Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 1
The Human Body: An
Orientation

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

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Anatomy
•  Anatomy
–  Study of the structure and shape of the body and its
parts
–  Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of
parts

•  Gross anatomy
–  Large structures
–  Easily observable

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Let’s look at an example of gross anatomy using the
digestive system organs

Figure 1.2i The Body’s Organ Systems

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Anatomy (4 of 5)
•  Microscopic anatomy
–  Structures are too small to be seen with the naked eye
–  Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a microscope

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Anatomy
•  Let’s look at an example of microscopic anatomy using a
digestive system organ, the stomach

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Anatomy of the Stomach (2 of 2)

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Physiology
•  Physiology
–  Study of how the body and its parts work or function

•  Structure determines what functions can occur

•  For example, the air sacs of the lungs have very thin walls,
a feature that enables them to exchange gases and
provide oxygen to the body

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Concept Link
Throughout this text, Concept Links will highlight links
between concepts and/or organ systems. Keep in mind that
although discussions of the systems are separated into
chapters for detailed study, the overall goal of this text is for
you not only to gain an understanding of each individual
system, but also to learn how the body systems interact to
sustain life.

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Levels of Structural Organization
•  Six levels of structural organization
1.  Atoms
2.  Cells
3.  Tissues
4.  Organs
5.  Organ systems
6.  Organisms

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Figure 1.1 Levels of Structural
Organization (1 of 7)

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Figure 1.1 Levels of Structural
Organization (2 of 7)

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Figure 1.1 Levels of Structural
Organization (3 of 7)

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Figure 1.1 Levels of Structural
Organization (4 of 7)

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Figure 1.1 Levels of Structural
Organization (5 of 7)

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Figure 1.1 Levels of Structural
Organization (6 of 7)

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Figure 1.1 Levels of Structural
Organization (7 of 7)

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Organ System Overview (1 of 12)
•  Integumentary system
–  Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes
hair and fingernails
–  Waterproofs the body
–  Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury
–  Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight
–  Excretes salts in perspiration
–  Helps regulate body temperature
–  Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

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Figure 1.2a The Body’s Organ Systems

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Organ System Overview (2 of 12)
•  Skeletal system
–  Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints
–  Provides muscle attachment for movement
–  Protects vital organs
–  Site of blood cell formation
–  Stores minerals

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Figure 1.2b The Body’s Organ Systems

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Organ System Overview (3 of 12)
•  Muscular system
–  Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten)
–  Produces movement of bones

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Figure 1.2c The Body’s Organ Systems

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Organ System Overview (4 of 12)
•  Nervous system
–  Fast-acting control system
–  Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory
receptors
–  Responds to internal and external stimuli
–  Sensory receptors detect changes
–  Messages are sent to the central nervous system
–  Central nervous system assesses information and
activates effectors (muscles and glands)

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Figure 1.2d The Body’s Organ Systems

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Organ System Overview (5 of 12)
•  Endocrine system
–  Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into
the blood
–  Body functions controlled by hormones include:
▪  Growth
▪  Reproduction
▪  Use of nutrients

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Organ System Overview (6 of 12)
•  Endocrine system
–  Endocrine glands include:
▪  Pituitary gland
▪  Thyroid and parathyroids
▪  Adrenal glands
▪  Thymus
▪  Pancreas
▪  Pineal gland
▪  Ovaries (females) and testes (males)

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Figure 1.2e The Body’s Organ Systems

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Organ System Overview (7 of 12)
•  Cardiovascular system
–  Includes heart and blood vessels
▪  Heart pumps blood
▪  Vessels transport blood to tissues
–  Blood transports:
▪  Oxygen and carbon dioxide
▪  Nutrients
▪  Hormones
–  Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals
that provide protection from foreign invaders

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Figure 1.2f The Body’s Organ Systems

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Organ System Overview (8 of 12)
•  Lymphatic system
–  Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid
organs
–  Complements the cardiovascular system by returning
leaked fluids back to bloodstream
–  Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the
blood
–  Houses white blood cells, which are involved in
immunity

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Figure 1.2g The Body’s Organ Systems

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Organ System Overview (9 of 12)
•  Respiratory system
–  Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, and lungs
–  Gases are exchanged with the blood through air
sacs in the lungs
▪  Supplies the body with oxygen
▪  Removes carbon dioxide

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Figure 1.2h The Body’s Organ Systems

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Organ System Overview (10 of 12)
•  Digestive system
–  Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus,
stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and
accessory organs
–  Breaks down food
–  Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
–  Eliminates indigestible material as feces

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Figure 1.2i The Body’s Organ
Systems (2 of 2)

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Organ System Overview (11 of 12)
•  Urinary system
–  Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra
–  Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
–  Maintains acid-base balance
–  Regulates water and electrolyte balance
–  Helps regulate normal blood pressure

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Figure 1.2j The Body’s Organ Systems

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Organ System Overview (12 of 12)
•  Reproductive system
–  For males, includes the testes, scrotum, penis,
accessory glands, and duct system
▪  Testes produce sperm
▪  Duct system carries sperm to exterior
–  For females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes,
uterus, and vagina
▪  Ovaries produce eggs
▪  Uterus provides site of development for fetus

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Figure 1.2k-l The Body’s Organ
Systems

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Maintaining Life: Necessary Life
Functions
•  Maintaining boundaries
–  Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
•  Movement
–  Locomotion
–  Movement of substances
•  Responsiveness (irritability)
–  Ability to sense changes and react
•  Digestion
–  Breakdown and absorption of nutrients

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Necessary Life Functions (1 of 2)
•  Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body
–  Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
–  Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
–  Produces energy (ATP)
–  Regulated by hormones
•  Excretion
–  Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions
–  Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat

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Necessary Life Functions (2 of 2)
•  Reproduction
–  Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
▪  On cellular level—new cells are used for growth
and repair
▪  On organismal level—the reproductive system
handles the task
•  Growth
–  Increases cell size or body size (through increasing
the number of cells)
–  Hormones play a major role

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Survival Needs (1 of 3)
•  Nutrients
–  Chemicals used for energy and cell building
–  Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and
minerals
•  Oxygen
–  Required for chemical reactions
–  Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory
and cardiovascular systems

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Survival Needs (2 of 3)
•  Water
–  60 to 80 percent of body weight
–  Most abundant chemical in the human body
–  Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
•  Normal body temperature
–  37°C (98.6°F )
elsius ahrenheit

–  Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and

stop
–  Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed
too rapidly

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Survival Needs (3 of 3)
•  Atmospheric pressure
–  Must be appropriate for gas exchange

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Figure 1.3 Examples of Interrelationships Among
Organ Systems That Illustrate Life Functions

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The Language of Anatomy (1 of 2)
•  Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding
•  Exact terms are used for:
–  Position
–  Direction
–  Regions
–  Structures

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The Language of Anatomy
Figure 1.4a The Anatomical Position and Regional Terms

Anatomical position
Standard body position used to avoid
confusion

Terminology refers to this position

regardless of actual body position

Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at

the sides with palms facing forward and
thumbs pointing away from the body

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Directional Terms
•  Directional terms
–  Explain location of one body structure in relation to
another

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Directional Terms
•  Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or upper
part of a structure or the body; above
•  Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward the lower
part of a structure or the body; below

•  Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the body; in front

of
•  Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside of the body;
behind

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Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional
Terms (1 of 3)

*The term caudal, literally “toward the tail,” is synonymous with inferior only to the inferior end of the spine.
†Anterior and ventral are synonymous in humans, but not in four-legged animals. Ventral refers to an animal’s “belly,”
making it the inferior surface. Likewise, posterior and dorsal surfaces are the same in humans, but dorsal refers to an
animal’s back, making it the superior surface.

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Directional Terms
•  Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner
side of
•  Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the outer
side of
•  Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral
structure
•  Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or point of
attachment to a limb to the body trunk
•  Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of
attachment of a limb to the body trunk

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Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional
Terms

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Directional Terms
•  Superficial (external): toward or at the body surface
•  Deep (internal): away from the body surface; more internal

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Regional Terms (1 of 2)
•  Anterior (ventral) body landmarks

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Figure 1.4a The Anatomical Position
and Regional Terms

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Regional Terms (2 of 2)
•  Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks

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Figure 1.4b The Anatomical Position
and Regional Terms

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Body Planes and Sections (1 of 2)
•  Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as planes
•  Three types of planes or sections exist as right angles to
one another

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Body Planes and Sections (2 of 2)
•  A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into left
and right parts
•  A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or
organ) into equal left and right parts
•  A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or organ)
into anterior and posterior parts
•  A transverse, or cross, section divides the body (or
organ) into superior and inferior parts

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Figure 1.5 The Planes of the Body—Median, Frontal,
and Transverse—With Corresponding MRI Scans

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Body Cavities (1 of 7)
•  Two internal body cavities
–  Dorsal
–  Ventral
•  Body cavities provide varying degrees of protection to
organs within them

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Figure 1.6 Body Cavities

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Body Cavities (2 of 7)
•  Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions
1.  Cranial cavity
▪  Houses the brain
▪  Protected by the skull
2.  Spinal cavity
▪  Houses the spinal cord
▪  Protected by the vertebrae

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Body Cavities (3 of 7)
•  Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions separated
by the diaphragm
1.  Thoracic cavity
2.  Abdominopelvic cavity

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Body Cavities (4 of 7)
•  Thoracic cavity
–  Cavity superior to the diaphragm
–  Houses heart, lungs, and other organs
–  Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart,
trachea, and other organs
–  Protected by the rib cage

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Body Cavities (5 of 7)
•  Abdominopelvic cavity
–  Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
–  Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach,
liver, and other organs
▪  Protected only by trunk muscles
–  Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs,
bladder, and rectum
▪  Protected somewhat by bony pelvis
–  No physical structure separates abdominal from
pelvic cavities

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Body Cavities (6 of 7)
•  Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions
–  Four quadrants
–  Nine regions

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Figure 1.7 The Four Abdominopelvic
Quadrants

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Figure 1.8 The Nine Abdominopelvic
Regions

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Body Cavities (7 of 7)
•  Other body cavities include:
–  Oral and digestive cavities
–  Nasal cavity
–  Orbital cavities
–  Middle ear cavities

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Homeostasis
•  Homeostasis—maintenance of relatively stable
internal conditions
–  A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
–  Necessary for normal body functioning and to
sustain life
•  Main controlling systems
–  Nervous system
–  Endocrine system
•  Homeostatic imbalance
–  A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease

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Maintaining Homeostasis (1 of 2)
•  All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three
components: receptor, control center, and effector
–  Receptor
▪  Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
▪  Sends information to control center along an
afferent pathway

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Maintaining Homeostasis (2 of 2)
•  Control center
–  Determines set point
–  Analyzes information
–  Determines appropriate response
•  Effector
–  Provides a means for response to the stimulus
–  Information flows from control center to effector
along efferent pathway

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Feedback Mechanisms (1 of 2)
•  Negative feedback
–  Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
–  Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
–  Works like a household thermostat

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Figure 1.9 The Elements of a Homeostatic
Control System (1 of 6)

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Figure 1.9 The Elements of a Homeostatic
Control System (2 of 6)

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Figure 1.9 The Elements of a Homeostatic
Control System (3 of 6)

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Figure 1.9 The Elements of a Homeostatic
Control System (4 of 6)

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Figure 1.9 The Elements of a Homeostatic
Control System (5 of 6)

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Figure 1.9 The Elements of a Homeostatic
Control System (6 of 6)

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Feedback Mechanisms (2 of 2)
•  Positive feedback
–  Rare in the human body
–  Increases the original stimulus to push the variable
farther
–  Reaction occurs at a faster rate
–  In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting
and during the birth of a baby

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