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2.5 The Empirical Rule and Chebyshev’s Theorem

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. To learn what the value of the standard devia on of a data set implies about how the data
sca er away from the mean as described by the Empirical Rule and Chebyshev’s Theorem.
2. To use the Empirical Rule and Chebyshev’s Theorem to draw conclusions about a data set.

You probably have a good intuitive grasp of what the average of a data set says about that data set.
In this section we begin to learn what the standard deviation has to tell us about the nature of the
data set.

The Empirical Rule

We start by examining a specific set of data. Table 2.2 "Heights of Men" shows the heights in inches
of 100 randomly selected adult men. A relative frequency histogram for the data is shown in Figure
2.15 "Heights of Adult Men". The mean and standard deviation of the data are, rounded to two
decimal places, x-=69.92 and s = 1.70. If we go through the data and count the number of
observations that are within one standard deviation of the mean, that is, that are between
69.92−1.70=68.22 and 69.92+1.70=71.62 inches, there are 69 of them. If we count the number of
observations that are within two standard deviations of the mean, that is, that are between

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69.92−2(1.70)=66.52 and 69.92+2(1.70)=73.32 inches, there are 95 of them. All of the

measurements are within three standard deviations of the mean, that is, between
69.92−3(1.70)=64.822 and 69.92+3(1.70)=75.02 inches. These tallies are not coincidences, but are
in agreement with the following result that has been found to be widely applicable.

Table 2.2 Heights of Men

68.7 72.3 71.3 72.5 70.6 68.2 70.1 68.4 68.6 70.6

73.7 70.5 71.0 70.9 69.3 69.4 69.7 69.1 71.5 68.6

70.9 70.0 70.4 68.9 69.4 69.4 69.2 70.7 70.5 69.9

69.8 69.8 68.6 69.5 71.6 66.2 72.4 70.7 67.7 69.1

68.8 69.3 68.9 74.8 68.0 71.2 68.3 70.2 71.9 70.4

71.9 72.2 70.0 68.7 67.9 71.1 69.0 70.8 67.3 71.8

70.3 68.8 67.2 73.0 70.4 67.8 70.0 69.5 70.1 72.0

72.2 67.6 67.0 70.3 71.2 65.6 68.1 70.8 71.4 70.2

70.1 67.5 71.3 71.5 71.0 69.1 69.5 71.1 66.8 71.8

69.6 72.7 72.8 69.6 65.9 68.0 69.7 68.7 69.8 69.7

Figure 2.15 Heights of Adult Men

The Empirical Rule

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If a data set has an approximately bell-shaped relative frequency histogram, then (see Figure
2.16 "The Empirical Rule")

1. approximately 68% of the data lie within one standard deviation of the mean, that is, in the
interval with endpoints x-±s for samples and with endpoints μ±σ for populations;
2. approximately 95% of the data lie within two standard deviations of the mean, that is, in the
interval with endpoints x-±2s for samples and with endpoints μ±2σ for populations; and
3. approximately 99.7% of the data lies within three standard deviations of the mean, that is, in
the interval with endpoints x-±3s for samples and with endpoints μ±3σ for populations.

Figure 2.16 The Empirical Rule

Two key points in regard to the Empirical Rule are that the data distribution must be approximately
bell-shaped and that the percentages are only approximately true. The Empirical Rule does not
apply to data sets with severely asymmetric distributions, and the actual percentage of observations
in any of the intervals specified by the rule could be either greater or less than those given in the
rule. We see this with the example of the heights of the men: the Empirical Rule suggested 68
observations between 68.22 and 71.62 inches but we counted 69.

EXAMPLE 19

Heights of 18-year-old males have a bell-shaped distribu on with mean 69.6 inches and standard
devia on 1.4 inches.

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a. About what propor on of all such men are between 68.2 and 71 inches tall?
b. What interval centered on the mean should contain about 95% of all such men?

Solu on:

A sketch of the distribu on of heights is given in Figure 2.17 "Distribu on of Heights".

a. Since the interval from 68.2 to 71.0 has endpoints x-−s and x-+s, by the Empirical Rule about 68%
of all 18-year-old males should have heights in this range.

b. By the Empirical Rule the shortest such interval has endpoints x-−2s and x-+2s. Since

x-−2s=69.6−2(1.4)=66.8 and x-+2s=69.6+2(1.4)=72.4

the interval in ques on is the interval from 66.8 inches to 72.4 inches.

Figure 2.17
Distribu on of Heights

EXAMPLE 20

Scores on IQ tests have a bell-shaped distribu on with mean μ = 100 and standard devia on σ = 10.
Discuss what the Empirical Rule implies concerning individuals with IQ scores of 110, 120, and 130.

Solu on:

A sketch of the IQ distribu on is given in Figure 2.18 "Distribu on of IQ Scores". The Empirical Rule
states that

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1. approximately 68% of the IQ scores in the popula on lie between 90 and 110,
2. approximately 95% of the IQ scores in the popula on lie between 80 and 120, and
3. approximately 99.7% of the IQ scores in the popula on lie between 70 and 130.

Figure 2.18
Distribu on of IQ Scores

Since 68% of the IQ scores lie within the interval from 90 to 110, it must be the case that 32% lie
outside that interval. By symmetry approximately half of that 32%, or 16% of all IQ scores, will lie
above 110. If 16% lie above 110, then 84% lie below. We conclude that the IQ score 110 is the 84th
percen le.

The same analysis applies to the score 120. Since approximately 95% of all IQ scores lie within the
interval form 80 to 120, only 5% lie outside it, and half of them, or 2.5% of all scores, are above 120.
The IQ score 120 is thus higher than 97.5% of all IQ scores, and is quite a high score.

By a similar argument, only 15/100 of 1% of all adults, or about one or two in every thousand, would
have an IQ score above 130. This fact makes the score 130 extremely high.

Chebyshev’s Theorem

The Empirical Rule does not apply to all data sets, only to those that are bell-shaped, and even then
is stated in terms of approximations. A result that applies to every data set is known as Chebyshev’s
Theorem.

Chebyshev’s Theorem

For any numerical data set,

1. at least 3/4 of the data lie within two standard deviations of the mean, that is, in the interval
with endpoints x-±2s for samples and with endpoints μ±2σ for populations;

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2. at least 8/9 of the data lie within three standard deviations of the mean, that is, in the
interval with endpoints x-±3s for samples and with endpoints μ±3σ for populations;
3. at least 1−1⁄k2 of the data lie within k standard deviations of the mean, that is, in the interval
with endpoints x-±ks for samples and with endpoints μ±kσ for populations, where k is any
positive whole number that is greater than 1.

Figure 2.19 "Chebyshev’s Theorem" gives a visual illustration of Chebyshev’s Theorem.

Figure 2.19 Chebyshev’s Theorem

It is important to pay careful attention to the words “at least” at the beginning of each of the three
parts. The theorem gives the minimum proportion of the data which must lie within a given number
of standard deviations of the mean; the true proportions found within the indicated regions could be
greater than what the theorem guarantees.

EXAMPLE 21

A sample of size n = 50 has mean x-=28 and standard devia on s = 3. Without knowing anything else
about the sample, what can be said about the number of observa ons that lie in the interval (22,34)?
What can be said about the number of observa ons that lie outside that interval?

Solu on:

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The interval (22,34) is the one that is formed by adding and subtrac ng two standard devia ons from
the mean. By Chebyshev’s Theorem, at least 3/4 of the data are within this interval. Since 3/4 of 50 is
37.5, this means that at least 37.5 observa ons are in the interval. But one cannot take a frac onal
observa on, so we conclude that at least 38 observa ons must lie inside the interval (22,34).

If at least 3/4 of the observa ons are in the interval, then at most 1/4 of them are outside it. Since
1/4 of 50 is 12.5, at most 12.5 observa ons are outside the interval. Since again a frac on of an
observa on is impossible, x (22,34).

EXAMPLE 22

The number of vehicles passing through a busy intersec on between 8:00 a.m. and 10:00 a.m. was
observed and recorded on every weekday morning of the last year. The data set contains n = 251
numbers. The sample mean is x-=725 and the sample standard devia on is s = 25. Iden fy which of
the following statements must be true.

1. On approximately 95% of the weekday mornings last year the number of vehicles passing
through the intersec on from 8:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. was between 675 and 775.
2. On at least 75% of the weekday mornings last year the number of vehicles passing through the
intersec on from 8:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. was between 675 and 775.
3. On at least 189 weekday mornings last year the number of vehicles passing through the
intersec on from 8:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. was between 675 and 775.
4. On at most 25% of the weekday mornings last year the number of vehicles passing through the
intersec on from 8:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. was either less than 675 or greater than 775.
5. On at most 12.5% of the weekday mornings last year the number of vehicles passing through the
intersec on from 8:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. was less than 675.
6. On at most 25% of the weekday mornings last year the number of vehicles passing through the
intersec on from 8:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. was less than 675.

Solu on:

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1. Since it is not stated that the rela ve frequency histogram of the data is bell-shaped, the
Empirical Rule does not apply. Statement (1) is based on the Empirical Rule and therefore it
might not be correct.
2. Statement (2) is a direct applica on of part (1) of Chebyshev’s Theorem because (x-−2s,x-+2s)=
(675,775). It must be correct.
3. Statement (3) says the same thing as statement (2) because 75% of 251 is 188.25, so the
minimum whole number of observa ons in this interval is 189. Thus statement (3) is definitely
correct.
4. Statement (4) says the same thing as statement (2) but in different words, and therefore is
definitely correct.
5. Statement (4), which is definitely correct, states that at most 25% of the me either fewer than
675 or more than 775 vehicles passed through the intersec on. Statement (5) says that half of
that 25% corresponds to days of light traffic. This would be correct if the rela ve frequency
histogram of the data were known to be symmetric. But this is not stated; perhaps all of the
observa ons outside the interval (675,775) are less than 75. Thus statement (5) might not be
correct.
6. Statement (4) is definitely correct and statement (4) implies statement (6): even if every
measurement that is outside the interval (675,775) is less than 675 (which is conceivable, since
symmetry is not known to hold), even so at most 25% of all observa ons are less than 675. Thus
statement (6) must definitely be correct.

K E Y TA K E AWAY S

The Empirical Rule is an approxima on that applies only to data sets with a bell-shaped rela ve
frequency histogram. It es mates the propor on of the measurements that lie within one, two,
and three standard devia ons of the mean.
Chebyshev’s Theorem is a fact that applies to all possible data sets. It describes the minimum
propor on of the measurements that lie must within one, two, or more standard devia ons of
the mean.

EXERCISES

BASIC

1. State the Empirical Rule.

2. Describe the condi ons under which the Empirical Rule may be applied.

3. State Chebyshev’s Theorem.

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4. Describe the condi ons under which Chebyshev’s Theorem may be applied.

5. A sample data set with a bell-shaped distribu on has mean x-=6 and standard devia on s = 2. Find the
approximate propor on of observa ons in the data set that lie:

a. between 4 and 8;
b. between 2 and 10;
c. between 0 and 12.

6. A popula on data set with a bell-shaped distribu on has mean μ = 6 and standard devia on σ = 2. Find
the approximate propor on of observa ons in the data set that lie:

a. between 4 and 8;
b. between 2 and 10;
c. between 0 and 12.

7. A popula on data set with a bell-shaped distribu on has mean μ = 2 and standard devia on σ = 1.1.
Find the approximate propor on of observa ons in the data set that lie:

a. above 2;
b. above 3.1;
c. between 2 and 3.1.

8. A sample data set with a bell-shaped distribu on has mean x-=2 and standard devia on s = 1.1. Find the
approximate propor on of observa ons in the data set that lie:

a. below −0.2;
b. below 3.1;
c. between −1.3 and 0.9.

9. A popula on data set with a bell-shaped distribu on and size N = 500 has mean μ = 2 and standard
devia on σ = 1.1. Find the approximate number of observa ons in the data set that lie:

a. above 2;
b. above 3.1;
c. between 2 and 3.1.

10. A sample data set with a bell-shaped distribu on and size n = 128 has mean x-=2 and standard devia on
s = 1.1. Find the approximate number of observa ons in the data set that lie:

a. below −0.2;
b. below 3.1;
c. between −1.3 and 0.9.

11. A sample data set has mean x-=6 and standard devia on s = 2. Find the minimum propor on of
observa ons in the data set that must lie:

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a. between 2 and 10;

b. between 0 and 12;
c. between 4 and 8.

12. A popula on data set has mean μ = 2 and standard devia on σ = 1.1. Find the minimum propor on of
observa ons in the data set that must lie:

a. between −0.2 and 4.2;

b. between −1.3 and 5.3.

13. A popula on data set of size N = 500 has mean μ = 5.2 and standard devia on σ = 1.1. Find the
minimum number of observa ons in the data set that must lie:

a. between 3 and 7.4;

b. between 1.9 and 8.5.

14. A sample data set of size n = 128 has mean x-=2 and standard devia on s = 2. Find the minimum
number of observa ons in the data set that must lie:

a. between −2 and 6 (including −2 and 6);

b. between −4 and 8 (including −4 and 8).

15. A sample data set of size n = 30 has mean x-=6 and standard devia on s = 2.

a. What is the maximum propor on of observa ons in the data set that can lie outside the interval
(2,10)?
b. What can be said about the propor on of observa ons in the data set that are below 2?
c. What can be said about the propor on of observa ons in the data set that are above 10?
d. What can be said about the number of observa ons in the data set that are above 10?

16. A popula on data set has mean μ = 2 and standard devia on σ = 1.1.

a. What is the maximum propor on of observa ons in the data set that can lie outside the interval
(−1.3,5.3)?
b. What can be said about the propor on of observa ons in the data set that are below −1.3?
c. What can be said about the propor on of observa ons in the data set that are above 5.3?

A P P L I C AT I O N S

17. Scores on a final exam taken by 1,200 students have a bell-shaped distribu on with mean 72 and
standard devia on 9.

a. What is the median score on the exam?

b. About how many students scored between 63 and 81?
c. About how many students scored between 72 and 90?

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d. About how many students scored below 54?

18. Lengths of fish caught by a commercial fishing boat have a bell-shaped distribu on with mean 23 inches
and standard devia on 1.5 inches.

a. About what propor on of all fish caught are between 20 inches and 26 inches long?
b. About what propor on of all fish caught are between 20 inches and 23 inches long?
c. About how long is the longest fish caught (only a small frac on of a percent are longer)?

19. Hockey pucks used in professional hockey games must weigh between 5.5 and 6 ounces. If the weight of
pucks manufactured by a par cular process is bell-shaped, has mean 5.75 ounces and standard
devia on 0.125 ounce, what propor on of the pucks will be usable in professional games?

20. Hockey pucks used in professional hockey games must weigh between 5.5 and 6 ounces. If the weight of
pucks manufactured by a par cular process is bell-shaped and has mean 5.75 ounces, how large can the
standard devia on be if 99.7% of the pucks are to be usable in professional games?

21. Speeds of vehicles on a sec on of highway have a bell-shaped distribu on with mean 60 mph and
standard devia on 2.5 mph.

a. If the speed limit is 55 mph, about what propor on of vehicles are speeding?
b. What is the median speed for vehicles on this highway?
c. What is the percen le rank of the speed 65 mph?
d. What speed corresponds to the 16th percen le?

22. Suppose that, as in the previous exercise, speeds of vehicles on a sec on of highway have mean 60 mph
and standard devia on 2.5 mph, but now the distribu on of speeds is unknown.

a. If the speed limit is 55 mph, at least what propor on of vehicles must speeding?
b. What can be said about the propor on of vehicles going 65 mph or faster?

23. An instructor announces to the class that the scores on a recent exam had a bell-shaped distribu on
with mean 75 and standard devia on 5.

a. What is the median score?

b. Approximately what propor on of students in the class scored between 70 and 80?
c. Approximately what propor on of students in the class scored above 85?
d. What is the percen le rank of the score 85?

24. The GPAs of all currently registered students at a large university have a bell-shaped distribu on with
mean 2.7 and standard devia on 0.6. Students with a GPA below 1.5 are placed on academic proba on.
Approximately what percentage of currently registered students at the university are on academic
proba on?

25. Thirty-six students took an exam on which the average was 80 and the standard devia on was 6. A
rumor says that five students had scores 61 or below. Can the rumor be true? Why or why not?

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ADDITIONAL EXERCISES

26. For the sample data

x26272829303132f341612621

Σx=1,256 and Σx2=35,926.

a. Compute the mean and the standard devia on.

b. About how many of the measurements does the Empirical Rule predict will be in the interval (x-
−s,x-+s), the interval (x-−2s,x-+2s), and the interval (x-−3s,x-+3s)?
c. Compute the number of measurements that are actually in each of the intervals listed in part (a),
and compare to the predicted numbers.

27. A sample of size n = 80 has mean 139 and standard devia on 13, but nothing else is known about it.

a. What can be said about the number of observa ons that lie in the interval (126,152)?
b. What can be said about the number of observa ons that lie in the interval (113,165)?
c. What can be said about the number of observa ons that exceed 165?
d. What can be said about the number of observa ons that either exceed 165 or are less than 113?

28. For the sample data

x12345f8429331

Σx=168 and Σx2=300.

a. Compute the sample mean and the sample standard devia on.
b. Considering the shape of the data set, do you expect the Empirical Rule to apply? Count the
number of measurements within one standard devia on of the mean and compare it to the
number predicted by the Empirical Rule.
c. What does Chebyshev’s Rule say about the number of measurements within one standard
devia on of the mean?
d. Count the number of measurements within two standard devia ons of the mean and compare it to
the minimum number guaranteed by Chebyshev’s Theorem to lie in that interval.

29. For the sample data set

x4748495051f131821

Σx=1224 and Σx2=59,940.

a. Compute the sample mean and the sample standard devia on.
b. Considering the shape of the data set, do you expect the Empirical Rule to apply? Count the
number of measurements within one standard devia on of the mean and compare it to the
number predicted by the Empirical Rule.
c. What does Chebyshev’s Rule say about the number of measurements within one standard
devia on of the mean?

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d. Count the number of measurements within two standard devia ons of the mean and compare it to
the minimum number guaranteed by Chebyshev’s Theorem to lie in that interval.

ANSWERS

1. See the displayed statement in the text.

3. See the displayed statement in the text.

5. a. 0.68.
b. 0.95.
c. 0.997.

7. a. 0.5.
b. 0.16.
c. 0.34.

9. a. 250.
b. 80.
c. 170.

11. a. 3/4.
b. 8/9.
c. 0.

13. a. 375.
b. 445.

15. a. At most 0.25.

b. At most 0.25.
c. At most 0.25.
d. At most 7.

17. a. 72.
b. 816.
c. 570.
d. 30.

19. 0.95.

21. a. 0.975.
b. 60.
c. 97.5.
d. 57.5.

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23. a. 75.
b. 0.68.
c. 0.025.
d. 0.975.

25. By Chebyshev’s Theorem at most 1∕9 of the scores can be below 62, so the rumor is impossible.

27. a. Nothing.
b. It is at least 60.
c. It is at most 20.
d. It is at most 20.

29. a. x-=48.96, s = 0.7348.

b. Roughly bell-shaped, the Empirical Rule should apply. True count: 18, predicted: 17.
c. Nothing.
d. True count: 23, guaranteed: at least 18.75, hence at least 19.

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