If his mind was with the breakfast, hers was mainly
with her marriage... There were real difficulties here - Ronny's limitations and her own -
but she enjoyed facing difficulties, and decided that if she could control her peevishness
(always her weak point), and neither rail against Anglo-India nor succumb to it, their
married life ought to be happy and profitable. She mustn't be too theoretical...
E.M. Forster: A Passage to India
 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY? 85

8 a Write a short speech (two or three sentences) in which you are the speaker,
informing someone about something. Include your opinion, concerns or
emotional reactions to this piece of information,
b As a narrator, report your speech in the third person. Rather than using the
reporting verb say or tell in each reporting clause, vary the verb so that it
produces a particular effect.
c Keeping to the third person, rewrite your speech again, this time making the
character's point of view stand out.
d Explain how the different points of view (or different voices) can be picked
out from the passage you have created.
For example:
7 am here to inform you that your mother is waiting for you at Reception; she looks
very upset and doesn't want to tell me what has happened. So you can leave the
class now to meet her.'
'Your mother is waiting for you at reception,' he told the student. 'She looks very
upset and doesn't want to tell me what has happened,' he continued very quickly.
'So leave the class now and go and see her,' he ordered.
There she was, waiting for her son to meet her. She felt very upset and didn't want
anyone to know what was happening, only her son. Ten minutes! Wasn't he worried
about her feelings? Here he was now, coming from his class.

5.2.6 Why report speech at all?

Why is speech represented in narrative at all? In other words, what does it do? It
is perfectly possible to recount a tale without using speech at all, but its use has
become a common feature of fiction; it is part of what we expect writing which
tells a story to include. Generally, including representation of speech and thought
in writing does three things.
Firstly, it interrupts the general flow of the narrative, slowing it down and
concentrating attention on a particular character, event or relationship.
Secondly, it develops and brings out relationships between characters: their
personalities may be revealed by what they say, by their reaction to what is said
and/or by what others say about them.
Thirdly, it adds to the sense of a social background, with each character's
concerns and speech mannerisms enabling the reader to place him or her in a
social context. For example, if a character speaks with a regional accent, this may
lead us to make assumptions about the character's social position.
Conversation in fictional texts is, by definition, imaginary, and although it may
follow the rules of natural conversation there is nothing natural about it. It is
artificial, contrived and interwoven into a wider creative structure, where it
always does more than just represent talk, no matter how natural it may appear.

ACTIVITY 5.3
Read the following two extracts and answer these questions on each one.
1 Identify the type or types of speech and thought representation used.
2 What is the function of the dialogue within the narrative? (It may be any or all
of the three points listed above.)
 86 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY?

3 Do the characters interact with one another in fairly short utterances, in longer
ones or a mixture of both? What is the effect of this?
4 a Is the dialogue presented as 'bare', or is it interspersed with references to
characters' behaviour and appearance or comments about other things?
b Do the narrator's words just describe actions, or do they have a wider
significance, such as indicating the characters' states of mind, their
personality or their relationship to other characters?

5 Is typography used in any way to suggest tone, intonation or styles of speech?

6 How does the speech contribute to the overall development of the narrative?

1 The children were now happily settled on the long red velvet sofa.
'And so Robin is a big man now and he chooses smoked salmon,’ said Ingeborg. 'Do
you think you will like that? It is only red fish, you know, with lemon.' But when
Robin solemnly registered his choice, she said to the waiter with mock seriousness, 'The
gentleman wants a good portion of smoked salmon.'
'What about you Kay?' asked Gerald.
Kay, in her disfiguring chamber-pot velour school hat, wriggled nervously.
7 don't know daddy,' she said.
'Little Kay will have hors d'oeuvre,' said Inge; 'it is the same as our favourite
smaabrod you know. But not so good, perhaps,' she laughed. 'You will have your
dear smaabrod, won't you Johnnie?'
John looked primly down the menu. T don't see the sense in having it if it's not so
good,' he said. 7 will have plover's eggs.'
'Oh, you won't eat the little birds eggs!' cried Inge.
'He'd better eat them while he can,' said Gerald; 'They're being prohibited after this
year.'
‘And I should like sole mornay to follow,' added John.
7 shan't have fish,’ Robin said, with the importance of the eldest child, 7 will have a
steak.'
'And what will you have Kay? It's your birthday. You choose what you like.' Gerald
looked at his leggy daughter with affection. But Kay looked at her mother.
'What shall I have, Mummy?' she asked.
'Oh, you must not ask me. Ask Papa, who is giving this lovely birthday to a lucky
little girl.'
Kay looked at her father obediently. It annoyed Gerald that she apparently had no
views of her own, after all she was thirteen, but he guessed the agony this spotlight
was causing her and thought it better to order for her. 'Lobster Thermidor,' he said to
the waiter. 'There you are Madam,' he said, hating himself for his facetiousness which
he could not avoid with his children, 'the lobster is being boiled at your command.'
Kay became very red in the face.
'Oh, Gerald my dear, what have you said? cried Inge. 'She will never eat it now! Poor
little Kay! You don’t want the lobster to be cooked for you, do you, dear?' Then she
whispered fussily to the waiter. 'I've ordered her some fried sole,’ she told Gerald.
‘Kay's turned red instead of the lobster,' Robin declared with glee.
‘Shut up,' said Gerald.
Angus Wilson: Anglo-Saxon Attitudes
 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY? 87

2 T think, sister, we need not keep Miss Lee any longer, when Fanny goes to live with
you?’
Mrs Norris almost started. 'Live with me, dear Lady Bertram, what do you mean?'
'Is she not to live with you? -1 thought you had settled it with Sir Thomas?'
'Me! Never. I never spoke a syllable about it to Sir Thomas, nor he to me. Fanny live
with me! the last thing in the world for me to think of, or for anybody to wish that
really knows us both. Good heaven! what could I do with Fanny? - Me! a poor helpless
forlorn widow, unfit for anything, my spirits quite broke down, what could I do with a
girl at her time of life, a girl of fifteen! the very age of all others to need most attention
and care, and put the cheerfullest spirits to the test. Sure Sir Thomas could not
seriously expect such a thing! Sir Thomas is too much my friend. Nobody who wishes
me well, I am sure, would propose it. How came Sir Thomas to speak to you about it?'
'Indeed, 1 do not know. I suppose he thought it best.'
'But what did he say? - He could not say he wished me to take Fanny. I am sure in his
heart he could not wish me to do it.'
'No, he only said he thought it very likely - and I thought so too. We both thought it
would be a comfort to you. But if you do not like it, there is no more to be said. She is
no encumbrance here.'
'Dear sister! If you consider my unhappy state, how can she be any comfort to me?
Here am I a poor desolate widow, deprived of the best of husbands, my health gone in
attending and nursing him, my spirits still worse, all my peace in this world
destroyed, with barely enough to support me in the rank of gentlewoman, and enable
me to live so as not to disgrace the memory of the dear departed - what possible
comfort could I have in taking such a charge upon me as Fanny! If I could wish it for
my own sake, I would not do so unjust a thing by the poor girl. She is in good hands,
and sure of doing well. I must struggle through my sorrows and difficulties as I can.'
'Then you will not mind living by yourself quite alone?'
'Dear Lady Bertram! What am I fit for but solitude? Now and then I shall hope to have
a friend in my cottage (I shall always have a bed for a friend); but the most part of my
future days will be spent in utter seclusion. If I can make both ends meet, that's all I
ask for.'
Jane Austen: Mansfield Park

5.3 Representing speech and thought in

factual reporting
As the first activity you did in Unit 1 showed, fiction is not the only kind of
writing that tells stories. Newspapers report what they call 'stories' every day,
telling of events that have happened in the world. Magazines also tell stories that
have happened in real life to real people. Such writing is generally thought to be
'telling the truth' or 'telling it as it was' in ways which distinguish it from fiction.
But reporting any event involves a process of selection, involving not only the
facts themselves but the words used to describe them, which can result in the
same event being presented from completely different perspectives.
 88 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY?

One way in which a process of selection can be seen to be at work is in the

reporting of speech. Direct and indirect reporting of words in the news has the
function of legitimising what is reported. The representation of speech is a
strategy commonly used by the media to show that what is being reported is
reliable. The same words, however, can be interpreted and therefore retold in
various ways, according to different points of view and social conventions.
First of all, the selection of a reporting verb can have a significant effect on how
a story is interpreted. For example, take these two sentences, which report two
views of the same event:

The Prime Minister explained that the Budget measures were necessary.
The Leader of the Opposition claimed that the Budget measures were
unnecessary.

The choice of the verb 'explained' in the first statement implies the truth of the
Prime Minister's statement, whereas the verb 'claimed' in the second implies an
opinion. In fact, both politicians' statements are expressing an opinion.
Similarly, which facts and which quotes are selected for reporting can affect the
story. Although it seems to be reporting all the facts of a case in a neutral way, a
story may in fact be presenting facts from one participant's point of view, or
giving several participants' points of view as a single one. The following activity
looks at this in more detail.

ACTIVITY 5.4
1 Read the following newspaper report, which appeared in the Sunday Times on
1 May 1994.

2 In which voice, active or passive, is the headline? Why do you think this is?
3 Who is this report about. President Clinton or Paula Jones?

4 a Pick out the main verb of each sentence. Decide which ones are reporting
factual statements and which speculative ones, paying particular attention
to the use of modals. What is the difference between the two sets of
sentences?

b In which category did you place the verb 'claim'? Why?

5 Look at sentences 2, 6, 8, 9,10,12 and 13 again. Divide them into those with
direct and those with indirect speech representation. What kind of
considerations do you think the news reporter took into account in deciding to
represent speech as direct or indirect?

6 Divide the direct speech representation according to who is supposed to have

said what. Why do you think the writer chose to represent these particular
utterances as direct rather than indirect speech?

7 How many different 'speech voices' are represented in the extract? What is the
effect of this?

8 Two facts are given about Paula Jones in sentence 11. Why do you think these
particular facts have been selected for reporting?
 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY? 89

President Clinton to be sued for sexual harassment

(I) President Clinton is to be sued for sexual harassment by a woman who was employed
by the state of Arkansas when he was governor. (2) She claims he demanded sex in what
she says was a crude and gross abuse of power when he was her boss.
(3) It is the first time an American president has faced such damaging charges in court
and already the White House is making preparations to limit the political damage. (4) But
legal costs and punitive damages could amount to several million dollars, potentially
bankrupting Clinton. (5) The president is unable to use government resources because the
incident happened before he was elected to the White House. (6) Paula Jones, 27, claims
Clinton summoned her to a room in the Excelsior Hotel in Little Rock during the
Arkansas Quality Management Governor's Conference on May 8,1991, where she was
working on the registration desk. (7) Allegedly on Clinton's orders, she was approached
by a state trooper and told that the governor wanted to see her. (8) The trooper escorted
her to the room where, according to her sworn affidavit, Clinton sexually harassed her,
demanding oral sex as well as exposing himself.
(9) 'He took my hand. He was loosening his tie. He told me, "you have nice curves, I love
the way your hair goes down your body,"' Jones has said. (10) But she insisted that she
fended off his advances after he exposed himself and that she immediately left the room.
(II) Jones, whose father is a Nazarene lay minister, was at the time engaged to be married.
(12) She says that she went up to Clinton's room because she had hoped he might give her
a better job. (13) 'She thought it was an honour. She thought about asking about job
opportunities,' said Daniel Traylor, her Little Rock attorney. (14) He will file the suit this
week in Little Rock, giving the president 20 days to respond.

Unlike speech representation in fiction, one of the main criteria for representing
speech in factual reporting is that of 'significance': in other words, the reporter
selects those parts of the exchange which are significant to him or her according
to the particular view represented in the text as a whole. Rather than
incorporating stretches of dialogue, factual texts such as news reports are more
likely to select one or two significant 'utterances'. Sometimes, utterances are
curtailed even further, and are reported only in part, as in the following example:
Mr. Gilbert Gray, QC, defending, claimed that prosecution witnesses had lied to
'send a man of God like a lamb to the slaughter'.
Daily Telegraph, 13 February 1987
One thing which factual and fictional representations of speech have in
common is that what is or has been said is reported by a writer, who has chosen
to make particular sayings significant. Like fictional texts, factual ones are filtered
by an author, who has selected some propositions over others and has a particular
point of view towards them.
A fundamental difference between fictional and factual reports of speech,
however, is that fictional speech is created by one person, whereas factual
reporting of speech is created by two. In a factual report, the reporting of the
represented speech depends on its actually having been said by someone. It has,
in a sense, two authors: the speaker him or herself and the writer who selects
what to report. By contrast, speech in fiction has one author, who may base his or
her dialogue on fact, but who is also at liberty to create speech that has never, in
fact, existed, because the readers do not expect it to have existed.
 90 5. WHO'S TELLING THE STORY?

Because news stories report facts, we tend to assume that the speech being
quoted was actually spoken, as well as that the events reported actually
happened. However, this is not always the case, as the following explanation by a
crime reporter illustrates:
When I needed quotes, I used to make them up, as did some of the others... for we
knew what the 'bereaved mother' and the 'mourning father' should have said and
possibly even heard them speak what was in our minds rather than what was in
theirs.
Bird and Dardenne in W.J. Carey (ed): Media, Myths and Narratives, 1988
Factual reporters, therefore, can distort what has been said. They can also be
extremely powerful when it comes to reproducing, under the guise of 'fact', what
it is most convenient for them to convey, in terms of their aims, particular
perspective or point of view. At one extreme, they can make the speech itself up,
but more usually they will select parts of a conversation or even single utterances
which they think are important. By cutting and pasting speech, they can also
change the order of the utterances, which can completely alter the meaning of
what was said, although we as readers assume that the speech occurred in the
altered sequence. In cases such as this, the distinction between a fictional and a
factual saying can be blurred. The quoted words can be presented through many
different voices and the 'real' speech becomes as fictionalised as any dialogue
created by a novelist.
S Analysing scripted dialogue
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Spontaneous and scripted speech
6.2 Scripting factual speech texts
6.3 Scripting dialogue in plays and films
6.4 Presenting point of view in scripted speech

6.0 Introduction
Some written texts are primarily intended to be read by their audience; others are
primarily intended to be spoken. Spoken speech itself can be divided into two
types, the monologic - that is, spoken by one person - and the dialogic -
interactive speech between at least two participants. Examples of scripted
monologic speech texts include public speeches and lectures, whilst dialogic
speech texts include stage, radio and TV plays and films. These two different types
of text are not exclusive categories, as a variety of different types of speech text are
possible in between. For example, a television advert, or a TV or radio
investigative programme, may mix or interweave monologic speech with dialogic.
As 6.1 below points out, there are at least as many differences between
spontaneous and scripted speech as there are similarities. Scripted speech is
planned and usually has a single author, which enables a far greater degree of
control to be exercised over it than can ever be the case in spontaneous speech.
This unit looks at the ways in which speech is scripted in texts other than prose,
exploring how it is structured and the implications of various structures for the
interpretation of the text.

6.1 Spontaneous and scripted speech

Most scripted speech, especially dialogue, aims to reproduce spontaneous,
natural, everyday speech. However, there are several important differences
between real spoken speech and written speech intended to imitate it.
Firstly, in scripted speech, one person has usually written the words that a
different person speaks, whereas in normal conversation the speakers are the
authors of their own words.
Secondly, we are active participants in any conversation with which we are
involved, whereas with scripted speech we take the part of onlookers. We see and
hear, but do not engage directly with the speakers, although we may be appealed
to in a way that invites a response. Scripted speech has an audience in much the
 92 6. ANALYSING SCRIPTED DIALOGUE

same way as any other form of written language, which has implications for the
pace at which something is spoken, its phrasing and the degree of implied
context.
Scripting speech means that it is written in advance of being spoken and can be
edited, unlike everyday, ordinary conversation.
Finally, scripted speech may look like spoken language written down, but if you
compare a transcript of a normal conversation with scripted speech you will
immediately see many differences. For example, spontaneous speech:
- is repetitive ('tell me who you saw in the television shop tell me who you saw')
- has phrases or clauses which are re-structured or self-corrected halfway
through (7 wanted to go to I wanted to ride my horse')
- contains words which would be 'wrong' in written speech, such as lack of
subject-verb agreement ('the film were really good - it were brilliant')
- has two or three people talking at once
- has lots of pauses and words to fill pauses (fillers) that we do not use in
writing (ur,um, erm).
In spontaneous speech, we cannot predict whether or to what extent these
features are present. Written speech, on the other hand, tends to use few of these
features, if any at all. It is a much more self-conscious form of speech presentation
than anything that happens naturally, not least because a writer is in control of
what is being said in a way that is impossible in everyday speech. Changes of
subject may occur unexpectedly at any time in spontaneous speech, whereas in
scripted speech such changes are part of the plan.
In conversation, we usually take it in turns to speak: this is known as turn¬
taking. Often, though, we interrupt before someone has finished their turn, while
scripted speech allows each character to take his or her turn.
Spontaneous speech can also be heavily dependent on the context in which it is
spoken, relying on the shared knowledge and background of the speakers, which
makes specific reference to names and places unnecessary:
Do you think she meant to... I don't know, but she did it anyway... Oh yes,
well, she would...
Scripted speech cannot assume such a shared understanding on the part of its
listeners. For example, in scripts, even those of long-running soap operas or
series, characters nearly always refer to one another by name and explain details
of events which in spontaneous conversation would be taken for granted, so that
viewers new to the serial or series or those who haven't watched it for a while can
pick up the thread of the story. Scripted speech also tends to be about one
particular idea, event or person at a time, whereas spontaneous speech can hop
about from one topic to another and back again in a seemingly haphazard way. In
scripted speech, characters nearly always finish what they start to say without
being interrupted, and talk to only one person at a time, using hardly any of the
normal features of spontaneous conversation such as repetition, re-structuring
and fillers.
Writers of scripted speech have total control over the content of what they write
and a great deal over how it is to be spoken. It is then up to the people speaking
the words to interpret the script by adding tone of voice, expression, gesture and
so on. Scripted speech, then, can have two different audiences: the actors or people
who are to do the talking and the audience for whom they interpret the script.
 6. ANALYSING SCRIPTED DIALOGUE 93

ACTIVITY 6.1
1 Read the following transcript of spoken speech.
2 In pairs, re-write the transcript as scripted dialogue.
3 What changes did you have to make? Why?

A: you got a cold

B: no just a bit sniffy cos I'm I am cold and I'll be alright once I've warmed up do I look as
though I've got a cold
A: no I thought you sounded as if you were
B: mmm
A: pull your chair up close if you want is it
B: yes I'll be alright in a minute it's just that I'm
A: what have you got
B: stupid I had about five thousand books to take back to the library yesterday and I got
all the way through the college to where the car was at the parking meter at the other end
and realised I'd left my coat in my locker and I couldn't just
A: mmm
B: and 1 thought well I'll get it on tuesday it's a bit silly cos I need it
A: mmm it's gone very cold hasn't it
B: mmm it's freezing
A: I'm
B: you're knitting (laughter) what are you knitting that's not a tiny garment
A: no
B: no it's for me but it's very plain
A: it is nice
B: yeah I never did I could never take to knitting except on these double 0 needles with
string you know that's my sort of knitting
A: yeah
B: it grows quickly
A: yeah I get very fed up
B: the process though do you sew I used to sew a lot when
A: no I don't
B: in the days when I was a human being
Crystal and Davy: Investigating English Style

When a script is written down on a page, all the words on the page, including
any stage directions and camera angles, form part of the script, as well as the
actual words the characters speak. What we see or hear is the actors'
interpretation of the writer's words and accompanying directions. Scripts, like
any other kind of writing, can also be edited and changed. After a script has been
written, a director may choose to make his or her own alterations. For example,
he or she may decide to cut certain lines, to encourage actors to improvise on the
words in the text or to change aspects of the location of a scene (for example,
changing it from indoors to outdoors or vice versa).
 94 6. ANALYSING SCRIPTED DIALOGUE

ACTIVITY 6.2
1 In pairs, read through the following script, intended to be shown as a stage
play. The spoken words have been included, but any stage directions have
been left out.
2 Write the script out, adding stage directions to do with:
a setting and location
b movement
c how characters should speak.
3 Compare your version with those of others in the class. Do any differences of
representation emerge?

Dysart: So, did you have a good journey? I hope they gave you lunch at least. Not that
there's much to choose between a British Rail meal and one here.
Won't you sit down?
Is this your full name? Alan Strang?
And you're seventeen. Is that right? Seventeen... Well?
Alan: Double your pleasure
Double your fun
With Doublemint, Doublemint
Doublemint gum.
Dysart: Now, let's see. You work in an electrical shop during the week. You live with your
parents and your father's a printer. What sort of things does he print?
Alan: Double your pleasure
Double your fun
With Doublemint, Doublemint
Doublemint gum.
Dysart: I mean does he do leaflets and calendars? Things like that?
Alan: Try the taste of Martini
The most beautiful drink in the world.
It's the right one -
The bright one -
That's Martini!
Dysart: I wish you'd sit down, if you're going to sing. Don't you think you'd be more
comfortable?
Peter Shaffer: Equus, Act I scene 3

6.2 Scripting factual speech texts

Scripting speech which deals with factual events, like representing speech in
factual reporting, as discussed in 5.3, involves selecting the content of what is to
be said from a wide range of possibilities. The speech in spoken news items, for
example, will be selected and edited in ways which fit the content of the
programme. When you see or hear an interview on radio or television, what you
hear are usually edited extracts taken from the whole interview, just as when you
read an interview that, too, will have been edited. The way in which material
such as interviews or commentary is edited can highlight particular elements of
 6. ANALYSING SCRIPTED DIALOGUE 95

what people have said or what a camera has filmed. This selection of facts for a
particular purpose becomes, in its most blatant form, propaganda.
It is probably because of the ways in which speech can be edited that prominent
public figures such as politicians, actors and members of the royal family not only
ask to see the questions they will be asked before an interview, in order to prepare
their answers, but also ask to see, hear or read the final edited interview before it
is published or transmitted. Nearly everything that we see and hear on television
and radio has been scripted, edited and previewed before it is transmitted or
broadcast, and very little television these days is broadcast 'live'.
Scripted speech can, however, involve monologic speech interspersed with
extracts of spontaneous, natural conversation. For example, in television and
radio news reporting, the scripted monologue may be interrupted by an extract
from an interview, either in the studio or Vox pop' (that is, interviews with
randomly chosen people recorded in a natural setting).

6.3 Scripting dialogue in plays and films

Scripted dialogue has to convey to its viewer or listener all the things normally
described through narration in prose writing. For example, what the characters
say and do has to convey emotions and actions and move on the plot, as in the
extract from the play Equus used in Activity 6.2 above. We do not have access to
the thoughts in the characters' heads as we do in novels, short stories or poems.
All our information about their personalities and motivation comes from the
words which they say. An analysis of a script, then will need to look very closely
at ways in which the language spoken by characters and the stage directions give
us clues to the characters' personalities and reasons for their actions, as well as
indicating the actions themselves.
A further consideration in analysing scripts is their reference to deictic time,
space and place. Section 4.1.1 above introduced deictics in considering ways in
which cohesion is achieved in a text. Since a playscript is written to be spoken,
deictics serve as a way not only of binding the text together but also of extending
the text world beyond the stage or set to incorporate elements of a wider world.
For example, in the conversation given in Activity 6.1 above, speaker A
comments on the weather. As this is an example of natural speech, we can assume
that the remark was about the actual weather at the time the conversation took
place. When a dialogue is being performed on the radio, stage or screen, any
world outside the scene cannot actually exist, but we are invited to believe in it as
part of the process of engaging with the scenes that are being acted out.
As 6.1 above pointed out, much of our everyday conversation relies on a shared
understanding of the context within which it is taking place, and the more we
have in common with the people we are talking to the more assumptions we
make. References to places, times, people and events will also usually imply a
common understanding of those elements within our daily lives.
Dialogue in scripts, too, will refer to places, times, people and events, which
may occur 'outside' the script (see 4.1.1 above). As the audience, we are drawn
into the script world both through events and settings we actually experience and
 96 6. ANALYSING SCRIPTED DIALOGUE

through references to places, times, people and events which we do not actually
see but which may have a direct bearing on the action played out on stage or set.
The following activity takes an extract from a television play to consider the
interrelationship between dialogue, action and representation.

ACTIVITY 6.3
1 Read the following extract taken from Willy Russell's television play Terraces.
2 What information does the dialogue by itself give us on:
a each of the three characters (e.g. how they speak and their verbal
mannerisms, as well as their personalities)
b their relationships with one another
c what is happening
d anything else (e.g. the significance of the crossword clues)?
3 Overall, what do the staging directions add to the dialogue?
4 Where is the 'going down there' Susan refers to?

Scene 5: Danny's House - Lounge Interior. Day: Day 1

(SUSAN IS PAINTING HER NAILS. DANNY IS READING A NOVEL. THEIR

SON, MICHAEL, IS DOING A CROSSWORD IN THE PAPER).
SUSAN:
Are we goin', Danny?
DANNY: (ABSENT)
Mm?
SUSAN:
Are we goin' down there or not?
MICHAEL:
Dad ... what's a (READING) a 'Historical gang' beginnin' with M...
DANNY:
A what?
MICHAEL:
Three letters?
DANNY:
‘ere are ... let's have a look.
MICHAEL: (GETTING UP TO SHOW DANNY THE PAPER)
A historical gang.
DANNY:
Historical! Hysterical... you nutter!
MICHAEL:
Oh yeh.
(SUSAN WALKS OVER TO THE MIRROR TO APPLY LIPSTICK)
SUSAN:
Are we goin'?
DANNY:
D'y' fancy it?
SUSAN:
I thought y’d want to celebrate gettin' through to the final.
 6. ANALYSING SCRIPTED DIALOGUE 97

DANNY:
That's not celebratin'. It's just drinkin' for the sake of it an' going over every last detail a
thousand times.
SUSAN:
Oh, you're a real killjoy, you are.
MICHAEL:
Dad ... what's a ten letter word that means 'one who always agrees'?
DANNY:
Who's supposed to be doin' this crossword?
SUSAN:
Other fellers would be overjoyed if their team got through to the final.
DANNY:
I am overjoyed. I just can't see much point in goin' over it again an' again. Eddie an' that
lot, they're like bloody TV commentators.
SUSAN:
So we're not going out?
DANNY:
I didn't say that. Do you want to go out, love?
SUSAN:
Well, it is Saturday night.
DANNY:
Yes, but do you want to go out?
SUSAN:
Yes. Yes!
DANNY:
Well get your coat on then. If you want to go out, we'll go out.
SUSAN:
Well why didn't you say that in the first place? Come on. Hey -1 bet it's a riot down there
tonight!

6.4 Presenting point of view in scripted

speech
As Section 5.1 above pointed out, an important feature of narrative texts is that
events are portrayed from a particular point of view. Stage plays, films and
television and radio drama are not able to present point of view in the same way
as written narratives. Reading a novel gives us the time to absorb descriptions as
well as the intricacies of the plot, whereas a film or play condenses its story into a
much shorter time span. However, sometimes in film and television, a narrator is
used, in what is known as a 'voice-over'; here, the voice of one of the characters
(usually the main one) is heard off-screen, telling us their thoughts, whilst an
image is presented on-screen. The Color Purple, Dances with Wolves and The Age of
Innocence are all films where this technique has been used. In radio, too, voice¬
over can be used, with a narrator as well as other characters, as in Dylan
Thomas's Under Milk Wood.
Actions, thoughts, background, character and plot are all conveyed to us
through images and voice in scripted drama, or through voice alone in the case of
 98 6. ANALYSING SCRIPTED DIALOGUE

radio. In the visual medium of film, a coherent and intelligible story emerges
through the way the scenes are shot and edited together, according to conventions
which have evolved. For example, as a dialogue between two people progresses,
there is usually a gradual focusing down on the individual protagonists, so that
each is shown in close-up. Camera instructions, therefore, form part of a script for
film or television, alongside the speech itself and the movements the characters
make. Film is thus able to employ narrative structures more often associated with
fiction, such as point of view, in ways stage plays cannot.

ACTIVITY 6.4
1 Photocopy pages 99 and 100 and read the extract, taken from E.M. Forster's
novel A Passage to India.
2 In pairs, turn the extract into a script for a stage play, including details of your
set. You might find it helpful to get you started to go through the text first
highlighting those parts of it you think you will use in your script. Remember
that you will not be able to use everything and may have to change or add
speech to capture in sound what is presented in the narrative.
3 How is your script different to the original text? What did you have to leave
out or add? What other decisions did you have to make in turning the text
from one type into another?
4 Read or act out your script aloud to the rest of the class. Then discuss your
answers to question 3 above.
5 A Passage to India was made into a film in 1978. You might like to compare the
prose extract with the film script given in Appendix 2.
6 How does your version compare with the film version? Do they involve
different interpretations and realisations of the novel? If so, in what way?
 6. ANALYSING SCRIPTED DIALOGUE 99

Adela Quested, an Englishwoman, has gone to India to get married. This extract
from the novel tells of a visit she makes to a site of local interest - the Marabar
Caves - with Aziz, an Indian doctor. Adela is preoccupied with thoughts about
her forthcoming marriage to Ronny Heaslop, an English colonial officer. Dr Aziz
is preoccupied with the organisation of the trip, for which he is responsible.

Miss Quested and Aziz and a guide continued the slightly tedious expedition. They did
not talk much, for the sun was getting high. The air felt like a warm hath into which
hotter water is trickling constantly, the temperature rose and rose... Aziz had never liked
Miss Quested as much as Mrs Moore, and had little to say to her, less than ever now that
she would marry a British official.
Nor had Adela much to say to him. If his mind was with the breakfast, hers was mainly
with her marriage... There were real difficulties here - Ronny's limitations and her own -
but she enjoyed facing difficulties, and decided that if she could control her peevishness
(always her weak point), and neither rail against Anglo-India nor succumb to it, their
married life ought to be happy and profitable. She mustn't be too theoretical; she would
deal with each problem as it came up, and trust to Ronny's common sense and her own.
Luckily, each had an abundance of common sense and goodwill.
But as she toiled over a rock that resembled an inverted saucer, she thought, 'What about
love?' The rock was nicked by a double row of footholds, and somehow the question was
suggested by them. Where had she seen footholds before? Oh yes, they were the pattern
traced in the dust by the wheels of the Nawab Bahadur's car. She and Ronny - no, they
did not love each other.
'Do I take you too fast?' enquired Aziz, for she had paused, a doubtful expression on her
face. The discovery had come so suddenly that she felt like a mountaineer whose rope had
broken. Not to love the man one's going to marry! Not to find out till this moment! Not
even to have asked oneself the question until now! Something else to think out. Vexed
rather than appalled, she stood still, her eyes on the sparkling rock. There was esteem and
animal contact at dusk, but the emotion that links them was absent. Ought she to break
her engagement off? She was inclined to think not - it would cause so much trouble to
others; besides, she wasn't convinced that love is necessary to a successful union. If love is
everything, few marriages would survive the honeymoon. 'No, I'm all right, thanks,' she
said, and, her emotions well under control, resumed the climb, though she felt a bit
dashed. Aziz held her hand, her guide adhered to the surface like a lizard and scampered
about as if governed by a personal centre of gravity.
'Are you married, Dr Aziz?' she asked, stopping again, and frowning.
'Yes, indeed, do come and see my wife' -for he felt it more artistic to have his wife alive for
a moment.
'Thank you,' she said absently.
'She is not in Chandrapore just now.'
'And have you children?'
'Yes, indeed, three,’ he replied in firmer tones.
‘Are they a great pleasure to you?'
'Why, naturally, I adore them,' he laughed.
'I suppose so.' What a handsome little Oriental he was, and no doubt his wife and children
were beautiful too, for people usually get what they already possess. She did not admire
him with any personal warmth, for there was nothing of the vagrant in her blood, but she
guessed he might attract women of his race and rank, and she regretted that neither she
nor Ronny had physical charm. It does make a difference in a relationship - beauty, thick

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1 996.
 100 6. ANALYSING SCRIPTED DIALOGUE

hair, a fine skin. Probably this man had several wives - Mohammedans always insist on
their full four, according to Mrs Turton. And having no one else to speak to on that
eternal rock, she gave rein to the subject of marriage and said in her honest, decent,
inquisitive way: 'Have you one wife or more than one?'
The question shocked the young man very much. It challenged a new conviction of his
community, and new convictions are more sensitive than old. If she had said, 'Do you
worship one god or several?' he would not have objected. But to ask an educated Indian
Moslem how many wives he has - appalling, hideous! He was in trouble how to conceal
his confusion. 'One, one in my particular case,' he spluttered, and let go of her hand.
Quite a number of caves were at the top of the track, and thinking, 'Damn the English
even at their best,' he plunged into one of them to recover his balance. She followed at her
leisure, quite unconscious that she had said the wrong thing, and not seeing him, she also
went into a cave, thinking with half her mind 'sight-seeing bores me,' and wondering with
the other half about marriage.

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. ©Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1996.
7 Written language change

7.0 Introduction
7.1 A framework for analysing language change
7.2 Graphology and vocabulary
7.3 Syntax
7.4 Phonology
7.5 Engineering language change
7.6 Language change and the literary canon

7.0 Introduction
So far, this book has looked at the various ways in which language is used to
create a text and at texts of particular kinds. This unit now turns to look more
closely at the ways in which writing itself has changed over the centuries,
particularly since the fifteenth century, when printing began.
The history of writing as a medium of communication is a much shorter one
than that of speech. In terms of language history, written English, being some 500
years old, is a very young, developing phenomenon.
The development of written texts as a medium of communication in English has
been closely connected with technological advances, starting with the introduction
of the printing press in the fifteenth century and progressing to developments in
printing and publishing technology in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
The more widespread use of printing during the nineteenth century, together
with a growth in the number of people who could read, made printed material
such as song sheets, adverts, newspapers, magazines, novels and textbooks
accessible to a far wider audience than had ever been possible before.
Throughout the twentieth century, printing and the technology associated with
it have continued to develop, bringing with them new ways of publishing using
computers. Visual means of communication such as film, radio and television
broadcasting have also added to the variety of written, scripted forms.
Different forms of written text have a history in themselves. For example, the
novel as a form began to develop in the eighteenth century, whilst plays have
been around for much longer, and religious texts longer still. The language used
has changed, too. As a written code, the English language we know today was
standardised during the eighteenth century. Since then, changes in language have
continued to happen and will go on doing so. The idea that language stopped
changing 200 years ago is clearly a false one: it is likely that the English language,
in all its spoken dialect varieties, as well as in its written forms, is changing just as
 102 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE

much in the present has it has in the past, although the rate of change may be
different, as 7.1 below explains further.
The spoken language of previous centuries is lost to us, but written forms have
survived. It is these surviving texts which provide evidence for the fact that
language does change in all kinds of ways, to such an extent that the 'English' of
the Middle Ages appears to us to resemble a foreign language. The example
below is a cure for wolfsbane poisoning, written in the tenth century:
Gif mon pung ete, cipege buteran ond drince; se pung gewit on pd buteran. Eft wip
pon stande on heafde; aslea him mon fela scearpena on pam scancan; ponne gewit ut
past dtter purh pd scearpan.
Could you make sense of it? Spelling, word formation (morphology) and
grammar are so different as to seem like another language. A modern translation
of this passage is as follows:
If you eat wolf's bane, take butter and drink; the poisonous plant will transfer to the
butter. Then stand on your head. You should be scratched many times on the shanks;
then the poison will pass out through the scratches.
Coming closer in time, fourteenth-century English becomes easier to
understand, but is still very different to modern English, as the following
example, written by John of Trevisa (died 1402) shows:

Also Englyschmen, peyghy hadde fram pe begynnyng pre maner speche, Southeron,
Not theron, and Mydell speche in pe myddel of pe lond, as hy come of pre maner
people of Germania, nopeles by commyxstion and mellyng, furst wip Danes and
afterward wip Normans, in menye pe contray longage ys apeyred, and som vsep
strange wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbittyng.
This is still a long way from the English of today, as the following translation
illustrates:
Also though Englishmen had from the beginning three kinds of speech, southern,
northern and middle speech from the middle of the country, as they are descended
from three kinds of Germanic people, and also by mixing, first with the Danes and
then with the Normans, the country language has deteriorated in many, and some
use strange stammering, chittering, snarling and grating gnashing of teeth.

7.1 A framework for analysing language

change
One way of considering the various ways in which language has changed is to
consider the words on the page before us. This can be done in relation to the
following areas:
graphology typeface, print size, punctuation, spelling
vocabulary both lexis and semantics
syntax word order
phonology sound
Every one of these different aspects of language is subject to change, but the rate
at which this happens varies considerably: it can take place over decades or even
 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE 103

centuries. The element that changes most quickly is probably vocabulary,

followed by graphology. Syntax and phonology tend to change at a much slower
rate generally, and in writing change much more slowly than in speech. The
reasons why any of these aspects of language changes are many and varied, but
they are nearly always to do with developments in the wider social environment,
such as war, invasion, new technologies and new ideas.
The next three sections in this unit describe ways of analysing aspects of change
within these four areas in more detail. Taken together, they will provide you with
a useful starting point in your analysis of texts written in previous centuries.

ACTIVITY 7.1
] Take both of the texts reproduced in 7.0 above and comment briefly on each
one in terms of the four categories:
a graphology
b vocabulary
c syntax
d phonology

7.2 Graphology and vocabulary

7.2.1 Graphology
The graphology of texts has changed considerably since people first started to
write. The invention of publishing in the fifteenth century revolutionised the
reproduction of written texts, which before then had always been handwritten.
Graphological conventions, orthographic features, including spelling, and
typographic elements such as size and type of print have themselves changed
significantly since the fifteenth century, and can provide valuable clues as to
when a text was written.
Generally, modern texts tend to use different styles of typeface and to be less
densely printed on a page than those of even fifty years ago, with far greater use
of pictures, photographs and, increasingly, colour. The actual production of
written texts has changed dramatically, with handwritten manuscripts giving
way to printing, which in turn has been superseded by computer-generated
publishing, such as desktop publishing and electronic texts. These inventions
have had a significant impact on the writing, design and editing processes,
including typographical and graphological conventions.
The following sections look at two particular features of graphological change:
punctuation and spelling.

Punctuation
How we perceive a sentence is closely connected to the way it is punctuated. But
conventions of punctuation, both within words and between them, have changed
over the centuries. Today, the use of punctuation is closely connected to the
grammatical construction of sentences, but this has not always been so. In the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, punctuation was more closely connected to
rhythm and elocution. This began to change during the seventeenth century,
when its function became more grammatical and logical.
 104 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE

For example, the conventions we associate with the apostrophe, such as its use
to show possession, did not become established until the second half of the
seventeenth century, while direct speech was not punctuated until the eighteenth.
The question mark appeared much later than either the comma or the full stop,
two of the first punctuation marks ever used.
One of the consequences of editing ancient texts has been that each new edition
standardises not only the spelling and syntax but also the punctuation, to accord
with current conventions. Thus the most recent editions of texts such as the Bible,
the Oxford English Dictionary and the plays of William Shakespeare look
physically very different to the original text. When we come across an ancient
text, therefore, we cannot assume that it will use all the conventions we take for
granted. If the typography, spelling and punctuation of a text from an earlier
century conform to modern conventions, you can be fairly certain that an editing
hand has been at work.

ACTIVITY 7.2
1 Compare the two extracts below, taken from the play King Lear by William
Shakespeare. The first is taken from the 1972 Penguin edition and the second
from an edition printed in 1623.
2 List the particular aspects of language which have been changed in the
modern edition.
3 What significance do you think the differences have for reading and
performing the text?

1 LEAR: ...Tell me, my daughters,

since now we will divest us both of rule,
Interest of territory, cares of state,
Which of you shall we say doth love us most,
That we our largest bounty may extend
Where nature doth with merit challenge. Gonerill,
Our eldest born, speak first.

GONERILL: Sir, I love you more than word can wield the matter,
Dearer than eyesight, space, and liberty,
Beyond what can be valued rich or rare,
No less than life, with grace, health, beauty, honour,
As much as child e'er loved or father found;
A love that makes breath poor and speech unable;
Beyond all manner of 'so much' 1 love you.
King Lear, 1.1.48-61

2 LEAR: ...Tell me my daughters

(Since now we will diuest vs both of Rule,
Interest of Territory, Cares of State)
Which of you shall we say doth hue vs most,
That we, our largest bountie may extend
Where Nature doth with merit challenge. Gonerill,
Our eldest borne, speak first.
 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE 105

GONERILL: Sir, I loue you more than words can wield the matter,
Deerer than eye-sight, space and libertie,
Beyond what can be valewed, rich or rare,
No lesse then life, with grace, health, beauty, honor:
As much as Childe ere lou'd, or Father found.
A loue that makes breath poore, and speech vnable,
Beyond all manner of so much I Loue you.

Spelling
How words are spelt, too, changes over time. Before the seventeenth century,
written texts varied enormously in terms of spelling as well as punctuation.
English replaced Latin and French as the language of official documents during
the early part of the fifteenth century, which gave the impetus to the adoption of a
standard spelling system, in contrast to the huge variety that had prevailed in
Middle English. The introduction of the printing press by William Caxton in 1476
consolidated the need for a standardised system.
From the seventeenth century onwards, when printing became more
widespread, printed texts began to look more like modern English texts. Samuel
Johnson wrote the first English dictionary in the eighteenth century, and also in
that century grammarians published the first English grammar books. These
adopted a very prescriptive approach to language, based on notions of
'correctness' and 'good' uses of language. Before the eighteenth century, variation
in spelling was accepted and tolerated: the ability to spell was not linked to the
notion of literacy in the same way as it is today. William Shakespeare, for
example, writing in the seventeenth century, spelt his own name in several
different ways. Sometimes words could be spelt in two or more ways within the
same paragraph: idolatry/idolatrie; doth/dooth; heere/here; with/wyth; heart/hart;
forbidden/forbiden.
With the introduction of printing, capital letters were usually used for names
and for the initial letter of the first word of a sentence, as they are today. During
the seventeenth century, capital letters were also used for other words,
particularly those which were thought to be important in a text, but this
particular orthographic feature had declined by the mid-eighteenth century.
However, whilst spellings have stabilised, pronunciation continues to change,
so that spellings which once corresponded to pronunciation no longer do so. (See
Section 7.4 below.)
Generally speaking, the more unfamiliar a text appears in terms of its spelling
and its use of words, the older it will probably be.

7.2.2 Vocabulary
New words are entering the English language all the time, just as others fall out of
use. Dictionaries, most commonly thought of as a record of word usage, are
constantly being updated and revised to account for changes of usage and
meaning. There is no one single reason why vocabulary changes, but several. For
example, changes in work practices in an area such as printing also include
 106 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE

changes in the vocabulary associated with the work. The widespread use of
computer technology in printing has brought along with it a whole new
vocabulary - word processing, mouse, hardware, software - as well as causing the
vocabulary associated with the old methods to fall out of use. Changes in work
practices are generally associated with changes in the wider social sphere, to do
with economic and political change. New vocabulary thus often indicates more
far-reaching changes in society as a whole.
Similarly, as lifestyles change, so too does the vocabulary associated with them.
For example, there were once wide areas of vocabulary associated with horses
and coaches as a form of transport and with domestic service. This vocabulary
has narrowed and fallen out of use as a result of changes in methods of
transportation and ways of cleaning and cooking. Similarly, vocabulary
associated with the fashion of men's and women's clothes changes as the fashions
themselves change.
Take, for example, the following article, which appeared in a New Zealand
newspaper during 1988:

A senior citizen is one who was here before the Pill, before television, frozen food,
credit cards or ball point pens. For us, time-sharing meant togetherness, not
computers, and a chip meant a piece of wood. Hardwear [sic] meant hard wear, and
software wasn't even a word. Teenagers never wore slacks. We were before pantyhose,
drip-dry clothes, dishwashers, clothes driers and electric blankets. Girls wore Peter
Pan collars and thought that cleavage was something that butchers did. We were
before Batman, vitamin pills, disposable nappies, jeeps, pizzas and instant coffee, and
Kentucky Fried had not even been hatched. In our day, cigarette smoking was
fashionable, grass was for mowing and pot was something you cooked in. A gay
person was the life and soul of the party, and nothing more, while AIDS meant
beauty lotions or help for someone in trouble. We are today's senior citizens. A hardy
bunch, when you think how the world has changed and of the adjustments we have
had to make.

The words that are in common use at any one period of time, therefore, closely
reflect the world or society of that time. As society alters, so, too, do the words
people use within it, either through new words coming into use and others falling
out of use, or through changes in meaning. For example, the word punk was often
used in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to mean a down-and-out, more
like our current word tramp. The word fell out of use during the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, to be revived in the twentieth, with a change of meaning.
During the 1970s the word was applied to a particular music and fashion
movement, and this is how most people would now understand it. Reading texts
written in previous centuries, such as those written in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries by William Shakespeare, may be difficult for us because not
only are some words no longer used, but ones we are familiar with may have had
different meanings then.
The influence on society of foreign cultures and of war or invasion can also
have a major impact on the vocabulary of a language. The vocabulary associated
with food, for example, has been significantly widened as restaurants and foreign
travel have introduced us to food of different cultures. The Cold War between
East and West and attempts at international cooperation in the 1990s have given
us new vocabulary in news reporting, such as peace-keeping force in place of army.
 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE 107

Such changes reflect wider changing attitudes, in this case the role of soldiers not
directly involved in defending their own countries.
Changes in different areas of vocabulary happen at different rates. Slang, for
example, is most usually associated with spoken language; in its written form it
appears in texts which imitate natural conversation, such as popular fiction, plays
and television programmes, or in those which appeal to a particular age group,
such as comics. Slang is commonly associated with youth culture, and each
generation invents its own words, making the previous vocabulary outdated and
old-fashioned. People who were teenagers in the late 1950s and 1960s, for
example, used words such as smashing and fab, which have since been superseded
by others. Some slang words may become part of the dictionary, such as the 1980s
word yuppie, but generally they do not survive long enough to become
established. Slang, like fashion, dates very quickly, and in its turn dates any text
which uses it.

ACTIVITY 7.3
1 Read the two extracts below. Make a brief summary of the content of each one.
2 Discuss and compare their use of punctuation, spelling and vocabulary.
3 From your discussion and your own reading, can you make an informed guess
as to the century in which each one was written?
4 On which particular aspects of the graphology and vocabulary did you base
your opinion?
5 What other information provided you with clues?

1 The kynge bithoughte hym and marked how many a yonglyng departed from thens al
wpying/which were nyghe of his kynne/and sayde to hym self/heir behouth other
counseyl herto/Though reynart be a shrewe/ther be many good of his lignage/tybert the
catte sayde/sir bruyn and sir Isegrym/how be ye thus slowe. it is almost euen/hier ben
many busshes and hedges, yfhe escaped from vs. and were delyuerd out of this paryl he
is so subtyl and so wyly and can so many deceytes that he should neuer be taken
agayn.
The History of Reynard the Fox, translated from the French by William Caxton

2 May it please your Majesty,

A work, having for its objects, to lay the solid foundation of literary knowledge
amongst the Labouring Classes of the community, to give practical effect to the natural
genius in the Soldier, the Sailor, the Apprentice, and the Plough-boy, and to make that
genius a perennial source of wealth, strength and safety to the kingdom; such a work
naturally seeks the approbation of your Majesty, who, amongst all the Royal
Personages of the present age, is the only one that appears to have justly estimated the
value of The People.
The Nobles and the Hierachy have long had the arrogance to style themselves, the
Pillars that support the Throne. But, as your majesty has now ascertained, Royalty
has, in the hour of need, no efficient supporters but The People.
William Cobbett: A Grammar of the English Language
 108 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE

7.3 Syntax

7.3.1 Word order and clause structures

The pace of change of syntax is much slower than the pace of change in
vocabulary, but a glance at any Old or Middle English text, such as those given in
7.0 above, is enough to indicate that changes have certainly happened. For
example, in the early form of English known as Anglo-Saxon or Old English
(covering the period ad400 to the early Middle Ages) the order in which words
were written in a sentence was fairly flexible, unlike in modern English, where
there is far less flexibility. Some aspects of this flexibility survived into the English
of the seventeenth century; for instance, allowing parts of sentences - such as a
verb or object - to be moved to the beginning. This use of word order, however,
survived mainly in literary texts, and not in other forms of writing of the time,
such as letters and diaries.
Until the fourteenth century, within the period of Late Middle English, sentence
structure was relatively simple, and sentences tended mainly to consist of single
or coordinate clauses. During the Renaissance period in the sixteenth century,
when the study of ancient Latin and Greek flourished, a syntax derived from
Latin was increasingly applied to English. One of the consequences of this was an
increase in subordination within sentences. Long, controlled sentences of the kind
to be found in Latin texts by writers such as Cicero were much admired, and the
sentence structure found within them was applied to the construction of written
English.
in the fourteenth century, subordination with conjunctions other than when,
while and as was uncommon. From the Renaissance onwards, the use of
subordination became increasingly associated with sophistication, and the earlier
typical pattern was relegated to 'unsophisticated' texts such as popular fiction
and diaries. In recent years, there has been a move (especially within the Civil
Service) to design material aimed at a public audience - forms and leaflets in
particular - to be simple and more accessible in style. This is done by using active
rather than passive constructions, less subordination and more single or
coordinate clauses.

ACTIVITY 7.4
1 Photocopy page 109 and read the three extracts.
2 With a pen or pencil, mark the clause divisions within each sentence and
decide what kind each clause is.
3 How does the clause structure relate to the content of each extract?
 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE 109

1 Ethiope is departed in two princypall parties; and that is in the Est partie, and in the
Meridionall partie, the whiche partie meridionall is clept Moretane. And the folk of
that contree ben blake ynow, and more blake than in the tother partie; and thei ben
clept Mowres. In that partie is a well, that in the day is so cold that no man may
drynke thereoffe; and in the nyght it is so hoot that no man may suffre hys bond
therein.
John Mandeville: Travels, c. 1400

2 There dwelt in Eondon a rich Merchant that kept a great Ape, which when he had
■ broke loose, would doe mischief, and he could not see any thing done before him, but he
would be a doing the like. There dwelt a Cobler ouer-against this Gentlemans, which
the Ape would view how he cut out his Leather, and when the Cobler was gone abroad,
Iacke woidd come ouer & play such reakes [pranks], spoyling all the shoes & leather he
could come neere; which was much hinderance to the poore man, and he knew not
hoow to be reuenged, because he had all his worke from thence; yet at last a crotchet
came into his head, and spying the Ape looking vpon him: to work hee went cutting his
leather, and then whetting his knife of his whetstone, and then would he with the backe
of the knife seeme to cut his throat.
The Tale of the Cobler and the Ape. 1632

3 Of mans first disobedience, and the fruit

Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste
Brought death into the World, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,
Sing, Heavenly Muse, that, on the secret top
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire
That shepherd who first taught the chosen seed
In the beginning how the heavens and earth
Rose out of Chaos: or, if Sion hill
Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed
Fast by the Oracle of God, I thence
Invoke thy aid to my adventurous song,
That with no middle flight intends to soar
Above th' Aonian mount, while it pursues
Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme.
John Milton: Paradise Lost, Book 1. 1667

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1 996.
 no 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE

Throughout the Renaissance period, the number of conjunctions and

prepositions used in writing increased. New prepositions were created by using
participles of verbs, such as considering, during and notwithstanding. One
important addition to the word class of conjunctions was the word because,
formed by the condensing of the phrase by the cause that. Because was very rare in
Middle English; the Oxford English Dictionary records its first known use as in
1386, with an example taken from Chaucer. Even so, the conjunction for or that
was much more commonly used until the seventeenth century. During that
century, long Ciceronian sentences came to be seen as old-fashioned, though
Milton wrote most of his epic poem Paradise Lost in such a style.
It was in the seventeenth century that something approaching a fixed standard
for forming sentences was reached, with a much sharper distinction between
coordination and subordination. From the eighteenth century onwards, the
written dialect we know as standard English (which first became dominant in the
fifteenth century) became the established and favoured form, and was the one to
which grammars of English applied. During the eighteenth century, prescriptive
attitudes towards the use of grammar, based on the grammar of Latin, resulted in
some strict rules as to how sentences should and should not be constructed. These
rules included not ending a sentence with a preposition (the chair she sat on) and
not splitting infinitives (to clearly explain). In Latin, these grammatical forms are
contained in a single word, rather than being separate words. Of course, in reality,
writers as well as speakers do construct their sentences in this way. The novels of
Jane Austen and George Eliot, for example, contain sentences which end in
prepositions, and perhaps the most famous popular use of a split infinitive is
Captain Kirk's statement in the television programmes and films of Star Trek: 'to
boldly go...'.
More recent twentieth-century systems of grammar, such as functional grammar,
aim to base their approach very much on describing how language is actually used
rather than prescribing how it ought to be used. Thus, along with changes in the
language itself over the centuries, there have also been changes in attitudes
towards language use and changes in the way grammar itself is described.

7.3.2 Archaism
Using outdated forms of language is known as archaism. This technique is
generally associated with poetry, and survived well into the nineteenth century,
when it was used by poets such as William Wordsworth (see Activity 7.5). One
common archaic form is the inversion of the verb phrase and a noun phrase that
would usually follow it. The effect of this is to give the impression that a poem
was written in a much earlier time than it actually was.

ACTIVITY 7.5
] Read the following stanza from a poem by William Wordsworth called The Last
of the Flock (1798).
2 A more usual sequence for the first line in modern English would be to have
the subject (T) first, followed by the verb ('have been') and then the rest of the
clause. Rewrite the rest of the stanza, placing the underlined phrases after the
appropriate verb phrase, rather than before.
 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE 111

3 What is the effect of this rewrite?

In distant countries I have been,

And yet I have not often seen
A healthy man, a man full grown,
Weep in the public roads alone.
But such a one, on English ground.
And in the broad high-way, I met;
Along the broad high-way he came,
His cheeks with tears were wet.

English legal texts continue to use archaic forms of language. Their writers have
resisted changing their use of language and the register in which they write to a
more modern idiom. Why this is so is not really clear. Some would say it is to
intimidate the general public and force them to employ solicitors and barristers to
represent them, whilst others maintain that such intricate and specific language
use is necessary to make what is being explained absolutely clear and
unambiguous.
Consider, for example, the following extract taken from a legal notice printed in
the Glasgow Herald:

Notice is Hereby Given, That... the sheriff at Campbelltown, by Interlocuter dated

30th December 1986, ordered all parties desirous to lodge Answers in the hands of the
Sheriff Clerk at Castlehill, Campbelltown within 8 days after intimation,
advertisement or service, and in the meantime, until the prayer of the Petition had
been granted or refused, nominated Alistair White to be Provisional Liquidator of the
said Company on his finding caution before extract.

When one is faced with a text of this kind, it is possible to analyse it by looking
at the three different categories considered so far: graphology, vocabulary and
syntax.

Graphology A distinctive feature of the extract is its archaic orthography, since

it makes extensive use of capitalisation for words which are no longer capitalised
in modern English. Despite this archaism, the spelling itself conforms to modern
patterns, as does the punctuation.

Vocabulary This text uses a lot of unusual vocabulary, which suggests it

belongs to a particular register of language. For example, phrases such as
'Provisional Liquidator', 'said Company' and 'finding caution before extract' are
all terms specific to the legal field. There are also archaisms - 'desirous', 'notice is
hereby given' - and a highly Latinate vocabulary: that is, words which have
derived from Latin, such as 'Interlocutor', 'petition' and 'intimation'.

Syntax The extract is one single, complex sentence, containing several

subordinate clauses. Their relation to one another is very difficult to follow, with
the clauses containing relevant information interspersed with those containing
additional or minor information.
The following activity asks you to analyse texts using the same framework.
 112 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE

ACTIVITY 7.6
] Read the two extracts below, one of which was written in 1816 and the other in
1944.
2 Analyse each one according to the three categories of graphology, vocabulary
and syntax.
3 What are the main differences between the two extracts?
4 What effect do the differences have on your understanding of each text?

1 Report of the Parliamentary Committee on the Education of the Lower Orders in the
Metropolis and Beyond. 1816.
The Select Committee appointed to inquire into the Education of the Lower Orders in
the Metropolis, and to report their Observations thereupon...
...have found reason to conclude, that a very large number of poor Children are zvholly
without the means of Instruction, although their parents appear to be generally
desirous of obtaining that advantage for them.
Your committee have also observed with much satisfaction, the highly beneficial effects
produced upon all those parts of the Population which, assisted in whole or in part by
various Charitable Institutions, have enjoyed the benefits of education.
Your committee have not had time this Session fully to report their Opinion upon the
different branches of their Inquiry, but feel persuaded that the greatest advantages
would result to this Country from Parliament taking proper measures, in concurrence
with the prevailing disposition in the Community, for supplying the deficiency of the
means of Instruction which exists at present, and for extending this blessing to the
Poor of all descriptions.

2 The Education Act 1944

Part 1
1. It shall be laivful for His Majesty to appoint a Minister (hereinafter referred to as
'the Minister') whose duty it shall be to promote the education of the people of England
and Wales and the progressive development of institutions devoted to that purpose,
and to secure the effective execution by local authorities, under his control and
direction, of the national policy for providing a varied and comprehensive educational
service in every area.
Part 11.6
Subject to the provisions of Part 1 of the First Schedule to this Act, the local education
authority for each county shall be the council of the county, and the local education
authority for each county borough shall be the council of the county borough.

7.3.3 Second person personal pronouns

Another syntactic change over the past 200 years has been the disappearance of
the distinction between the second person personal pronouns thou and you. The
distinction in use between these two forms corresponded to a similar distinction
still current in French, tu and vous. Late Middle English typically distributed them
as shown in the table:
 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE 113

singular plural

subject thou/ye ye

object thee/you you

From the late thirteenth century, when French was the official language of
England, the influence of the French vous meant that the plural ye/you began to be
used as a polite singular. Ye/you thus contrasted with the singular thou/thee.
During the fifteenth century, you began to be used as a singular subject
pronoun. This singular you tended to be used by inferiors to superiors, for
example by children to parents, or by servants to masters, while thou/thee was
used to signal intimacy and when addressing God. Amongst themselves, the
upper classes preferred to address one another as you, whereas the lower classes
used thou. Even so, switches between you and thou happened often, both within
and between social classes, particularly for emotional reasons. An angry person
might say thou even to a superior, and the upper classes might use thou to one
another to signal anger, intimacy or affection. In Shakespeare's plays, and in
Renaissance literature generally, changes of pronoun between thou/thee and you
are indicative of the continually fluctuating relationships between characters.
During the sixteenth century, increasing social mobility and competition
between the rising merchant class and the aristocracy meant that by
Shakespeare's time there was considerable confusion about the use of the two
different forms. The radical Quaker movement in the seventeenth century used
thou for everyone as an act of levelling social relationships between people. The
distinction eventually collapsed, with only the pronoun you surviving. Thou now
appears only in registers where archaism is intended, including poetry.
In religious texts, thou tends to function as a mark of respect rather than of
inferiority, as in the King James Authorised Version of the Bible, written in 1611,
where biblical characters address God as 'thou'. Even at that time, the form had
already become archaic in speech, surviving in print because the King James Bible
used as its source an earlier (sixteenth-century) version. The Authorised Version
was the most widely used translation of the Bible until the middle of this century.
The New English Bible, published in 1961, adopted a translation more in keeping
with modern forms of English. In recent years, some Christian groups and
churches have adopted this version or other recent translations, whilst others
have kept to the King James version.

ACTIVITY 7.7
1 In pairs, choose an extract from a text first printed in the sixteenth or
seventeenth century, such as a Shakespeare play, which uses both you and
thee/thou.
2 How can you account for the variation between the two forms?
3 Underline or write out any words which are unfamiliar to you.
a Can you make a guess at what they mean from their context?
b Why do you think these words are no longer in common use?
 114 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE

4 What other comments can you make about the syntax, vocabulary and
graphology of the extract?
5 In what ways does your analysis add to your understanding of the text?

7.4 Phonology

7.4.1 Rhyme
Another element that has changed is the way in which we pronounce our words.
Between the time of Chaucer and that of Shakespeare, a definite change in the
way English was pronounced occurred: this is called the Great Vowel Shift. The
precise reasons for this change are somewhat uncertain, although several
attempts have been made to explain it. Whereas we would find it difficult to
understand Chaucer were we to meet him in the street today, we would not have
too much of a problem with Shakespeare, particularly if we drew on the resources
of modern English dialects other than standard English. For example, the West
Country dialect and its corresponding accent have preserved the sounds of
sixteenth-century English in ways which current southern dialects have not. Even
so, just as there was no standardised way of spelling words during the period
from 1400 to 1700, so too was there a tremendous variation in pronunciation,
particularly of vowel sounds.
One area where these changes can be perceived in writing is in poetry which
uses rhyme, where words have so altered their pronunciation that where once
they would have rhymed, they no longer do so.
For example, the 'a' in a word like have is usually pronounced as a short vowel
today, but in the Middle Ages its pronunciation varied between short and long, so
that it could rhyme with words like gave and crave, as it does in Spenser's poem
The Faerie Queen (1590-96). 'A' as in shall also had a variant pronunciation that
made it possible to rhyme it with call and all. The combinations 'ea' and 'ee',
which are indistinguishable today, would have had different pronunciations in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For example, the 'ea' in the word sea
would have been pronounced [e:], that is as a Scot would pronounce say or a
French person ne, whereas see would have the vowel it has today, [i:]. It was not
until the eighteenth century that 'ea' words began to rhyme with 'ee' words,
although the identification of 'ea' with a long 'a' has lingered in words like break,
great and steak.
The 'k' at the beginning of words like knee and knight was also pronounced in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as was the '-ed' at the end of words if the
metre in which the verse was written required it. Shakespeare wrote many of his
plays in the verse metre known as an iambic pentameter (see 4.1.3 above). In lines
6,10 and 30 of Gloucester's opening speech in Richard III, the '-ed' in each line
must be sounded for the rhythm to emerge as an iambic pentameter:
Our bruised arms hung up for monuments
And now - instead of mounting barbed steeds
I am determined to prove a villain
 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE 115

7.4.2 Stress
One of the features of speech is the stress we place on syllables of words. Some
languages have a regular pattern of syllabic stress, but English does not. In some
English words, where the stress is placed can vary. For example, take the word
fifteen. If this word comes at the end of a sentence, we stress the second syllable:
He's only fifteen. But if a stressed word follows fifteen, we stress the first syllable, as
in Looking back fifteen years...
Deciding which syllable to stress in English is not easy, because there is no
regular syllabic patterning to guide us. In poetry, however, a sense of rhythm can
be achieved by ordering words with a regular number of syllables into lines
which form a particular stress pattern. One of the most well-known poetic meters
in English is the iambic pentameter, the meter in which Shakespeare wrote much
of his poetry and many plays (see 4.1.3). Such a regular patterning of sound in
poetry gives words a rhythm they don't usually have in ordinary speech.
Where the stress falls within a word can also change over time, so that the
syllable on which the stress falls in the iambic pentameter of Shakespeare's verse
may not be the syllable on which the stress most commonly falls today. For
example, in the following two lines, the stress on the word antique falls on the first
syllable, rather than the second, which is more usual today:
FIRST PLAYER: Striking too short at Greeks. His antique sword
Hamlet II.2.471-2
SALISBURY: In this antique and well-noted face
King John IV.2.21

However, it is very difficult to generalise about patterns of stress in English,

particularly as different dialects of English may stress words differently. When
you are reading poetry and verse, it may help to establish first of all if a meter is
being used and the pattern of stress within it, since this will give you some clues
as to how to say the words in a way that is consistent with the intended rhythm of
the verse. If the stress patterns are different to your own, the chances are that the
poetry is not modern.
Stress in words which had a foreign origin also used to be much more flexible
than it is now. The word comrade, for example, from Spanish/French, was
sometimes stressed on the second syllable, as in the first two examples below, but
in the third it is stressed on the first, as in modern usage.
POLONIUS: Of each new-hatched unfledged comrade. Beware.
Hamlet 1.3.65
HOTSPUR: And his comrades that daffed the word aside
Henry IV Part 1. IV. 1.96
LEAR: To be a comrade with the wolf and owl
King Lear II.2.382

Given the many ways in which both spoken and written language have
changed over the centuries, it is no wonder that texts written in earlier times
appear so strange to us now. Nevertheless, as this section suggests, it is possible
to trace connections between present forms and earlier ones which will help you
to understand those earlier texts.
 116 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE

7.5 Engineering language change

The changes discussed so far in this unit have been those which have not
happened in any conscious way, but have evolved independently. Another type
of change is that which is made deliberately One example of this in recent times
have been changes to the words used to describe ethnic groups. Words which had
been commonly used are now perceived as derogatory. The use of words such as
yid, nigger and sambo, for example, is viewed as offensive to those they describe
and their use in contemporary writing tends to be avoided except in examples.
One major area of influence on language in recent years has been the increasing
recognition of the fact that there are many elements in language which are sexist
and which offend women. To counter this, attempts have been made to reform
language in a variety of ways, which have altered its use in both speech and
writing. For example, discriminatory words have been replaced by neutral ones:
chair or chairperson in place of chairman, humankind instead of mankind, staff instead
of manpower, and so on. Another strategy has been to use derogatory words such
as crone, dyke and virago in a positive way, or to coin new words to mark women's
difference from men, as in using the word herstory in place of history.
Much of the influence of feminism has centred on vocabulary, but some would
argue that the very grammar of the language is sexist as well. The most obvious
example of this is using the pronoun he to refer to both men and women, making
women invisible. This is now far less common than it once was.
However, although it is possible to make conscious changes to language on a
small scale, getting them adopted is not so easy. Although in Britain we do not
have an established 'keeper' of language, like the Academie in France, we do
have 'defenders' of language: institutions such as the media, education, the
government and so on. All too often change is perceived as 'corrupting' or
'debasing' the language, as letters on this subject printed in newspapers every
day testify. If change itself is seen as undesirable, then engineering language
change may, to some, appear even less so. Engineering language change itself has
given rise in the 1990s to a new phrase, 'political correctness', meaning a
conscious adoption of non-sexist, non-racist forms of language.
Generally, though, changes in English occur outside the conscious control of
particular individuals or groups. Even if the 'defenders of language' attempt to
resist change, there is no guarantee that they will be successful. Attempts to keep
language 'pure' - i.e. unaffected by change - are inevitably doomed to fail.
Equally, although the influence of ideas such as feminism on language is an
example of how language can change, deliberate attempts to change language can
be unacceptable. A prescriptive attitude towards change rooted in feminism has
as little change of succeeding as the attempts of the eighteenth-century
grammarians. Although feminism has had some effect on changing language use,
particularly in vocabulary and the use of pronouns, its attempts at prescribing
change have sometimes backfired. For example, we differentiate titles for women
in a way we do not for men: the alternatives Miss or Mrs for women depend on
their marital status, whereas Mr for men does not. An attempt was made in the
1960s to introduce an alternative, neutral form of address for women which
would not reveal marital status and would have the same status as Mr. However,
this alternative, Ms rather than being used instead of Mrs or Miss, has in fact been
 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE 117

used in addition, so that women are now faced with three choices when it comes
to filling out a form, rather than the one that was intended or the two that existed
previously. This illustrates how language change cannot be brought about
artificially: attitudes have to change, too.
As we have seen, the reasons for changes in written language are many and
varied, but in general it seems that it happens as a result of alterations to the way
we live, be they due to wars, inventions or changes in social attitudes.

7.6 Language change and the literary canon

One of the largest and most accessible categories of text to survive through the
centuries has been fiction, in the form of novels, plays and poems. Many of these
are frequently chosen for study as part of examination courses and in college and
university departments of English.

7.6.1 Historical periods in literature

You may find it helpful to familiarise yourself with some of the writing that has
survived from different historical periods. The following is a brief guide to some
of the most well-known writers, divided into broad groups by date.

The Renaissance
This period (late sixteenth to late seventeenth century) is associated mainly with
plays and poetry of writers such as William Shakespeare, Thomas Middleton, Ben
Jonson, John Donne and John Milton. It includes a period sometimes called the
Restoration, in the late seventeenth century, notably the works of playwrights
such as John Dryden and William Congreve.

Neo-classicism
This period (mid-eighteenth to early nineteenth century) is associated with
poetry, particularly that of a group of poets known collectively as the Romantics,
which included William Blake, John Keats, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William
Wordsworth, Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron; it is also known for the plays
of William Goldsmith and the novels of Jane Austen.

Realism
This period (mid to late nineteenth century) is associated most often with the
development of the novel, particularly those of Thomas Hardy, Charles Dickens,
George Eliot, Oscar Wilde and William Thackeray.

Modernism
This period (first half of the twentieth century) is associated with writers who
consciously experimented with all three literary genres - novels, plays and poetry
- such as Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, E.M. Forster and T.S. Eliot.
 118 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE

Post-modernism
This period (since 1945) has seen developments in all three literary genres by
writers such as Harold Pinter, Tom Stoppard, Angela Carter, Jack Kerouac, W.H.
Auden and Philip Larkin.
During the latter half of this century, the number of writers writing in English
about a post-colonial life has increased, as generations of post-colonial children
and immigrants to England have grown up. This has also led to a widening and
diversification of language use, with considerable variations from standard
English. Poets such as Lynton Kwesi Johnson, for example, write their poetry and
song in a written equivalent of their spoken dialect. In many modern literature
courses, the range of writing offered for study is wide ranging, and it is possible
to specialise in American, African or Afro-Caribbean literature as well as in
English literature.

7.6.2 Analysing language in literary texts

The divisions given above are by no means fixed or definitive, nor do they
encompass all writing, but they may give you some idea of the range of writing
available to you. As well as these historical divisions, you may also encounter
divisions by type or genre, such as gothic, romance, historical, science fiction,
horror or detective fiction, including works by some of the authors listed above.
These categories organise fiction into type rather than historical period.
If you are faced with a text that is set in a historical period, there are usually
plenty of clues within it as to what period it is. Stories, plays and poems which
describe characters and/or events usually provide us with a description of where
the action is set. However, although the content of fiction, and particularly its use
of vocabulary, will give us plenty of clues as to when it was written, writers may
also use a historical setting for a contemporary novel or play. For example, many
of Shakespeare's plays, especially his history plays, are set in the past. Robert
Bolt's play A Man For All Seasons is set in Tudor England, but was written in the
1960s. Historical novels or plays written today but set in a different time may use
archaic vocabulary as well as a period setting. On the other hand, although
graphology can provide clues as to when texts were printed, aspects of
graphology such as typography and spelling are also modernised as older texts
get reprinted, making it difficult to tell from the print used how old a text is,
unless we have an older version in front of us.
There are, however, clues to when a text was written in its sentence structure.
Modern writers will probably use contemporary sentence construction, while
writers of the past, writing of events that were contemporary to them, would
have used the written language style of their time, which seems archaic to us.
Considering graphology, vocabulary, syntax and phonology together will help
you to identify the period in which a text was written, particularly if editing
practices have not altered the original text.

ACTIVITY 7.8
Read the three extracts below and answer the following questions on each one.
J Decide in which century you think the extract was written and when it is set.
2 What is each extract about? How did this help you to decide the period in
which it is set?
 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE 119

3 Which particular features of the writing helped you to decide when each
extract was written?
4 Pick out and note down any words or phrases which helped you to decide this
and discuss why they did.
5 What can you tell about where each extract is set?
6 Is the 'thirty years ago' referred to in extracts 1 and 2 the same thirty years?
How can you tell?
7 Pick out any sentences you found difficult to understand. Think about why
this was so (for example, whereabouts in the sentence the subject and the verb
group or groups appear).
8 Choose one of the three extracts and rewrite it in modern English, as if it were
a historical novel or play being written now.
9 What changes have you made? What do these changes tell you about the ways
in which language itself has changed?

1 Thirty years ago, Marseilles lay burning in the sun, one day. A blazing sun upon a
fierce August day was no greater rarity in southern France then, than at any other
time, before or since. Everything in Marseilles, and about Marseilles, had stared at the
fervid sky, and been stared at in return, until a staring habit had become universal
there. Strangers were stared out of countenance by staring white houses, staring white
walls, staring white streets, staring tracts of arid road, staring hills from which
verdure was burnt away. The only things to be seen not fixedly staring and glaring
were the vines drooping under their load of grapes. These did occasionally wink a little,
as the hot air barely moved their faint leaves...
Far away the dusty vines overhanging wayside cottages, and the monotonous wayside
avenues of parched trees without shade, drooped beneath the stare of earth and sky. So
did the horses with drowsy bells, in long files of carts, creeping slowly towards the
interior; so did their recumbent drivers, when they were awake, which rarely happened;
so did the exhausted labourers in the fields. Everything that lived or grew, was
oppressed by the glare; except the lizard, passing swiftly over rough stone walls and
the cicala, chirping his hot dry chirp, like a rattle.
Charles Dickens: Little Dorrit

2 About thirty years ago, Miss Maria Ward of Huntingdon, with only seven thousand
pounds, had the good luck to captivate Sir Thomas Bertram, of Mansfield Park, in the
county of Northampton, and to be thereby raised to the rank of a baronet's lady, with
all the comforts and consequences of an handsome house and large income. All
Huntingdon exclaimed at the greatness of the match, and her uncle, the lawyer
himself, allowed her to be at least three thousand pounds short of any equitable claim to
it. She had two sisters to be benefited by her elevation; and such of their acquaintance
as thought Miss Ward and Miss Frances quite as handsome as Miss Maria, did not
scruple to predict their marrying with almost equal advantage. But there certainly are
not so many men of large fortune in the world, as there are pretty women to deserve
them. Miss Ward, at the end of half a dozen years, found herself obliged to be attached
to the Rev. Mr Norris, a friend of her brother-in-law, with scarcely any private fortune,
and Miss Frances fared yet worse.
Jane Austen: Mansfield Park
 120 7. WRITTEN LANGUAGE CHANGE

3 One knock without.

VOLPONE: Who's that? Away! Look, Mosca.
MOSCA: Fool, begane!
(Exuent NANO, CASTRONE, and ANDROGYNO.)
'Tis Signior Voltore, the advocate;
I know him by his knock.
VOLPONE: Fetch me my gown,
My furs, and night-caps; say my couch is changing,
And let him entertain himself awhile
Without i' th’ gallery.
(Exit MOSCA.)
Now, now, my clients
Begin their visitation! Vulture, kite,
Raven, and gorcrow, all my birds of prey,
That think me turning carcass, now they come,
I am not for'em yet.
(Enter MOSCA with gown, furs, etc)
How now? What news?
[changing = being made]
Ben Jonson: Volpone. Act 1
 teg Re-representing
Texts

3 Re-representing texts

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Strategies, considerations and approaches
8.2 Text organisation
8.3 Summary: a successful text

8.0 Introduction
Part 1 of this book has stressed the interrelation between the way words and
sentences are used to create a text and their meaning. The following two units
apply the same principles used in the first part of the book, but this time to your
own writing and creation of texts, especially where you are required to write in a
particular format with a particular audience in mind, using pre-selected source
material. This unit considers ways of approaching a writing task of this kind that
can be applied to virtually any task you may be asked to do, whilst Unit 9
contains a range of practice activities based on a wider selection of material.
As Part 1 of this book has shown, there is a wide variety of textual forms, many
of which you will probably not be used to writing: reports, booklets, articles for
newspapers and magazines and scripted talks, amongst others. Even if you have
had some experience of writing in these different forms, you may not have given
too much thought to the particular audience for whom you were writing. Much
of the writing you will have done, in whatever form, will most probably have
been for a limited audience. You will probably have been involved in the writing
process all the way through, from finding out your information to writing your
text and presenting it in a final format.
The writing you are asked to do in text transformation tasks requires you to use
your reading and writing skills in very specific and possibly unfamiliar ways. It is
with these that this unit is concerned.
A writer's success in communicating information owes much to his or her
ability to write in a particular form and style. This is true of any writing that we
do. There are, though, many different types of writing, each with their own
 122 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS

textual conventions. Rather than attempting to describe each one, the remaining
sections of this unit will describe general principles and approaches to text
transformation tasks, which can be applied to any task, whatever its particular
requirement may be.

8.1 Strategies, considerations and

approaches
One important consideration that you will have to take into account before you
approach your re-representation task is that all the information you will need will
have been gathered for you already, usually from a variety of different textual
sources. This aspect of writing is usually a time-consuming one, and
re-representing this material may seem an easy and straightforward thing to do,
since someone else has already done all the donkey work for you. You may well
think that it simply involves sorting through and selecting the material you have,
then cutting it out and arranging it in a particular sequence to match the
typographical requirements of the text you have been asked to produce.
It's not that simple!
Your task is to use the information given in the material, which will be on a
particular topic, to write a new text in a specified format, such as a prepared talk,
magazine or newspaper article, information booklet or chapter of a book. There is
far more to a task of this kind than simply finding the relevant information and
writing it out or cutting and pasting it into the appropriate format, such as a
booklet or exhibition notes. Even though you will be expected to use the
information provided within the material that has been gathered for you, your
task will be to re-represent that material as a completely new text, written for a
particular purpose and a specific audience.
Your re-representation will almost certainly require a substantial rewrite of the
information contained within the source material if it is to achieve any sense of
coherence or if its message is to reach its intended audience. Writing of this kind
does not involve you so much in showing that you know the information you
have been given, which is the purpose of most writing you do in school or
college, as in proving that you can present it in a way which communicates the
message successfully to the intended audience. These two different approaches
might appear to be similar, but they are in fact very different, and require very
different skills.
You will need to understand the source material, interpret it and adapt it to
make a new text. This will involve you in re-representing and editing the source
material for an audience which will be different to the one for which each text
within the source material was originally intended.

8.1.1 Understanding the source material

Fulfilling your task requires you to understand the content of the source material
in order to make appropriate selections from it to write your particular text.
First of all, you can be certain that the material you are given to do your task
will always be more than you actually need. The success of your completed task
 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS 123

will depend on your ability to combine material from a number of different

sources, which have been written for a variety of audiences and in different
formats, to form a new, coherent text. Your text will also need to bear in mind its
specific, intended audience, which may affect the particular language style you
adopt. This style may be different from any used in the source texts. Thus,
although your source material will provide you with all the information you
need, you will almost certainly need to select what is relevant and appropriate for
the target audience before rewriting it.
The first part of the process, understanding your source material, can be
achieved by following the procedure below.
Skim the material first; this means reading it through quickly to get an overall
feel for its content and to make initial judgements about its purpose. It might help
to make notes on a separate sheet of paper for each extract as you go along,
leaving space to add further information later on.
Read the material through again, this time making sure that you understand it
all and checking the meaning of any words with which you are unfamiliar.
Familiarise yourself with which parts of the material are giving facts, and which
are opinion. You may find it useful to use a highlighting pen or make notes in the
margin as you go along.
Summarise each text which forms part of your source material. On a sheet of
paper list the titles and write a brief summary of each different text in two or
three sentences.
Remember that you should use only the information given in this source
material when you write your own text. How you use the information and how
much of it is up to you, and will probably depend to a large extent on the nature
of the task set. It does not help in any way to add any extra information other
than that contained within the material.

8.1.2 Interpreting the source material

Once you have read through the source material and made sure you understand
it, you will need to be certain that you are sufficiently familiar with it to express it
in a variety of potential different ways. The context for which and within which
each text of your source material was written will almost certainly have been
different in every case. Each text will have been written with a different audience
and purpose in mind. As you read each one, therefore, it is important that you
should keep in mind the context within which it was produced. For example, a
newspaper article may include people's personal details and quoted speech,
whereas a scientific report would list facts and figures in a much more impersonal
way. Both are presenting facts and information, but in very different ways. You
need to be able to separate the facts the source material contains from the contexts
in which they are used, so that you can re-use them in an entirely different context.
Before you are ready to do this, it will be helpful to categorise the source
material according to the different areas of the topic which it covers. Although
there will be a central theme or subject, this will probably have between three and
five different aspects, covered to varying degrees by the various texts. Give each
different aspect a sub-heading and list the texts which belong to it. You may find
that some texts belong under more than one sub-heading.
 124 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS

8.1.3 Adapting the source material

Once you have been given and/or chosen your task, you can begin to consider
how to adapt the source material to create your own text. Before you begin to
write, you will need to select the material containing the relevant information
you know you are going to use, and abandon the rest. You can do this in a variety
of ways: by highlighting the parts of texts you are going to use and drawing a line
through the rest, by separating your chosen material from the rest, or by a
combination of both. You will probably find that you will use between half and
three-quarters of the information that can be found in the texts that make up your
source material. The rest you will not use at all.
One important consideration in adapting the information given in the source
material is that the text you create will need to be written in a coherent way. It
may be appropriate for you to use scissors to cut and paste material you have
been given into the text you are writing. However, it is important to remember
that you are creating a text of your own, with its own unique tone and style.
Including long extracts in someone else's tone and style will make your own text
appear disjointed, as they will almost certainly have been written for different
purposes and with different audiences in mind. Nevertheless, if there are a few
lines that you feel are appropriate, or would work well as a quote, then it may be
quicker to cut and paste than copy out. This will not be the case for single
sentences: it would be far quicker to write these out.
There can be no hard and fast rules as to how much of your final text is in your
own words and how much is taken from what has already been written, but as a
rough guide it is unlikely that more than a third of your total word count will
consist of text lifted straight from its original source.

8.1.4 Re-representing the source material

Once you are familiar with both the source material and your task, and have
selected the relevant information from the texts that make up the source material,
you can then begin to think of re-representing it in a text of your own. Before you
begin, there are some further general points you need to be clear about to help
you undertake your task.

Audience
Everything we write is written not in a vacuum but within a context of some
kind. Whatever we write, we write for someone. A diary, a shopping list or
attempts at writing a novel may be for our own eyes only, an audience of one, but
the majority of writing that we see around us is targeted at a wider audience.
Comics and general interest magazines, for example, are written with a specific
audience in mind, which determines not only their format but also their content:
children, teenagers, young or old people, men or women, and so on. Special
interest magazines are usually written to appeal to people with a reading age of
sixteen or above who share a common interest, such as computing, fashion, sport,
babies, music, gardening or fishing. Alternatively, such magazines can be
specifically aimed at a younger audience, which in turn will affect the way in
which information is written and presented.
 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS 125

Other texts are written for a more specialist audience, assuming a degree of
shared knowledge: academic text books, in-house company newsletters, technical
and legal reports, and so on. It is highly unlikely that you will be asked to write
such a text for a specialist audience of any kind. All the information you will need
to re-represent will be contained within the source material, and you will not
have to have any prior knowledge of its subject matter.
Equally, the task you are set will not ask you to write a text where the material
is beyond the capability of an average adult: the audience for your task with be
either the general public or children or young people of a specified age up to
eighteen. It is likely, therefore, that you will be asked to write a text which will
have general appeal.
Whom we are writing for affects the register that we use (see 1.3 above). Texts
written for a younger audience, say up to sixteen years of age, tend to have
vocabulary that is usually simpler or less sophisticated, with more explanation of
unfamiliar terms. Even so, the ideas contained in them may be just as complicated
as those in writing intended for an older audience.

Purpose
A further important consideration that you must bear in mind is what your
writing is aiming to do. Is it to entertain, persuade, inform or instruct? Whichever
category your writing falls into will affect how it is written to achieve its purpose.
Some or all of the texts you will be given to work with will have been written for
a different purpose to the one you will have in mind. Even if the purpose is the
same, the audience for which you are writing will probably be different.
Section 2.5 above distinguished between four different functions of sentences: as
statements, commands, exclamations and questions. When you are re¬
representing information in your text, it is important to consider the kind of
sentences you are going to use. Commands may be appropriate in an instruction
manual, for example, but not in an information booklet. If you are going to write
commands, are they going to be uncompromisingly direct (First place the material
on the table) or will it be more appropriate to modify them with modals to make
them more user friendly (It may be a good idea to...)? Exclamations are used
frequently in poetry, and it is a good idea to ask yourself the reason for using an
exclamation instead of a statement. Similarly, if questions are asked it is
important that they are answered.
Your selection of material will also be linked to what your specific purpose is.
Part of your task in re-representing information taken from a variety of different
texts is to be consistent in your approach, so that your text clearly matches its
purpose. One way in which this can be done is by making sure that the tone of
your writing is appropriate to its audience. Take care, for example, that you do
not make your writing complicated or over simplified for the intended audience.
You will also need to make your presentation of the topic interesting, even if
you do not find it interesting yourself. This is perhaps one of the most challenging
aspects of this kind of task, since usually we have some degree of interest in the
subject about which we are writing. It is hard to write about computers or music,
for example, if you know absolutely nothing about either and find the topic
completely dull. Nevertheless, you will need to keep your intended audience
interested. How you weave your text together will play an important part in
keeping up the momentum of your writing.
 126 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS

Text type
Generally, different types of text are written and organised according to
conventions, particularly those of layout and graphology. This aspect of the
process is one that needs to be borne in mind when you are drafting your writing,
although this does not necessarily mean that you have to include all those
features, for example making your text physically look like a booklet.
Nevertheless, considerations of what your finished text might look like will
probably affect the way you write and do need to be taken into account, which is
where notes to an editor or publisher come in (see 8.1.5 below). Booklets, chapters
of textbooks and radio scripts are examples of three distinctive text types which
you may be asked to write.

Booklets These usually present their information in a very visual format,

interspersing text with pictures and breaking it up into sections. In your draft,
you will probably want to indicate somewhere how the information you have
written is to be presented. For example, you may want some information to
spread across a double page, or to have columns of text interspersed with boxed
or highlighted blocks of text. You may design and write the text for the front and
back covers of the booklet separately to the main text.
There are all kinds of ways of approaching this task without producing an
actual booklet, although that is one way of doing it. Another alternative is to
write your script as one continuous draft, carrying one page over onto another.
When you finish writing, you could then draw a mock-up of how you would
wish the finished text to appear.
Magazine articles share common principles of typography with booklets, in that
they are self-contained pieces of writing, where the text is usually presented in a
variety of different ways, rather than simply reading left to right across the page.

Textbook chapters Unlike booklets, textbook chapters will, by their very

nature, be part of a much longer text. Nevertheless, a chapter is a complete unit
within a much larger one. It is probably safe to assume that the layout you
envisage would apply to the whole book, and you could even make reference to
previous or forthcoming chapters in the book.
Textbooks may be designed with writing running across the page from left to
right, or the text may be broken up into columns. A page of dense print is not
very appealing to look at, and often it will be broken up with illustrations,
su88es*:e<^ activities or questions which relate to the main part of the text. As the
writer, you have a choice as to how you draft your writing; you could write the
main text first, then draft additional elements afterwards, or draft your chapter as
a continuous script. It will not be necessary for you to consider the front and back
covers of the book, although you will have to give your chapter a title.

Radio scripts These are meant to be spoken and listened to, rather than read,
and this affects the way in which they are presented. Usually, a radio script will
give information on who is speaking, what is said and any sound effects to be
included. Any text which involves representing spoken speech - talk, audio
cassettes, speeches or lectures, as well as radio and play scripts - will involve a
special kind of writing. It is important to break up the potential monotony of a
long monologue by having different speakers, a narrator, dramatised parts and so
on; this is particularly true in a radio programme, which relies on sound as its
 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS 127

medium rather than sound and sight. Radio programmes very often make use of
sound effects and music to break up the monotony of spoken sound (see also
8.2.2 below).
A sample radio drama script is reproduced below. This is taken from a booklet
called Writing for the BBC.

(FADE UP EXTERIOR ACOUSTIC.

SKYLARKS HEARD DISTANTLY.
CLOSER TO. THE RUSTLING OF BUSHES AS
A MAN BREAKS THROUGH)
MAN: (Close to mike, pants heavily)
JOHNSON: (A little away) You're late.
MAN: (Sharp intake of breath)
JOHNSON: You are precisely two minutes and fifty seconds late.
MAN: There was a hitch. The train was late. Where the devil...
(BUSHES RUSTLE AGAIN)
JOHNSON: (Approaching) Right behind you. I was waiting.
MAN: I told you, the train was delayed. I came as quickly as I
could.
JOHNSON: And the old lady?
MAN: It's all right. She just caught it.
JOHNSON: Just caught it?
MAN: (Wearily) First-class compartment, three carriages from the
front, comer seat facing the engine. A non-smoker, of
course. Just as you said.
JOHNSON: Good.
(A PAUSE)
MAN: So what now?
JOHNSON: So what now? That's all. You're finished.
MAN: Finished? But I thought -
JOHNSON: (Softly) I said, you're finished.
(A PISTOL FIRES CLOSE TO MIKE.
CUT TO THE SCREAM OF A SIREN AS A DIESEL
TRAIN RUSHES PAST.
CROSSFADE FROM CLATTERING WHEELS TO INTERIOR
OF TRAIN. A CLOSE ACOUSTIC IN WHICH TRAIN NOISE IS
MINIMUM. HOLD BRIEFLY TO ESTABLISH)

MISS TREE (Gently, close to mike) Young man.

YOUNG MAN I beg your pardon?... Oh, I see.
MISS TREE Thank you so much. But it is a non-smoker. I always make a
point of insisting, you know. Trains nowadays are so dirty
anyway, don't you think?

These three examples should enable you to take layout into account when
approaching your draft script. You need not worry too much whether what you
have written looks like or imitates the actual published text form. What matters is
that your draft is written in such a way that it is clear what its final published or
recorded version will be like.
 128 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS

Length
The instructions for your task will usually specify how long your text is to be,
either in word length or the time it takes to speak. How long the text is to be is
usually a fair indication of how detailed its content is to be.
Your success as a writer of jingles or adverts, for example, will be very short¬
lived if they are twenty lines or ten minutes long. Similarly, a brief report which
turns out to be 200 pages long or an in-depth study of 200 words is not going to
go down well with its intended audience. The word or time limit set will usually
reflect the length of texts similar to the one you are writing.
Word count It is a good idea to get used to what 100, 200 and 500 words of your
own writing look like, and to calculate the average number of words you write on
a line. Covering a side of A4 paper with average-sized handwriting will usually
take approximately 250 words, although individual handwriting varies
considerably. To get a rough idea of how many words you write, take a line of
your writing and count up the number of words you have written. Total the
number of lines you have written and multiply the two numbers together. For
example, the approximate word count for a piece of writing which averages ten
words a line and is 200 lines long will be 2000 words.
It is also important to remember that the total word count is just that: the total
number of words you are to write, which includes any instructions such as the
title, instructions for editing, etc.

Time count As well as getting an idea of how many words you usually write on
a page, it is also a good idea to estimate how long your text will take to speak.
This can be done by timing yourself saying a given number of words aloud, using
a watch or clock, so that you get an idea of how many words will fit into a minute
(usually between 100 and 150, depending on any pauses that may be included).

Conclusion
None of the various considerations described above works independently of the
others. Rather, they work together to form a coherent, organised and
communicative text which will fulfil its purpose. For example, you may write the
required number of words, but not make it clear who is the intended audience for
your writing or take sufficient account of conventions associated with the
particular text form. It is worth taking a minute or two when you are reading or
listening to different kinds of text - a schools' broadcast, magazines, brochures,
programme notes - to take note of their particular conventions and the effect
these have on the presentation and content of the material.

8.1.5 Editing
There are several stages to the editing part of the re-representation process. First
of all, you will need to select the material which contains the information that is
most suitable to your assignment. You will have to take it from one context and fit
it into another, or recontextualise it.
The text you write may however have two audiences. If it is a text that is to be
printed, then as well as the text itself you may be asked to write notes for an
editor to help him or her to turn your writing into its final, published form. If it is
a text that is to be spoken, it will include information for the director and the
speakers of the text as well as the words themselves.
 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS 129

In theory, what you write will not be the final version, since most public writing
that we do passes through the hands of a publisher, editor or director. Even
speeches or talks that are given to a public audience can be subsequently
published, which will almost certainly include editing. The task that you are
doing is continuing on from something someone else has already done, the
research, and will be handed on to a further person, a publisher. It may be helpful
to think of the task you are involved in as part of a process that has already
started and will be completed by someone else. The stages of this editing process
are as follows.

First stage Selecting a topic and finding information on it. This stage will
already have been done for you, and you have no need to find any other material
to add to it.

Second stage This stage will require you to select the information you need to
fulfil your specific task before you begin writing. This is where your part of the
editing process begins.

Third stage Once you have selected the relevant information you need, your
task is to write a draft script, in a way which is appropriate to its intended form,
purpose and audience. There is usually no need to make your writing look like
the text you are aiming to write, such as a glossy brochure or a typed radio script,
since these form part of next stage. Section 8.2 below goes into this writing
process in much more detail.

Fourth stage Publishing or making public the final text. You are not expected
to take part in this final stage, which would usually, in real life, be carried out by
someone else. In order to have some control over what is done, however, you may
find it helpful (or you may be specifically asked) to include notes to the editor,
publisher or director which would help them to fulfil your intentions. For
instance, you might indicate such things as typeface and type size, the position of
illustrations, captions and so on, which are additional to the text you are actually
writing. For an audio cassette, you might write notes about the type of
background music, or the accent of the narrator. You will need to imagine what
your text would be like in its final version, though not produce it as such
yourself.

8.2 Text organisation

How you organise and sequence your information into a new text will be of
crucial importance to the success of your task. Section 1.1 above described various
ways of categorising written language, which it may be useful to read again. The
one which will apply most in your own writing will probably be whether your
text is organised chronologically or non-chronologically.

8.2.1 Chronological and non-chronological patterns

of textual organisation
The content of a piece of writing can be organised in two main ways:
chronologically or non-chronologically (see 1.1.3). If the text you are writing is
 130 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS

chronologically organised, then to a certain extent its sequence will be determined

by the order in which events took place in time. For example, if you are writing a
magazine article following the death of a public figure or marking the
anniversary of that death, then events in that person's life will probably feature
prominently in your article, and the organisation of the writing will be based
around them.
Non-chronological writing does not depend on time or on a sequence of events
for its organisation. Instead, presenting an argument or different perspectives on
one topic could form the organisational basis for your particular text. For
example, an information booklet on health and diet is unlikely to be organised
according to a time sequence; nor is a talk on areas of outstanding natural beauty
in a particular area. Non-chronological textual organisation allows for many
different patterns of organisation.
When faced with your task, deciding which of the two different kinds of writing
yours will be is a helpful first step in approaching the organisation of the
information you are required to present.
Alternatively, the requirements of your task may mean that different parts of the
text will use different kinds of textual organisation. For example, you may be
asked to write a tour guide (chronological) which also includes information about
local places of interest (non-chronological). Again, it is important that you are
clear about the conventions associated with either kind of textual organisation.

8.2.2 Scripted texts and written texts

Another important aspect of organising your text is whether it is intended to be
read or spoken. In either case, you will need to consider different types of text
organisation. To maintain their readers' or listeners' interest, writers have a
variety of techniques at their disposal, usually associated with different kinds of
text organisation.

Written texts
\ariety in written text is usually achieved by its graphology and typography as
well as by the language style itself. These include such things as:
- laying the writing out in columns broken up with sub-headings
- boxing information to highlight key points
- large, bold-type headings
- illustrations
Although your draft does not have to look like the finished, published text, it is
important that you bear these features in mind as you are writing, as well as in
giving editorial guidance. Breaking writing up into columns, for example, does
not of itself make a magazine article; it is important that your writing in its draft
form reflects the characteristics that relate to its final, published form.

Scripted texts
As has already been pointed out, a wide variety of written texts are meant to be
spoken, particularly radio scripts and audio tapes such as information guides. In
this case, your draft script will probably reflect the final format more closely than
the draft of a written text, since it is meant to be heard, not read. Variety within
 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS 131

this kind of writing depends upon aural rather than visual elements, which can
include things like:
- using several different speakers
- varying the speakers regularly and introducing new speakers
- varying tone of voice
- interspersing talk with reading
- use of sound effects
Because a scripted text is meant to be heard, it is important that the writer
maintains the hearer's interest by varying the speaker and the tone whilst at the
same time making it easy to follow so that the hearer does not get confused by the
different voices.

8.2.3 Structuring your text

Once you have established the overall pattern of textual organisation and the
medium within which you are going to be working, you can turn your attention
to the structure and organisation of the text itself.
Whether your text is organised chronologically or non-chronologically, and is
intended to be speech or writing, starting your task with a blank sheet of paper in
front of you may appear very daunting. It is useful to think of the information,
together with the number of words and the space you will eventually cover on
paper, as a frame. Within the frame, you can structure your writing into different
sections to make sure that you cover the aspects of the topic you have selected
evenly. How the segments relate to one another will then depend upon the
overall organising principle of your writing. Structuring your material in this way
should make it easier for you to weave all its different elements together into a
coherent whole.
It is far more difficult to structure non-chronological writing than chronological,
and the examples of text frames given in the rest of this section refer to this
particular kind of textual organisation.

Presenting information
One typical type of non-chronological writing is one which presents information
on a particular topic. An informative text may follow a pattern based on the
following frame:
 132 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS

Since non-chronological writing by its very nature does not follow a linear,
time-defined structure, it is likely that the text will weave backwards and
forwards between stages, particularly stages 2 and 3. A text may present some
topics in stage 2, elaborate on them in stage 3, then repeat the cycle for further
points. Another might present each point and elaborate on it in turn. You might
leave stage 4 out altogether, depending upon the purpose of the text. For
example, consider the following text:

Introducing Gites
A gite is reasonably priced the charter of our organisation. All you the name of the village in
self-catering holiday accom¬ the properties listed in this BOLD TYPE and capital le
modation in France - part of a handbook (over 2,300) have been followed by the name of
house or an entire house - and carefully selected to provide the hamlet in Bold, Small Print. If the
almost invariably in the gite holiday maker with a good gite is in the village itself the
countryside, although some are standard of self-catering description will point this out. First
within reach of the coast. Some accommodation at a reasonable obtain a very detailed map (e.g.
gites are on farms, others in price. The vast majority of the gites I.G.N. maps - see page 320) which
small villages. Some are quite featured in this guide have been will show you where the village is
detached and rather remote, included in our selection for many (you may even find the name of the
others in a group of farm years and we know that they have hamlet!). On your arrival in that
buildings, in a house containing always met these criteria. village, simply ask anyone to show
more than one gite, or are self you the way to the hamlet or gite
contained flats in the owner’s itself.
house. But they are all in GITE RATINGS Please note that we shall be
France, and they all bear the Gites are classified by ears of corn providing you with summary
trademark of the Federation and the corresponding rating from directions to your gite at the last
Nationale des Gites Ruraux de 1 to 3 can be found in the 3rd digit stage of the booking procedure
France, which is why we call of the reference number of every (with your holiday voucher and
them Gites de France. gite. For example: Gite Ref: 242725 travel wallet). It should be stressed
24=Departmental number that the information of how to get
(Dordogne) to the gite is from the point of view
2= No. of ears of corn of the owners - it may not
GITE STANDARDS 725= Ref No. of the property necessarily be the shortest or the
In all gites, the accommodation is The standard which the rating is quickest way, so should you find a
simple and adequate. So DO NOT supposed to represent varies from better route, please let us know
EXPECT LUXURY. It should be one area to another, often a matter and we shall amend our records
stressed that the accommodation of taste and opinion. The rating and inform other gite
is self-catering and can never be may depend on the geographical holidaymakers. You are on a gite
compared with that of a three star location of the gite, the rural holiday - you may well spend
hotel. Gites are equipped for recreational activities available half an hour finding the gite but
everyday living by owners who within 20km and/or the degree of then again, where’s your
have taken care in some instances comfort, but this should only be pioneering spirit!
choosing furniture of a style to regarded as a relative indication of
match the gite, fitted bedside what to expect.
amps etc... Exceptionally a gite ARRIVAL TIME AT THE GITE
might be quite grand, in a chateau Again, you are advised to obtain a
for instance, but such is very far HOW TO FIND YOUR GITE large-scale, detailed map of the
from being the general rule. Almost all our gites are rural and area in which the gite is located,
Whatever the standard of the gite are located outside large towns or since for the most part, gites are
you will stay in, which should never cities. Practically none of them situated in or outside quite small
be compared to a luxurious villa or have a house number nor do they villages.
hotel, you can rest assured that have a street name linked to their You should try to arrive at about 4
the 45,000 properties registered address. Therefore DO NOT p.m. - the time that you are due to
with the Federation Nationale des WORRY if the full address you are take possession of your gite for the
Gites Ruraux (our head office) have given is simply the name of the term of your holiday. Similarly, you
all been approved and that each house or hamlet and the name of should arrange to leave by or
and everyone meets the standards the nearby village. The description before 10a.m. on your last day. If,
of quality and comfort laid down in of the gite in the guide will first give for any reason, you cannot get ►
 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS 133

to the gTte on the arranged day, or the latter two are harmless - a long Western Channel ferry
if you seem likely to arrive late in dormouse is in fact a protected crossings.
the day please contact the owner species in France). This applies to ★ Ease of booking your choice of
before leaving (or, if possible, write any rural area of the world, be it in en-route hotels.
or send a telegram, see sample England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland ★ Shops and banks open during
letter on page 320). or France. the week (some are closed on
If you cannot accept this, then you Mondays).
ought to reconsider your decision ★ Local Gftes de France offices
THE OWNERS about staying in the country. If you open just in case their assistance is
It is important to know that most can, you will find a Gites de France required (they are usually closed
gftes are owned by people who are holiday the ideal choice for you over the weekend).
working - generally small farmers and you will wish to book again ★ Finally, look out for our
and other country people. Like all (75% of our customers have been discounted ferry rates when
humanity they have their own doing so regularly over the past 13 crossing Sunday to Thursday!
quirks or customs, but the bonus years!)
is that, as non-professional
operators in the world of tourism, EUROP ASSISTANCE
YOUR INCLUSIVE PACKAGE
they will feel a natural obligation to PERSONAL AND VEHICLE
All gTte holidays are offered
welcome guests who are strangers COVER
on an inclusive gTte accom¬
to their country. This feeling Europ Assistance is the household
modation, vehicle insurance cover
is almost a "Golden rule" and name in France in the field of
and ferry crossing basis. However,
has considerably contributed to personal and car insurance. In
we realise that a small number of
the success of the Gites de France other words, you can motor to
you (e.g. ferry company
movement over the years. Do not France safe in the knowledge that
shareholders) may wish to book a
hesitate to ask the owners about Europ Assistance will be instantly
holiday without ferry travel. We
the locality, about their way of life, acknowledged by all, should you
shall obviously be very happy to
about their family. Talk to their require their help. What is more,
offer this alternative, if requested,
children, introduce yours to theirs! the highly competitive rates we can
although you will find that booking
Be friends - even the language offer you, as well as your vehicle
the all-inclusive package with us
difficulty, if it exists, can be insurance cover built into your
generally works out cheaper.
overcome by human under¬ basic holiday price at a fraction of
standing and gesticulations. public rates, are sure to put you in
WHEN DOES YOUR good stead when it comes to
HOLIDAY BEGIN AND END? savings. The added bonus is that
FRENCH RURAL LIFE The gftes listed in this brochure are Europ Assistance will operate a
The gTte is a product of the bookable either from Saturday to special Travel Advice Helpline
everyday and the unusual. Saturday only or from Tuesday to especially for Gftes de France
Suddenly, for a week or two, you Tuesday only. (But in the case of customers. In addition to our
enter the somewhat different world 'gftes court-sejour' - short-break telephone number, this special
of rural France and its gftes - you can arrive any day of helpline will provide you with
unpretentious farm or village life. the week and stay 2, 3 or 4 nights - holiday information or pre-travel
You will discover, for example, what see details on p. 342). Whichever advice ranging from route
it is like to live on a French farm choice you opt for though, please planning, roads and tolls to climate
and buy direct from the farmers bear in mind that booking a ferry information, or even urgent
almost all you need to put in the and on-board accommodation for message relay. Details on page 336.
pot or frying pan. You will (we departures on bank holidays or
hope!) enjoy the tranquillity and weekends in high season may From the 1994 Gftes de France Official
beauty of the French countryside sometimes prove difficult, so Handbook
and, perhaps, come to terms with travelling during other periods is
the tractor setting out early in the well worth considering. By
morning for the fields and the travelling to France mid-week (i.e.
cockerel crowing a few hours Sunday to Thursday) you will save
before you intended to rise! If you time and money and gain other
cannot, perhaps this type of benefits (see below) so we strongly
holiday is not for you! recommend this option!

HOLIDAYING IN THE ADVANTAGES OF

COUNTRYSIDE TRAVELLING MID-WEEK
Life in the country has many If you choose to travel mid-week -
advantages but also little i.e. from Sunday to Thursday - you
inconveniences. In the will reap lots of benefits:
countryside, you may encounter ★ Far less traffic both in the UK
insects, flies, dormice and and in France.
fieldmice (although they have on ★ Ease of finding car space and
occasions been confused with rats, on-board accommodation on the
 134 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS

The text frame for this extract might look something like this:

In this particular text, each point of information is introduced and elaborated

upon in turn after the initial introductory stage. Each stage is clearly marked with
a bold-type sub-heading to introduce each new topic. The purpose of the text is as
an introduction to a brochure, so there is no summing up (stage 4) at the end of it.
It is obvious, though, that there is a clear structural pattern to the way the
information is organised and presented.
The register shows markers of informality: for example, the text addresses the
reader directly in the second person as you, and identifies the writers of the text as
the people actually responsible for providing holidays, by using we. However,
there are no contractions of words, shortened or incomplete sentences or other
aspects associated with informality (see 1.3 above), which makes the register
semi-formal, recognising the distance between the reader and the text whilst at
the same time trying to make it 'user friendly'. The vocabulary is straightforward,
with any unfamiliar terms explained, so that anyone new to holidaying in a gite
will be just as comfortable with the material as those who have done it before.
Within the text frame, therefore, the organisational structure, the vocabulary
and grammar used, the register and the actual information provided all interact
with one another to produce a coherent text which successfully fulfils its purpose
and reaches its target audience.
 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS 135

ACTIVITY 8.1
] Read the text on hazel trees in Activity 9.2 of the following unit.
2 Divide it up into segments using a frame diagram like those above as a guide.
3 How are the different segments connected with each other?

Arguing a point
Another typical non-chronological type of writing is one which discusses or
argues a particular point. One typical form of textual organisation will follow the
pattern represented by the following diagram:

Within this pattern, other elements might also appear, which depart from the
main frame but relate to material within it. For the text to make coherent sense, all
the elements, however they are organised, will be contained within a frame. For
example, if information is presented or referred to but then never mentioned
again, this will probably leave a loose thread hanging, detracting from the overall
coherence of the text and thereby confusing the reader.
The following activity looks at this second type of text frame in more detail.

ACTIVITY 8.2
] Read the following extract, then draw a diagram dividing it up into segments
using the frame given above to help you. There is no need to paraphrase or
summarise the material: a short heading will do.
2 Do all the parts of the text fit the frame?
3 Have you had to alter or add to the frame shown in the diagram above? How?

'In only six days I lost four inches off my waist and seven pounds of weight.'
'In only five weeks I added two inches to my bust line.'
'Two full inches in the first three days!'
These are the kinds of testimonials used in magazines, newspaper, radio and television
ads, promoting new shapes, new looks, and new happiness to those who buy the
 136 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS

preparation, the device, or the prescribed program of action. The promoters of such
products claim they can develop the bust, shape the legs, wipe out double chins, build
muscles, eradicate wrinkles, or in some other way enhance beauty or desirability.
Often such devices or treatments are nothing more than money making schemes for their
promoters. The results they produce are questionable, and some are hazardous to health.
To understand how these products can be legally promoted to the public, it is necessary to
understand something of the laws covering their regulation. If the product is a drug, FDA
(Food and Drug Administration) can require proof under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
(FD&C) Act that it is safe and effective before it is put on the market.
But if the product is a device, FDA has no authority to require pre marketing proof of
safety and effectiveness. If a product already on the market is a hazard to health, FDA can
request the manufacturer or distributor to remove it from the market voluntarily, or the
Agency can resort to legal actions, including seizure of the product. In such cases FDA
must prove that the device is adulterated or dangerous to health when used in the dosage
or manner or with the frequency or duration prescribed, recommended, or suggested in the
labelling.
Obviously, most of the devices on the market have never been the subject of courtroom
proceedings, and new devices appear on the scene continually. Before buying, it is up to
the consumer to judge the safety or effectiveness of such items. It may be useful to
consumers to know about some of the cases in which FDA has taken legal action.
One notable case a few years ago involved an electrical device called the Relaxacisor,
which had been sold for reducing the waistline.
The Relaxacisor produced electrical shocks to the body through contact pads. FDA
brought suit against the distributor in 1970 to halt the sale of the device on the grounds
that it was dangerous to health and life. During the five-month trial, about 40 witnesses
testified that they had suffered varying degrees of injury whilst using the machine, and
U.S. District Court Judge William P. Gray issued a permanent injunction prohibiting the
sale of the device to the general public. It is to be hoped that all owners of Relaxacisors
have destroyed the device so there is no longer a possibility of harm to a user who might
not be aware of the danger...
HEW No 76-40001, June 1975, © FDA Consumer, in Carter and McCarthy:
Language as Discourse

4 Now read the following advert. Taking the information given in both the
article above and the advert, write an article of around 120 words to appear as
part of a page devoted to health issues in a general interest magazine such as
Company or GQ. The purpose of your article is to give your readers a balanced
view on using mechanical aids to help shape the body.
Points for consideration:
- Read a health issues page in Company or GQ to familiarise yourself with
its style. For example, does it use the first, second or third person?
- Fill in a text frame based on the one on page 135 or design and fill in
your own text frame to illustrate the organisation of your text.
- Highlight the facts you are going to include in your text. You don't have
to use all of them, just the ones which will help you to make your points.
You will always have more material than you need.
- Be bold in your own writing and don't be afraid to take risks.
- When you have finished your writing, make sure you include a title and
an approximate word count.
 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS 137

FIRM UP IN HOURS
SHAPE UP IN DAYS
WHY SPEND WfEEKS IN THE GYM?
Right from your very first session with Ultratone you'll notice a visible difference.

Curves begin to appear where you want them and disappear where you don't.
You'll see and feel a new firmness in sagging muscles, goodbye to midriff bulge,
flabby thighs and hippy hips, hello taut tummy, firm thighs, shapely hips.

All achieved faster than you dreamed possible. And with less effort, too, because
Ultratone is the exercise machine that does the exercise for you, toning and
firming slack muscles with concentrated spot on exercise, activating each muscle
an amazing 450 times in 30 minutes.

And with Ultratone can you cover eight body areas in one go while you sit back
and relax.

Secure in the knowledge that you've opted for the only system of its kind approved
to the highest Medical Standards.

ULTRATONE™ The Ultimate Bodyshaper

8.3 Summary: a successful text

The success of your finished draft will probably depend on the degree to which
you have managed to fulfil three important criteria.
Firstly, have you successfully created a new text? You will have been asked to
produce a new text written for a specific purpose and of a specific type for a
specified audience. Are you sure you have achieved this? What is the proportion
of your own words to source material?
Have you organised it into a coherent whole, with the content clearly and
unambiguously linked within the text? Have you used the material you were
given to create a new and coherent text? In other words, is it clear where the text
is going and what it wants to say? Is the information grouped in meaningful
ways? Have you included an appropriate introduction and conclusion? Have you
included headings and sub-headings?
Have you written it in an appropriate register and tone for your audience? Does
your writing address its audience in a suitable tone? Is the information too
simplistic or over complicated?
 138 8. RE-REPRESENTING TEXTS

Getting the right tone is not an easy thing to achieve, and requires a fair degree
of practice. Tone can be defined as the way in which a writer signals that he or she
knows there is someone out there, an audience, and that what he or she has to say
is of interest and worth saying. It is important that your writing is clear and
focused, showing commitment without being overbearing or over earnest.
As you undertake practice activities to prepare you for an examination which
asks you to re-represent source material to create a new text, it is important that
you get used to sharing your writing with others. Other people are always in a
better position to answer the questions posed above, since they will be reading
your writing from a new perspective.
The following, final unit of this book gives further sample material and practice
exercises for text transformation. Any of them can be done on your own or
collaboratively in groups.
9 Practice activities

9.0 An overview
9.1 Evacuees
9.2 Hazel trees
9.3 Claude Monet
9.4 Aromatherapy

9.0 An overview

9.0.1 The activities

Activity 9.1 Evacuees
This activity asks you to write either:
i. part of a schools' programme aimed at fourteen- to sixteen-year-olds about life
in Britain during the Second World War
or
ii. part of a history textbook on the Second World War for secondary pupils aged
eleven to thirteen.

Activity 9.2 Hazel Trees

This activity asks you to write either:
i. a section in a textbook on woodland aimed at eight- to twelve-year-olds
or
ii. part of a page on nature in a general interest magazine aimed at eight- to
twelve-year-olds.

Activity 9.3 Claude Monet

This activity asks you to write either:
i. an information booklet on the Impressionist artist Claude Monet to accompany
an exhibition of his work
or
ii. an audio cassette to accompany visitors to the gallery as a guide.

Activity 9.4 Aromatherapy

This activity asks you to write either:
i. a prepared talk on aromatherapy as part of a planned programme of health
and leisure activities
or
ii. a free-standing display board for an exhibition on alternative health and
medicine as part of an open day at an alternative health clinic.
 140 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES

9.0.2 Completing the activities

The tasks can be written individually, or collaboratively in pairs in a workshop
atmosphere. It is important that you get used to others reading your work and
passing comment on it, just as you should learn to comment constructively on the
writing of others. This can be difficult, but it is important that you get used to
receiving feedback on your work, as it can help you put your ideas and
information across more coherently and intelligibly. Other readers, for example,
can point out where the writing is unclear, stilted or ambiguous.
There are certain points you need to consider that are common to any of the
tasks given in this unit:
1 Familiarise yourself with the material you have been given. Section 8.1 above
suggests strategies for doing this.
2 Be absolutely clear as to the exact nature of the task you have been set. Filling
in an information table like the one below may help you to do this.

task summary

text type

audience

purpose

tone

special instructions

word limit

3 Select the material you think will be appropriate to your task, by highlighting
it or marking it in some way.
4 Design a text frame for your text, as described in Section 8.2.
5 From the material you have selected, pick out the actual parts you will use.
Decide which particular section of your text frame each part will be
appropriate for. Use the information given to write your own text, according to
the conventions and style of the particular text type you are writing.
Remember that you do not need to make your writing look like the text it will
finally be: that is an editor's or publisher's task.
6 If you are unfamiliar with the particular text type you have been asked to
write, then it would be to your advantage to read or listen to some examples of
 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES 141

it, find out how they are set out, what kinds of sentence pattern and
vocabulary they use and any other stylistic considerations you may need to be
aware of, or, in the case of an audio text, how it is presented.

7 Decide how you are going to present any notes to a publisher, editor or
director to give them some idea of how you might wish your text to look when
it is printed, or how you would wish it to sound, as appropriate.

8 Remember to give your text a title.

9.1 Evacuees

ACTIVITY 9.1
Choose either part 1 or part 2. The photocopiable source material is on pages
142-149.

1 As part of its schools' programmes schedule, the BBC is making a series of

programmes called Life in War-torn Britain. This series of programmes is
intended for pupils .studying GCSE history.
Each programme in the series looks at a particular aspect of life in Britain
during the Second World War. You have been asked to write a section of the
programme dealing with the experiences of children during the war,
specifically those who experienced evacuation. The producer has sent you
some material on which to base your script.
Using this material, write your section of the programme, including the linking
piece which introduces it. Each programme adopts a magazine-style format,
incorporating sound effects and actors' voices as well as the presenter's voice.
You are required to keep to this style in writing your script. Your contribution
to the programme is planned to last three minutes and should be about 500
words long.

2 You have been commissioned to write part of a chapter on evacuees to be

included in a textbook called Life in War-torn Britain designed for lower
secondary pupils aged eleven to thirteen. The book aims to present its material
in a lively and interesting way which it hopes will appeal to children of its
target age group.
Your section forms part of a chapter called 'The Children's War', dealing with
the experiences of children in Britain during the Second World War. You have
been given the background material to use in producing the text.
Your text should include study tasks or questions. It would be helpful to the
publisher if you could give some idea of how you would like your writing to
be set out, including the use of illustrations. In total, your contribution should
not exceed 500 words. You should also choose a title for your section of the
book.
 142 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.1

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.1 143

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 144 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.1

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This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. ©Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1996.
 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.1 145

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1996.
 146 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.1

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1996.
 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.1 147

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. ©Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1 996.
 148 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.1

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This page may he photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1996.
 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.1 149

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1 996.
 150 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES

9.2 Hazel trees

ACTIVITY 9.2
Choose either part 1 or part 2. The photocopiable source material is on pages
151-152.

1 You have been invited to contribute a section on hazel trees for a book forming
part of the non-fiction section of a reading scheme aimed at the upper primary
age range, eight to twelve. The chapter is called 'Magic Trees' and gives
information about trees which have magical associations. The publishers are
keen that you capture the interest of the age group with your writing, making
it fun to read as well as interesting. The reading scheme has five levels to it,
and the book for which you are writing is part of level 3.
You have been given the background material that you need, and your section
should be no more than 250 words long. You should choose the title for your
section.

2 A fortnightly magazine for children aged eight to twelve has decided to make
its theme 'magic' to coincide with Hallowe'en. The magazine is based on a
cartoon character, but also includes separate pages of puzzles and facts.
As part of the 'facts' page, you have been asked to write an article on hazel
trees, drawing on the material you have been given. The editor hopes that you
will make your writing both informative and entertaining for young readers.
Your contribution should be no more than 150 words long, including any
source material you use, and should be given a title.
 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.2 151

THE VIGOROUS pollen records preserved in peat which are our

guide to the earliest native plants after the Ice

HAZEL Age, hazel predominates over much of the

British Isles - appearing at much the same time
From The Living Countryside Vol. 1 no. 4, as the initial spread of other wind-pollinated
published by Orbis. trees such as alder, willow and birch. Remains
of hazel nut shells have been found at the foot
of peat deposits, suggesting that the early
The hazel may be one of our
Stone Age hunters were probably at least
smallest native trees, but it partly dependent on the nuts for food, in the
has had an important role to absence of any sort of cereal.
Since hazel is associated with man’s earliest
play in the history of ancestors, it is perhaps not surprising that in
woodland management. Celtic folklore it was known as the tree of
Apart from its value as wood, knowledge, and was supposed to have many
magic properties. Irish aches and pains caused
it also has - according to by the damp climate or elfin malevolence were
Celtic folklore - magical thought to be warded off by a hazel nut carried
properties. in the pocket. A double hazel nut was said to
cure toothache in Devon, and defend against
The hazel grows as a small native tree in the witches in Scotland. Hazel is one of the magic
shade of woods and in hedgerows. In old trees of May Day, like hawthorn in England
neglected coppices it throws straggling limbs and rowan in Scotland: these are the three trees
from old stools and is rarely able to form the of white magic that oppose the forces of evil
single trunk to give it the status of a tree. which many people thought were present in the
Yet it is an important tree. In the fossilized woods.

Looking closely at
a hazel catkin
each male catkin has
over 100 tiny flowers
bract
m -'yjk

A -g$k

each flower has stamen

one bract and
8 stamens

The stamens will ripen when

tfrh'tKi the temperature is over 0°C.
The ripe stamens split open
lengthways to release their
yellow pollen.

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1996.
 152 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.2

In 1956 there were more than 16,000 acres of thought they originated in France and were
hazel coppice, little of which was used. Since named after Saint Philbert.
then the coppiced areas have dwindled as Today many English nuts in shops come
foresters have gradually turned them over to from the Kentish nut plantations, although we
conifer production. For truly wild hazel trees import thousands of tons from the
you must go to the Lake District, the Western Mediterranean for use in confectionary.
Highlands or the Burren in County Clare, Richard Mabey in Food for Free recommends
Ireland. You can see coppiced hazel in Hatfield using the nuts in salads, chopped or grated, in
Forest, the Sussex Weald and on the Wiltshire muesli, blended into a milk drink, or as nut
downs. cutlets. Weight for weight, he says, hazel nuts
The hazel belongs to the same family as the have half as much protein as eggs, seven times
hornbeam, which has more scaly catkins and more oil and fat and five times more
winged nutlets. The hazel leaf is a dense, deep carbohydrate.
green colour which turns to brown then Hazel nuts are rich in oil and the oil from a
yellow-gold towards the end of the year. Hazel single nut rubbed over the surface of a stout
bark is shiny, brownish grey with horizontal hazel walking stick will give it a good polish.
pores (lenticels) which enable the tree to Management The management of hazel
breathe. woods dates back to the late Stone Age. The
Catkins and flowers The brownish-yellow tough straight poles produced by coppicing the
male catkins begin to develop in autumn; early tree are still used today in fencing and as bean
the following spring they open to a creamy and pea sticks and small stakes. The rod used
yellow colour. The female catkins are small by a diviner to detect the source of water is
and brown with bright crimson styles and they often made of hazel.
generally ripen after the male catkins of the In the days of open field farming, split green
same tree, a mechanism which usually hazel poles were woven into hurdles to fence in
prevents self-pollination. Like all catkin¬ pigs, cattle and sheep to stop them eating the
bearing trees, the hazel is wind-pollinated. At crops on adjoining land. The tree also
least two hazel trees growing close together are produced the wattles for wattle-and-daub
needed for fertilisation and the production of building as well as the spurs used in thatching.
nuts. The brushwood was bundled into faggots that
Nuts There are between one and four, and were used for the weekly firing of bread ovens.
occasionally five, hard-shelled nuts on each
stalk. They are pale green in summer, but by
autumn have turned to a warm, soft brown
colour. Each nut is enclosed in a pair of downy
husks or bracts with deep scallops. Many
children’s fairy stories show pixies wearing Hazel (Corylus avellana),
hats of a similar style. deciduous, native, grows to
6m (20ft). May live hundreds
Birds, especially pigeons and pheasants, and of years if coppiced regularly.
small mammals such as squirrels and mice, Common throughout the British Isles.
take the nuts for food and bury them. This is Flowers Jan-April;
one way the trees become dispersed. You can cob-nuts Sept-Oct.
grow the hazel in your garden either from a
seed or from a sapling. For your own trees to
produce nuts you will need at least two trees to
ensure cross-pollination because the species is
naturally self-sterile (i.e. the tree cannot
fertilise itself). A hazel tree produces nuts in
abundance from six years old. There are
several varieties available, including Pendula
which makes a standard tree with a trunk of at
least 1.5m (5ft).
Selective breeding of the hazel in the 19th
century produced the large Kentish cob nut
which is redder and rounder than the wild nut.
The more oval filbert nuts come from a
different species, Corylus maxima. It is

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES 153

9.3 Claude Monet

ACTIVITY 9.3
Choose either part 1 or part 2. The photocopiable source material is on pages
154-164.

] The art gallery of a large town is mounting an exhibition of paintings by the

. French Impressionist painter, Claude Monet. The director of the gallery is
expecting a large number of people to visit the exhibition, including
schoolchildren, as well as local residents.
You have been commissioned to write a leaflet about the painter that will be
given to everyone visiting the exhibition. The director is anxious that the
leaflet is written in such a way that people will want to read it and take it away
with them. She also wants the leaflet to serve as an introductory guide to the
painter, his life and his work.
The text of the leaflet should be no more than 500 words long. It would be
helpful if you could provide the publisher with some guidance as to how you
wish the text to be set out.

2 The art gallery of a large town is mounting an exhibition of paintings by the

French Impressionist painter, Claude Monet. The director of the gallery is
expecting a large number of people to visit the exhibition, including
schoolchildren, as well as local residents.
You have been commissioned to write the text of an audio cassette, primarily
to provide background information on the painter and information on a few
selected paintings. The director is anxious that the cassette should not assume
any previous knowledge about Impressionist art on the part of visitors, but
that it should not patronise them either.
The text of the audio tape should be no more than 800 words long, and should
include a title.
 154 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3

Claude Monet (1840-1926)

From Monet in the Nineties - background material for teachers, published by the Royal Academy of Arts.

1840-1880
Claude Monet is often described as the archetypal There was one other artist working in Paris who
Impressionist painter. A leading member of the could not have failed to catch Monet’s attention; his
Impressionist movement which emerged in Paris name was Edouard Manet (1832-1883). In 1863
during the 1870s, Monet’s work best exemplifies Manet exhibited his notorious painting Le Dejeuner
the group’s aim to ‘achieve even greater naturalism sur I’Herbe (Musee d’Orsay, Paris) at the Salon des
by the exact analysis of tone and colour and by Refuses which had been established as a place to
trying to render the play of light on the surface of exhibit paintings that had been rejected by the
objects. ’ official Salon. Both the style and subject-matter of
Born in Paris in 1840, Monet was the eldest son this painting were heavily criticised. Manet’s
of a wholesale grocer and chandler who due to spontaneous brushwork and his disregard of
financial difficulties moved to Le Havre when smooth modelling annoyed the critics almost as
Monet was five. Undisciplined by nature, Monet much as the presence of a naked woman with two
spent as little time as possible at school, preferring clothed men. The full impact of this work upon the
to roam the cliffs and seashore. He began to draw younger artist became apparent when Monet began
caricatures and soon acquired a reputation for his a large figure composition in 1865 also called Le De¬
skill, selling them for 20 francs each. jeuner sur I’Herbe (large study, Pushkin Museum,
At the age of seventeen Monet met Eugene Moscow). Monet’s painting was an obvious tribute to
Boudin (1824-98) who ran a stationery and picture¬ the older artist although, unlike Manet, he was
framing shop in Le Havre and had taken up painting primarily interested in the effects of light upon a
in his spare time, encouraged by his customers who scene of fully clothed, elegant men and women
included Thomas Couture (1815-79), Jean-Francois having a picnic under the trees.
Millet (1814-75) and Constant Troyon (1810-65). Between 1866 and 1867 Monet actually
It was Boudin (see fig. 1) who introduced Monet completed a large figure composition out of doors
to landscape and seascape painting and who entitled Women in the Garden (Musee d’Orsay,
encouraged the young artist to paint en plein air in Paris). It demonstrated a far greater degree of
an effort to capture the fleeting qualities of light: naturalism than his earlier work and in order to
‘Everything that is painted directly from nature and capture the spontaneous poses and the effects of
on the spot, has a force, a power, a vivacity of touch light Monet used a special easel with pulleys that
that is not to be found in studio work... Study actual was lowered into a trench in the garden. Soon after
daylight and express the changing aspects of the this painting was rejected from the Salon of 1868,
sky with utmost sincerity. ’ Monet decided to work almost exclusively on a
Partly through Boudin’s encouragement, Monet smaller-scale. Although he had some success at
went to Paris in 1859. There he chose to study at the Salon in the 1860’s exhibiting both landscape
the Academie Suisse, an informal school which did and figure corn-positions, he chose to show mainly
not offer any specific tuition and was particularly in group exhibitions and dealers’ galleries after
popular with landscape painters. It was there that 1870.
he met the painter Camille Pissarro (1831-1903). Monet concentrated upon subjects of
However, in 1860 his studies were cut short by contemporary life drawn from the city and
military sen/ice; he returned to Paris after two surrounding suburbs. In 1869 he painted with
years’ service in Algeria. This time he attended the Renoir at the popular bathing resort of La
studio of the painter Charles Gleyre (1806-74) and Grenouillere at Chatou on the River Seine near
soon became acquainted with artists such as Paris (fig. 2). Their paintings explored the effects of
Frederic Bazille (1841-70), Alfred Sisley (1839-99), light on water and surrounding objects; they are
Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) and Gustave characterised by rapid brushstrokes and daubs of
Courbet (1819-77). pure, unmixed colour.
In 1862 Monet also met the Dutch painter Apart from looking at the work of Manet and that
Jongkind (1819-91) whose work proved to be very of the Barbizon school, Monet was also influenced
influential on the younger artist. Jongkind was by Japanese prints and photography. By the late
interested in painting the same scene under 1860s Japanese prints were well known in artistic
different light conditions and at different times of circles in Paris. Monet admired them for their
the day or season. His paintings were made decorative qualities and compositional devices.
directly in front of the subject and the results were Japanese prints (see figs. 14 and 22) are
similar to the work of the early Impres-sionists. characterised by the strong use of line, flat areas of
Monet continued to paint out-of-doors and, when colour and distortions of scale and pers-pective.
Gleyre’s studio closed in 1864, he worked Often space is established by silhouetting objects
alongside Renoir and Sisley at Chailly on the edge in the foreground against a distant landscape. The
of the Forest of Fontainebleau outside Paris. This development of the camera was likewise to
village was close to Barbizon, the home of the influence artists interested in compositional
famous group of landscape painters that included devices. A photograph could capture an instant, a
Theodore Rousseau (1812-67), N.V. Diaz (1807- ‘snapshot’, without selection or hierarchy of
76), C.F. Daubigny (1817-79), Jean-Francois Millet composition; it could also cut off figures or forms
and Jean-Baptiste Corot (1796-1875). abruptly. Monet began to use the devices of

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3 155

painting flat areas of colour or dramatically of modern life. After his St. Lazare works, Monet
truncating a figure or object in his work. His became increasingly obsessed with an attempt to
painting On the Beach at Trouville (fig. 3) made capture the effects of light. This preoccupation
during his honeymoon with Camille Doncieux in eventually led him beyond the original aims of the
1870, conveys the feeling of a ‘snapshot’ with its Impressionists in the 1880s.
rapid brushstrokes and truncated, schematic
forms.
Later that year Monet went to London to escape
the Franco-Prussian War. There he met up and
worked with Pissarro who had fled to London for
the same reason. Monet also encountered the 1880-1926
dealer Paul Durand-Ruel who was to become an
important patron and supporter. In London he By 1880 Monet had begun to express
painted many pictures of the Thames including dissatisfaction with Impressionism and he declined
The Thames below Westminster (fig. 4); he loved to exhibit in the group exhibitions in 1880,1881 and
the London light and the amorphous effects of fog, 1886. He announced that: 7 am still and always
smoke and clouds. Monet and Pissarro visited the intend to be an Impressionist - but I rarely see the
London museums together and, although Pissarro men and women who are my colleagues. The little
was later to deny it, they were both influenced by church has become a banal school which opens its
the work of John Constable (1776-1837) and doors to the first dauber.’ Monet was partly
J.M.W. Turner (1775-1851). expressing what he saw as the decline of the
When Monet returned to Paris in 1872 his original aims of the movement. The 1880s
Impressionist style was fully developed. The witnessed a general crisis within the movement
landscapes painted while he lived at Argenteuil and many of the founder members including
between 1872 and 1877 are now his most popular Renoir and Pissarro, chose to explore new styles.
works (see fig. 6) and it was during those years that They thought that Impressionism as a style was
Impressionism most clearly approached a group limited by its essentially ephemeral nature and they
style. Monet often worked beside Renoir, Sisley, attempted to create more monumental, lasting
Gustave Caillebotte (1848-94) or Manet, recording effects. The group also faced new challenges from
scenes of French river life from his studio boat. At artists such as Georges Seurat (1859-91) and Paul
the time, his work was ridiculed and he suffered Gauguin (1848-1903). Seurat extended the
extreme financial hardship, eventually moving to scientific basis of Impressionism analysing colour
the cheaper neighbourhood of Vetheuil. When the and light in his pointilliste technique, later known as
Impressionists held their first exhibition in 1874 it Neo-Impressionism. Gauguin by contrast, took a
was Monet’s painting Impression: Sunrise (fig. 5) more subjective approach to painting, believing
that was singled out by the critic Louis Leroy and that the artist should express ideas and emotions
described in a derogatory sense as a mere through his individualistic depiction of objects in the
‘impression’. This comment was to give the natural world.
movement its name. The public dismissed Monet became increasingly successful in the
Impressionist paintings as ephemeral and trivial; 1880s. In 1880 he had a one-man show at the
they saw them as mere ‘paint scrapings on a dirty offices of a new newspaper called La Vie Moderne.
canvas’. Dealers began to compete for his work and he
In the 1870s Monet continued to explore the gradually gained a reputation in America through
effects of light and colour falling upon objects. He Durand-Ruel’s exhibitions. By the 1890s he
had discovered that shadows were neither black enjoyed a comfortable income.
nor brown, but related to the colours of their After his departure from Argenteuil in 1878
surroundings. Indeed, the Impressionists’ concern Monet’s subjects changed from scenes of modern
to capture the scene in front of them as faithfully as suburban life to pure landscape. Increasingly he
possible led them to explore and discuss certain did not include people in his paintings. He
colour theories. Monet was probably aware of the frequently painted along the Seine at Giverny
scientists James Nicol or Hermann Helmholtz and which became his home after 1883. He also began
he was familiar with Eugene Chevreul’s Principles to travel incessantly working at Poissy, at Etretat
of Harmony and the Contrast of Colour and and other locations along the Normandy coast, on
their Application of the Arts (1839). Monet the Italian and French Rivieras, in Holland, at
discarded local colour in favour of bright Belle-Isle off Brittany and in the rugged valley of the
complementary hues such as orange and blue. He Creuse River in the Massif Central.
would prepare his canvas with a light ground Monet’s paintings of the 1880s are of dramatic
before applying his paints directly to the canvas landscape and seascape subjects; they record
without undercoating and used a variety of stormy weather, strange geological formations,
brushwork to build up an impasto. Monet used a and often evoke different moods and atmospheres.
great variety of paints and some of the more He began to use a box with slots to hold several
unexpected colours are a direct result of the canvases of the same size. Each day, when he
development in the manufacture of chemical returned to a subject he would choose the canvas
pigments which were packed in tubes at this time. that best suited the light of the moment. His colours
In 1877 Monet painted a number of views of the became brighter, and local colour was often
Gare St. Lazare (fig. 7). He was drawn to the ignored in favour of an overall colour scheme. His
station by the atmospheric effects produced by the brushstrokes were directed in a way that
steam and smoke; in the paintings he combined differentiated the various planes of the
both this atmosphere and coloured light in a scene composition, creating greater formal unity.

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 156 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3

Creuse Valley
In the spring of 1889 Monet made a trip to the had been painted in the last three years. Monet
Creuse Valley in the Massif Central area of France. clearly saw the exhibition as a way to prove his
This trip was to be his last major excursion for more worth and reinforce his claims to the leadership of
than five years and the twenty-four paintings that French painting. Fie asked his admirer, the novelist
resulted were to have great significance for his and cultural critic Octave Mirbeau, to write the
subsequent work. The paintings indicated catalogue and the show received a considerable
tendencies in his work that had developed with his amount of favourable critical attention.
views of Belle-Isle in 1886 and which were fully Monet included at least fourteen of the Creuse
realised in the Grainstacks series. In their Valley canvases in the show and, unlike any other
appearance and subsequent exhibition they could views of a single locale, he chose to exhibit, hung
be considered the first real series. altogether, at least five of the confluence and three
Monet made the trip with his friend, the critic of the bend in the Petite Creuse - a concentration
Gustave Geffroy, and they stayed in the small town that he did not repeat with any of the other groups
of Fresselines which is situated high above the in the show. As an ensemble they were evidently
Creuse River overlooking the valley. At Fresselines impressive: nearly every critic who mentioned
the two rivers, the Petite and Grande Creuse, meet these ‘tragic landscapes’ was struck by the range
to form an even larger body of water that winds its of natural effects that Monet had been able to
way northwards. The remote landscape is capture and was impressed with the ruggedness of
characterised by rugged, rocky terrain and Monet the motif that he had chosen to paint. By 1892 nine
was attracted by the ‘awesome wildness of the of the Creuse Valley paintings had been sold to
place. ’ dealers or private collectors. The artist himself
Monet chose several views along the valley and obviously considered these works to be important
for twelve of his canvases he concentrated since he gave them such a central part in his
exclusively upon one vantage point. Under varied exhibition. He had even contemplated going back
light and weather conditions he focused upon the to the Creuse but by the time the show had closed
hills that sweep down to where the rivers converge. he was already fully absorbed by his series of
The river seen in these pictures is the united Grainstack paintings at Giverny.
Creuse, the Petite being out of the scene to the
right and the Grande behind to the left. Monet
therefore chose the most dramatic site - the place
where the rivers joined and where the now larger
body of water winds away between the rocky
slopes. Monet was fairly faithful to the site, as a
photograph taken around the turn of the century
reveals (see fig. 10), but he evidently enjoyed and
emphasised the primitive qualities of the scene. In
another set of canvases he chose a sharp bend
along the Petite Creuse, marked by an old twisted
tree.
In Valley of the Creuse, (Sunlight effect)
(fig. 9) Monet deliberately linked the compositional
elements to emphasise the natural drama of the
site. The triangular shape of the river becomes a
wedge that drives into the hills forcing them apart.
Shapes and colours are subtly interlinked; the
furthest hill is as blue as the water in the
foreground. The shapes of the trees echo the
clouds above and the hillsides are animated by
ribbon-like strokes of colour and strong contrasts of
tone. The pink-red rocks and the thick dabs of
yellow-white across the waves suggest the play of
light across the scene. It is characterised, like the
majority of the paintings in the series, by a vigorous
technique. The paint has been applied with a
variety of brushstrokes which build up a thick dry
texture.
Soon after his return from the Creuse Valley
Monet's joint exhibition with Rodin opened at the
prestigious Galerie Georges Petit. This exhibition
of over one hundred and forty-five paintings was
the largest gathering of Monet’s works to date. It
was to prove both highly successful and deeply
significant. Although the exhibition was meant to
be a retrospective, more than half the works shown

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3 157

Grainstacks
Between 1888 and 1891 Monet executed thirty Grainstacks in an exhibition in Moscow in 1895:
paintings of grainstacks situated in a field to the ‘Previously I knew only realistic art... Suddenly for
west of his house at Giverny (see fig. 12). Although the first time, I saw a ‘picture’. That it was a
he had painted five of these pictures by 1889, the haystack, the catalogue informed me. I could not
majority of them were painted during the autumn recognise it... what was absolutely clear to me was
and winter of 1890-1. Monet became so involved in the unsuspected power, previously hidden to me,
the project that he arranged with the farmer to have of the palette, which surpassed all my dreams.
the stacks left so that he could paint them Painting took on a fabulous strength and
throughout the year. It soon became clear that the splendour. At the same time, unconsciously, the
Grainstacks series was to play a crucial role in the object was discredited as an indispensible element
development of his later work. of the picture. ’
In the spring of 1891 fifteen of these paintings Although the paintings vary in dimensions they
were exhibited at Durand-Ruel’s gallery. They were all have extremely simple compositions consisting
hung together in a small room and viewers were of one or two stacks set in a field beyond which
dazzled; the exhibition was an enormous success. stretches an irregular line of trees and houses that
This show distinguished the series from earlier are silhouetted against distant hills, with a strip of
multiple treatments of a single subject. Monet had sky closing off the scene at the top. The
shown groups of works together before but they compositions are strongly geometric - the fields,
had always been seen within the context of other hills and sky being reduced to parallel bands that in
quite different subjects. In contrast, the most cases extend across the entire canvas, with
Grainstacks were meant to be experienced as a fields occupying approximately half of the surface,
separate group independent of any other works. and the hills and sky a quarter each.
The Grainstacks, often described as Grainstacks, (Mid-day) (fig. 11) belongs to a
Haystacks, actually represent stacks of wheat group of six canvases begun in the late summer of
(meules de ble). Monet’s choice of subject 1890. The painting reveals Monet’s concern to
reflected a shift away from his extensive travels of evoke atmospheric effects as the stacks seem to
the 1880s in favour of rural subjects close to home. literally melt in the fight that floods the field. The
Immediately before he became fully immersed in use of contre-jour lighting contributes to this effect
the series he painted a number of pictures that and Monet has built up a careful colour harmony by
depict fields of oats and poppies around his home focusing upon the contrasts between the warm
at Giverny (see Gallery 3). Grainstacks represent pinks of the sunlit field and the blues of the
the fruits of the harvest; they symbolise the wealth shadows. Local colours have been completely
of their owner or in more general terms the wealth ignored. The elaborate colour scheme and the
of the nation. The theme was both a familiar and densely worked surface contrast strongly with his
popular subject in nineteenth-century French paintings of the 1870s.
painting. There are numerous paintings such as The technique used for the series was complex
J.F. Millet’s Autumn, Grainstacks, 1868-75 and certainly involved work in the studio. Monet
(Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) or Jules always spoke of the importance of working in front
Breton’s End of the Day, 1867 (location unknown) of the motif and he held that the first real look at the
which embody within the subject political and motif was the most important. At this stage the
social references. Monet’s series could be taken as painting should cover as much of the canvas as
another interpretation of the traditional allegory of possible, no matter how rough this initial working
the cycle of the seasons. His Grainstacks trace was, to determine the tonality of the whole.
the effects of seasonal change from late summer to However, a close look at the painting reveals
winter snow. They can also be seen as a deliberate evidence of much re-working and pentimenti.
attempt to focus upon a subject that was close to Monet would continue to work on the painting back
the heart of the nation. Paintings of rural France in the studio building up a thick surface of paint
had become increasingly popular and by the 1890s layers. In Grainstack, (mid-day), there is
landscape had become the dominant subject in the evidence that Monet altered the position of the
official annual salon. Monet’s choice of subject small stack on the left. He also added at a later
reflects his ambitions to produce paintings which stage the small touches of orange-red near the top
were both popular and marketable. of a large stack as well as the orange flecks across
However, Monet’s approach was primarily the the sky. The final effect was therefore not the
result of a concern to record the subtle changes of creation of a pure instant before nature but rather a
light and the fugitive qualities of colour. Monet more general effect achieved over a period of time
referred to his paintings as a ‘series of effects’, and partly away from the actual motif.
claiming that only the surroundings gave value to
the subject. He stated that he was trying to achieve
‘instantaneity, above all enveloping atmosphere'.
By choosing a subject that was so simple he was
able to concentrate upon these effects. That the
stacks were not the primary purpose of the painting
was immediately spotted by the young Wassily
Kandinsky (1866-1944) who saw examples of the

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 158 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3

Poplars
During the 1890s Monet continued to develop the between them. The critic Octave Mirbeau
procedures he had used for the Grainstacks in a commented on the ‘beauty, novelty and grandeur
succession of series, each intended to be seen as of the lines’ of the trees.
an integrated whole. In the early summer of 1891 Monet had realised that the scene before him
Monet began a new series of paintings of some had inherent decorative qualities and he had set
poplar trees situated on the banks of the Epte, about translating this natural ‘pattern’ into an
north of the village of Limetz and 2 km from artistic arrangement. Such an aim had become the
Giverny. Monet had painted poplars prior to this. concern of many painters at this time and included
However, he had never before concentrated so artists such as Pissarro, Gauguin and Pierre Puvis
extensively upon the theme as a single motif for a de Chavannes (1824-98). As artists moved away
series. He became so involved in the series that from the doctrines of Impressionism they
when he discovered the trees were to be auctioned attempted to assert a more subjective approach to
and felled in June he made a deal with the wood describing the world. In 1890 the Nabis painter,
merchant to leave them standing a few months Maurice Denis (1870-1943) claimed: ‘that a picture
longer. He worked on the series until late in the - before being a battle horse, a nude woman, or
autumn producing a total of twenty four canvases. some anecdote - is essentially a flat surface
When fifteen of the Poplars were exhibited in an covered with colours assembled in a certain order’.
exclusive show at Durand-Ruel’s gallery in March This concern was paralleled by a general revival of
1892 the works had an immediate collective the decorative arts in France together with an
impact. increasing interest in Japanese prints.
Monet painted the series from the boat he had Monet had long been interested in Japanese art
often used in the past as his studio. He positioned and in a sense, the Poplars series represents one
it carefully at a point where the river twice bent of the culminations of this interest. His house at
back on itself before disappearing from view, and Giverny was full of Japanese prints he had
turning slightly to the left he studied the trees which collected, and his dining room had been
rose and fell in front of him. From this viewpoint his transformed into a Japanese interior while outside
compositions adhered to two basic arrangements; he planted exotic flowers. Monet admired
one involving an accentuated zig-zagging Japanese art for its schematic decorative qualities,
perspective, the other using the trunks of the trees particularly woodblock prints. Japanese
as a dominant foreground grid. Although Monet did printmakers had developed a tradition of
work on some square canvases, he primarily decorative landscape painting unknown to the
restricted the Poplars to a vertical format and West. Monet’s Poplars, with their patterned
stretched the trees and their reflections from the compositions recall prints such as Utagawa
bottom of the canvas to the top. Hiroshige’s Numazu, Yellow Dusk (fig. 14).
Once again Monet had chosen a local rural
subject which had immediate symbolic
connotations. The poplar was a tree that was
cultivated for the market; its straight tall trunk was
ideal for the construction trade. Such trees were
often placed at regular intervals along a river bank,
where they absorbed water to maximise their
growth. As with grainstacks, the poplar was
another element of rural France that contributed to
the country’s economy and stability. Monet was
making a picture out of a common and familiar
subject to most Frenchmen.
Above all else though, Monet wanted to record
the effects of the different seasons, from spring to
autumn, and he subtitled most of the paintings he
exhibited with an indication to what season they
represented. In Poplars (Banks of the Epte.
Cloudy day) (fig. 13), Monet captures the effects
of impending rain along the river bank. The pinks
and blues of the heavy sky are picked up in the
trees and the water. He has attempted to capture
the ‘instant’ while at the same time he seems to
have enjoyed the abstract elements of the subject.
He recorded the trees not so much for their
topographical content but for their decorative
beauty and elegance. This is reinforced by his
simple grid-like composition which emphasises the
linear qualities of the tall slender trees creating a
rhythmic arrangement moving diagonally with their
bushy heads and punctuated by the spaces

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3 159

Rouen
During the late winter months of 1892 and 1893 touches of pink penetrate the crevices and forms.
and on return visits in 1894, Monet painted a series Touches of white have been added to his pigments
of views of Rouen Cathedral. This massive enabling him to disentangle the transparent film of
structure is the most famous building in upper light from the surface beneath. Monet’s technique
Normandy. The Cathedral dominates the town and is particularly striking. The way he manipulates
as a Gothic design it is one of the most varied, paint through scumbles and glazes is almost
picturesque and original in details. sculptural. His strokes vary from thick, heavy jabs
. Monet’s choice of motif was not particularly to quick, thin strokes to create the rough, weather¬
surprising. He knew the city well since his brother beaten surface of the Cathedral, with its various
lived there and it was only 60 km from Giverny. protrusions and hollows.
When Pissarro had painted at Rouen, Monet had Through colour and texture Monet animated the
visited him, and as early as 1872 he had painted Cathedral. The stones themselves live’ wrote
the cathedral from the river. At the same time the Georges Clemenceau. Across the series the
significance of the subject cannot be overlooked. structure seems to fluctuate and change according
By choosing to paint one of France’s revered to the intensity of light. To enhance this effect
monuments Monet was suggesting his ties to the Monet emphasised the building’s irregularities and
country’s past. The Gothic style had long been subtly manipulated the dense shadows and
recognised as a particularly French style, the sculptural forms. If one compares the paintings to
emblem of Catholicism. Never before had Monet the engraving seen in fig. 16, it is clear that Monet
focused so exclusively on an architectural element abbreviated or emphasised certain parts to create
nor had he spent so long on a single motif. He a range of effects.
painted a total of thirty canvases based on this The Rouen paintings extended the challenge of
subject. his earlier series such as the Grainstacks and the
Monet initially rented a room directly across the Poplars. More than any other series they can only
square painting some head-on views of the be fully experienced when seen as a group. Monet
Cathedral. Later he managed to secure the front had proved that even the most solid structure
rooms of a drapers shop situated across the fluctuated and changed under different light
square from the Cathedral. There he set up his conditions. Ultimately, the proper content of the
studio and a large number of paintings in the series Rouen series was the subjective experience of
were begun from this location. This south-western nature’s sensations seen through a succession of
vantage point allowed him a slightly angled view of separate ‘instantaneities’. When the series was
the facade; the structure rising on his left with the exhibited in May 1895, after Monet returned from a
shorter Tour d’Albane to the taller Tour de Beurre three-month trip to Norway (see gallery 3), they
on his right. The position also afforded the best caused a sensation. Some critics were startled by
view of light. the treatment of the facade. Georges Lecomte
Most artists who had painted the building before complained that there ‘was not enough sky ... not
Monet had depicted it within a picturesque enough ground’. However the majority agreed that
tradition, showing it as an awe-inspiring structure Monet had triumphed and the Cathedrals were
which dominated the surrounding buildings. They admired by artists such as Pissarro, Edgar Degas
focused on the draughtsmanship required to (1834-1917) and Paul Cezanne (1839-1906).
describe the sculptural details. Monet took a
different approach, tending to suggests its
humbler, organic qualities. He focused exclusively
upon the west side following the light from early
morning until sunset; he saw the facade as a giant
textured screen upon which an infinite range of
light and atmosphere could play. It was these
effects that were Monet’s theme and led him to
produce such a large number of canvases.
Monet struggled to create the illusion of light
across the Cathedral facade; he often remarked to
his wife that he found the project difficult. He made
a number of preparatory sketches for these
canvases and his close scrutiny and knowledge of
the structure was clearly vital to the series. It
enabled him to maintain control over the forms
without letting them disappear into a sea of paint or
dissolve in the light. Monet’s control also stems
from his extraordinary sense of colour, which he
employs in these pictures to create intricate spacial
relationships and the illusion of plasticity.
In Rouen Cathedral, Facade (fig. 15), the
building is ablaze with the light of early afternoon.
The warm blues and oranges combined with

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 160 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3

Mornings on the Seine

During the summer months of 1896 and 1897 is a careful combination of the real with artifice;
Monet worked on a series of paintings of the River nature is transformed into art.
Seine. The twenty-one canvases in the series chart
When fifteen of the canvases, together with the
the progression of early morning light on the water
Falaises series (see Gallery 4), were exhibited in
and its leafy bank. Monet lived near the banks of
1898, they were a resounding success. The critics
the Seine all his life and he painted it more
saw Monet as extending his previous efforts,
frequently than any other subject. In the first half of
recognising that they carried a serious intention.
the 1890s Monet had painted the river on a number
Monet had expanded the notion of the
of occasions between his major series (see, for
Impressionist landscape and was now associated
example, Ice Floe series, 1893, in Gallery 3).
with the tradition of Corot and the Barbizon school.
However, it was only after his extensive painting
This comparison was particularly appropriate since
trip to the Normandy coast (see Gallery 4) that he
Monet had a longstanding interest in Corot;
decided to concentrate intensively upon the Seine.
furthermore he had witnessed a large retrospective
Monet rose at 3.30 a.m. every morning to of the latter’s work in Paris in 1895. Monet admired
capture the dawn light. He positioned his boat in a Corot’s ability to create simple views of rural
quiet backwater close to the Giverny bank looking France by a subtle combination of the real with the
across to one of the river’s many islands. The ideal. The Mornings on the Seine series achieves
canvases were all painted from the same viewpoint a similar combination.
showing the bank on the left with the quiet waters
stretching out and reflecting the foliage of the
island on the right. The paintings vary according to
weather and light. Some are very misty, some
show background trees emerging a little more
clearly, in some the forms of the trees can be seen
while in others the trees are caught by early
morning sun. The harmonious and meditative
qualities which characterise the series contrast
strongly to earlier treatments of the subject.
Morning on the Seine, near Giverny, (fig. 17)
exemplifies how Monet built up the soft rhythms
and contrasts of texture and tone in a very subtle
way. In this painting, where the forms of the trees
have just emerged, Monet achieves a muffled
quality by applying the paint broadly with integrated
brushstrokes. He deliberately avoided the rugged
technique used for the Rouen series and the
opaque surfaces are built up through a careful
process of retouching. The colours are also very
soft; the pink of the early sunlight creeps across the
water blending with the blue-green foliage.
Through the series Monet gradually heightened
the colour to reflect the increase in light.
The simple composition reinforces the soft
rhythmic qualities. The arching branches act like
screens on either side of the water, while the
reflections create a decorative symmetry. A
number of the canvases in the series are almost
square. With this format the branches and
reflections cut the scene vertically and horizontally
forming an almost perfect grid. Although the
branches and reflections on the left and right act as
contrasting curves, the general effect is to create a
surface pattern. The backlighting also tends to
flatten the forms and in the thick mist they virtually
dematerialise
Monet clearly took a simple motif in order to
concentrate upon the changing light, and more
than any other series, Mornings on the Seine
documents the progress of the sun over the river. In
this sense the paintings are extremely faithful to
nature and to the immediate effects. Yet Monet is
still improvising, as the decorative composition and
careful colour harmonies reveal. What he achieves

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3 161

Views of London
When Monet fled to London in 1870-71 as a He was fascinated by the way the enveloping
refugee of the Franco-Prussian war, he painted a mists could transform the architectural masses to
few scenes of the river Thames in the fog (see fig. weightless forms. The London paintings are
4). He had always planned to return and this was characterised by the same qualities of mystery and
finally realised when he visited his son who was extreme simplification seen in the Mornings on
living in the city in the Autumn of 1899 and again in the Seine series. When Georges Lecomte
the early months of 1900 and 1901. On each reviewed the exhibition in 1904 he praised Monet
occasion he stayed at the Savoy Hotel taking a for achieving such ‘vaporous subtlety, such power
room on the sixth floor looking out across the river. of abstraction and synthesis’.
The view looked south across Charing Cross A close look at the Waterloo Bridge series
Railway Bridge to Big Ben and the Houses of reveals the variety Monet could achieve by painting
Parliament and east across the busy Waterloo a single subject, changing only slightly in format
Bridge to the smoking factories beyond. Monet and angle of vision, in different weather and light
made a long series of each of these views together conditions. Each painting in the series shows the
with one of the Houses of Parliament seen from view seen through mist. The varying density of the
across the river at St. Thomas’s Hospital. These mist reduces or enhances the colour and tone in
paintings, thirty-seven of which where exhibited in the paintings. The forms of the bridge and
1904, made over one hundred in total; it was the chimneys beyond are reduced to silhouettes, an
largest series that Monet had yet produced. effect which is enhanced by contre-jour lighting.
It was typical of Monet to return to an earlier The effects created in Waterloo Bridge.
theme. However his decision to travel to London (Cloudy day) (fig. 19) are clearer and less
and embark upon a large series had wider dramatic when compared to others in the series.
implications. It marked a deliberate move away However the colour and lighting work together to
from his paintings of rural France that create the atmosphere of a stormy winter day. The
characterised the 1890s. Disillusioned with his own clear reds added to the traffic on the dark bridge
country, where he had just witnessed the eruption give the picture a sharp colour focus across the
of the Dreyfus Affair, Monet looked elsewhere for centre of the composition, around which soft pinks
inspiration. London was an obvious choice and oranges are set against the dull blues and
considering his previous refuge there; he saw it as greens. Evidently Monet emphasised the forms
a place where one could receive a little more and added the accents of red by re-working the
justice and common sense. At the same time he painting at a later stage. Indeed, the majority of the
hoped to make an entry into the English market paintings were re-worked in his studio after he had
and further expand his reputation. returned to Giverny. Monet would often define a
England had a strong landscape tradition of its form or burst of sunlight later, using more distinct,
own and the Thames had been the favourite sketchy brushmarks.
subject of a number of artists. Monet was well
aware of this tradition when he embarked upon the
series. Monet had met J.M.W. Whistler (1834-
1903) in the mid-1880s and the two artists had
become good friends. Monet admired the way
Whistler could evoke the mystery of the early
evening light on the Thames in his Nocturne
paintings (see fig. 18). Likewise his familiarity and
admiration for Turner was significant to his work.
Like Monet, Turner had been primarily interested in
the effects of light upon landscape. Monet even
admitted to having closely studied Turner’s Rain,
Steam and Speed - The Great Western
Railroad, 1844 (fig. 20) which hung in the National
Gallery. The combination of atmospheric effects
and the reference to the railroad in Turner’s work
could be compared to Monet’s London series.
In the same way as Turner, Monet set about
painting the modern surrounded by the
timelessness of light and weather. Monet was
fascinated by the London fog:
7 like London much more than the English
countryside... but I only like it in winter. In summer
it’s fine with its parts, but that’s nothing beside the
winter with the fog, because, without fog, London
wouldn’t be a beautiful city. It’s the fog that gives it
its marvellous breadth. Its regular massive blocks
become grandiose in this mysterious cloak. ’

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 162 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3

Japanese Bridge
In 1893 Monet began to construct a water garden their almost abstract use of colour and paint, were
on a strip of marshy land which he had recently the extreme extension of the series concept.
bought below his house at Giverny. Monet
constructed the pond by diverting a small stream
from the river Epte. He filled the pond with water
lillies and around it planted flowers, trees and
bushes. He also constructed a wooden footbridge.
This garden was the theme for a series of eighteen
paintings in 1899, twelve of which were exhibited a
year later at Durand-Ruel’s gallery. This series
became known as the Japanese Bridge
At Giverny, Monet created a horticultural
paradise collecting exotic plants from all over the
world. Although he denied there was any direct
reference to a Japanese garden, visitors often
commented upon the particularly Eastern feel of
the water garden. The bridge reminded them of
those seen in Japanese prints (see fig. 22) and
Monet had surrounded the pond with bamboo,
ginko trees and Japanese fruit trees.
The majority of the paintings in the series have a
square format. Monet took a low view-point, close
to the water, looking directly towards the bridge.
The water leads the viewer into the distance, while
the bridge spans the pond, cutting across the
canvas just above the central line. For some of the
paintings he moved slightly to show the left bank,
but in all of them he maintains this simple,
essentially symmetrical composition.
In both format and composition the paintings
seem to follow on from the Mornings on the Seine
series. However, they do not evoke the same
sensitivity to momentary qualities and atmospheric
conditions seen in the earlier series. In contrast,
Monet seems more interested in the description of
textures that the garden offered. In the National
Gallery painting (fig. 21) Monet used a variety of
brushwork to describe the trees, shrubs, willows
and iris beds. These textures are interrelated and
unified by their reflections and the carefully
coordinated colour scheme of blues and yellows.
This balance between texture and colour
characterises the series creating a highly
decorative effect. In some of the canvases his
colours are quite garish with heightened reds,
yellows and blue-greens, while the brushwork is
activated to resemble calligraphic strokes.
By 1900 Monet’s reputation was secure. As an
aging man, with failing eyesight, he could retreat to
his self-made sanctuary to concentrate upon his
great passion - the communion and description of
the natural world: 7 have been able to identify
myself with the created world and absorb myself
within it. The ‘Japanese Bridge' was the first series
based upon a subject which was to preoccupy
Monet for the rest of his life. Apart from his visits to
London (1899, 1900 and 1901) and Venice (1908)
he worked solely at Giverny producing over five
hundred canvases. The pond was enlarged
several times over the next decade and as he
worked obsessively upon the theme he began to
concentrate upon the surface of the water and the
abundant lillies. These Nympheas paintings, with

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3 163

Chronology
1840 Born in Paris, moves to Le Havre as a child.
1850’s Monet gains a reputation in Le Havre for his caricatures of local figures.
Meets Boudin who persuades him to become a landscape painter.
1959-60 Travels to Paris, briefly attends the Academie Suisse, meets Pissarro.
1861-2 Military service; visits Algeria with the Chasseurs d’Afrique.
1862 Meets Jongkind on the Normandy coast; returns to Paris to study at the
Atelier Gleyre, meets Bazille, Sisley and Renoir.
1863 Salon des Refuses - Manet’s painting Dejeuner sur I’Herbe exhibited.
1864 Gleyre’s studio closes. Monet, Bazille, Sisley and Renoir work at Chailly, near
the Village of Barbizon.
1865 Meets Cezanne. Two of his seascapes accepted by the Salon.
1866 Meets Manet. Paints Le Dejeuner sur I’Herbe. Portrait of Camille exhibited
at the Salon.
1867 Woman in the Garden refused by the Salon.
1869 Paints at La Grenouillere with Renoir.
1870 June: marries Camille Doncieux and takes her to Hotel Tivoli in Trouviile.
July: travels to London to escape the Franco-Prussian war.
Meets Pissarro and the dealer Durand-Ruel in London.
1871 Visits the National Gallery and the South Kensington Museum (Victoria and
Albert Museum) with Pissarro, works rejected from the Royal Academy in
London, returns to Paris via Holland, settles at Argenteuil, which Is his main
base until 1878.
1872 Visits Le Havre where he paints Impression: Sunrise
1872-3 Durand-Ruel buys a number of paintings from Monet.
1874 First Impressionist exhibition, Monet’s painting Impression: Sunrise is
derisively quoted by the critic Leroy.
1876 Second Impressionist exhibition, Monet exhibits some of his La Grenouillere
pictures.
1876-88 Monet and his family suffer extreme poverty, eventually moving to the
cheaper neighbourhood of Vetheuil.
1877 Paints his series of Gare St Lazare. Exhibits at the third Impressionist
exhibition.
1879 Exhibits in fourth Impressionist exhibition.
Sept: death of Camille.
1880 Does not show at the fifth Impressionist exhibition. One-man show at the
offices of the newspaper ‘La Vie Moderne’. Working on Normandy coast at
Petites-Dalles.
1881 Does not show at the sixth Impressionist exhibition.
Dec: moves from Vetheuil to Poissy, with Alice Hoschede and her children.
Painting on the coast around Trouviile.
1882 Exhibits at the seventh Impressionist exhibition. Painting at Pourville.
1883 Paints at Etretat on the Normandy coast. One-man show at Durand-Ruel’s
gallery. Moves from Poissy to Giverny.
1884 Paints on the Mediterranean coast, at Bordighera and Menton.
1885 Exhibits in Georges Petit's fourth Exposition Internationale.
Paints at Etretat.
1886 Does not exhibit at the eighth (final) Impressionist exhibition. Paints at
Etretat, Belle-Isle in Brittany and Holland. Exhibits at Petit’s fifth
Exposition Internationale

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 164 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.3

1887 Makes first sales to Boussod and Valadon, through their branch manager,
Theo Van Gogh,
1888 Paints at Antibes, Mediterranean coast. Ten Antibes seascapes exhibited at
Boussod and Valadon. Refuses Legion d’Honneur.
1889 One-man show at Boussod and Valadon. Paints at Fresselines on River
Creuse in Massif Central.
June: major joint retrospective exhibition with Rodin at Georges Petit’s gallery.
1890 Works on Grainstacks series. Purchases Giverny.
1891 One-man show at Durand-Ruel’s gallery, includes fifteen of the Grainstacks
Summer-autumn: paints Poplars series.
1892 Exhibition of fifteen Poplars at Durand-Ruel’s gallery.
Feb-Apr: paints Rouen Cathedral. Marries Alice Hoschede.
1893 Feb-April: paints Rouen Cathedral.
Begins construction of water garden at Giverny.
1895 Jan-Apr: paints in Norway.
Exhibition at Durand-Ruel’s gallery includes twenty paintings from Rouen
series.
1896 Feb-Apr: paints on Normandy coast at Pourville, Dieppe and Varengeville.
Summer: begins series of Mornings on the Seine
1897 Jan-Apr: paints on Normandy coast.
Summer: continues Mornings on the Seine series.
1898 June: exhibition at Petit's gallery includes twenty-four Falaises paintings and
fifteen Mornings on the Seine series.
1899 Summer: begins first series of his water garden.
Sept-Oct: paints in London.
1900 Feb-Apr: paints in London; exhibition at Durand-Ruel’s gallery includes twelve
paintings of his water garden (Japanese Bridge series).
1901 Feb-Apr: paints in London.
1903 Begins second series of water garden which continues until 1908.
1904 May: exhibition of thirty-seven paintings from London series at Durand-Ruel’s
gallery.
1908 Sept-Dec: paints in Venice.
1909 May: exhibition of forty-eight paintings of the water garden at Durand-Ruel’s
gallery.
1911 May: death of Alice Monet.
1912 Exhibition of Venice paintings at Bernheim Jeune gallery. Cataracts in both
eyes diagnosed: his eyesight deteriorates over the next decade.
1914 Begins construction of new studio (finished 1916) in his garden for execution
of monumental Water Lily Decorations.
1922 Water Lilly Decorations presented to the State, for installation in the
Orangerie.
1926 Dec: dies at Giverny.

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES 165

9.4 Aromatherapy

ACTIVITY 9.4
Choose either part 1 or part 2. The photocopiable source material is on pages
166-174.

1 Your local library is planning to run a series of evening events for the general
. public, based on the theme of health and leisure and called 'Lifestyle'. One
evening is going to be centred on alternative approaches to medicine and
healthcare. As part of the programme for that evening, you have been asked to
give a talk on one particular form of alternative healthcare, aromatherapy.
Your talk will take place towards the middle of the evening's programme,
following a demonstration and explanation of massage. The library has an
overhead projector you can use, as well as a display stand for any other visual
aids you may wish to bring.
You have been asked by the programme coordinator to assume that most of
your audience will be new to forms of alternative medicine. Your talk should
last about ten minutes and be about 800 words long. You have also been asked
to produce a fact sheet summarising the main points of your talk.

2 An alternative health clinic in a large town near you is planning to hold an

open day to raise public awareness of the services it has to offer. As well as
talks, demonstrations and a tour of the facilities, the centre is planning to
mount an exhibition about the main areas of its activities, to be positioned in
the entrance foyer of the centre.
You have been asked to produce the text for the aromatherapy part of the
exhibition. The material will be mounted on commercially available boards. It
would be helpful to the organisers if you could provide notes on a suggested
layout of your material, including suggestions for photographs to be used to
illustrate your text. You have been told that your text should not exceed 750
words.
 166 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.4

Your personal guide to

Aromatherapy
From ‘Personal Guide to Aromatherapy’ by Penny Rich in Good Housekeeping Magazine, April 1994.
essential oils that give the smell to a bouquet of jasmine,
roses, geranium and lavender, for instance, all contain
chemicals that relax the nervous system and instandv
improve spirits.

THE ULTIMATE HEALER

Pure essential oils have a greater effect on both the mind
and body than any benefits you get from simply sniffing
flowers. Although researchers can’t isolate all of the
hundreds of molecules in each plant oil, they do know
that the oils can penetrate human skin and enter the
bloodstream, that some have anti-inflammatory and
antiseptic properties, that others trigger the body’s
natural relaxing or stimulating hormones, and that many
have such potent effects on the mind that you can go from
a bad mood to a good one within minutes.
Essendal oils come from different parts of plants and
offer many different benefits. In some, they accumulate in
the petals, in others they are found in the roots, rinds,
stalks, seeds, sap, nuts, leaves or bark. Sandalwood gathers
in the heart wood of the trees but only once the tree is 40
years old. Jasmine is most concentrated in the petals on
the night when the flowers are only one day old, so, to get
the best oil, they need to be hand-picked before dawn.
Rose is the rarest (and most expensive) essendal oil of
them all, with two tons of fresh petals in full bloom
yielding a mere two pounds of essential oil. The humble
orange tree, on the other hand, produces three different
oils - neroli from the blossoms, pedt-grain from the leaves
and orange oil from the fruit rind - all of which have
different properdes.

A lthough highly fashionable and much in the

news, aromatherapy is not always fully
understood. It is, in fact, the modern name for
the ancient knowledge of healing and
HOW TO USE OILS
Because essential oils are so potent, they need to be
diluted before you apply them to the skin. If you are preg¬
nant, or suffer from asthma or epilepsy, always consult a
qualified practitioner before using essential oils. Here are
some of the most beneficial ways of using them.
Massage: add 7-10 drops of your chosen essential oil (see
improving health using fragrant, natural below) to 30ml (2tbsp) of carrier oil for dilution (good
ingredients. Called essential oils, these are found in herbs, carriers are sweet almond, sunflower, safflower and
plants, flowers, fruits and the bark, roots or resin of some grapeseed oils).
trees. Essential oils give the aroma to the plant, but they Relaxing: 5 drops lavender, 4 drops sandalwood.
also contain dozens of complex chemicals with the power Invigorating: 5 drops geranium, 3 drops peppermint.
to beautify skin or speed healing, or to put you to sleep or Sensual: 3 drops each jasmine and neroli, 2 drops
numb a headache. sandalwood. For sore muscles: 6 drops lavender, 4 drops
Even if you think you have never come across these oils eucalyptus. For a hangover: 5 drops each of rose and
before, all of us are affected by them each day. Every time lavender massaged into temples, eyes, scalp, neck and top
you peel an orange, the essential oil squirts out of tiny of shoulders.
pockets in the peel and evaporates into the air, releasing Baths: add 5 drops of the stronger smelling oils
its bitter-sweet, tangy, citrus smell. This can have a (eucalyptus, lemon, peppermint) or 10 drops of the more
refreshing but relaxing effect on the way you feel. fragrant ones to the surface of bath water once the taps
When you take flowers to someone who is ill in hospital, are turned off. Use just one oil or mix up to 3 oils per
you are using aromatherapy to help them feel better. The bath. ►

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.4 167

Camomile has a light Relaxing: 5 drops each of lavender ground almonds to make a paste.
aroma that recalls apples and rose. Energising: 3 drops Leave for 5 min then rinse off.
and straw. It has a relaxing, peppermint, 5 drops geranium. For Face moisturiser: add 3 drops of
calming effect and is good summer: 3 drops each of jasmine, essential oil to 30ml (2tbsp) of carrier
for sunburn or rashes. rose and neroli. For winter: 2 drops oil; massage gently into skin. Mature
Eucalyptus has a strong, eucalyptus, 3 drops each of skin: neroli. Dry skin: rose. Oily skin:
refreshing camphor smell. A sandalwood and ylang-ylang. For lavender.
powerful antiseptic, it also sleeplessness: 3 drops each lavender, Body exfoliator: add 3 drops of
clears the head, so is good neroli and camomile. essential oil to 5ml (ltsp) of carrier
for fever, colds and flu. Showers: add 10 drops of essential oil. Add to 75ml (5tbsp) of coarse sea
Geranium has a sweet, oil (lavender, lemon, neroli, orange salt; rub into skin and shower off.
fresh, soothing aroma. It and peppermint are the most Dry skin: rose. Oily skin: 2 drops
acts both as a tonic and a invigorating) to 60ml (4tbsp) of lavender, 1 drop lemon. Sensitive
sedative, and is particularly carrier oil; dip a damp sponge in and skin: camomile.
good for relieving anxiety. rub over your body while under the
Jasmine has a romantic, shower.
sensual and exotic aroma. AROUND THE HOME
The oil acts as an BEAUTY TREATMENTS As well as influencing your mood
aphrodisiac and gently Choose the most relevant essential oil essential oils also have practical uses
changes your mood. to suit your skin type (see below) in the home.
Lavender has a fresh, clean when following these recipes. As a room spray: add 10 drops of
scent. Both soothing and Face exfoliator: add 3 drops of the relevant essential oil (see below)
stimulating, it is a good all¬ essential oil to 30ml (2tbsp) of sweet to 600ml (1 pint) of water in a pump-
round skin healer. almond oil; add finely ground action bottle; spray into the air to
Lemon has a unique, tangy, oatmeal and desiccated coconut to freshen a room when needed.
citrus smell. It is refreshing make a paste, then rub in circles over Refreshing: lavender to kill airborne
and stimulating. face and rinse off. germs and to relieve dredness and
Neroli soothes dry skin and Mature skin: neroli. Dry skin: 2 drops tension. Purifying: peppermint to
is an hypnotic sedative and rose, 1 camomile. Oily skin: 2 drops remove the smell of stale cigarette
anti-depressant. geranium, 1 drop lavender. smoke and improve mental alertness.
Peppermint has a ‘peppery’ Steam facial: add 5 drops of As a vaporiser: add 8 drops of the
smell. It invigorates, essential oil to 1 litre (1 3/4 pints) relevant essential oil (see below) to a
refreshes and clears the boiling water in a bowl; bend over saucer of hot water and place on top
head. with a towel over your head to trap of a radiator; top up every few hours
Rose is romantic and the steam. Continue until the steam as needed.
sensual. It can boost your subsides. Relaxing: sandalwood (romandc).
confidence, beat stress, and Mature skin: 3 drops rose, 2 drops Uplifting: ylang-ylang (sensual) or
is great for mature skin. neroli. Dry skin: 3 drops jasmine, 2 jasmine (euphoria and confidence).
Sandalwood is the base of drops camomile. Oily skin: 3 drops For sleeplessness: camomile (mellow¬
most green or woody geranium, 2 drops lavender. ing). For coughs and colds:
perfumes. It acts as a Cleansing face mask: 2 drops gera¬ eucalyptus (mental alertness).
sedative and stimulant, so is nium, 3 drops lavender, 1 drop rose To repel insects: sprinkle 5 drops of
good for insomnia, stress in 30ml (2tbsp) hot water and the relevant essential oil (see below)
and loss of libido. enough finely ground oatmeal to onto a damp cloth; wipe around
Ylang-Ylang has an exotic make a soft paste. Leave to dry then wardrobes, shelves, draws, windows
jasmine scent. It stimulates rinse off. and door frames, or apply a few drops
the senses and lifts negative Moisturising face mask: 3 drops to pillows or hems of curtains.
moods. each neroli and rose in 30ml (2tbsp) For mosquitoes: citronella. For flying
apricot oil with 5ml (ltsp) warmed insects: lemongrass. For ants, fleas
clear honey and enough finely and most insects: tea tree.

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 168 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: ACTIVITY 9.4

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.4
169

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 170 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.4

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.4 17T

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 172 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.4

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 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.4 173

Too much sugar (white, refined) and animal fat is often said to
contribute to heart disease. The organs of elimination become
congested because too many refined starchy foods are eaten, with
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Given belief in ourselves - practically anything is possible; it is

known that determination to succeed is almost inevitably followed

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This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1996.
 174 9. PRACTICE ACTIVITIES: Activity 9.4

This page may be photocopied for the purposes of the activity only. ©Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd, 1996.
 Answers to selected practice
activities

Answers are given to selected activities in Units 1-3 only, to give students
confidence that they are answering questions accurately.

ACTIVITY 1.3
Extract 2:
To Hedli: poem by Louis MacNeice. Example of a poem; fiction, narrative, non
chronological. Features: broken lines; one long sentence; unusual use of words,
etc.

Extract 3:
Handling ponies. Taken from The Mutual of Hortcnumship. Example of instructive
writing; non-fiction, non-narrative, non-chronological. Feature's: prose printed left
to right; specific vocabulary but non-technical; slightly old-fashioned use of
language; 'A horse... fai\mr$ the same thing being done in the same wav each
day', etc.

Extract 4:
A letter to the author about non-display of a tax disc. Example of a letter; non¬
fiction, non-narrative, non-chronological. Features: layout distinctive; vocabulary
associated with letters: 1'hank you for vour letter...'; legal language: reference to
legal act; longer than average sentences, etc.

Extract 5:
A letter to John 1 lamilton Reynolds from John Keats. Example of a letter; non¬
fiction, narrative, non-chronological. Features: complex sentences; first person;
esoteric subject matter, etc.

Extract b:
Advert for computer program. Example of an advert; fiction, narrative,
chronological. Features: parodies a poetic style: short sentences; laid out as a
poem; specific vocabulary relating to computers, etc.

Extract 7:
From Uannv$iii$ /TucorAs by Man Wesley. Example of prose fiction; fiction,
narrative, chronological. Features: direct speech; description of characters and
action, etc.
 176 APPENDIX 1

ACTIVITY 2.2
1 The Garden of Love
I went to the Garden of Love,
And saw what I had never seen:
A Chapel was built in the midst,
Where I used to play on the green.
And the gates of this Chapel were shut,
And Thou shalt not' writ over the door;
So I turned to the Garden of Love
That so many sweet flowers bore;
And I saw it was filled with graves.
And tomb-stones where flowers should be;
And Priests in black gowns were walking their rounds,
And binding with briers my joys and desires.

2 Snowdrop
Now is the globe shrunk tight
round the mouse's dulled wintering heart.
Weasel and crow, as if moulded in brass,
move through an outer darkness
Not in their right minds.
With the other deaths. She, too, pursues her ends,
brutal as the stars of this month,
Her pale head heavy as metal.

ACTIVITY 2.5
b I (noun phrase) could hear (verb phrase) the piano (noun phrase).
c It (noun phrase) was (verb phrase) the smell (noun phrase) of innocence (adverbial:
prepositional phrase).
d The little girl (noun phrase) performed (verb phrase) her journey (noun phrase) in
safety (adverbial: prepositional phrase).

All three sentences follow a similar pattern of noun phrase/verb phrase/noun

phrase, followed by an adverbial in both c and d.
e The first event (noun phrase) of any importance (adverbial: prepositional) in the
family (adverbial: prepositional) was (verb phrase) the death (noun phrase) of Mr.
Norris (adverbial: prepositional).
f The Mis Bertrams (noun phrase) were now fully established (verb phrase) among
the belles (prepositional phrase) of the neighbourhood (adverbial: place).
g Fanny (noun phrase) had no share (verb phrase) in the festivities (adverbial:
prepositional) of the season (adverbial: time).
 appendix 1 ii mu
177

The phrase pattern in these sentences is more varied, with more use of adverbials,
two of which separate the noun and verb phrase in e.

ACTIVITY 2.6
2 He had often come up here (main clause) without stating his purpose to his
mother (subordinate: noun clause).
The fact that his coming 'up here' is mentioned first, in the main clause, sets his
action up as one of defiance.

3 Mushrooms and toadstools are names given to a large group of gill-bearing,

fleshy fungi (main clause) which are collectively given the scientific name of
'agarics' (relative clause).
The main classification is established and given first in the main clause, followed
by additional information in the relative clause.

4 When going for country walks, (adverbial clause) one often comes across a
railway line (coordinate clause) and (conjunction) it is tempting to walk along
either beside the rails or stepping on the sleepers between the rails (coordinate
clause).
Locating the event described in the second coordinate clause by mentioning time
and then place gives the effect of 'zooming in' like a camera.

5 Stella Artois Dry has linked up with one of the UK's top street fashion labels,
Dr. Martens, (coordinate clause) and (conjunction) will be bringing their gear
direct to your local watering-hole (coordinate clause). .
As in sentence 1, the two clauses in this sentence are syntactically balanced as
coordinate, but the information given in the second depends upon that given in
the first.

ACTIVITY 2.9
a The year (subject) began (verb) with lunch (object).
The sentence follows a standard SVO pattern. The use of an inanimate object such
as a year as a subject, though, makes the focus of the sentence a state rather than a
person. Its juxtaposition with 'lunch', an activity associated with people,
personifies the year, making food of prime concern not only to people but also to
time.
b The proprietor of the restaurant (subject) was dressed (verb) for the day
(adverbial) in a velvet smoking jacket and bow tie (object).
The sentence follows an SVO pattern with an adverbial clause embedded within
it (SaVO). This added clause provides information about the subject's dress,
which has the effect of making us aware that there are other ways to be dressed.
Although the gender of the proprietor is not stated, the description of the dress
leads us to believe that it is a male rather than a female.

c He (subject) beamed (verb).

Although the verb to beam is usually associated with a facial expression, generally
that of smiling, by using it on its own the effect is to convey an expansiveness and
happiness which extends beyond the face to the whole body.
 178 APPENDIX 1

d Henriette (subject) was (verb) a brown, pretty woman (complement) with a

permanent smile and a spinster's enthusiasm for reaching the finishing line of
each sentence in record time (adverbial).
The verb in this sentence takes a complement instead of an object, with the long
adverbial adding to the description it provides.

e The cold weather cuisine of Provence (subject) is (verb) peasant food

(complement).
This sentence has the same SVC pattern as the previous one, but the absence of
any description through adverbials makes it into a simple factual statement.

f Over the next four or five days (adverbial), we (subject) came to know (verb) the
chemist (object) well (adverbial).
This sentence has a less uniform pattern to it; the adverbial by coming first
highlights the time it took to get to know the chemist, thus implying that they
saw a lot of him or her.

ACTIVITY 3.3
a active
b passive; passive
c active; passive; active
d active
e active
f passive
g passive
h active; active
lPPENDIX

Additional material for

Activity 6.4

Scene on the Kaiva Dot

Miss Quested: It's almost a mirage.

Dr. Aziz,
May I ask you something rather
personal?

You were married, weren't you?

Doctor Aziz: Yes, indeed.

Miss Quested: Did you love your wife when

you married her?

Doctor Aziz: We never set eyes on each other

till the day we were married. It
was all arranged by our families.
I only saw her face in a photograph.

Miss Quested: What about love?

Doctor Aziz: We were man and woman. And

we were young.

Miss Quested: Dr. Aziz.

Did you have more than one
wife?

Doctor Aziz: One.

One in my case.

I'll be back in a moment.

Specimen NEAB examination
questions, answers and comments

This section is based on the Examiner's Report for the 1994 NEAB GCSE
Advanced English paper. It provides you with sample examination questions for
stylistics, followed by answers which have been written in exam conditions and
an examiner's general comments on the answers. These are not presented as ideal
or 'model' answers, but are intended to give you some idea of the kinds of
answers that have been written in examinations. Following each question, answer
and comment are some questions for you to consider about the strengths and
weaknesses of each one.
The second part of the section gives a summary of an examiner's comments on
transformation exercises. Again, these are general, but very important, points to
be borne in mind when undertaking this kind of activity.

Section A: Stylistics
Question 1
Poem A, The Kiss, was written by Siegfried Sassoon and published in 1916. Poem
B, Arms and the Boy, was written by Wilfred Owen and published in 1918.
Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen were both officers in the trenches during the
First World War.
Comment on how the poems use language.
In your answer you may comment on vocabulary, figurative language, overall
structure, grammar, phonology and any other linguistic matters you think are
relevant to the meaning and tone of the poems.

Poem A
The Kiss

To these I turn, in these 1 trust -

Brother Lead and Sister Steel.
To his blind power I make appeal,
I guard her beauty clean from rust.

5 He spins and burns and loves the air,

And splits a skull to win my praise;
But up the nobly marching days
She glitters naked, cold and fair.

Sweet sister, grant your soldier this:

10 That in good fury he may feel
The body where he sets his heel
Quail from your downward darting kiss.
 APPENDIX 3
181

Poem B
Arms and the Boy

Let the boy try along this bayonet-blade

How cold steel is, and keen with hunger of blood;
Blue, with all malice, like a madman's flash;
And thinly drawn with famishing for flesh.
5 Lend him to stroke these blind, blunt bullet-leads,
Which long to nuzzle in the hearts of lads;
Or give him cartridges whose fine zinc teeth
Are sharp with sharpness of grief and death.

For his teeth seem for laughing round an apple.

10 There lurk no claws behind his fingers supple;
And God will grow no talons at his heel,
Nor antlers through the thickness of his curls.

Examiner's comments
Many of the strongest answers to this question moved from subjective
interpretation of the poems to an awareness of how language contributes to their
overall meanings. Good answers recognised that the poems explored attitudes to
weapons of war in different ways, and the use and effects of imagery, and
especially personification, were generally appreciated, though few candidates
were aware of eroticism as well as the violence in The Kiss. The explicit violence
and the characterisation of the soldier as 'innocent' in Arms and the Boy were
widely discussed in stronger answers, with some answers showing sensitivity to
the tenderness/violence contrasts, though the imagery in the last stanza was
often seen as relating to the devil rather than to animals. Some answers also
identified the supplicatory tone in The Kiss.
In some answers a promising discussion of how the developing thought of the
poems is embodied in the language may have been because candidates imposed
expectations about 'war poetry', possible derived from study at GCSE. Some
candidates found Arms and the Boy more difficult, leading to imbalanced answers.
The following answer makes explicit comparisons between the poems.

Candidate's answer to Question 1

Both poems begin with interesting titles which make an impact. Poem A is called
The Kiss, which can immediately be juxtaposed with the context of the poem -
war. A kiss is something of affection and love whilst war is the exact opposite of
such qualities. Sassoon emphasises this even more with the definite article before
the noun, giving the kiss even more importance. Poem B also uses the definite
article for emphasis in the title - 'the Boy'. Again this is highlighting a collocation
of the words 'Arms' and 'Boy', with 'Arms' producing an image of war and
combat contrasted with the innocence of childhood.
The contrasts continue in both poems. In the second stanza of Poem A, 'loves
the air' is follows by 'splits a skull' in the next line, foregrounding the violence of
the latter phrase. In the next line, 'nobly marching' is followed by 'glitters naked'.
This contrast of nobility and nakedness is particularly useful in the context of a
war poem, as the poet is revealing the lack of nobility in the subject - 'a gun'. In
 182 APPENDIX 3

Poem B, the use of verbs provides an interesting contrast, as in 'stroke... bullet-

leads' and '[bullets] long to nuzzle in the hearts of lads'. These 'gentle' verbs are
being used to great effect, making the violent actions which they are describing
seem even more so.
Personification is the main tool of figurative language in Poem A. 'Brother Lead'
and 'Sister Steel' not only produce gender images of what are obviously a bullet
and a gun, but also give them religious qualities through the use of 'Brother' and
'Sister'. This could be trying to strike out against religion, or maybe just trying to
shock the reader. Whichever, the personification succeeds in slotting the bullet
and gun neatly into gender roles - the 'power' of the bullet, and the 'beauty' of
the gun. With the latter we see yet more contrasting imagery - beauty
representing what can only be described as killing devices. Personification is fully
used to great effect in line 9 - 'Sweet Sister, grant your soldier this'. The
possessive pronoun 'your' creates the impression that the gun is owning the
soldier and not the other way round. Sassoon here is illustrating the power of the
gun over any human.
Animation is used in Poem B and is also connected with guns - 'fine zinc teeth',
'nuzzle in the hearts of lads'. 'Nuzzle' has already been discussed, yet when
combined with 'teeth' creates a very animal-like impression, maybe in an attempt
to make the weapon seem wild, almost out of control. The repetition of 'sharp' in
the next line emphasises the danger and impact of the cartridges for which the
teeth were a metaphor. The use of 'famishing' in line 4 can also be related to the
animal imagery.
The lexis of the two poems is quite similar at times. Both the adjectives 'blind'
and 'cold' are repeated in each poem. 'Blind' refers to bullets both times and
illustrates the misguidedness of war, i.e. a blind bullet cannot see where it is
going and will kill regardless. The use of 'cold' is, once again, creating a certain
kind of imagery. Steel is cold but in this context it is meant more in the sense of 'a
cold killing' or 'a cold-blooded murder' - 'cold' as in evil.
The last stanza of Poem B is very powerful: 'claws', 'talons' and 'antlers' are
referring to the devil. Saying his teeth are 'for laughing round an apple' is to
increase the boy's innocence. 'There lurk no claws', 'God will grow no talons' and
'nor antlers through thickness of his curls' is basically deflecting any evil imagery
(i.e. Beelzebub) from the soldier, contrasting it with his innocence - 'curls',
'laughing round an apple' - so as to shift the blame of war and killing away from
him.
The alliteration in Poem A of 'Sweet Sister' (first line, last stanza) creates a more
emphatic plea from the poet which ends the way it started - with the contrasting
imagery of a 'kiss'.

Points to consider
How effectively does the candidate discuss particular words, phrases, images and
contrasts?

Question 2
The following passage is from Dombey and Son by Charles Dickens, first published
in 1848.
Florence Dombey and her maid, Susan Nipper, accompanied by a close friend,
Captain Cuttle, have gone to ask advice from Captain Bunsby about the likely
 APPENDIX 3
183

a eo alter Gills, who has embarked on a long sea voyage. The passage begins
as t rey approach Captain Bunsby's residence, a boat named the Cautious Clara.
ow does the language in this passage convey impressions of Captain Bunsby?
n your answer you may comment on vocabulary, figurative language,
grammar, dialogue, overall structure and any other linguistic matters you think
relevant to meaning and tone.

Clara a-hoy! cried the Captain, putting a hand to each side of his mouth.
A-hoy! cried a boy, like the Captain's echo, tumbling up from below.
Bunsby aboard? cried the Captain, hailing the boy in a stentorian voice, as if he were
half-a-mile off instead of two yards.
Ay, ay!' cried the boy, in the same tone.
The boy then shoved out a plank to Captain Cuttle, who adjusted it carefully, and led
Florence across: returning presently for Miss Nipper. So they stood upon the deck of the
Cautious Clara, in whose standing rigging, divers fluttering articles of dress were curing,
in company with a few tongues and some mackerel.
Immediately there appeared, coming slowly up above the bulk-head of the cabin, another
bulk-head - human, and very large - with one stationary eye in the mahogany face, and
one revolving one, on the principle of some lighthouses. This head was decorated with
shnggy hair, like oakum, which had no governing inclination towards the north, east, west
or south, but inclined to all four quarters of the compass, and to every point upon it. The
head was followed by a perfect desert of chin, and by a shirt-collar and neckerchief, and by
a dreadnought pilot-coat, and by a pair of dreadnought waistcoats: being ornamented near
the wearer's breastbone with some massive wooden buttons, like backgammon men. As the
lower portions of these pantaloons became revealed, Bunsby stood confessed: his hands in
their pockets, which were of vast size, and his gaze directed, not to Captain Cuttle or the
ladies, but the mast-head.
The profound appearance of this philosopher, who was bulky and strong, and on whose
extremely red face an expression of taciturnity sat enthroned, not inconsistent with his
character, in which that quality was proudly conspicuous, almost daunted Captain Cuttle,
though on familiar terms with him. Whispering to Florence that Bunsby had never in his
life expressed surprise, and was considered not to know what it meant, the Captain
watched him as he eyed his mast-head, and afterwards swept the horizon; and when the
revolving eye seemed to be coming round in his direction, said:
'Bunsby, my lad, how fares it?'
A deep, gruff, husky utterance, which seemed to have no connection with Bunsby, and
certainly had not the least effect upon his face, replied, 'Ay, ay, shipmet, how goes it?'
At the same time Bunsby's right hand and arm, emerging from a pocket, shook the
Captain's, and went back again.
'Bunsby,' said the Captain, striking home at once, 'here you are; a man of mind, and a
man as can give an opinion. Bunsby, will you wear, to oblige me, and come along with
us?'
The great commander, who seemed by the expression of his visage to be always on the look¬
out for something in the extremest distance, and to have no ocular knowledge of anything
within ten miles, made no reply whatever.
'Here is a man,' said the Captain, addressing himself to his fair auditors, and indicating
the commander with his outstretched hook, 'that has fell down, more than any man alive;
that has had more accidents happen to his own self than the Seamen's Hospital to all
hands; that took as many spars and bars and bolts about the outside of his head when he
 184 APPENDIX 3

was young, as you'd want a order for on Chatham-yard to build a pleasure-yacht with;
and yet that his opinions in that way, it's my belief, for there ain't nothing like 'em afloat
or ashore.'
The stolid commander appeared, by a very slight vibration in his elbows, to express some
satisfaction in this encomium; but his face had been as distant as his gaze was, it could
hardly have enlightened the beholders less in reference to anything that was passing in his
thoughts.
'Shipmet,' said Bunsby, all of a sudden, and stooping down to look out under some
interposing spar, 'what'll the ladies drink?'
Captain Cuttle, whose delicacy was shocked by such an inquiry in connexion with
Florence, drew the sage aside, and seeming to explain in his ear, accompanied him below;
where, that he might not take offence, the Captain drank a dram himself, which Florence
and Susan, glancing down the open skylight, saw the sage, with difficulty finding room
for himself between his berth and a very little brass fireplace, serve out for self and friend.
They soon reappeared on deck, and Captain Cuttle, triumphing in the success of his
enterprise, conducted Florence back to the coach, while Bunsby followed, escorting Miss
Nipper, whom he hugged upon the way (much to that young lady's indignation) with his
pilot-coated arm, like a blue bear.
The Captain put his oracle inside, and gloried so much in having secured him, and having
got that mind into a hackney-coach, that he could not refrain from often peeping in at
Florence through the little window behind the driver, and testifying his delight in smiles,
and also in taps upon his forehead, to hint to her that the brain of Bunsby was hard at it.

Examiner's comments
Most of the stronger answers to this question noted the semantic field of sailing,
and particularly its realisation in imagery and lexis, concentrated on the physical
appearance and behaviour of Bunsby, often linking these to characterisation, and
identified the narrator's use of humour and irony. Some recognised the sources of
impressions of Bunsby, including direct narrator comment, narrator irony, direct
speech and imagery. Only a few answers commented on the contradiction
between the descriptions of Bunsby's behaviour and his characterisation as a
'philosopher' and 'oracle', though most noted the respect shown to him by
Captain Cuttle.
Some more limited answers offered inferences from the passage's content about
Bunsby's character, with limited reference to the part played by language. Some
answers used paraphrase of the text as a basis for comment. Some candidates
limited their own scope for comment by taking all aspects of the passage at face
value. Some answers described the content, language and style of the passage as a
whole, with limited focus on impressions of Bunsby. Some answers concentrated
on the physical descriptions of Bunsby early in the extract, and paid little or no
attention to the later interaction between characters.
The following answer contains detailed inferences about the appearance and
character of Captain Bunsby.

Candidate's answer to Question 2

The language used in the passage to convey impressions of Captain Bunsby is
extremely elaborate and laced with figurative language.
 APPENDIX 3
185

The description of Captain Bunsby begins in line 10 and the tone of the piece
seems to change somewhat at this point from a quite calm narrative to an
awesome tone which builds up an atmosphere and a sense of anticipation of
Captain Bunsby's appearance. This change in tone leads the readers to believe
that they are about to witness something great, or out of the ordinary. The writer
obviously wants Bunsby's character to make an impression on the reader.
The writer uses a subordinate clause to intensify this sense of anticipation, i.e.
coming slowly up above the bulk-head of the cabin' and this also provides the
writer with a simile, 'another bulk-head', which accurately conveys a sense of
awesomeness.
Throughout the whole description of Bunsby's appearance, the writer uses a
large amount of figurative language, all of which is related to his seafaring
qualities. An extended metaphor describes one of Bunsby's eyes and this is
followed up in line 26 where the eye is described as if 'coming round in his
direction', just like the action of a lighthouse. His hair is described with a simile
referring to the points of the compass and it is first stated that Bunsby's hair is
inclined to 'all four quarters of the compass' and 'every point on it'. This
seafaring figurative language reinforces Bunsby's sailing roots in the eyes of the
reader.
The sense of greatness which the writer immediately establishes in line 10 is
made even greater by the way in which Bunsby is described as different parts, not
as a whole person. Bunsby's head and hands are treated as completely separate
entities, with the deliberate omission of any pronouns by the writer. Bunsby's
head is not described as his head but 'This head', and Bunsby's hands are not in
'his' pockets, but 'in their pockets'. The omission of pronouns gives Bunsby an air
of mystery and anonymity, as though he is quite a secretive man who seldom
reveals himself to others on a physical or mental level. This is reinforced in line 18
where it is stated that 'Bunsby stood confessed' as though he had allowed himself
to be looked upon on this occasion.
There is an extensive use of descriptive vocabulary with no head-word left
unmodified. Adjectives are used exhaustively and wherever possible to continually
enhance the description further. Bunsby's hair is described as 'shaggy', his chin a
'perfect desert', his face 'red'. This contributes to the extremely elaborate syntax.
There is frequent use of the conjunction 'and' to link descriptive clauses, as
though the writer is not satisfied until he has given a more thorough description.
When Bunsby talks, the writer again attempts to build up a sense of anticipation
in the reader, with the three modifying adjectives 'deep', 'gruff' and 'husky' and
the two subordinate clauses before the speech is submitted.
The writer continues to describe Bunsby even when the bulk of the description
seems to be over and dialogue predominates. Captain Cuttle speaks to Bunsby and
we are informed in the main clause of sentence 33 that 'the great commander ...
made no reply whatever', and this should be sufficient, but instead the writer takes
this opportunity to add two more descriptive subordinate clauses which reinforce
Bunsby's seafaring quality. Bunsby is described as 'commander' and the writer
modifies this more pretentious title with the adjectives 'great' and 'stolid'.
Bunsby's solid and unbroken profile is described with his almost humorous
reaction to Captain Cuttle's exhaustive admiring comments, which is only 'a very
slight vibration in his elbows', as though even the narrator himself cannot be sure
of Bunsby's reaction.
 186 APPENDIX 3

Bunsby's solid seafaring profile is softened slightly towards the end of the
passage with his actions towards the two female characters. Bunsby is described
as testifying his delight in smiles and the passage concludes with a burst of
humorous irony with the alliterated statement 'brain of Bunsby was hard at it'.
Throughout the passage, the narrator conveys a sense of admiration and adopts
an awestruck tone in some places. This sense of mystery is kept quite constant
throughout the passage so as to ensure the reader's curiosity about Bunsby's
mysterious character.

Points to consider
1 How accurate are the candidate's inferences about Bunsby's appearance and
character in this answer?
2 On the evidence of this answer, is the candidate's framework for describing
language, in terms of lexis, grammar and figurative language, an adequate
basis for commenting on this text?
3 How effective is the candidate's response to the tone of the passage?

Question 3
The following extracts are from Roots by Arnold Wesker, first performed in 1959.
The first extract takes place near the beginning of the play and the second extract
occurs near the end. Beatie Bryant, who lives and works in London, is visiting her
family in Norfolk and her boyfriend, Ronnie, has arranged to visit, though he
never appears in the play. Jenny is Beatie's sister, Frank is her brother, and Mr and
Mrs Bryant are her parents. Jenny is married to Jimmy and Frank is married to
Pearl.
How is language used in these extracts to convey ideas and relations between
characters and to affect the audience?
In your answer you might comment on phonology, vocabulary, grammar,
dialogue, overall structure and any other matters relating to meaning and tone.

1 JENNY. Look at her. No sooner she's in than she's at them ole comics. You still read
them ole things?
JIMMY. She don't change much do she?
BEATIE. Funny that! Soon ever I'm home again I'm like I always was - it don't
even seem I bin away. I do the same lazy things an' I talk the same. Funny that!
JENNY. Wlwt do Ronnie say to it?
BEATIE. He don't mind. He don't even know though. He ent never bin here. Not in
the three years I known him. But I'll tell you (she jumps up and moves around as
she talks) I used to read the comics he bought for his nephew and he used to get riled -
(Now BEATIE begins to quote Ronnie, and when she does she imitates him so
well in both manner and intonation that in fact as the play progresses we see a
picture of him through her.)
'Christ, woman, what can they give you that you can be so absorbed?' So you know
what I used to do? I used to get a copy of the Manchester Guardian and sit with that
wide open - and a comic behind!
JIMMY. Manchester Guardian? Blimey Joe - he don't believe in hevin' much fun
then?
BEATIE. That's what I used to tell him. 'Fun?' he say, 'fun? Playing an instrument
is fun, painting is fun, reading a book is fun, talking with friends is fun - but a comic?
 APPENDIX 3 187

A comic? for a young woman of twenty-two?'

JENNY, (handing out meal and sitting down herself) He sound a queer bor to
me. Sit you down and eat gal
BEATIE. (enthusiastically) He's alive though.
JIMMY. Alive? Alive you say? What's alive about someone who can't read a comic?
What s alive about a person that reads books and looks at paintings and listens to
classical music?
There is a silence at this, as though the question answers itself - reluctantly.
JIMMY. Well it's all right for some I suppose.
BEATIE. And then he'd sneak the comic away from me and read it his-self!
JENNY. Oh, he didn't really mind then?
BEATIE. No - cos sometimes I read books as well. 'There’s nothing wrong with
comics,' he'd cry - he stand up on a chair when he wants to preach but don't wanna
sound too dramatic.
JIMMY. Eh?
BEATIE. Tike this, look. (Stands on a chair.) 'There's nothing wrong with comics
only there's something wrong with comics all the time. There's nothing wrong with
football, only there's something wrong with only football. There's nothing wrong with
rock V rolling, only God preserve me from the girl that can do nothing else!' (She sits
down and then stands again, remembering something else.) Oh, yes, 'and there's
nothing wrong with talking about the weather, only don't talk to me about it!'

2 (There is a knock on the front door.)

BEATIE. (Jumping down joyously) He's here, he's here! (But at the door it is the
POSTMAN, from whom she takes a letter and a parcel.) Oh, the silly fool, the
fool. Trust him to write a letter on the day he's coming. Parcel for you Mother.
PEARL. Oh, that'll be your dress from the club.
MRS BRYANT. What dress is this then? I didn't ask for no dress from the club.
PEARL. Yes you did, you did ask me, didn't she ask me Frank? Why, we were
looking through the book together Mother.
MRS BRYANT. No matters what we was doin' together I aren't hevin it.
PEARL. But Mother you distinctly -
MRS BRYANT. I aren't hevin' it so there now!
(BEATIE has read the letter - the contents stun her. She cannot move. She
stares around speechlessly at everyone.)
MRS BRYANT. Well, what's the matter wi' you gal? Let's have a read. (Takes the
letter and reads contents in a dead flat but loud voice - as though it were a
proclamation.) ‘My dear Beatie. It wouldn't really work would it? My ideas about
handing on a new kind of life are quite useless and romantic if I'm really honest. If I
were a healthy human being it might have been all right but most of us intellectuals
are pretty sick and neurotic - as you have often observed - and we couldn't build a
world even if we were given the reins of government - not yet any-rate. I don't blame
you for being stubborn, I don't blame you for ignoring every suggestion I ever made -
10niy blame myself for encouraging you to believe we could make a go of it and now
two weeks of your not being here has given me the cowardly chance to think about it
and decide and I -
BEATIE. (snatching letter) Shut up!
MRS BRYANT. Oh - so we know now do we?
MR BRYANT. What's this then - ent he comin ?
 188 APPENDIX 3

MRS BRYANT. Yes, we know now.

MR BRYANT. Ent he coinin' I ask?
BEATIE. No he ent cornin'.
(An awful silence ensues. Everyone looks uncomfortable.)
JENNY, (softly) Well blust gal, didn't you know this was going to happen?
(BEATIE shakes her head.)
MRS BRYANT. So we're stubborn are we?
JENNY. Shut you up Mother, the girl's upset.
MRS BRYANT. Well I can see that, I can see that, he ent coining, I can see that, and
we're here like bloody fools, I can see that.
PEARL. Well did you quarrel all that much Beatie?
BEATIE. (as if discovering this for the first time) He always wanted me to help
him but I never could. Once he tried to teach me to type but soon ever I made a mistake
I'd give up. I'd give up every time! I couldn't bear making mistakes. I don't know why,
but I couldn't bear making mistakes.
MRS BRYANT. Oh - so we're bearin' the other side o' the story now are we?
BEATIE. He used to suggest I start to copy real objects on to my paintings instead of
only abstracts and I never took heed.
MRS BRYANT. Oh, so you never took heed.
JENNY. Shut you up I say.
BEATIE. He gimme a book sometimes and I never bothered to read it.
FRANK, (not maliciously) What about all this discussion we heard of?
BEATIE. I never discussed things. He used to beg me to discuss things but I never
saw the point of it.
PEARL. And he got riled because o' that?
BEATIE. (trying to understand) I didn't have any patience.
MRS BRYANT. Now it's coming out.
BEATIE. I couldn't help him -1 never knew patience. Once he looked at me with
terrifying eyes and said,' We've been together three years but you don't know who I am
or what I'm trying to say - and you don't care do you?'
MRS BRYANT. And there she was tellin' me.
BEATIE. I never knew what he wanted -1 didn't think it mattered.
MR BRYANT. And there she were gettin’ us to solve the moral problem and now we
know she didn't even do it herself. That's a rum 'un, ent it?
MRS BRYANT. The apple don't fall far from the tree - that it don't.

Examiner's comments
Stronger answers examined dramatic impact and the relationships between Beatie
and Ronnie and Beatie and her family, though sometimes at the level of inference
from content. The best answers considered the contrasting values and cultures of
the Bryant family and Ronnie, in some cases referring to differences between
Ronnie's and Jimmy's ideas about 'fun'. Most answers made some comment on
the use of non-standard dialect forms, and stronger answers contrasted this with
the more standard forms used in Beatie's quotations from Ronnie, in some cases
linking these to the contrasting values of Ronnie and the Bryant family.
Though some answers showed awareness that the extracts were part of a script
written for performance, for example by referring to stage directions and
authorial comment, many treated the text as natural conversation, often
commenting in detail on features of regional dialect and accent and identifying
 APPENDIX 3
189

characteristics of spoken language, but often without relating these to relations

etween characters, dramatic effect or the expression of ideas.
The following answer focuses directly on relationships between characters and
dramatic effects throughout the answer.

Candidate's answer to Question 3

The first passage is used to build a picture, an idea of Beatie and the life she leads.
The first linguistic feature is the accent of the characters (the phonology of the
words). It is evident from the spelling that there is an accent present and this is
backed up by the fact that the characters are meant to live in Norfolk. Beatie
speaks with the same accent; however, she explains that she only slips back into
her accent when she returns home to Norfolk. (She could possibly use
hypercorrection whilst in London?) The vocabulary that Beatie uses to create a
picture of Ronnie, for example in line 11 of the text, 'Christ, woman, what can
they give you that you can be so absorbed?' shows he is a serious person, who
doesn't agree with all that Beatie does. This will affect the audience because as
Beatie imitates Ronnie they will be able to create a picture of the striking
differences between Beatie and Ronnie and imagine the relationship they have.
Beatie's description of what Ronnie thinks and believes surprises her sister, who
declares in line 17, 'He sounds a queer bor to me.'
With the responses that come from Jenny and Jimmy it is clear to see that their
relationship is quite different from that of Beatie and Ronnie. Jenny and Jimmy
come from the same area (shown by their accents) and are very similar, having
the same ideas of what fun is. The use of vocabulary also helps to establish these
images of the relationships. As Beatie impersonates Ronnie, she uses the
vocabulary that he would use. It is quite different from the simple vocabulary and
simple sentences that she and her sister and Jimmy have been using. This will
again reinforce the idea to the audience that Ronnie is well educated and would
not easily fit into the country life in Norfolk. The structure of the dialogue
consists mainly of Jenny and Jimmy questioning Beatie about life with Ronnie: it
always seems to be Jimmy or Jenny who gives the initiating utterance.
In the second passage, the rest of the family are present and the inter-relations
within the family can be studied. Beatie shows the audience her excitement that
Ronnie has arrived, using repetition to stress this - on discovering it is not
Ronnie, the focus moves to Mrs Bryant (Beatie's mother). The vocabulary shows
how stubborn and set in her ways Mrs Bryant is when insisting she is not keeping
the dress. The way in which she says this to Pearl, her daughter-in-law, shows
assertiveness and authority, as if she is used to being in charge and usually is in
that relationship.
The audience are affected by the way Beatie is shocked by her letter. This
demonstrates to the audience that it is bad news, and however much Beatie has
mocked Ronnie she does really love him. The response Beatie receives from her
mother stresses exactly what type of relationship they have. No sympathy is
offered, or time to offer an explanation. Her mother takes the letter and reads it
aloud. At this point the tone is extremely important to the effect on the audience.
Mrs Bryant shows no emotion or compassion, she simply reads Beatie's business
to the whole family. This demonstrates that these people are not very emotional
or open with their feelings. Beatie does not have a close relationship with her
mother Mrs Bryant continues (after Beatie has retrieved the letter) with a series of
 190 APPENDIX 3

terse sentences, repeating herself - for example, in line 24, 'Oh - so we know now
do we?' and in line 26, 'Yes, we know now'.
At this point the dialogue includes many of the characters, all giving their
opinion of the situation. Beatie is offered some sympathy by Jenny, who uses a
strong tone to tell her mother to keep out of the situation. The vocabulary again is
kept very simple throughout, as Beatie's mother continues in a very impersonal
tone about Beatie being 'dumped' by Ronnie, as if to be saying 'I told you so'.
This piece is generally informal and colloquial, as dialogue would be expected
to be within the family.

Points to consider
1 What evidence is there in the answer that the candidate has read the passages
closely?
2 Is the framework used by the candidate for describing the language of the
passages adequate for answering the question?
3 What strategies does the candidate use to ensure that her answer stays relevant
to the question throughout?

Question 4
The passage which follows is from A Paper House, a book which describes the
personal opinions of a journalist, Mark Thompson, on the conflicts in the former
Yugoslavian Republic, based on his travels in the region during an intense period
of conflict between Serbian and Croatian people in 1991. The passage describes
Mark Thompson's journey from the resort of Budva to a town called Bar, and
from there towards Belgrade, the capital of former Yugoslavia.
Identify the main effects of the passage, and discuss how language is used to
achieve those effects.
In your answer you might comment on vocabulary, figurative language,
dialogue, grammar, overall structure and any other linguistic matters you think
relevant to meaning and reader response.

I had come to Serbia from Budva, on the Montenegrin coast. The streets there were lined
with Belgrade-registered cars; the coast was packed with Serb holidaymakers ivhose
favourite resorts in Croatia were out of bounds, and soon under fire.
The beaches were grubby and the mood was jovial. A teak-tanned beach bum in flowen/
bermudas sat beside my friend Sasa and smirked: 'Hey, shall we go to Knin to protect the
Serbs, what about it?' On Montenegro's coast the war was a chat-up line.
July collapsed in vast electric storms. Under a graphite sky I bussed south, past the old
royal resort of Milocer, where Serbia's political leaders were recreating themselves and
their families: Democrats and Socialists and Renewalists savouring the seafood while
Croatia burned.
The graffiti in Bar ranted 'THIS IS SERBIA’. At Bar I entrained for Belgrade.
The Bar-Belgrade line is an epic railway. From the coast the train climbs to Lake Skadar,
pauses in Titograd, then embarks on a spectacular route through the Montenegrin
hinterland, or rather above it. The line follows the Moraca gorge for a way, breaks across
country to Kolasin, and dips into the Tara valley. After Mojkovac it switches to the valley
of the Lim and exits to Serbia.
 APPENDIX 3 191

Railways in the Andes must look like this, pinned to the mountain like a curtain-rail, and
feel like it too, clanking slowly over the points. Below the carriage windows, crags and
scree cascade to tiny meadows and torrents. Montenegro appears a landscape of giant
stone dunes, unfarmed, unhomed.
My status on the train from Bar changed from passenger to guest. Serb largesse enveloped
me. My seat was only reserved as far as Prijepolje, but the new occupant wouldn't hear of
me standing; he and his wife wedged up and insisted I make myself comfortable again.
Opposite us a strapping widow poured coffee for everyone from an urn-sized flask. Beside
her, a sleeping girl nestled in her boyfriend's arms.
The window seats were taken by a couple of engineers riding home to Valjevo. We talked
about football for a bit; then I said how confused we were in Britain about the war in
Croatia. They frowned unhappily and nodded that, yes, it was complicated for outsiders,
but the thing was, the Croat fascists had to be stopped. The Serbs in Croatia were
suffering genocide, as under the ustase in the Second World War.
But the ustase killed hundreds of thousands of people, I said. In 1991 a few dozen Serbs
and Croats were killed before the war began for real, in August. Now the war was killing
far more Croats than Serbs. How could they say the situation was like 1941?
They frowned again, and looked more unhappy. As usual at this point of a discussion, I
was downcast by a sense of futility, but it was too late now to go back to football. I tried to
look disarming, and their good nature overcame their bristling distrust, like a hedgehog
uncurling after a false alarm. They began to talk about Serbs' sacrifices for the Croats and
Slovenes since 1914, and how they were paid back with separatism. About the Albanians,
separatists too. About the Macedonians, who were freed from the Turks by the Serbs in the
Balkan Wars, and now wanted to separate.
So it continued. You would think these young engineers had lost the battle of Kosovo in
1389, rebelled with Karadjordje in 1804, beaten the Austrians in 1914, risen against the
Axis in 1941, been terrorised in Kosovo in the 1980s. In Serbs' speech the people are
conjured as one person, who is also Serbia; every generation becomes one generation,
which is Serbia too. 'Serbia has had enough,' they warn you, like a lawyer whose client's
Jobish patience is finally drained.
This speech compacts all Serbs into a 'we' that creates 'they', who are forever doing all
manner of evil things to Serbia: bad-mouthing and subverting it, hating it, sapping its
strength, killing its children.
Homogenising rhetoric was not exclusive to Serbs, of course; Croats and Albanians bind
themselves just as passionately to their ancestors. What was unique to Serbs, as
Yugoslavia died on its feet, was the stunning contrast between their self-image as
projected in this piteous narrative, and the facts that were there for everyone else to see.
There is no understanding Serbia without fathoming its wounded self-righteousness, its
perception of itself as more sinned against than sinning.

Examiner's comments
The variety and serious purposes of the extract were well appreciated by
candidates who attempted this question, and most answers engaged with the
meaning and content of the text, and understood the author's interpretation of
the situation. In some cases this may have compromised candidates' detachment,
though most attempted at least a degree of comment, particularly of the political

& The stronger answers showed response to the complex mixture of styles and
purposes in the text, identifying features of travel writing, reporting and personal
 192 APPENDIX 3

response. Many of these answers also identified the narrative form of the passage
and commented effectively on the use of anecdotes, narrative and dialogue and
the direct authorial statements of opinion. The vivid visual imagery was
appreciated in many answers, and some candidates commented effectively on the
contrasts drawn between the beauty of the landscape and the horrors of the war.
Weaker answers tended to paraphrase, though even here some responses
emerged, together with understanding expressed through selection of key words
and phrases for comment.
The following answer shows response to the text's content as well as to its use
of language.

Candidate's answer to Question 4

The passage is an emotive and factual account of life in Serbia. The effect it has on
the reader is one of disturbing sobriety. The first paragraph is ironic, talking of
holiday-makers on the Montenegrin Coast. When one thinks of war, one does not
think of holiday, and the sentence 'whose favourite resorts in Croatia were out of
bounds, and soon to be under fire' shows the war as a plain fact, the inevitability
of 'soon to be under fire' and the hopelessness of the situation.
Again the second paragraph highlights all we do not know about the war, and
the use of 'A teak-tanned beach bum in flowery bermudas' gives the reader the
image of every beach bum they have seen on holiday, 'beach bum' showing
carefree attitudes towards the war. This imagery only reinforces the seriousness of
the war and the plight of the population. "'Hey, shall we go to Knin to protect the
Serbs, what about it?" On Montenegro's coast the war was a chat-up line.' This
dialogue shows that the Croats and Serbs have accepted war as a way of life, and
sarcastically and ironically joke about it. The factual tone, with no empathy,
reinforces the seriousness and sobering effect that the paragraph has.
'July collapsed in vast electric storms', shows comparison with the collapse of
the state and the collapse of life. 'Democrats and Socialists and Renewalists
savouring the seafood while Croatia burned' again is a comparison, the life of the
ordinary people to the life of those inflicting war on them. No opinion is offered
here by the writer; the statement says it all. The description of the journey to
Serbia on the train shows the beauty of the land in torment. 'My status on the
train from Bar changed from passenger to guest. Serb largesse enveloped me. My
seat was only reserved as far as Prijepolje, but the new occupant wouldn't hear of
me standing'. This short paragraph includes language that gives the reader a
powerful image, as happens throughout the passage.
The short paragraphs, rarely offering opinion, have great impact on the reader,
by just offering fact and plain dialogue: no explanation is needed, the choice of
dialogue and recollection of stories say all that is needed to be said. The writer
notices everyday occurrences that could happen anywhere, and contrasts them
with war stories or observation.
When the author asks about the situation of war he is given replies of
unhappiness, and fact, and he relays this to the reader simply, like a story, using
all the names of the different opposing groups to show how big the war is. They
speak as a collective: 'Serbia has had enough,' they warn the author. The author
battles against himself to understand what is going on, and finishes, 'There is no
understanding Serbia without fathoming its wounded self-righteousness, its
perception of itself as more sinned against than sinning.' The writer tries to
 APPENDIX 3 193

understand but can only see what is facing him, wounded men, women and
children. Self-image as projected in this piteous narrative' shows he does not
think he can do the Serbs any justice by writing about them, and no-one can begin
to put into words what is happening. 'They frowned again, and looked more
unhappy. As usual as this point of a discussion, I was downcast by a sense of
futility, but it was too late to go back to football.' This comparison of the war to
football shows desperate attempts to understand, and the futility of comparing
war to football, but the lack of knowledge to compare it to anything he knows.
Throughout the passage there are short sentences, short paragraphs, and
statements with no explanation: 'The graffiti in Bar ranted "This is Serbia". At Bar
I entrained for Belgrade.'
All these devices add up to give a powerful passage, the descriptive language
giving the reader an image to work on, and the chance to form an opinion for
themselves if they need to. There is a sense of desperation throughout, but a
stronger sense of unreality - can this really be happening? The whole piece is
emotive and strong.

Points to consider
1 What evidence is there in this answer of the candidate's response to the text?
2 How much of the answer consists of comment on the text's content and how
much relates to its use of language? How far is it possible or desirable to
separate these aspects of the text?

Section B: Transformation exercises

You are writing a new, cohesive text: as such, any text you produce will be a
combination of selected passages from the source material interwoven with your
own writing to form a new, coherent text which fulfils the task set. Examiners'
reports for one examination board constantly stress the following points:

• There is no need to copy long sections from source material: cut and paste if
you need to.
• Referring to specific sections of the source material makes it difficult to get an
overview during construction of the text you are writing, and makes the
examiner a corroborator rather than an appreciative reader of a new, cohesive
text.
• Editing the source material needs to be carefully done to avoid things such as:
illogical change of tense; abrupt inter-sentence connections; mystifying
exophoric and anaphoric references; extreme stylistic incompatibility; not
supplying a sub-heading where one is needed; an excerpt beginning or ending
in mid-sentence. You can write over and change any part of the cut and paste
material to help the coherence of the overall text. For example, you may want
to change pronouns from third person to first or vice versa; change the tense
from past to present or vice versa; add your own beginning or ending to a
sentence. You can treat the source material as part of the draft itself, and indeed
it will help the overall coherence of the finished text if you make sure that
syntactic elements such as pronouns and tense agree where they should in both
your own writing and that of the source material.
 194 APPENDIX 3

• There is no hard or fast rule as to how much of the final text should consist of
source material; the range is somewhere in the region between ten and seventy
per cent. It is clear then, that you need to include some source material, but by
the same token you also need to provide some text yourself and not to
construct a new text by using all source material. Such a practice will almost
inevitably lead to the things mentioned above.
You are constructing a new text in a draft form. Therefore:
• There is no need to use non-standard stationery - the stationery provided by
the examination board is probably adequate.
• Using coloured pens can be useful in the draft, but some examination boards
do not allow the use of red ink or correcting fluid, which should be avoided.
• The draft should be legible; have competently cut and pasted any source
material used, and generally be physically well-presented. This does not mean
that there cannot be any crossings out, additions etc., all of which are perfectly
legitimate features of drafts. But your text is going to be read by someone else,
and it makes their task easier if your text does not literally fall apart in their
hands or become stuck together.
• Even though you are writing a draft, examiners will expect you, as students of
English language, to spell accurately key words used in source material and
examination questions.
• The easiest source material does not necessarily give rise to an easier task.
There is no correlation between the perceived complexity of some source
material and the kind of question asked.
• Asa writer, you are in control of the tone and register of your text and the ways
into which you weave it into a coherent narrative or exposition.
The following points look at ways in which effective communication can be
achieved between writers and readers:
• It is not a good move to pass on to the reader instructions given in the task (e.g.
The aim of this display is both to interest you and to enhance your
understanding and enjoyment of Music Hall' or 'We hope to present this
information in a lively and interesting way...'). Statements like these have an
oddly contrary, contrived, even alienating effect. It is the writer's business to
achieve these effects unobtrusively.
• Telling the editor what you hope to achieve is not a good idea; it suggests
uncertainty on the writer's part (e.g. 'It is hoped that the reader will get a better
idea if...'). Editors want positive intentions, though an occasional (i.e. very
occasional) request for advice is acceptable (e.g. Is this too long? If so, cut at
line 10).
• It does not take too much to damage a reader's or listener's confidence in the
author or presenter. Beware dangerous moments such as the opening sentences
or the links you are making between sections of text. In radio scripts, the worst
pitfall is that moment when a contributor has finished a reading and the
presenter carries on. If all you can think of is 'Wasn't that a good attitude to
have, listeners?', better to say nothing and move on to the next bit.
• Neither readers nor listeners take kindly to being addressed as 'You out
there../. Nor are they impressed by one-word directives such as 'enjoy' in a text
which, however entertainingly written, is expected to be reliably informative
and fundamentally serious.
 APPENDIX 3 195

• By and large, Radio 1 models of communication work best on Radio 1.

• Handling subject matter with respect does not mean writing pompously, a style
most candidates try to avoid at all costs, but it does mean avoiding occasional
flippancies (e.g. 'Good stuff, this, isn't it?') that are hardly likely to impress the
original writers of the source material or to assure the reader that you can be
taken seriously. Worse still are jokes at the expense of the subject matter (e.g.
Vera the Volcano; Freddy the mad scientist) or dubious familiarities, such as
'Thank you Tony' (to Anthony Burgess).
• Record and observe how documentary topics are handled on Radio 2. How do
they compare with samples from Radio 4?
• As an exercise in stretching your writing potential, complete for homework a
task you would not normally have chosen, featuring texts you would most
likely not have used.
• Compare a transformation text that someone else has already done with the
source material, judging for yourself how far the transformation fulfils the task
it had been set.

The following three points are ones which you would do well to bear in mind as
you progress through any examination course which requires you to transform
source material into new text:
• Examine a wide variety of text types in order to identify features of text
organisation and to begin to detect genre clues in the language used.
Classifying texts and looking for tell-tale signs of register not only helps
prepare you for this examination, it will also contribute to your proficiency in
stylistic analysis.
• Do concentrated, detailed exercises transforming short texts to meet the needs
of different audiences and purposes, of the kind given in Unit 9 of this book.
• Record and study programmes from Radio 2 and 4 and learn to 'read' the
shape and tone of the programme as well as its content. The important thing
here is not learning how to write for the BBC, but using a sound medium in
order to discover something about 'voice' in writing and about the unintended
signals and effects that can be written into a text. A similar exercise would be
the 'writing out' of effects, signals and messages in other people's text.

Above all, you need to notice some of the things that happen when source
material is converted into a piece of partly original writing. It is in this process
that style, register, organisation, imagination and communicativeness begin to
show themselves. These are the indicators that earn the marks.
Finally, in the time you have to read the source material before the examination,
your main task is to become familiar with the content of the material. It is clear
from examination scripts that good candidates know their way around the source
material and are alert not just to the information contained, but also to the
provenance of the original text. It is likely that if you can infer meanings in source
texts you will be able to imply meanings in your own texts. Similarly, it is likely
that your ability to evaluate what kinds of texts are in the source material will
result in you being able to make better judgements about what is appropriate in
the texts you are constructing yourself.
 Glossary

adjectival clause a clause that functions like an adjective to modify a noun, e.g.
a relative clause.
adjective a class of words used to modify nouns e.g. large, square, beautiful.
adverb a class of words used to specify the circumstances of an action or event,
e.g. the manner (slowly), the time (soon), the place (here); it also includes
conjunctive adverbs (however) and adverb particles (up, out).
adverbial a type of element in sentence structure, referring to the circumstances
of the sentence rather than to a place or person, often expressed by an adverb,
prepositional phrase or adverbial clause. Sometimes called an adjunct.
adverbial clause a clause, often introduced by a preposition or a subordinating
conjunction (if, because, although) that functions as an adverbial in sentence
structure.
alliteration a sound pattern in which the first sound of two or more words is
the same. e.g. Peter Piper picked a pickled pepper.
archaism a linguistic feature which has become outdated and is no longer in
current usage. It is generally found in particular varieties of language, such as
liturgical or legal language or in regional dialects.
assonance like alliteration, assonance refers to a particular sound patterning in
words using repetition, but it is applied to the repetition of a vowel sound within
a word, e.g. 'Break, Break, Break/On thy cold, grey, stones' (Break and grey; cold
and stone).
authorial voice the extent to which an author intrudes into the story he or she is
telling, and whether the author knows everything about characters and events
(authorial omniscience) or simply reports what he or she might have seen and
heard (authorial reportage).
auxiliary verb a small set of verbs, including the modal verbs, be, have and do,
which accompany lexical verbs and indicate modality, progressive and perfect
aspects, and the passive voice.
clause a syntactic unit having the structure of a sentence but embedded in
(functioning as part of) a sentence or sentence element.
coherence the sense that a text is a meaningful whole; the semantic counterpart
of cohesion.
cohesion the grammatical and lexical devices that serve to make a text hold
together, e.g. pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, lexical repetition.
collocation a lexical feature relating to the mutual attraction of words; if two
words collocate, there is a greater likelihood of them occurring together, e.g. dark
and night, sour and milk.
 GLOSSARY 197

complement an element of sentence structure, usually an adjective or noun

phrase, which describes a subject (in SVC structures), typically after the verb be,
or an object (in SVOC structures), typically after verbs such as consider, regard.

compound a word made up of the combination of two independent words, e.g.

rainfall, see-through.

conjunction a class of words used for joining sentences or clauses; coordinating

conjunctions (and, but, or) provide coordination, subordinating conjunctions (e.g.
because, if, when, although) join subordinate adverbial clauses to a sentence.

consonant in writing, every letter of the alphabet which is not a vowel. The
.vowel 'u' sometimes acts as a consonant at the start of words (e.g. a unicorn).

coordination the joining together of sentences, clauses, phrases or words by

means of and, but, or.

deictics features of language which are not referred to directly, but are heavily
dependent on context for their meaning, e.g. here, there, now, then, etc.

demonstrative a subclass of determiners and pronouns, comprising the words

this/these, that/those.

determiner a class of words that accompany nouns in noun phrases, including

identifiers and quantifiers.

dialect the regional and social variations of a language, especially in respect of

grammar and vocabulary.

ellipsis leaving out part of a sentence which can be readily understood, to avoid
unnecessary repetition, e.g. Two pints (of beer) please.

grammar the study of the written forms of language, particularly in relation to

words and sentences and, in modern grammar, texts.

graphology the writing system of a language, handwritten or typed, and related

features such as punctuation, paragraphing, spacing, size of print, etc.

imagery a term commonly used in literary criticism to describe the way

language creates visual images or pictures with words; e.g. the use of metaphor
and simile.
intransitive a type of verb that is not followed by an object in sentence
structure, also used of such a sentence; compare transitive.

kenning a compound word used poetically in Old English.

lexical items items drawn from the stock of words belonging to the language as
a whole.
lexis the term used to describe the total stock of words of a language.

metaphor a term from rhetoric, meaning the substitution of a word or phrase

for a non-synonymous word or phrase, so that attributes of the new word are
taken as referring to the original.
modality those features of a text (including modal verbs, evaluative adjectives
 198 GLOSSARY

and adverbs and so on) which seem to encode the author's attitude to the content.

morpheme a unit of word structure, e.g. a prefix or suffix.

morphology the study of the forms of words, including inflections, derivations

and compounds.

narrative a story, happening or events, real or imaginary, which a narrator

considers interesting or important.

narrator a person who narrates, tells a story, either factual or fictional.

noun the largest class of words, referring to objects, people, places, etc.

noun phrase a group of words consisting of a noun as head, with

accompanying modifiers such as determiners, adjectives, prepositional phrases.

object an element of sentence structure, usually a noun phrase or clause,

occurring with a transitive verb and representing the thing affected by the action
of a verb.

participle one of two forms of a verb: either present participle, with -ing suffix
(e.g. laughing), or past participle, usually with -ed suffix (e.g. laughed).

part of speech see word class.

passive voice the counterpart to the active voice, where an active sentence is
rearranged by making the verb passive (with be + past participle) bringing the
object of the active sentence to subject position in the passive sentence, and
(optionally) putting the subject of the active sentence into an adverbial phrase
starting with by; e.g. active The judge sentenced the prisoner to life imprisonment;
passive The prisoner was sentenced to life imprisonment (by the judge).

phonology the study of speech sounds.

phrase a group of words that form a unit in the structure of sentences, clauses
or other phrases, usually having a head word and accompanying modifying
words, e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase.

point of view the angle of vision or perception by which the events of a

narrative are narrated and presented.

possessive adjectives and pronouns indicating possession, e.g. my/mine,

you/yours, etc.

prefix a morpheme that is attached to the front of a word to make a new word,
e.g. re-apply, anti-nuclear.

preposition a small class of words, including along, from, in, of, on, used for
joining noun phrases to other elements of sentence structure.

pronoun a class of words that function in place of nouns, including the personal
pronouns I, you, he, she, etc.

punctuation the system of marks in writing used to indicate the structure of

sentences, including comma, semi-colon, full stop, question mark.
 GLOSSARY 199

reflexive a type of pronoun, including myself, yourself, themselves, used for

emphasis (She did it herself), or for self-reference (She has cut herself).

register the different kinds of tone and degrees of formality used in different
situations of everyday life, e.g. a telephone conversation; a business letter; a
sports commentary.

relative used of relative pronouns (e.g. who, which, whose) which introduce
relative clauses.

rhyme where two phonemes in different words are matched for sound, e.g. end
rhyme, where the last words of two consecutive lines rhyme.

rhythm the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a language. Regular

patterns of stress produce different metrical patterns.

semantics the study of meaning in all its aspects, especially in relation to words
and sentences.

sentence a syntactic structure, consisting of at least a subject and a verb, but also
possibly containing a complement, object and adverbial(s).

simile comparing a word or phrase with a non-synonymous word or phrase,

usually by using like or as, e.g. as white as snow; my love is like a red, red rose.

standard English the dialect of English that has been most codified and which
is promoted as a national variety of English.

stress the relative prominence given to syllables in speech, e.g. in certain the first
syllable is stressed and the second unstressed.

stylistics a sub-discipline of linguistics concerned with examining patterns of

style (e.g. lexical choice, agency, modality, etc.) in texts.

subject an obligatory element of sentence structure, which precedes the verb in

the neutral form of declarative sentences.

subordination when a clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction (e.g.

because, if, since, when), usually an adverbial clause, but also used of all other kinds
of embedded clause.

substitution the replacement of one expression for another e.g. I bought a new
shirt but I don't like it.

suffix a morpheme that is added to the end of a word, either to create a new
word (e.g. like-able, fair-ness) or as an inflection (e.g. paper-s, wait-ing).

syllable a phonological structure consisting of a vowel as nucleus and

consonants as peripheral sounds; words may consist of one or more syllables, e.g.
can, canteen.
synonyms words which are orthographically different but mean the same thing,
e.g. gift and present; horse and steed.

syntax (the study of) the structures of sentences.

 200 GLOSSARY

tense the way in which verbs change to show the position of events in time; in
English only past and present tenses are marked by inflections.

text a sequence of written sentences marked by cohesion and coherence.

text type texts classified according to purpose and structural features, e.g.
narrative, descriptive, expository.

transitive a type of verb that takes an object in sentence structure, also used of
the sentence structure itself; compare intransitive.

verb a class of words that refer to actions, events and states; subdivided into
auxiliary verbs (see above) and lexical or main verbs.

verb phrase a group of words with a lexical verb as head, which may be
preceded by auxiliary verbs and the negative not.

vowel a type of speech sound, articulated without any restriction to the airflow
in the mouth and formed by the shape of the mouth; in writing, associated with
the letters 'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u'; compare consonant.

word a basic unit of syntax, entering into the structure of phrases and sentences,
composed of morphemes.

word class a grouping of words according to shared features of reference,

morphology and syntax, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and prepositions.
 Suggestions for further reading

Stylistics has gained in popularity over recent years, and more books are being
published every year on the subject. The books listed below are not intended to
be an exhaustive list, but give an indication of the growing range of books
available.

Cameron, D. (ed): The Feminist Critique of Language, Routledge, 1990.

Carter, R. (ed): Language and Literature: An Introductory Reader in Stylistics, Allen &
Unwin, 1982.
Carter, R. and McCarthy: Language as Discourse, Longman, 1995.
Carter, R. and Nash, W.: Seeing Through Language, Blackwell, 1990.
Fowler, R.: Linguistic Criticism, Oxford University Press, 1986.
Haynes, J.: Introducing Stylistics, Routledge, 1989.
Leech, G. and Short, M.: Style in Fiction, Longman, 1981.
Montgomery M., Durant A., Fabb N., Furniss T. and Mills, S.: Ways of Reading:
Advanced Reading Skills for Students of English Literature, Routledge, 1992.
Nash, W.: The Language of Popular Fiction, Routledge, 1992.
Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith: Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics, Methuen, 1983.
Simpson, P. Language, Text and Context, Routledge, 1994.
Toolan, M. Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction, Routledge, 1988.
Van Peer, W. (ed): The Taming of the Text, Routledge, 1989.
Wales, K.: A Dictionary of Stylistics, Longman, 1989.
 INDEX
Page numbers in bold refer to a main relative or adjectival 28-9,44
reference to the subject. reported and reporting 83
single or independent 27, 28,108
active voice 51, 52, 53, 88,108 subordinate (dependent) 28, 29, 30,108,
adjectives 20, 22, 23, 25, 37,182,196 110,111,185
complex 2 cliches 72
compound 20, 24, 54 coherence 14, 55, 69-71,134,135,137,
modifying nouns 20, 64-5 196
possessive 44 cohesion 14, 55, 56,196
adjuncts, see adverbials or adjuncts grammatical 56-63
adverbial clause 28,196 lexical 63-6
adverbial phrases 26-7 phonological 66-9
adverbials or adjuncts 21, 26-7, 31, 33, 34, collocation 64-5, 71-2,181,196
46,196 colloquial language 16,17,190
adverbs 20, 21, 22, 37, 57, 82,196 commands 34, 35, 47,125
adverts and advertising 6, 8,14,16, 25, 29, complement 31, 33, 34,197
35, 39, 58, 60, 72, 73, 91,128,136-7 compounds 24, 54,197
agent of a verb 51, 52 conjunctions (connectives) 22, 27, 44, 60,
alliteration 66,182,196 61, 63,108,110,197,199
Anapest 68 consonants 21,197
anaphora, see under deictics contractions 16,17
archaism 110-12,113,118,196 coordination 197, and see clauses
arguing a point 135
article, definite and indefinite 21, 39,181 Dactyl 68
assonance 67,196 declarative sentences 34, 35
audience for material 12,121,122,123, deictics 56-9, 94,197
124-5,128,134,137-8 anaphoric references 57-8, 59
audio cassettes 126,129,130,139, 153 cataphoric references 58
authorial voice (authorial omniscience repetition 58
and reportage) 75-7,196 demonstrative pronouns 44, 57,197
auxiliaries (auxiliary verbs) 22, 26, 46-7, determiners 21, 22, 23, 25, 39, 44, 63,197
196 dialect 16,17-18,114,115,118,188,197
dialogue 59-60, 81, 91, 95-7, and see
Black English 17 speech and thought
book titles 29 direct object 32
booklets 126,139 double negatives 17

capital letters 38, 67,105, 111 editing text 128-9

cataphora, see under deictics ellipsis 59-60, 63,197
chronological and non-chronological ethnic groups 116
writing 6-7, 8,129-30,131,135 examination questions 180-95
clauses 16, 20, 23, 27-31, 46, 92,196 exclamatory sentences 35
adverbial 28,196 exhibition text 139,165
comparative 29
compounds 54 factional writing 6
and conjunctions 60 factual reporting 87-90
coordinate 27-8, 29, 60,108 factual speech texts 94-5
main 28, 30 fiction 5, 6, 63, 74-5, 81-7, 89,118
 INDEX 203

fillers, in scripted speech 92 narrator 5, 76, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 97,126,
films 6, 81, 91, 95-6, 97, 98 129,184,186,198
first-person narrative 76, 77 news, reporting of 6, 81, 88, 89-90, 94,106
foregrounding 70, 83 newspaper articles and reports 4, 8,12,16,
foreign languages 37,106,115 45, 64, 87,122,123
functional grammar 3 newspaper headlines 23-5, 29, 52, 88-9
non-fiction 6
gender 43, 45-6, 57,116-17 non-standard language 17
grammar 2-3,110,197 noun phrases 25, 26, 27, 31, 58,110,198
graphology 14-15, 23,102,103, 111, 118, nouns 15, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 37, 38-41, 58,
130.197 198
Great Vowel Shift 114 abstract 39
and adjectives 64
historical periods in literature 117-18 collective 38-9
hyponymy 63, 64 common 38, 39
compound 20, 24, 54
concrete 38
iambic pentameter 68, 69,114,115
count and uncount 39
imagery 55, 71-3,181,182,184,192,197
and gender 45-6
imperative sentences 35
mass 39-40
indirect object 32
modified 20, 21
inference 70-1
proper 38, 39, 58
information leaflets or booklets 8, 34, 71,
novels 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8,12,17, 63, 70, 73, 76,
108,122,126,130,139,153
76, 97, 98-100,110,117,118
interrogative sentences 35
interviews 94-5
intransitive 197
object of a sentence 31, 32, 51,198
kennings 54,197 onomatopoeia 67
operators (verbs) 46
language change 101-120,116-17
and the literary canon 117-20
legal documents and texts 6, 29, 34, 45, 47, paragraphs 12,13,192
60, 70-1, 111, 125 participles 15, 20, 46, 48, 51,110,198
length of text 128 passive voice 34, 51-2, 53, 88,198
letters 5, 6, 7, 8,12, 71 phonemes 14
lexis (lexical items) 2,17, 63-6,182,184, phonology 14, 66-9,102,114-16,189,198
186.197 phrases 20, 23, 25-7, 92,198
literary and non-literary writing 7-8, 17, plays 6, 7,12,16,17, 60, 63, 95-7,101,117,
117-18 118,186-90
deictic expressions 56-7
magazines 4,12, 87, 124,126,130,139,150 plurals 2,15, 38, 39, 43, 45
metaphor 8, 72,182,185,197 poetry 4, 6, 7, 8,12,17, 22-3, 34, 71,117,
metatheme 12 118,125,180-2
archaism 110,113
meter 68-9
metonymy 72, 73 compounds 54
modality (modals) 47,53,125,197—8 deictic expressions 56
monologic speech 91, 95 imagery 71-2, 73
morphemes (morphology) 2,15,198 and phonological cohesion 66, 67
rhythm and rhyme 34,114,115
multi-clause sentences 29, 30
point of view 5, 74, 75, 77-80, 90, 97-8,198
political speeches 8, 35, 47,52
narrative and non-narrative 6, 8,12,17,
possessive 198, and see adjectives; pronouns
58,59, 60,75-7,84,198
 204 INDEX

practice activities slang 73,106-7

aromatherapy 139,165-74 sound patterns 66, 67,115
Claude Monet 139,150-64 source material
evacuees 139,141-9 adapting 124
hazel trees 139,150-2 examinations 193-5
predicator 31 interpreting 123
prefixes 15,198 re-representing it 124-8
prepositional phrase 26, 82 understanding 122-3
prepositions 22, 23,110,198 speech and thought
print size 12,15,103 factual reporting 87-90
pronouns 21, 22, 37, 41-6, 58, 63, 112-14, in fictional texts 81-7, 89
116,198 spelling 16,105,118
demonstrative 44, 57 split infinitives 110
indefinite 44 spontaneous speech 91, 92
interrogative 44, 45 standard English 16,17,110,199
personal 42-3, 57 stories 3-5
possessive 43-4, 57 stress patterns 68-9,115-16,199
reflexive 45,199 structuring the text 131-7
relative 44-5,199 stylistics 199
in relative clause 28-9 subject of a sentence 31-2, 34, 35, 51,199
subject or object 42-3 subordination 199, and see clauses
pronunciation 105,114 substitution 60,199
propaganda 95 suffixes 15,199
prose 16,17, 34, 56-7, 68-9 superordinate 63, 64
public speeches 73, 81, 91,129,139,165 SVO/CA pattern 34, 51
pun 25 syllables and syllabic stress 66,115-16,199
punctuation 14, 82,103-4,198 synecdoche 72
purpose of written material 123,125 synonymy 63, 64,199
syntax 2,16, 67,102,107-8,112,199
radio and scripts 6, 91, 94-5, 97,126-7,
130-1,195 tag and tag question 35
register 2,16-18,125,134,137,199 television 6, 8, 81, 91, 94-5, 97, 98,106,139,
reiteration 63-4 141
religious texts 45,101,113 tense 15, 47-8, 49-50, 200
repetition 58, 60, 93,190 future 48
reporting and reported clause 83 past 46, 48
reporting verb 82 present 46, 47-8
rhyme 67,114-15,199 present continuous 48
rhythm 68-9,115,199 present perfect 48
simple past 48
scientific writing 12, 34, 52,123 simple present 47
scripted speech 91-100,128,130-1 text 8,11-14, 200
factual texts 94-5 text organisation 129-37
plays and films 95-7 text type 4, 9, 24,126-7, 200
point of view 97-8 textbook chapters 126
second person personal pronouns 112-14 textuality and texture 8, 55, 67
semantics 2,15,184,199 that/those 28, 44, 45
sentences 4,11,14,15,19-36, 54,108,110, thematic structure 12
118,125,199 third-person narrative 76, 77
sexist language, see gender this/these 44, 57
Shakespeare, William 103,104,105,113, time adjunct 48
114-15,118 time count 128
simile 8, 72,185,199 transformation exercises 121-174,193-5
 INDEX 205

transitivity and intransitivity 32-3,197,

200
Trochee 68
typeface 15,103,129
typography 15, 86,103,118,126-7,130

,
verb phrases 26 27, 46,49,110, 111, 200
, -, - ,
verbs 15, 21 22, 31 4 35, 46 54 88, 200
infinitive 21, 46, 48
modal 46, 47 49,
primary 46
reporting 82
transitive and intransitive 32-3
word class 22, 37, 46, 47
see also adverbials or adjuncts;
auxiliaries; complement; participles;
tense
visual layout of text 4,11-12
vocabulary 2, 4,102,105-7, 111, 116,118,
134,189
voice-overs 97
vowels 21,114, 200

which and that 44, 45

who and whom 44-5
- ,
word classes 19 25 200
-,
open and closed 22 5 37, 42, 46, 47
word count 128
word order 108
- ,
words 11,14 15 200
written texts 130
to Investigating English Language

Sr This two-volume series addresses the ‘Language Theory’ section of

the NEAB A Level English Language syllabus. However, the two
books will also be of value to all those studying English Language
at an advanced or undergraduate level. In addition, with their
accessible style and broad coverage, these books offer a fascinating
introduction lor the interested general reader.

An Introduction to

S Stylistics
Urszula Clark introduces students to the principles of grammatical
form and structure in order that they understand the ways in which
authors convey meaning in their writing. The approach adopted
also provides a valuable grounding in English grammar for those
students who have not had a formal grammar training.
Part Two of the book examines the skills required to re-represent
texts and the accompanying appendix offers a number of practice
activities.
The stylistic text analysis is supported by a wide variety of extracts
from literary and non-literary texts, exercises and activities are
provided throughout and there are suggestions for project work and
extended study.

Also available in this series

► An Introduction to The Nature and Functions of Language

by Howard Jackson and Peter Stockwell

STANLEY THORNES
Ellenborough House
STANLEY Wellington Street
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