HUMAN GENETICS

Cellular Reproduction, Mitosis & Meiosis

Name: PANHILASON, Shalee M. _______ Section: __A34__

Instruction: Answer the given questions. Write your answers below each question.

1. Provide a brief definition of mitosis and meiosis.

Cell division is more complex in eukaryotes than prokaryotes. Prior to dividing, all
the DNA in a eukaryotic cell’s multiple chromosomes is replicated. Its organelles
are also duplicated. Then, when the cell divides, it occurs in two major steps:

First is the Mitosis, a multi-phase process in which the nucleus of the cell divides.
During mitosis, the nuclear membrane breaks down and later reforms. The
chromosomes are also sorted and separated to ensure that each daughter cell
receives a complete set of chromosomes.

Second is the Meiosis, is a type of cell division in which the number of

chromosomes is reduced by half. It occurs only in certain special cells of the
organisms. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate, and haploid
cells form that have only one chromosome from each pair. Two cell divisions
occur during meiosis, and a total of four haploid cells are produced. The two cell
divisions are called meiosis I and meiosis II.

2. Differentiate the 2 processes- Mitosis and meiosis. *Put in table form

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II
Prophase is the first
stage of mitosis. In
prophase, Early in prophase If the
I, before the chromosomes
PROPHASE  chromosomes chromosomes can decondensed
condense and
be seen clearly in telophase I,
become visible
microscopically, they condense
 spindle fibers
the homologous again. If
emerge from the
centrosomes chromosomes are nuclear
 nuclear attached at their envelopes
envelope breaks tips to the nuclear were formed,
down
  nucleolus
disappears envelope by they fragment
proteins. As the into vesicles.
nuclear envelope The
begins to break centrosomes
down, the proteins that were
associated with duplicated
homologous during
chromosomes interkinesis
bring the pair move away
close to each from each
other. other toward
opposite
poles, and
new spindles
are formed.

Prometaphase is the
second stage of
mitosis. In The key event in The nuclear
prometaphase, prometaphase I is envelopes are
the attachment of completely
 chromosomes
the spindle fiber broken down,
continue to
condense microtubules to and the
PROMAPHASE the kinetochore spindle is fully
 kinetochores
appear at the proteins at the formed. Each
centromeres centromeres. sister
 mitotic spindle Kinetochore chromatid
microtubules proteins are forms an
attach to
kinetochores multiprotein individual
complexes that kinetochore
 centrosomes
move toward bind the that attaches
opposite poles centromeres of a to
chromosome to microtubules
the microtubules from opposite
of the mitotic poles.
spindle.
 Microtubules grow
from centrosomes
placed at opposite
poles of the cell.

Metaphase is the third During metaphase The sister

step in mitosis. In I, the homologous chromatids
mitosis, chromosomes are are maximally
arranged in the condensed
 mitotic spindle center of the cell and aligned at
is fully with the the equator of
developed, kinetochores the cell.
METAPHASE centrosomes facing opposite
are at opposite poles. The
poles of the cell homologous pairs
orient themselves
 chromosomes randomly at the
are lined up at equator.
the metaphase
plate
 each sister
chromatid is
attached to a
spindle fiber
originating from
opposite poles

Anaphase is the In anaphase I, the The sister

fourth step in mitosis. microtubules pull chromatids
In anaphase, the linked are pulled
chromosomes apart by the
 cohesin apart. The sister kinetochore
proteins binding chromatids remain microtubules
ANAPHASE the sister tightly bound and move
chromatids together at the toward
together break centromere.  opposite
down poles. Non-
kinetochore
 sister microtubules
chromatids (now elongate the
called cell.
chromosomes)
 are pulled
toward opposite
poles
 non-
kinetochore
spindle fibers
lengthen,
elongating the
cell

Telophase is the fifth In telophase, the The

step in mitosis. In separated chromosomes
telophase, chromosomes arrive at
arrive at opposite opposite poles
 chromosomes poles. The and begin to
TELOPHASE arrive at remainder of the decondense.
opposite poles typical telophase Nuclear
and begin to events may or envelopes
decondense may not occur, form around
depending on the the
 nuclear species. In some chromosomes.
envelope organisms, the
material chromosomes
surrounds each decondense and
set of nuclear envelopes
chromosomes form around the
 the mitotic chromatids in
spindle breaks telophase I.
down

Cytokinesis is the In other The

sixth and final step of organisms, chromosomes
mitosis. In cytokinesis—the arrive at
cytokinesis, physical opposite poles
separation of the and begin to
 Animal cells: a cytoplasmic decondense.
cleavage furrow components into Nuclear
separates the two daughter cells envelopes
daughter cells —occurs without form around
CYTOKINESIS reformation of the the
 Plant cells: a nuclei. In nearly all chromosomes.
cell plate species of animals
separates the and some fungi,
daughter cells cytokinesis
 separates the cell
contents via a
cleavage furrow
(constriction of the
actin ring that
leads to
cytoplasmic
division). In plants,
a cell plate is
formed during cell
cytokinesis by
Golgi vesicles
fusing at the
metaphase plate.
This cell plate will
ultimately lead to
the formation of
cell walls that
separate the two
daughter cells.

3. What is cytokinesis?

is the physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a parental
cell into two daughter cells.

4. What is cell division and what purposes does it serve in an organism?

A cell division is the basis for all forms of organismal reproduction. Single-celled
organisms divide to reproduce. Cell division for growth and repair creates exact
copies of a cell.

5. Provide a brief definition of sister chromatids and homologous chromosomes that

clearly distinguishes between the two terms.

SISTER CHROMATIDS- Sister chromatids are used in cell division, like in cell
replacement, whereas homologous chromosomes are used in reproductive
division, like making a new person. During cell division, they are separated from
each other, and each daughter cell receives one copy of the chromosome and;
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES are two pieces of DNA within
a diploid organism which carry the same genes, one from each parental source.
 A homologous pair consists of one paternal and one maternal chromosome. In
humans, there are a total of 46 chromosomes in the nucleus of a somatic cell.

6. What happens during the Interphase stage of the cell cycle?

During Interphase stage of the cell cycle the cell undergoes normal growth
processes while also preparing for cell division. For a cell to move from
interphase into the mitotic phase, many internal and external conditions must be
met.

7. What role do the centrosomes play in mitosis?

Centrosomes are organelles that serve as the main microtubule-organizing

centers for animal cells. They are organelles that serve as the main microtubule-
organizing centers for animal cells.

8. What is a kinetochore and where is it located?

A kinetochore is where the spindle fibers attach to the chromosome. It is protein

complex assembled on the centromeric region of DNA. It provides the major
attachment point for the spindle microtubules during mitotic or meiotic division to
pull the chromosomes apart. It is found on the centromere of each chromatid. It is
where the chromatids are tightly connected. When it's time, at the appropriate
phase of cell division, the kinetochore's goal is move chromosomes during
mitosis and meiosis.

9. How is cytokinesis different in plants and animals?

Cytokinesis is a physical process of cell division, that normally takes place after
mitosis.

In plants , this occurs when a cell wall forms

in between the daughter cells.
 They made up of an extra-rigid cell
wall, and therefore, a special kind of
microtubules are involved in the
completion of cytokinesis.
 In animals , this occurs when a cleavage
furrow forms. This pinches the cell in half.
 The contractile ring is held together by
the microtubules of the mitotic spindles.
 These microtubules and cell signals
determine the location of the contractile
ring and therefore they direct the plane
of cell division, known as the division
plane.
 The cleavage furrow forms around the division plane which eventually
pinches off separating the cell into two cells.

10. Provide a brief definition of autosomes and sex chromosomes that clearly
distinguishes between the two terms.

AUTOSOMES- is any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome (an allosome).

The members of an autosome pair in a diploid cell have the same morphology,
unlike those in allosome pairs which may have different structures.
SEX CHROMOSOMES- are chromosomes that determine whether the individual
is male or female.

11. Provide a brief definition of haploid and diploid that clearly distinguishes between
the two terms
HAPLOID- the quality of a cell or organism having a single set of chromosomes.
DIPLOID- a cell or organism that has paired chromosomes, one from each
parent

12. What is a tetrad?

A tetrad is the foursome during meiosis made by two homologous chromosomes
that have each already replicated into a pair of sister chromatids.
13. What is crossing over and when does it occur?
Crossing over is the swapping of genetic material that occurs in the germ line. It
occurs in the first division of meiosis. At that stage each chromosome has
replicated into two strands called sister chromatids.

14. What is a recombinant chromosome?

Recombination is a process by which pieces of DNA are broken and recombined
to produce new combinations of alleles.

15. What is asexual reproduction?

Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction in which only one parent is
involved to reproduce offspring.

16. What is sexual reproduction?

Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves a complex life cycle in
which a gamete (such as a sperm or egg cell) with a single set of chromosomes
(haploid) combines with another to produce an organism composed of cells with
two sets of chromosomes (diploid).

17. Describe the regulation that occurs at the G1 checkpoint.

The G1 checkpoint, also known as the restriction point in mammalian cells and
the start point in yeast, is the point at which the cell becomes committed to
entering the cell cycle. At the G_11start subscript, 1, end subscript checkpoint, a
cell checks whether internal and external conditions are right for division.

18. Describe the regulation that occurs at the G2 checkpoint.

The G2 checkpoint ensures all of the chromosomes have been replicated and
that the replicated DNA is not damaged before cell enters mitosis.

19. What is the difference between a benign tumor and a malignant tumor?
BENIGN TUMOR- are noncancerous growths in the body. A mass of cells
(tumor) that lacks the ability to either invade neighboring tissue or metastasize.
MALIGNANT TUMOR- are cancerous. They develop when cells grow
uncontrollably. If the cells continue to grow and spread, the disease can become
 life threatening. Malignant tumors can grow quickly and spread to other parts of
the body in a process called metastasis.

20. What does Taxol do for cancer patients?

Paclitaxel (PTX), sold under the brand name Taxol among others, is a
chemotherapy medication used to treat several types of cancer. Taxol, an
antimitotic agent used to treat cancer, blocks cancer cell growth by
stopping cell division, resulting in cell death.