I.

INTRODUCTION
I.1 Definition
According to the oxford dictionary; perfume is a fragrant liquid typically made from essential
oils extracted from flowers and spices that is used to give a pleasant smell to one’s body.
Perfumery on the other hand is the art of making perfumes. The word perfume is derived from
the Latin word, “per fumus” meaning “through smoke”. The sense of smell is being rediscovered
by science and society, having a very strong effect on people since it is strongly connected with
the emotional level and memory. Our society is very visual-oriented. However; the sense of
smell is very powerful since it triggers emotions and memories, it is intimately related with the
feeling of wellbeing, thus influencing the mood and behaviour at the unconscious level.
Marketing has been using this power to promote their products, by making them more attractive
to the consumer because they smell nice and they make people feel good. Many ancient
perfumes were made by extracting natural oils from plants through pressing and steaming. The
oil was then burned to scent the air. Today, most perfume is used to scent bar soaps, cosmetics
and more. Some products are even perfumed with industrial odorants to mask unpleasant smells
or to appear "unscented". While fragrant liquids used for the body are often considered perfume,
true perfumes are defined as extracts or essences and contain a percentage of oil distilled in
alcohol. Some uses of perfumes include:

 Perfumes are used to mask body odour.

 Used to make people feel good
 To heal and cure physical and emotional problems
 Perfumes are being revived to help balance hormonal and body energy.
 It helps to boost the immune system when inhaled or applied topically.
 Smelling sweet smells also affects one’s mood and can be used as a form of
psychotherapy.
 Perfumes are being created to duplicate the effect of pheromones and stimulate sexual
arousal receptors in the brain.
 I.2 Problem statement
Given the high cost of obtaining synthetic aromas, and sometimes with very complicated
procedures. Also, many synthetic chemicals used to make perfumes are derived from
petrochemicals (petroleum-based), and can be harmful to human health. Some chemicals found
in most man-made perfumes include phthalates, which are endocrine disruptors, benzene
derivatives, aldehydes, and toluene, which are known carcinogens. Some are neurotoxicants,
while others are linked with reproductive birth defects. In addition, some people have allergic or
hypersensitivity reactions to these chemicals especially asthmatic individuals.

I.3 Main objective

This thus brings us to the objective of this work being the extraction of essential oils from
natural plants for the production of perfume.

I.4 Significance of the study

This project focuses on the production of perfumes from natural plant sources as against
synthetic chemicals thereby reduce any side effect resulting from synthetic chemicals. While
reducing the effects of synthetic materials, the natural plant essential oil used also has very
important health benefits which will improve human wellbeing and improve life.

Also, the availability of this natural plant reduces the cost of acquiring raw materials since it is
readily available and round the year too.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

II.1 Brief History of perfume
Perfume takes its name from the Latin word perfumare (to fill with smoke), since in its original
form it was incense burned in Egyptian temples. Early incenses were merely mixtures of finely
ground spices held together by myrrh and storax. The next advance was the discovery that, if
certain spices and flowers were steeped in fat or oil, the fat or oil would retain a portion of the
odoriferous principle. Thus, were manufactured the ointments mand fragrant unguents of
Biblical fame. Avicenna, the Arabian physician, discovered steam distillation of volatile oils.
During his search for medical potions, he found that flowers boiled in an alembic with water
gave up some of their essence to the distillate. The returning Crusaders brought to Europe all the
art and skill of the orient, as well as information relating to sources of gums, oils and spices.
Rene, perfumer to Catherine de’ Medici, invented many few confections to delight the queenly
nose and , in his spare time, was one of the cleverest and deadliest of the famous de’ Medici
poisoners. Many of the finest perfumes are imported from France. Classical colognes are at least
200 years old, having originated in Cologne, Germany; they were probably the first imports into
this country. It was not until 1950s that U.S. industry discovered that the sale of perfume odors in
an alcohol-diluted form was profitable.

II.2 Constituents of Perfume

The constituents of perfumes are: the vehicle or solvent, the fixative, and the odourous
elements (fragrances).

II.2.1 Vehicles or Solvents

The modern solvent for blending and holding perfume materials is highly refined ethyl alcohol
mixed with more or less water according to the solubilities of the oils employed. This solvent,
with its volatile nature, helps to project the scent it carries, is fairly inert to the solute, and is not
too irritating to the human skin. The slight natural odor of the alcohol is removed by deodorizing
or “prefixation,” of the alcohol. Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils
such as fractionated coconut oil, olive oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil. This brings us to
using both Alcoholic and Non-alcoholic solvents for perfume production;

II.2.1.1 Alcoholic solvents

-Denatured Ethanol: most widely used and highly available (even in Cameroon), ethanol is also
highly used and recommended since it is not readily absorbed across the skin and not toxic as
opposed to methanol.

-Perfumer’s alcohol: a mixture of ethanol, isopropyl myristate, and Monopropylene glycol.

II.2.1.2 Non-alcoholic solvents

Due to allergies, skin irritations and religious barriers for some people, non-alcoholic solvents
are preferred to replace the alcohol-based solvents. Also; as advantage over alcoholic solvents,
perfumes made with non-alcoholic solvents have no risk of evaporation since they do not contain
alcohol. Some of these are; Coconut oil, Olive oil, Jojoba oil, AquaSilk
II.2.2 Fixatives
In an ordinary solution of perfume substances in alcohol, the more volatile materials evaporate
first, and the odour of the perfume consists of a series of impressions rather than the desired set.
To obviate this, a fixative is added. Fixatives may be defined as substances of lower volatility
than the perfume oils, which retard and even up the rate of evaporation of the various odorous
constituents. The different types of fixatives are animal secretions, resinous products, essential
oils, and synthetic chemicals.
II.2.3 Odorous Substances
Most odorous substances used in perfumery come under three main sources: isolates, synthetic
or semisynthetic chemicals, and finally essential oils which is our main concern.

II.2.3.1 Common Sources of Aroma Compounds

II.2.3.1.1 Natural sources
II.2.3.1.1.1 Plant Sources
Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds.
These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection
against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators. Plants are by far the largest source
of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from
various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the
aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each
other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petitgrain, neroli,
and orange oils.

 Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest and most common source of perfume

aromatics. Includes the flowers of several species of Rose, Sun flower (114 aroma
compounds) jasmine

 Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries rarely yield the expected odors when
extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are more likely to be of
synthetic origin. Notable exceptions include blackcurrant leaf, vanilla, and juniper
berry.
The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such
as oranges, lemons, and  limes.

 Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are; lavender leaf, patchouli sage, 

violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell
they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf.

 Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery.
Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by
many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in
perfumery include; Pine and fir resinswhich are a particularly valued source
of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring
aromatic compounds.

 Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include 

iris  rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family.

 . Seeds: Commonly used seeds include; carrot seed, coriander, cocoa, nutmeg,  mace, 

cardamom, and anise.

II.2.3.1.1.2 Animal sources

 Honeycomb: From the honeycomb of the honeybee. Both beeswax and honey can be
solvent extracted to produce an absolute. Beeswax is extracted with ethanol and the
ethanol evaporated to produce beeswax absolute.

II.2.3.1.2 Synthetic sources

Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which
are not found in nature. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds
that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both
naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes.

The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They
include:

 Givaudan

 International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)

  Firmenich

 Takasago

 Symrise

II.2.3.2 Comparison of Characteristics of Aroma Compounds from Natural and Synthetic

Sources
Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor characteristics in perfumery

Naturals Synthetics
Natural scents will vary from each supplier
Much more consistent than natural
based on when and where they are harvested,
aromatics. However, differences in
how they are processed, and the extraction
organic synthesis may result in
method itself. This means that a certain
minute differences in concentration
flower grown in Morocco and in France will
Variance of impurities. If these impurities
smell different, even if the same method is
have low smell (detection)
used to grow, harvest, and extract the scent.
thresholds, the differences in the
As such, each perfumer will prefer flowers
scent of the synthetic aromatic will
grown in one country over another, or one
be significant.
extraction method to the next.
Depending on purity, consists
primarily of one chemical
Contains many different organic compounds, compound.
each adding a different note to the overall Sometimes chiral mixtures of
scent. Certain naturally derived substances isomers, such as in the case of Iso
Componen
have a long history of use, but this cannot E Super. Due to the almost pure
ts
always be used as an indicator of whether composition of one chemical
they are safe or not. Possible allergenic or compound, the same molecules
carcinogenic compounds. found diluted in nature will have a
different scent and effect on the
body, if used undiluted.
Scent Reminiscent of its originating material, Similar to natural scents yet
 different at the same time. Some
synthetics attempt to mimic natural
although extraction may capture a different
notes, while others explore the
"layer" of the scent, depending on how the
uniqueness entire spectrum of scent. Novel
extraction method denatures the odoriferous
scent compounds not found in
compounds.
nature will often be unique in their
scent.
Pure and pronounced fragrance
Deep and complex fragrance notes. Soft, with
Scent notes. Often monotonous in nature,
subtle scent nuances. Highly valued for ideal
complexity yet reminiscent of other natural
composition.
scents.
Dependent on synthesis method.
Generally cheaper, but not
necessarily. Synthetic aromatics
Dependent on extraction method. More are not necessarily cheaper than
expensive, but not always, as prices are naturals, with some synthetics
determined by the labor and difficulty of being more costly than most
properly extracting each unit of the natural natural ingredients due to various
Price
materials, as well as its quality. factors such as the long synthesis
routes, low availability of
precursor chemicals, and low
overall yield. However, due to
their low odor threshold, they
should be diluted when making a
perfume.

II.2.3.3 Isolates
Isolates are pure chemical compunds whose source is an essential oil or other natural perfume
material. Notable examples are eugenol from clove oil, pinene from turpentine, anethole from
anise oil, and linalool from linaloa oil.
II.2.3.4 Synthetics and Semisynthetics Used in Perfumes
Many modern perfumes contain synthetic odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which
are not found in nature. Some constituents are chemically synthesized from an isolate or other
natural starting material and are classed as semisynthetics. Examples are vanillin, prepared from
eugenol from clove oil; ionone, from citral from lemon grass oil; and terpineols, from turpentine
and pine oil.

II.2.3.5 Essential oils

Essential oils, or volatile oils, are found in many different plants. These oils are different from
fatty oils because they evaporate or volatilize on contact with the air and they possess a pleasant
taste and strong aromatic odour. They are readily removed from plant tissues without any change
in composition. Essential oils are very complex in their chemical nature. These oils do not have
any obvious physiological significance for the plant. The characteristic flavour and aroma that
they impart are probably to some advantage in attracting insects and other animals, which play a
role in pollination or in the dispersal of the fruits and seeds. When in high concentration, these
same odours may serve to repel pests. The oils may also have some antiseptic and bactericidal
value.

Almost any part of a plant may be the source of oil. For example; flowers (rose), leaves (mint),
fruits (lemon), bark (cinnamon), wood (cedar), root (ginger) or seeds (cardamom), and many
resinous exudations as well. Some of the most important essential oils used in perfume
manufacture are; Rosemary, Calamus, Violet, Geranium, Jasmine, Lavender oils etc.

II.2.3.5.1 Chemical constituents of essential oils

Generally, pure essential oil is a complex mixture of volatile substances which can be
subdivided into two distinct groups of chemical constituents namely; Hydrocarbons which are
made up of almost exclusively of terpenes (monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and diterpenes), and
the Oxygenated compounds which are mainly esters, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, phenols, and
oxides (Connie, . Most of these components have antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral
properties and many more important health benefits.
II.2.3.5.2 Different methods of obtaining essential oils
a. Extraction
Different extraction methods such as Solvent extraction, supercritical fluid extraction.

b. Distillation
Distillation is a method of obtaining oils by exploiting the difference in boiling temperatures of
the constituents. Different distillation techniques include; steam distillation, hydro distillation
and fractional distillation

c. Expression
Expression as a method of fragrance extraction where raw materials are pressed, squeezed or
compressed and the oils are collected.

d. Enfleurage
This is the absorption of aroma materials into solid fat or wax and extracting the odorous oil with
ethyl alcohol.

II.3 Types of perfumes

The difference between a perfume, cologne and splash is the ratio of water and alcohol to the
fragrance. The following is a chart that illustrates the various ratios corresponding to the
different perfume types;

Fragrance Type % oil % alcohol % water

Perfume 15 – 30 90 – 95 5 – 10
Eau de perfume 8 – 15 80 – 90 10 – 20
Eau de toilette 4–8 80 – 90 10 – 20
Eau de cologne 3–5 70 30
Cologne splash 1–3 80 20

II.4 Describing perfume (Different perfume notes)

Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes, making the
harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top
note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage.
These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume.
II.4.1 Top notes
Also called the head notes. The scents that are perceived immediately on application of a
perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a
person's initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume.
Examples of top notes include mint, lavender and coriander.
II.4.2 Middle notes

Also referred to as heart notes. The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to the
dissipation of the top note. The middle note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a
perfume and act to mask the often-unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become
more pleasant with time. Examples of middle notes include seawater, sandalwood and jasmine.
II.4.3 Base notes

The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and
middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a
perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not
perceived until 30 minutes after application. Examples of base notes include tobacco, amber and
musk.

The notes are then stacked on top of each other like layers, which serve to indicate the life-
cycle’s chronology. This takes the form of a triangle but is colloquially referred to as a pyramid.

Each layer metaphorically supports by the one above it. The time between each phase varies
drastically between fragrances, which relies on the different compounds and their volatility.

Some types of compounds have similar properties and their volatility can be classed together.
This can provide a better idea of what to expect from particular fragrances from different

Constituents of each Note is accounted for by the pyramid below

II.5 Accepted and forbidden ingredients used in perfume as per FDA (Food and Drug
Association) Regulations
II.5.1 Acceptable Ingredients
Fragrances today are mostly a fusion of ingredients taken from nature – or inspired by nature –
together with the synthetics (man-made ingredients) that are used to make them last longer,
‘carry further’, or stay ‘true’, when worn on the skin.
An A-Z list of Acceptable perfume ingredients is found in the following site;

https://perfumesociety.org/discover-perfume/an-introduction/ingredients/

II.5.2 Ingredients Forbidden by Food and Drug Association (FDA)

Perfume ingredients range from fruits and leaves through animal waste and nuts to rocks.

These ingredients could be mostly natural but could be synthetic too. Synthetic implies
chemicals which imply adverse effect in the short and long run. Hence knowing and avoiding
usage of the Food and Drug Association (FDA) forbidden ingredients, (represented in the table
below) is crucial to this work.

Ingredient FDA Regulation

Bithionol Cosmetics containing bithionol are deemed to

be adulterated under section 601(a) of the
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
(21CFR'700.11)
Chlorofluorocarbon propellants FDA has prohibited the use of
Chlorofluorocarbon propellants in cosmetic
products with self-pressurized containers
(21CFR'700.23)
Chloroform FDA has prohibited the use of Chloroform,
except if present in residual amounts from its
use as a processing solvent during
manufacture, or as a byproduct from the
synthesis of an ingredient (21CFR'700.18)
Halogenated salicylanilides FDA has prohibited (21CFR'700.15) the use
of four halogenated salicylanilides:
 tribromsalan (TBS,3,4
Œ,5Btribromosalicylanilide),
 dibromsalan (DBS,4
Œ5Bdibromosalicylanilide),
 metabromsalan (MBS, 3,5-
 dibromosalicylanilide) and
 3,3 Œ,4,5 ŒB tetrachlorosalicylanilide
(TCSA)
Hexachlorophene Not allowed as a preservative in cosmetics
where normal use may be applied to mucous
membranes or which are intended to be used
on mucous membranes. For all other cosmetic
uses, can be used at a level that is no higher
than necessary to achieve the intended
preservative function, and in no event higher
than 0.1 percent. Such use of hexachlorophene
shall be limited to situations where an
alternative preservative has not yet been
shown to be as effective or where adequate
integrity and stability data for the reformulated
product are not yet available.
Mercury FDA has prohibited Mercury in cosmetic
products, except for trace amount below 1
ppm and except for use as a preservative in
eye-area cosmetic products at concentrations
up to 65 ppm (21CFR'700.13)
Methylene Chloride FDA has prohibited the use of Methylene
Chloride in cosmetic products, action which
supersedes the CIR conclusion
(21CFR'700.19)
Prohibited cattle material FDA has prohibited the use in cosmetics of
specified risk materials, small intestine of all
cattle, material from non-ambulatory disabled
cattle, material from cattle not inspected and
passed, or MS (Beef). Prohibited cattle
materials do not include tallow that contains
no more than 0.15 percent hexane-insoluble
 impurities and tallow derivatives.
(21CFR'700.27)
Trichloroethane The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
has banned the production of Trichloroethane
because it is considered a Class I ozone-
depleting substance, except for essential uses,
medical devices, and aviation safety. FDA
has determined that the use of Trichloroethane
in an aerosol cosmetic product is not essential
Vinyl Chloride Cosmetics containing vinyl chloride
(including use as a propellant) are deemed to
be adulterated under section 601(a) of the
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
(21CFR'700.14)
Zirconium Aerosol cosmetics containing zirconium are
deemed to be adulterated under section 601(a)
of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
(21CFR'700.16)
6-Methylcoumarin (6-MC) this fragrance ingredient is a potent photo-
contact sensitizer which may cause serious
skin and systemic disorders in some
consumers on contact in the presence of
sunlight.
Musk Ambrette Musk ambrette, a fragrance ingredient, may
cause photo-contact sensitization, i.e., allergic
reaction of the skin on exposure to musk
ambrette and sunlight
 III. MATERIALS AND METHODS
III.1 MATERIALS
In order to define the materials and methods used to achieve the objectives of this work, we
take into consideration the following elements;

 Element I: Market Niche

The first elements of this choice on which the others anchor is target population product is
intended to satisfy that is, The market Niche

 Element II: Price of Product

The various perfume prices are an indication of the fragrance concentration. This element will
consider details of the fragrance type based on our target group set.

 Element III: Shelf life and Safety

This will mainly be portrayed by the choice of fragrance carrier used.

III.1.1 Element I: Market Niche

The class of People our formulation desires to satisfy are young men between the ages of 25-54
Years since they are considered to be at the Prime of their working lives as proposed by
data.oecd.org. Perfume fragrance is the main ingredient that defines the type of perfume
formulated. It anchors mainly on the concentration of fragrance in the perfume and determines
its duration after application. To attain this Objective, we will have to zoom into the fragrances
that make up perfume and the corresponding percentages in Head, Heart and Base notes.

The table below summarizes the main perfume types and the Concentration of specific notes and
fragrances.

Perfume Type Concentrations (%) Fragrance Length of

 Concentration (%) time on
skin
(Hours)
Top and Head Heart Note Base Note
Note
Perfume or Parfum 20 30 50 20-30 8-24
Extrait
Eau de Parfum 40 30 30 15-20 4-6
(EDP)
Eau de Toilette 50 30 20 5-15 2-3
(EDT)
Eau de Cologne 90 10 0 2-4 ~2
(EDC)
Eau fraiche 100 0 0 1–3 ~1

III.1.2 Element II: Price of Product

Fig1: typical relationship between price of perfume, its longevity and the concentration of
essential oils.
III.1.3 Element III: Shelf life and Safety
The objective to be attained here is to preserve and maintain the stability of the perfume with
time.

III.1.3.1 Fragrance Carrier (Base)

As the name implies, its main role is to dissolve (mix) and sustain the three (03) note fragrance
contained in our perfume formulation. Carriers could be one of two types; Oil-Based or Alcohol-
Based

III.1.3.2 Oil-based perfume

Oil-based perfumes are typically roll-on applicators. Oil-based is referencing the neutral carrier
oil paired with the fragrance inside the roll-on bottle. For example, the carrier oil could be Jojoba
oil and the fragrance could be French Vanilla. When the perfume is applied, the Jojoba or carrier
oil is absorbed into your skin which leaves the fragrance on top. With the fragrance on top of
your skin, it gives off the intended scent. Most people believe that roll-on perfumes are less
powerful because the product easily soaks into your skin. Typically, only people who are closer
to you, can smell the fragrance when using a roll-on perfume. There is also a moisturizing
benefit when using a roll-on perfume!

III.1.3.3 Alcohol-based perfume

Unlike oil-based perfumes, alcohol-based perfumes do not typically contain carrier oils like
Jojoba or Coconut oil. Instead, alcohol-based usually contains ethanol which allows for a
stronger scent than a roll-on. The stronger scent is due to the projection of the alcohol
evaporating around you, instead of absorbing into your skin. The alcohol also allows for people
to experience different top, middle, and bottom notes. In other words, this allows for different
scents coming from one perfume. Some people believe the fragrance in alcohol-based perfumes
it too much. However, this might be due to the alcohol and not the fragrance at all! The strength
also depends on how much you spritz on yourself. Due to the strong scent of alcohol-based
perfume, you only should spray once or twice. 

III.1.4 Choice of Carrier

The class of People our formulation desires to satisfy are young men between the ages of 25-54
Years since they are considered to be at the Prime of their working lives as proposed by
data.oecd.org.
For this reason, oil will be our carrier of choice because of the objective conformities it presents
compared at alcohol- based carriers as elaborated in the table below;

Oil-Based Carrier Alcohol-Based Carrier

Long-lasting 6-15 hours on an average Not long-lasting, 1-3 hours on an average

Clean,rich,true scent with a long shelf life Harsh, overbearing, over empowering scent
with a short shelf life due to alcohol
evaporation (80-97%)

Fewer ingredients that emit a richer aroma Packed with fillers

Non-flammable, smells great but also Highly flammable, removes natural body oils
nourishes and moisturizes skin causing dry skin

Less likely to cause allergic reactions due to High probability of causing allergic reactions
natural ingredients.

Addition of Fixatives could be optional The fast evaporation rate of alcohol-based

perfumes is why they require strong fixatives,
many of them synthetic and harmful

Carrier oils are vegetable oils that do not evaporate and are extracted from fatty parts of plants.
Oils can be extracted from the plant by five different methods:
  Cold Pressed

 Expeller Pressed

 Refined

 Partially Refined

 Unrefined

Some recommended carrier oils;

There are over 50 different carrier oils on the market. When it comes to homemade perfumes
or aromatherapy mixtures, the five below are the most often recommended:

 Jojoba Oil

 Apricot Kernel Oil

 Almond Oil

 Avocado Oil

 Coconut Oil

III.1.5 Locally available ingredients

The table below shows the locally available ingredients required for or chosen perfume
formulation which is Eau de Perfume.

Notes Common/locally available ingredients

Top Note Coriander, Eucalyptus, Grapefruit, Lemon,
Lemongrass, Lime, Wild Orange, Peppermint,
Tangerine
Middle or Body Note Black Pepper, Cardamom, Cilantro, Cypress,
Cloves, Rosemary, Spear grass, Basil, Onion,
Garlic, Cabbage
Base Notes Cinnamon Bark, Clove Bud, Ginger, Rose,
Nutmeg, Saw dust
Fragrance Carrier Coconut Oil, Avocado Oil
III.2 METHOD
III.2.1 Choice of formulation
Based on the elements reviewed above, the objective fixed on formulating Eau de Parfum (EDP)
will be attained by respecting the following formulation steps;
III.2.1.1 Collection
Before the manufacturing process begins, the initial ingredients must be brought to the
manufacturing canter. Plant substances are harvested from local sources or from around the
world, often hand-picked for their fragrance. Animal products are obtained by extracting the
fatty substances directly from the animal. Aromatic chemicals used in synthetic perfumes are
created in the laboratory by perfume chemists.
III.2.2 Extraction
Oils are extracted from plant substances by several methods: steam distillation, fractional
Distillation solvent extraction, enfleurage, maceration, and expression.

In steam distillation, steam is passed through plant material held in a still, whereby the essential
oil turns to gas. This gas is then passed through tubes, cooled, and liquified. Oils can also be
extracted by boiling plant substances like flower petals in water instead of steaming them.

. The oil dissolves in the alcohol and rises. Heat is used to evaporate the alcohol, which once
fully burned off, leaves a higher concentration of the perfume oil on the bottom.
III.2.3 Creating the blend
• Top notes
Makes between 10-30% of the blend.
These essential oils have the characteristic of being very volatile (they evaporate very quickly).
This means that you will get the full scent very quickly and then the scent will dissipate very
quickly.
Because of this characteristic, this scent will give the first impression of the perfume blend. The
scents of the oils in this note will tend to be light, fresh, and uplifting.
• Body Notes or Middle Notes
Makes between 20-30% of the blend.
These essential oils will give the full body to the perfume blend. These are not quite as volatile
as the Top Notes and will take a little longer to be noticed (typically 20-60 minutes after
application).
Generally, these will be warm and comforting scents.
• Base Notes or Fixative Notes
Makes up between 35-40% of the blend.
These essential oils will have a more foundational fragrance. They will be noticeable for quite a
while (typically an hour or two after application) and they also slow down the evaporation of the
oils from the top two notes. These will generally have the fragrance of being very rich and also
very relaxing in nature.

III.2.3.1 Blending
Once the perfume oils are collected, they are ready to be blended together according to a formula
determined by a master in the field, known as a "nose." It may take as many as 800 different
ingredients and several years to develop the special formula for a scent.
After the scent has been created, it is mixed with alcohol. The amount of alcohol in a scent can
vary greatly. Most full perfumes are made of about 10-20%
Perfume oils dissolved in alcohol and a trace of water.

III.2.3.2 Aging

Fine perfume is often aged for several months or even years after it is blended. Following this, a
"nose" will once again test the perfume to ensure that the correct scent has been achieved. Each
essential oil and perfume have three notes: "Notes de tete," or top notes, "notes de coeur," central
or heart notes, and "notes de fond," base notes. Top notes have tangy or citrus-like smells; central
notes (aromatic flowers like rose and jasmine) provide body, and base notes
(woody fragrances) provide an enduring fragrance. More "notes," of various smells, may be
further blended.