Draft

Not to be quoted, cited or shared

India
Third Biennial Update Report to
The United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change

Revised – January 11, 2021

India
Third Biennial Update Report to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Government of India
January 11, 2021
India
Third Biennial Update Report to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change

©Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, 2021

CITATION: MoEFCC. (2021). India: Third Biennial Update Report to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change, Government of India.

Disclaimer: The maps are not to scale and are representative in nature. Citing of trade names or
commercial processes does not constitute endorsement. The various examples cited throughout
the document are only illustrative and indicative and not exhaustive, nor have they been chosen
based on priority.

Secretary
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India
Indira Paryavaran Bhawan, Jor Bagh Road, New Delhi-110003
Phone: +91 11 -24695262 / 24695265
Fax: +91 11 - 24695270

National Project Director

India’s Third National Communication and other New Information to the UNFCCC,
Scientist-G, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India,
Indira Paryavaran Bhawan, Jor Bagh Road, New Delhi - 110003
Telefax: +91 11 - 24695293
E-mail: jrbhatt@nic.in
Contents

Message from Minister 1

Message from Minister of State 4
Foreword from Secretary 6
Preface from Additional Secretary 8
Executive Summary 11
Background Information and Institutional Arrangements 33
Chapter 1: National Circumstances 39
Chapter 1: Key Points 40
1.1 Climate 44
1.1.1 Precipitation 44
1.1.2 Rainfall situation in recent years 46
1.1.3 Climate variation over India 47
1.1.3.1 Temperature in recent years 47
1.2 High impact weather events 50
1.2.1 Dry and rainy days, rainstorms 50
1.2.2 Cyclonic disturbances 52
1.2.3 Heatwave and coldwave trends 54
1.2.4 Heatwave and coldwave during recent years 56
1.2.5 Floods 59
1.2.6 Extreme heat warning systems and preparedness 61
1.2.7 Early warning systems for thunderstorms and lightning in India 61
1.2.8 Decreasing trend in Aerosol Black Carbon over India 61
1.3 Development of climate resilience and disaster risk reduction 62
1.3.1 Weather forecasting mechanism 63
1.3.2 Ocean State Forecast (OSF), warning and advisory services from 63
INCOIS
1.3.3 Tsunami early warning service 24X7 operations 64
1.3.4 Storm surge early warning service 65
1.3.5 Multi hazard vulnerability mapping 66
1.3.6 Disaster management and response 67
1.4 Himalayan cryosphere 69

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 1.4.1 Snow cover 70
1.4.2 Glacier area 72
1.4.2.1 Glacier retreat and area loss 72
1.4.2.2 Glacier mass 73
1.4.2.3 Glacier mass balance 73
1.4.2.4 Contribution of snow and glacier melt in stream runoff 74
1.4.2.5 Glacial lake outburst flood 74
1.5 Coastal and marine ecosystems 75
1.5.1 Protection and management of coastal areas 75
1.5.2 Fisheries 77
1.5.2.1 Programmes to promote fisheries 77
1.5.2.2 Fishery advisory services 79
1.5.2.3 Coral bleaching alert system 79
1.6 Sea level rise 80
1.6.1 Ocean observational programmes 82
1.7 Water resources 82
1.7.1 Irrigation 85
1.8 Forests 87
1.8.1 Forest cover mapping using remote sensing 89
1.8.2 Fire prone forest areas 90
1.8.3 Mapping of wetlands within forest 90
1.8.4 Climate change impacts and vulnerability of Indian forests 90
1.9 Agriculture 98
1.9.1 Programmes to promote agriculture 100
1.9.2 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture 101
1.9.2.1 Rainfed Area Development 102
1.9.2.2 Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana and Mission for Organic Value 102
Chain Development for North Eastern Region
1.9.3 Key progress in agriculture towards climate resilience 103
1.9.3.1 National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) 103
1.9.4 Soil as an ecosystem 105
1.9.5 Livestock 106
1.9.6 Pest incidence: Recent locust infestation in India 107

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1.10 Energy profile 107
1.10.1 Primary energy supply 108
1.10.2 Primary energy demand 108
1.10.3 Energy future and energy security 109
1.11 Transport 110
1.12 Urbanization 112
1.13 Employment 113
1.14 Major economic transformations 113
1.14.1 India’s jump in World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Report 2020 113
1.14.2 India’s remarkable jump on the Global Innovation Index (GII) 113
1.14.3 Digital India 114
1.15 Sustainable Development Goals 115
1.16 India’s efforts in combating climate change 118
1.16.1 High Performance Computing (HPC) 119
1.16.2 India at COP 25, calls upon more countries to join the International 120
Solar Alliance (ISA)
1.17 India and the COVID-19 pandemic response 120
References 123
Chapter 2: National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 135
Chapter 2: Key Points 136
2.1 General aspects 138
2.2 Institutional arrangements 139
2.3 Methodology 141
2.4 Quality Assurance (QA), Quality Control (QC) 142
2.5 National greenhouse gas emissions 145
2.5.1 Summary GHG emission in 2016 147
2.6 Emission trends by gas 149
2.7 Emission trends by sources 149
2.7.1 Energy sector 149
2.7.2 Industrial Processes and Product Use sector 158
2.7.3 Agriculture sector 163
2.7.4 Land Use and Land-Use Change and Forestry sector 169
2.7.5 Waste 173

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2.8 Key categories 176
2.9 Uncertainty assessment 179
2.10 Time-series information 181
References 185
Chapter 3: Mitigation Actions 195
Chapter 3: Key Points 196
3.1 India's declared voluntary action until 2020 199
3.2 National Action Plan on Climate Change 200
3.3 Mitigation actions in power sector 205
3.3.1 Renewable energy 205
3.3.2 Nuclear power in India 211
3.3.3 Green energy corridor project 213
3.3.4 Clean coal technology initiative 213
3.4 Energy efficiency-related mitigation actions 215
3.4.1 Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme 217
3.4.2 Standards and labelling scheme 218
3.4.3 Market transformation for energy efficiency (MTEE) achievements 218
3.4.4 Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP) 221
3.4.5 Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEEED) 221
3.4.5.1 Venture Capital Fund for Energy Efficiency (VCFEE) 221
3.4.6 Efficient lighting in India 222
3.4.7 Demand Side Management Programmes 223
3.4.7.1 Agriculture Demand Side Management (AgDSM) 223
3.4.7.2 Municipal Demand Side Management (MuDSM) 225
3.4.8 Capacity building of DISCOMs 226
3.4.9 Zero Defect Zero Effect (ZED) 226
3.4.10 Carbon capture, storage/utilization 227
3.4.11 Energy access and clean fuels 228
3.4.11.1 Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana 228
3.4.11.2 Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) 229
3.4.11.3 Saubhagya scheme 229
3.5 Buildings sector 229

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3.5.1 National Building Code of India (NBC) 2016 229
3.5.2 Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) 229
3.5.3 Building Energy Efficiency Programme (BEEP); Retrofitting project 230
3.5.4 Star rating system for existing commercial buildings 230
3.5.5 Eco Niwas Samhita (for residential buildings) 230
3.6 Transport sector 231
3.6.1 Emission standards and Auto Fuel Policy 2003 232
3.6.2 Fuel efficiency standard 232
3.6.3 Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme (EBP) 234
3.6.4 Harit Path Mobile Application by NHAI 236
3.6.5 Green National Highways Corridor Project 236
3.6.6 National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 237
3.6.7 Rail transport 238
3.6.8 Civil aviation 240
3.6.9 Shipping 241
3.6.9.1 Coastal shipping 242
3.6.9.2 Sagarmala: Port-led prosperity 243
3.6.9.3 Green port project 243
3.6.9.4 Renewable power activities in major ports 244
3.7 Agriculture sector 244
3.7.1 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) 245
3.7.1.1 Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF) 245
3.7.1.2 National Bamboo Mission (NBM) 245
3.7.2 Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) 245
3.7.3 Solarisation of Agriculture 246
3.7.4 Crop diversification programme 247
3.7.5 System of Rice Intensification (SRI) 247
3.7.6 Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) cultivation 248
3.7.7 Avoiding crop residue burning 248
3.7.8 Neem-coated urea produced 249
3.7.9 Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture 250
3.7.10 Balanced ration for livestock 250

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3.7.11 Bypass proteins for animals 250
3.7.12 Total mitigation reduction due to various activities 251
3.8 Forestry sector 251
3.8.1 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 252
3.8.2 Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority 252
(CAMPA)
3.8.3 Progress made under plantation programmes 253
3.8.3.1 Twenty Point Programme 253
3.8.4 National Mission on Clean Ganga 254
3.8.5 National Green Highways Mission 254
3.8.5.1 Green Highways (Plantation, Transplantations, Beautification and 256
Maintenance ) Policy, 2015
3.8.6 Green India Mission 256
3.8.6.1 National Afforestation Programme 257
3.8.7 Other initiatives 259
3.8.7.1 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 259
3.8.7.2 Nagar Van Scheme 259
3.8.7.3 Pradhan Mantri Van Dhan Yojana 260
3.8.7.4 Telangana Ku Haritha Haram 260
3.8.7.5 Maharashtra Harit Sena/ Green Army 260
3.8.7.6 Tripura Forest Environmental Improvement and Poverty Alleviation 261
Project (TFIPAP)
3.8.7.7 Bonn Challenge and India 261
3.9 Waste sector 264
3.9.1 Waste management regulatory landscape 264
3.9.2 Plastic waste management (PWM) 264
3.9.3 Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 265
3.9.4 Swachh Bharat Mission 265
3.9.5 Programme on energy from urban, industrial and agricultural 265
wastes/residues
3.10 Relevant international comparisons 266
3.11 Emissions reduction during COVID-19 269
3.12 Mitigation actions: nature, coverage, objectives, methodologies, steps 270
taken, results and emission reductions achieved
References 293

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Chapter 4: Domestic Measurement, Reporting and Verification 306
Chapter 4: Key Points 307
4.1 Introduction 308
4.2 Dashboards and portals 309
4.3 Mobile applications 313
4.4 Data repositories 314
4.5 Scheme specific MRVs 317
4.6 Initiatives by non-governmental stakeholders 320
4.7 Transitioning to enhanced transparency 321
4.7.1 The aims and ends of MRV and the ETF 322
References 322
Chapter 5: Finance, Technology and Capacity Building Needs and Support 329
Received
Chapter 5: Key Points 330
5.1 Introduction 332
5.1.1 Context 332
5.2 Financial needs and support received 334
5.2.1 International context in climate finance 334
5.2.2 Financial needs 336
5.2.3 Support received 337
5.2.4 National initiatives 357
5.3 Technology needs and support received 361
5.3.1 Mission Innovation 362
5.3.2 Technology needs and requirements 368
5.3.3 Supply-side issues in technology transfer 371
5.4 GHG inventory reporting: Constraints, gaps and improvements 375
5.4.1 Energy sector 376
5.4.2 Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU) sector 377
5.4.3 Agriculture sector 377
5.4.4 Land Use, Land-use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) sector 379
5.4.5 Waste sector 379
5.5 Capacity building needs and support received 381

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 5.5.1 Needs related to minimizing loss and damage due to weather-related 381
disasters and other requirements
5.5.2 Support received 383
5.5.3 National initiatives 384
5.6 Support provided by India 386
References 389
Chapter 6: Additional Information 394
Chapter 6: Key Points 395
6.1 Promotion of clean and renewable energy 397
6.1.1 Renewable energy 397
6.1.1.1 Green energy finance 397
6.1.1.2 State rooftop solar attractiveness index (SARAL) 398
6.1.1.3 Ocean energy is renewable energy 398
6.1.1.4 Solarisation of Konark 398
6.1.1.5 Solarisation of Modhera 398
6.1.1.6 World’s largest solar rooftop: Brabourne Stadium 399
6.1.1.7 World’s largest solar park: Bhadla 399
6.1.1.8 Development of Ultra Mega Renewable Energy Power Parks 400
(UMREPPs)
6.1.1.9 Grid-connected rooftop solar (RTS) programme 400
6.1.1.10 Rewa solar power project 400
6.1.1.11 Solar energy in airports 401
6.1.1.12 Make in India in renewable energy sector 402
6.1.1.13 Renewable energy country attractiveness index 402
6.1.1.14 Solar dryer cum space heating system (SoLDry) for UT of Ladakh 403
6.1.1.15 Dispute resolution mechanism 403
6.1.2 Sustainable transportation 404
6.1.2.1 Green Indian railways 404
6.1.2.2 Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) 407
6.1.2.3 Expansion of urban rail 407
6.1.2.4 Electric mobility 408
6.1.2.5 Delhi-Dehradun route flights using biofuels 409
6.1.2.6 Fighter jets on biofuels 410

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 6.1.2.7 Hydrogen fuel bus and car project for Leh and New Delhi 410
6.1.2.8 Fully solar-powered commuter ferry 411
6.1.3 Carbon neutrality 411
6.2 Mission and activities in water resources: Ministry of Jal Shakti 412
6.3 Initiatives in weather and climate services: Ministry of Earth Sciences 414
6.4 Initiatives in ocean services 417
6.4.1 Fishery advisory service for reducing of the consumption of fossil oils 417
6.4.2 Ocean state forecast, warning and advisory services 417
6.4.3 Climate change advisory services under the Deep Ocean Mission 418
6.5 National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) 418
6.5.1 National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project 419
6.5.2 Training for disaster response: Aapda Mitra 419
6.5.3 Vulnerability Atlas of India (VAI) 420
6.5.4 Preparation of flood hazard atlas of flood prone states 421
6.6 Climate change and alien invasive plants in India 421
6.7 Climate change and wildlife-human conflicts 421
6.8 Mahatma Gandhi and sustainable development 423
6.8.1 Celebrating 150 years of Mahatma Gandhi’s Birth Anniversary 423
6.8.2 Energy Swaraj 424
6.9 India as a responsible global partner 425
6.9.1 Solar energy on global agenda 425
6.9.2 The 3rd Global RE-INVEST 426
6.9.3 One Sun One World One Grid 426
6.9.4 Climate Action Summit, UN General Assembly 426
6.9.5 Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) 427
6.9.6 India on global climate forums 428
6.9.7 India hosted global events 428
6.9.8 Bilateral cooperation on environment and climate change 428
6.9.9 India – UN Fund contribution to climate change 433
6.10 Private sector engagement 434
6.10.1 Reduction in carbon emissions by industries 434
6.10.2 Renewable energy consumption in companies 435

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 6.10.3 Infosys and Global Climate Action Award 435
6.10.4 Climate-friendly initiatives undertaken by Indian corporates 435
6.10.5 Declaration of private sectors on Climate Change 445
6.10.6 Green bonds 445
6.10.7 International Platform on Sustainable Finance 445
6.10.8 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Programmes 446
6.10.9 Small Companies in the field of renewable energy sector 447
6.11 Other environmental initiatives 447
6.11.1 Hydrogen energy 447
6.11.2 Methanol economy 448
6.11.3 Electricity from plastic waste 449
6.11.4 India Cooling Action Plan 449
6.11.5 Van Dhan Yojana 450
6.11.6 Ladakh Geothermal project 450
6.11.7 Resource efficiency and circular economy 451
6.11.8 Knowledge management initiatives 452
6.11.9 Training of government officials on adaptation planning and 453
implementation
6.11.10 Educational and awareness initiatives 453
6.11.11 Gender mainstreaming in climate programmes 454
References 454
Annexure I List of Acronyms 461
Annexure II Institutional Arrangements 470
Annexure III List of events/consultative meetings 479

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List of Figures

Figure IA 1: India's National Communications and BURs 34

Figure IA 2: Distribution of emissions, by gases and sectors in 2014 34
Figure IA 3: Implementation arrangement for the Third BUR 35
Figure IA 4: Institutional arrangements for the Third BUR 36
Figure 1.1: Percentage departure of area weighted monsoon season rainfall 45
over India as a whole (1901-2019)
Figure 1.2: (a) District-wise annual rainfall trend; and (b) monsoon season 46
rainfall trends for the period 1989-2018
Figure 1.3: All India mean temperature anomalies (A) Annual, (B) Winter, (C) 49
Pre Monsoon, (D) Monsoon and (E) Post monsoon for the period
1901 - 2019
Figure 1.4: Annual mean temperature anomaly trends (°C/100 years) 49
Figure 1.5: Spatial distribution of trend in frequency of (i) Dry Days; (ii) Rainy 51
days; (iii) Heavy rainfall events
Figure 1.6: Frequency of depressions and cyclonic storms formed over the 52
northern Indian Ocean
Figure 1.7: (a) Trends in the heat wave (HW) days of 103 stations during April, 55
May and June for the period 1961–2019. (b) Trends in the cold wave
(CW) days of stations for the period 1961–2019
Figure 1.8: Population affected and total damage caused including crops, 60
housing and public utilities
Figure 1.9: Long term trend in Black Carbon 62
Figure 1.10: Storm Surge Forecast of Very Severe Cyclonic Storm – Fani 65
Figure 1.11: 3DVAS integrated with 3D and 2D spatial data (a), MHVM (b) 3D 67
Buildings (c) Overlaid on 3D terrain
Figure 1.12: Glacier area in Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra basins based on 70
Randolph Glacier Inventory 5.0
Figure 1.13: (a) Seasonal snow cover variability in three major Himalayan basins 71
(2000 to 2011) (b) Inter-annual SCA variability shows no significant
trend
Figure 1.14: Variation in snow cover area for basins in western and west central 71
Himalaya from 2004 to 2014
Figure 1.15: Comparison of glaciated area in the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra 72
basins
Figure 1.16: Cumulative mass balance of 30 glaciers based on the glaciological 74
mass balance data from 1975 to 2015
Figure 1.17: Numbers of coral bleaching advisories issued during 2019-20 79
Figure 1.18: Forest cover map of India 2019 88
Figure 1.19: Forest types of India 92

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Figure 1.20: Projected impacts of climate change on different forest types and 93
regions of India
Figure 1.21: Time series of projected burned area for India for the historical 98
period (1975-2005)
Figure 1.22: Map of 151 NICRA-KVK districts along with the climate 104
vulnerabilities addressed along with number of districts covered
Figure 1.23: Inauguration of HPC Pratyush 119
Figure 2.1: Institutions involved in GHG Inventory preparation 140
Figure 2.2: Sector-wise National GHG emission in MtCO2 equivalent for 1994- 146
2016
Figure 2.3: Growth in emissions of greenhouse gases, relative to 1994, 146
illustrated by source categories, 1994-2016. Index 1994 = 100
Figure 2.4: Distribution of GHG emissions (GgCO2e) by sector, 2016 148
Figure 2.5: Greenhouse gas emissions by category, GgCO2e, 2016 148
Figure 2.6: Gas-wise emission for the year 2016 149
Figure 2.7: Distribution of CO2e emissions (Gg) across the energy sector 150
categories in 2016
Figure 2.8: Fuel combustion activities: GHG emissions (MtCO2e) per 151
subcategory, 2011-2016
Figure 2.9: Share of fuel consumption for energy industries for the year 2016 152
Figure 2.10: Distribution of CO2e emissions (Gg) across the manufacturing 153
industries & construction categories in 2016
Figure 2.11: Percentage difference between CO2 emission with the sectoral 156
approach and the reference approach, 2015-2016
Figure 2.12: Industrial Processes and Product Use: GHG emissions (MtCO2e) per 159
subcategory, 2011-2016
Figure 2.13: Gas wise distribution of emissions from IPPU sector in 2016 159
Figure 2.14: Distribution of CO2e emissions (Gg) across the chemical industries 161
categories in 2016
Figure 2.15: Agriculture: GHG emissions (MtCO2e) per subcategory, 2011-2016 164
Figure 2.16: Distribution of CO2e emissions (Gg) across the agriculture sector 164
categories in 2016
Figure 2.17: Population in millions by livestock category, 2011-2016 165
Figure 2.18: Population in percentage by livestock category, 2016 166
Figure 2.19: Methane emissions from manure management by livestock category, 167
2016
Figure 2.20: Nitrous-oxide emissions from manure management by livestock 167
category, 2016
Figure 2.21: Rice area (in per cent) under different types of water regimes, 2016 168

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Figure 2.22: LULUCF: GHG emissions/removals (MtCO2e) per subcategory, 170
2011-2016
Figure 2.23: Waste: GHG emissions (MtCO2e) per subcategory, 2011-2016 174
Figure 2.24: Time-series information of GHG emissions 181
Figure 3.1: Installed power generation capacity, September 2020 206
Figure 3.2: Solar capacity growth in India 208
Figure 3.3: Wind capacity growth in India 209
Figure 3.4: Solar tariff in India 210
Figure 3.5: Nuclear power installed generation capacity from 2009-2019 212
Figure 3.6: Consumption of petroleum products in the industry sector 216
Figure 3.7: LPG consumption in industry 217
Figure 3.8: ZED Ranking 227
Figure 3.9: Restoration efforts by three leading agencies 262
Figure 5.1: Trend in public R&D budgets related to renewable energy 372
technologies, 1999-2018
Figure 5.2: Solar thermal, count of priority patent applications, 1999 - 2016, 373
based on priority date and inventor country
Figure 5.3: Solar PV, count of priority patent applications, 1999 - 2016, based on 374
priority date and inventor country
Figure 5.4: Energy storage technologies, count of priority patent applications, 374
1999-2016, based on priority date and inventor country
Figure 6.1: Solar rooftop of Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai 399
Figure 6.2: Bhadla solar park 400
Figure 6.3: Rewa solar power project 401
Figure 6.4: Installed solar dryer cum space heating system at Minjee village, 403
Kargil
Figure 6.5: Status of household tap connections 413
Figure 6.6: Agrometeorological Advisory Services (AAS) to Farmers 415
Figure 6.7: Forecast tropical strom probability for FANI 416
Figure 6.8: Institutional mechanism of National Disaster Management 419
Figure 6.9: a) Flood hazard map; b) Landslide incidence map 2019 420
Figure 6.10: Number of crop raids by elephants 422
Figure 6.11: Celebrating 150 years of the Mahatma at India Pavillion in COP25 424
Figure 6.12: Water Demand Comparison 2005 & 2019 440
Figure 6.13: Year wise Cumulative Storage Capacity 440

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Figure 6.14: Okhamandal Irrigation Pattern 441

List of Tables

Table 1.1: Weather extremes in India in the recent years (2018-2020) 57

Table 1.2: Damage due to floods / heavy rains during 2010 to 2018 60
Table 1.3: Statement showing state-wise details of releases of funds under
68
SDRF and NDRF during the year 2018-19 and 2019-20
Table 1.4: Fish production and its GVA in India 77
Table 1.5: Marine and inland resources 78
Table 1.6: Rate of change of sea-level at 10 major ports in India 80
Table 1.7: Details of Major irrigation projects covered under PMKSY AIBP 86
Table 1.8: Forest cover change matrix for India between 2017 and 2019 89
assessments
Table 1.9: Forest and tree cover of India 92
Table 1.10: Growth rate of GVA of agriculture and allied sector 100
Table 1.11: Area under the Integrated Farming System 102
Table 1.12: Number of livestock and poultry 106
Table 1.13: Share of different fuels in total primary energy supply 108
Table 1.14: Per capita energy consumption in India 109
Table 2.1: Summary of emission factors and methodologies in third biennial 141
update report
Table 2.2: Global warming potentials used 142
Table 2.3: Sector-wise National GHG emission in MtCO2 equivalent for 1994- 145
2016
Table 2.4: Sector-wise National GHG emission in Gg for 2016 147
Table 2.5: Category wise fuel consumption in the energy industries (1A1) in 151
2015 and 2016
Table 2.6: Country specific emission factors used in the energy industries 152
(1A)
Table 2.7: Category wise fuel consumption in the manufacturing industries & 153
construction (1A2) in 2015 and 2016
Table 2.8: Country specific emission factors used in the manufacturing 154
industries & construction (1A2) and Electricity power generation
(1A1ai)
Table 2.9: Category wise fuel consumption in the road transport (1A3b) in 154
2015 and 2016

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Table 2.10: Category wise fuel consumption in the railways (1A3c) in 2015 and 155
2016.
Table 2.11: Category wise fuel consumption in the navigation (1A3d) in 2015 155
and 2016
Table 2.12: Category wise fuel consumption in the other sectors (1A4) in 2015 156
and 2016
Table 2.13: Country-specific emission factors for coal mining activities 157
Table 2.14: Coal production in coal mining activities in 2015 and 2016 157
Table 2.15: Methane emissions from oil & gas systems in India (Gigagram) 158
(2015-2016)
Table 2.16: Types of production in the mineral industries (2A) during 2015 and 160
2016
Table 2.17: Types of production in the chemical industries (2B) during 2015 161
and 2016
Table 2.18: Types of production in the metal industries (2C) during 2015 and 162
2016
Table 2.19: Types of production in the non-energy product use (2D) during 162
2015 and 2016
Table 2.20: Country specific emission factor used in the IPPU sector 163
Table 2.21: Dung generation and country-specific emission factors across 166
various livestock category in 2015 and 2016
Table 2.22: Activity data used in agriculture soil (3D) during 2015 and 2016 168
Table 2.23: Country specific emission factor used in agriculture soil (3D) 169
Table 2.24: Country specific emission factor used in field burning of agriculture 169
residues (3F)
Table 2.25: Total GHG balance for the 2016 in GgCO2e 170
Table 2.26: Land use change for India for the period 2005-2016 (in a million 170
ha)
Table 2.27: Activity data and emission factors used in forest land category 171
(4A) during 2015 and 2016
Table 2.28: Activity data and emission factors used in cropland category (4B) 172
during 2015 and 2016
Table 2.29: Activity data and emission factors used in grassland category (4C) 173
during 2015 and 2016
Table 2.30: Activity data and emission factors used in settlement category (4E) 173
during 2015 and 2016
Table 2.31: Activity data and country-specific emission factors used in the 175
wastewater treatment and discharge category (5D) in 2015 and
2016
Table 2.32: Key category level assessment with and without LULUCF for 2016 176

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Table 2.33: Key category trend assessment with and without LULUCF for 177
2011-2016
Table 2.34: Overall inventory uncertainty in the India for 2016 179
Table 2.35: India’s total emissions, 2011-2016 181
Table 2.36: India’s National GHG Inventory for 2016 (Gg) 183
Table 3.1: Implementation of NAPCC 200
Table 3.2: Installed power generation capacity in India 206
Table 3.3: Year-wise details of RE generation 206
Table 3.4: Installed capacity of renewables in India 207
Table 3.5: On grid solar capacity growth in India 207
Table 3.6: Wind capacity growth in India 208
Table 3.7: Good practices to reduce AT&C losses 211
Table 3.8: Long-term trajectory of RPO 211
Table 3.9: Inventory of RECs 211
Table 3.10: Summary of super critical and sub critical units under construction 214
in the country
Table 3.11: Impact of supercritical technology-based power generation on CO2 215
emissions
Table 3.12: Trends in energy intensity (2012-2019) 215
Table 3.13: Details of PAT Cycles 217
Table 3.14: Energy savings and achievement of PAT cycle-II 218
Table 3.15: List of clusters where demonstration projects have been 220
implemented under National Programme on Energy Efficiency and
Technology Upgradation of MSMEs
Table 3.16: Energy savings and emission reduction in 2018-19 220
Table 3.17: Activities and initiatives under the AgDSM programme 224
Table 3.18: Activities and initiatives under the MuDSM programme 225
Table 3.19: Status of implementation and progress of green ports 243
Table 3.20: Area planted under NBM 245
Table 3.21: Area covered under micro-irrigation 246
Table 3.22: Area covered (ha) with SRI system of cultivation 248
Table 3.23: Area covered under DSR cultivation 248
Table 3.24: Production of neem-coated urea 250
Table 3.25: Area brought under Mission for Integrated Development of 250
Horticulture

xvi
Table 3.26: Animals covered with Ration Balance Programme (RBP) 250
Table 3.27: Emission reduction and carbon sequestration (MtCO2 equivalents) 251
due to various mitigation actions of agriculture sector
Table 3.28: Diversion of forest land before and after the Forest Conservation 252
Act, (1980)
Table 3.29: Summary of funds allocated for plantation work (CA, non-CA) and 253
area planted (ha) across different states of India
Table 3.30: Area covered under plantation and planted seedlings in public and 254
forest lands from period 2016-18 under a twenty-point programme
Table 3.31: Area planted under National Mission for Clean Ganga 254
Table 3.32: Status of the plants raised under National Green Highways 255
Mission
Table 3.33: Year-wise physical and financial details for 2015-16 to 2019-20 256
under GIM
Table 3.34: Progress/achievements; the state wise details for the year 2019- 256
20
Table 3.35: Incremental annual mitigation potential (MtCO2) of different Sub 2 257
Missions estimated using COMAP model
Table 3.36: Year-wise progress in terms of area covered (ha) and the amount 258
released (million) of National Afforestation Programme
Table 3.37: State/UT-wise number and installed capacity of waste-to-energy 266
plants set up in the country
Table 3.38: Per capita fair shares based on equal per capita division of the 267
global carbon budget
Table 3.39: Per capita fossil fuel consumption 268
Table 3.40: Energy sector 271
Table 3.41: Agriculture sector 279
Table 3:42: Forestry sector 284
Table 3:43: Transport sector 288
Table 3.44: Year-wise mitigation quantification for some major policies and 289
programmes for 2015 and 2016
Table 4.1: Sector-wise dashboards and web-based portals in India 311
Table 4.2: Mobile applications related to relevant government initiatives 313
Table 4.3: Sector-wise data repository in India 315
Table 5.1: Climate finance received through Multilateral Climate Funds 340
Table 5.2: Multilateral Development Banks climate finance for India from year 343
2016 onwards
Table 5.3: Climate finance received by India from bilateral sources from the 350
year 2014 onwards
Table 5.4: CDM projects by the National CDM Authority 356

xvii
Table 5.5: List of approved projects under NAFCC 357
Table 5.6: Technologies implemented under PAT 366
Table 5.7: List of additional technology needs 368
Table 5.8: Technologies which need investment 370
Table 5.9: Constraint, gaps and requirements for GHG inventory 380
Table 5.10: List of trainings under ITEC and IAFS-III 388
Table 6.1: Planned electrification of remaining BG Routes of Indian Railways 405
Table 6.2: Number of drip and sprinkler installed 440
Table 6.3: Environmental initiatives by Tata Chemicals Limited 442
Table 6.4: Details of CSR projects and funding 446

xviii
Executive Summary

Key highlights

 In 2016 India’s total GHG emissions, excluding Land Use Land-Use Change and
Forestry (LULUCF) were 2,838.89 million tonne CO2e and 2,531.07 million tonne
CO2e with the inclusion of LULUCF. Carbon dioxide emissions accounted for
2,231 million tonne (78.59 per cent), methane emissions for 409 million tonne
CO2e (14.43 per cent) and nitrous oxide emissions for 145 million tonne CO2e
(5.12 per cent).

 India has progressively continued decoupling of economic growth from

greenhouse gas emissions. India’s emission intensity of gross domestic product
(GDP) has reduced by 24 per cent between 2005 and 2016.

 India is therefore on track to meet its voluntary declaration to reduce the emission
intensity of GDP by 20-25 per cent from 2005 levels by 2020.

 India is implementing one of the largest renewable energy expansion programmes

with a target of achieving 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2022 and later
up to 450 GW.

 Installed capacity of solar energy in India has increased by more than 14 times
from 2.63 GW in March 2014 to 36.91 GW in November 2020.

 As on 30 November 2020, installed capacity of wind energy was 38.43 GW.

 The cumulative renewable power installed capacity (excluding hydro above 25

MW) has increased by 2.6 times from 35 GW in March 2014 to 90.39 GW in
November 2020 and constitutes over 24 per cent of the country's installed power
capacity. With the inclusion of large hydro, the total installed capacity would be
136 GW and the share of renewable energy in installed capacity would be over
36 per cent.

 By November 2020, the share of non-fossil sources in installed capacity of

electricity generation was 38.18 per cent.

 Generation from renewable energy sources has doubled between 2014-15 and
2018-19 while the generation from non-renewable sources has increased by 19
per cent during the same period. This has been actively promoted by the “must-
run” status of renewable energy generation.

11
 India’s commitment to the expansion of renewable energy has not been affected
by the economic contraction due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The priority status
of renewable energy generation has been maintained during this period,
representing a considerable and highly significant effort at climate mitigation.

 Coal will however continue to be an integral part of India’s energy requirements,

both for electricity generation and non-electricity uses and remains essential for
India’s developmental needs and energy security. This is in keeping with India’s
claim to a fair share of the global carbon budget and India's significant
underutilization of this share thus far.

 Forest and tree cover has increased by 1.3 million ha between the 2015 and 2019
assessments of the Forest Survey of India. This is an increase of 1.65 per cent in
forest and tree cover area. In the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2019, the
total carbon stock in forest was estimated as 7,124.6 million tonne C or 26,124
MtCO2 showing an increase of 42.6 million tonne C or 156.2 MtCO2 as compared
to the last assessment in 2017. The annual increase in the carbon stock is 21.3
million tonne C, which is 78.1 MtCO2.

 Forest and tree cover sequestered 331 MtCO2 in 2016 which is around 15 per
cent of total carbon dioxide emissions occurring in the country. India’s LULUCF
sink (CO2 removal) is on the rise by 3.4 per cent between 2014 and 2016 and by
approximately 40 per cent between 2000 and 2016.

 Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme for energy efficiency in industries and
other energy-intensive sectors launched in 2012, covering 478 designated
consumers (DCs), avoided emissions of 31 MtCO2 in cycle I (2012-13 to 2014-
15). PAT Cycle II (2016-17 to 2018-19), resulted in total savings of approximately
13.28 Mtoe, translating into 61.34 MtCO2 of avoided emissions.

 As on November 2020, more than 366.85 million LED bulbs, 7.207 million LED
tube lights, and 2.340 million energy efficient fans were distributed by EESL across
India under the UJALA scheme, which has led to cumulative emission reduction
of 180.08 MtCO2 from 2014-15 to November 2020.

 Under the Street Lighting National Programme (SLNP), more than 11.25 million
LED street lights have been installed until September 2020. The programme has
led to a cumulative energy savings of 18.071 billion units and emission reduction
of 14.82 MtCO2 from 2015-16 to 2019-20.

 Energy efficiency initiatives in the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME)
sector have led to total energy savings of 0.022 Mtoe and avoided emissions of
0.124 MtCO2 in 2018-19.

12
 The Department of Heavy Industry is administrating Faster Adoption and
Manufacturing of (Hybrid) and Electric Vehicles (FAME) India Scheme for
promotion of electric/hybrid vehicles in India since 1 April 2015. In the First Phase
of the Scheme about 0.28 million hybrid and electric vehicles are supported by
way of demand incentive amounting to about INR 3,590 million.

 Taken together, India's mitigation actions speak of the enormous effort that the
country is undertaking, through its own resources, without any significant support
from developed countries in terms of climate finance, technology transfer or
capacity building.

 India's climate actions are even more significant in the background of its huge
development needs and expenditure. Among the outstanding examples of such
needs and expenditure are the programmes to improve sanitation and water
supply to millions of households, and permanently improve the health of tens of
millions of Indian women by the provision of clean cooking fuel to substitute
traditional biomass burning.

 India's climate action is widely acknowledged by independent, international

assessments to be among the few that are compatible with the well below 2oC
warming target of the Paris Agreement.

 India's contribution to global emissions, both cumulative and on annual basis are
well below its equitable share of the global carbon budget by any criterion of
equity.

 Notwithstanding its level of responsibility, India is a leader in high ambition,

especially with the indication of increasing its target for installed capacity in
renewable energy from 175 GW to 450 GW.

 India’s commitment to multilateral efforts and global cooperation in climate action

is amply demonstrated by its initiation of, and the provision of resources to, the
International Solar Alliance (ISA) in partnership with France. Further, in response
to the global concern over losses and damages, especially due to infrastructure
losses from disasters and extreme events, it has initiated the Coalition for Disaster
Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), announced at the UN Climate Action Summit in
2019. India also co-leads with Sweden the leadership group for Industry Transition
in hard-to-abate sectors initiated in the preparation for the United Nations Climate
Action Summit in 2019.

 Reductions in agricultural sector emissions have been achieved in 2017-18 and

2018-19 as a result of various initiatives such as expansion of area under

13
 horticulture, system of rice intensification, neem coated urea, direct seeded rice
cultivation, solar pumps, micro-irrigation, balanced feedstock and bypass protein.

 India undertakes numerous programmes focused on adaptation in agriculture, led

by the flagship programme, National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture
(NICRA).

 The National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC) supports adaptation
action, in, inter alia, agriculture, water, forestry, livestock and ecosystems. Till
date, 30 adaptation projects have been approved at a total cost of INR 8,470
million.

 India is a vulnerable nation with respect to extreme weather events such as

cyclones and intense rainfall as well as ongoing climate change with increased
impacts in the future. Its long coastline and the number of islands that lie within its
national boundaries, render it particularly vulnerable to the impact of sea-level rise
which needs to be recognized by the international community.

 India will continue to remain focused on its key development imperatives,

strengthening its current efforts, including poverty eradication, provision of basic
amenities, especially water and sanitation, and livelihoods and employment
generation for its entire population. India’s climate actions will be centered on
integration with the achievement of these key development goals, especially
following the severe impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the urgent
requirements of post-COVID recovery.

Background information and institutional arrangements

This report embodies information on national circumstances, national GHG inventory,

mitigation actions, and an analysis of the constraints, gaps, and related finance,
technology and capacity building needs, including information on domestic
measurement, reporting and verification (MRV). The Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change (MoEFCC) is the nodal ministry under the Government of India
(GoI) for coordination and management of climate change-related programmes,
actions and reporting information under Article 4.1 of the Convention. MoEFCC, with
its cross-ministerial and institutional network, is implementing and executing matters
related to the National Communications and Biennial Update Reports (BURs). India
furnished its Initial National Communication (INC) in 2004, the Second National
Communication (SNC) in 2012, the First Biennial Update Report (BUR-1) in 2016 and
the Second Biennial Update Report (BUR-2) in 2018 to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). International Consultation and Analysis
(ICA) of BUR-1 and BUR-2 were completed in 2017 and 2019 respectively.

14
The third BUR presents updated information on the National GHG Inventory,
Mitigation Actions and Financial, Technology and Capacity Building needs. It also
addresses the suggestions made during the ICA process for BUR-1 and BUR-2
wherever relevant and within the scope of present capacity in order to enhance the
transparency of mitigation actions and their effects.

The preparation of the BUR required a comprehensive study, and technical as well as
administrative arrangements, in addition to stakeholders’ participation in various tasks
and activities. A National Steering Committee (NSC) under the chairmanship of the
Secretary, EF&CC steers the preparation and implementation of the work programme
of the BUR. Various line ministries and government departments that are most
concerned with various elements of information in this report have representation in
the NSC. A Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) provides technical guidance to the
preparation of the BUR, with members from government, academia and civil society.

Several studies were launched to meet the requirements of preparing the third BUR.
These studies were carried out by institutions having sector-specific expertise.
Besides, various ministries, government departments, and Public Sector Undertakings
(PSUs) provided inputs for preparation of this BUR.

Global warming is a global collective action problem that can be solved only by
international cooperation on the basis of multilateral processes, especially and
primarily those under the aegis of UNFCCC. Every country’s climate action therefore
has to be based on the principle of equity and common but differentiated
responsibilities in accordance with respective capabilities, as has been ratified in
Article 3.1 of the Convention.

This third BUR, recognizing the importance of this perspective, also presents therefore
the global context of all the data and information provided herein on India’s National
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) inventory and on mitigation, finance, technology and support
for capacity building. This context will enhance the facilitative sharing of views process
that will consider this third BUR from India.

The data, information and analysis presented in this third BUR show that India’s efforts
and the current scale and scope of its domestic climate action, judged in the light of
global equity, its historical responsibility and current capability, exceed, by any
scientific measure, its fair share of the global burden of climate action.

National Circumstances

India has a diverse geography with landscapes varying from snow-capped mountain
ranges to deserts, plains, hills, plateaus, coastal regions and islands. The diverse
geography of India manifests varied climate regimes ranging from continental to
coastal, from extremes of heat to extremes of cold, from extreme aridity and negligible
rainfall to excessive humidity and torrential rainfall. India’s climate is significantly

15
influenced by the presence of the Himalaya and the Thar Desert, as the former acts
as an orographic barrier to atmospheric circulation for both the summer monsoon and
the winter westerlies and keeps them confined within the subcontinent, thus playing a
major role in causing precipitation.

The Indian monsoon is one of the most prominent climate systems of the world
providing nearly 75 per cent of the annual rainfall of the country. During June to
September, an average 880.6 mm of rainfall is received. Rainfall distribution and
intensity have a significant impact over different socio-economic sectors, especially
agriculture and hydrology, besides impact on other aspects of various ecosystems.

The rainfall trends for the period 1989-2018 showed a decreasing trend for the annual
and monsoon season in the districts of eastern and central India, while the districts in
the western part experienced an increase. Overall, the decreasing trend is visibly
dominant over large part of India.

The annual mean temperature during 1901-2019 showed a significant increasing trend
(0.61°C/100 years), with a higher increasing trend in maximum temperature
(1.00°C/100 years) and relatively lower increasing trend (0.22°C/100 years) in
minimum temperature.

The year 2019 was the seventh warmest year on record since 1901 with annual mean
surface air temperature +0.36oC above the 1981-2010 average. The five warmest
years on record in order are: 2016 (+0.71oC), 2009 (+0.54oC), 2017 (+0.54oC), 2010
(+0.54oC) and 2015 (+0.42oC). The 11 out of 15 warmest years were recorded during
the recent past fifteen years (2005-2019).

The long coastline of over 8,000 km with flat coastal terrain, shallow continental shelf,
high population density, particular geographical location and specific physiographic
features, makes India vulnerable to cyclones and its associated hazards. Thirteen
coastal States and Union Territories (UTs) in the country, encompassing 84 coastal
districts, are affected by tropical cyclones.

During 2019, eight cyclonic storms formed over the north Indian Ocean. Out of these
8 systems, one system each formed during the winter (Cyclonic Storm “Pabuk”) and
pre-monsoon season (Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm (ESCS), “Fani”) over the Bay
of Bengal. In the case of Arabian Sea, the five cyclones formed during 2019 equal the
previous record of 1902 for the highest frequency of cyclones in the region.

Heatwaves typically occur between March and June, and in some cases even extend
till July in India. Heatwaves are more frequent over the Indo-Gangetic plains of India.
Increasing trends in the heatwaves were observed over most of the stations across
India. The frequency of occurrence of hot days during the pre-monsoon season shows
a significant increase over the east and west coasts of India and interior peninsula.

16
The Himalayan mountain range is one of the major water towers of Asia and a large
concentration of snow and glaciers make it possible to support water supply of major
Indian rivers such as Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. The snow cover area in the
Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra basins ranges from 85 per cent in the winter to
approximately 10 per cent in the summer.

The total glacial extent in the Indian Himalaya varies from 20,785 km2 to 27,915 km2.
Most of the Himalayan glaciers are retreating and the rates of retreat have probably
accelerated in the past few decades. The mean rate of retreat is 14.2±12.9 ma-1. In
the Himalaya, investigations of 39,500 km2 of glacier area indicate a rate of loss
of 4.3±2.4 per cent/decade. In the Indus basin, the area loss rate is observed to be
2.5±2.5 per cent/decade.

At present the sea level along the Indian coast is estimated to be rising at about 1.7
mm/year and at different rates along various parts of the coast. It has the potential to
exacerbate the inundation of low lying areas during extreme events such as storm
surges while leading to increased coastal erosion.

Water has been recognized as being vital to India’s economic growth, the well-being
of its people, and the sustainability of ecosystems. The Ministry of Jal Shakti (MoJS)
has been created by the Government in May 2019 to deal with water issues in an
integrated manner under a single umbrella.

Among the various types of marine ecosystems in India, tidal mudflats, mangroves,
estuaries, lagoons, beaches, marshes, vegetated wetlands and coral reefs have the
major share. There are 25 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) with an area of 6,200 km2
in peninsular India, along with 97 major estuaries, 34 major lagoons and 5,790 km2 of
coral reefs. Mangroves are spread over an area of 4,975 km2, which is 0.15 per cent
of the country’s total geographical area. These areas have been mapped and identified
in India for conservation and sustainable management.

India is among the few countries in the world where, despite ongoing developmental
efforts, forest and tree cover is increasing. The total forest cover of the country, as per
the latest assessment of the India State of Forest Report (ISFR 2019) is 7,12,249 km2
which is 21.67 per cent of the total geographic area of the country. There has been an
increase of 3,976 km2 (0.56 per cent) of forest cover, 1,212 km2 (1.29 per cent) of tree
cover and 5,188 km2 (0.65 per cent) of forest and tree cover put together, at the
national level compared to the previous assessment 2017. The carbon stock in India’s
forests has been estimated to be 7,124.6 million tonne in 2019, showing an increase
of 42.6 million tonne compared to the previous assessment of 2017.

Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy. In 2011, of the total workforce 54.6
per cent was engaged in agriculture. The share of agricultural and allied sector
activities in the economy's total gross value added (GVA) at current prices is 18 per
cent and 17.1 per cent, for the years 2017-18 and 2018-19 respectively. Agriculture

17
constitutes a particular source of social and economic vulnerability under climate
change for India as share of small and marginal operational holdings (less than <2
hectares) became 86.08 per cent of the total holdings in 2015-16, against 85.01 per
cent in 2010-11. Their share in the operated area stood at 46.94 per cent in the current
census as against 44.58 per cent in 2010-11. The number of operational holdings had
risen from 138.35 million in 2010-11 to 146.45 million in 2015-16, an increase of 5.86
per cent.

The National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) programme is in

place to enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture, covering crops, livestock and
fisheries to climatic variability and climate change through development and
application of improved production and risk management technologies and by
demonstration of site specific technology packages on farmers’ fields for adapting to
current climate risks. The project has been implemented in 151 districts involving over
one hundred thousand farm families across the country.

As per the 2019 census, the total livestock population is 535.780 million in the country
showing an increase of 4.6 per cent over Livestock Census-2012, and the total poultry
in the country is 851.810 million in 2019, with a registered increase of 16.8 per cent in
the total poultry. The dairy sector in the country witnessed a growth of 36.6 per cent
in milk production between 2013-14 and 2018-19. Livestock ownership is a vital
element of the livelihoods of a major proportion of farmers in rural areas.

The share of regular wage/salaried employees in the workforce has increased by 5

percentage points from 18 per cent in 2011-12 to 23 per cent in 2017- 18 as per usual
status. In absolute terms, there was a significant jump of around 26.2 million new jobs
in this category. Various steps are being taken for generating employment in the
country like encouraging the private sector, fast-tracking various projects involving
substantial investment and increasing public expenditure.

In terms of energy consumption, India uses only 6 per cent of the world’s primary
energy, but sustained economic growth is placing increasing demands on its energy
resources. India’s per capita energy consumption grew from 19,669 MJ (mega joules)
in 2011-12 to 24,453 MJ in 2018-19(P).

Both power and industry sectors are large consumers of energy in the country. The
estimated consumption of raw coal by industry has increased from 587.81 million
tonne during 2009-10 to 968.25 million tonne during 2018-19 with a CAGR of 5.12 per
cent. The maximum use of natural gas is in the fertilizer industry (27.84 per cent)
followed by power generation (22.30 per cent), while 17.10 per cent of natural gas is
used in the transport/distribution network. India’s energy intensity (at 2011-12 prices)
decreased from 0.2747 MJ per rupee (MJ/INR) in 2011-12 to 0.2321 MJ/INR in 2018-
19(P).

18
The transport sector is one of the fastest growing sectors in India. Indian Railways (IR)
with over 68,000 route kms is the third largest network in the world under single
management. During the year 2018-19, Indian Railways carried 1,200 million tonne of
freight and 8,400 million passengers making it the world’s largest passenger carrier
and 4th largest freight carrier.

India has strived to ensure that it follows a growth path that delivers sustainable
development and protects the environment by investing in various schemes aligned
with its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), like the Swachh Bharat Mission,
the National Smart Grid Mission, and the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban
Transformation (AMRUT). Notwithstanding its economic realities, India’s mitigation
strategies emphasize clean and efficient energy systems, enhanced energy efficiency,
resilient urban infrastructure, safe, smart and sustainable green transportation
networks, and planned afforestation, as well as the holistic participation of all sectors.

Currently 93 per cent of the population has access to basic water with another
approximately 90 million to be covered. Further, under Swachh Bharat Mission
(Urban) to make the country open defecation free (ODF), more than 6.2 million
individual toilets and 0.59 million community and public toilets have been constructed.
As on December 2020, under the mission, 4,340 cities have been declared ODF, while
100 per cent door-to-door waste collection has been achieved in over 83,434 wards.
Similarly, under the Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen), about 107.29 million
household toilets have been constructed in rural areas and all States/UTs have
declared themselves open defecation free.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a serious impact on India. The need to protect the
population and take appropriate public health measures has had a serious impact on
the economy, with a GDP contraction of 23.9 per cent in the first quarter of the fiscal
year 2020-21. The full extent of this economic impact is yet to be known as the
pandemic and relevant control measures are still continuing and the shape of the
recovery has many uncertainties. Despite these, India continues to adhere to its
commitments under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement and
continues to make pro-active efforts in climate action. In particular, renewable energy
generation has continued with its “must-run” status, despite the consequent pressure
on thermal power generation and its capacity to provide cheaper power. This cost
differential represents a significant economic effort at climate mitigation by India, over
and beyond its responsibilities and commitments as a developing country party under
the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement.

National Greenhouse Gas Inventory

This BUR presents the detailed GHG inventory of the year 2016. In 2016, India’s total
greenhouse gas emissions excluding LULUCF amounted to 2,839 MtCO2e and
including LULUCF amounted to 2,531 MtCO2e.

19
Table ES1: Sector-wise National GHG emission in Gg for 2016

GHG Sources CO2

CO2 CO2 HFC
and Removals CH4 N2O CF4 C2F6 SF6 equivale
emission removal 23
(Gigagram) nt

Energy 2,064,840 NO 2072 68 NO NO NO NO 2,129,428

Industrial
Processes and 166,227 NO 187 11 2 4 1 0.004 226,407
Product Use
Agriculture NO NO 14,423 339 NO NO NO NO 407,821
Land Use, Land
Use Change 21,289 330,765 55 2 NO NO NO NO -307,820
and Forestry
Waste NO NO 2820 52 NO NO NO NO 75,232
Total without
2,231,068 ---- 19,502 469 2 4 1 0.004 2,838,889
LULUCF
Total with
2,252,356 330,765 19,557 471 2 4 1 0.004 2,531,069
LULUCF
Memo Items 789,305 NO 1 0.13 NO NO NO NO 789,359
Abbreviation: NO – Not Occurring.

In 2016, GHG emissions excluding LULUCF at the national level by type of gas were
as follows: Emissions of CO2 accounted for 2,231 Mt (78.59 per cent); CH4 emissions
accounted for 409 MtCO2e (14.43 per cent) and N2O emissions accounted for 145
MtCO2e (5.12 per cent).

CO₂ emission

14.43% CH₄

5.12%
78.59% N₂O
1.86%

Other Gases

Figure ES1: Gas-wise emission for the year 2016

20
In 2016, top 15 emission categories in terms of CO2 equivalent represented in below
figure.

Electricity Production (1A1a), CO₂ 40%

Road Transport (1A3b), CO₂ 9%

Enteric Fermentation (3A1), CH₄ 8%

Nonspecific Industries (1A2m), CO₂ 6%

Iron & Steel (1A2a), CO₂ 5%

Residential (1A4b), CO₂ 4%

Cement Production (2A1), CO₂ 4%

Agricultural Soils (3C4), N₂O 3%

Refinery (1A1b), CO₂ 3%

Rice Cultivation (3C7), CH₄ 3%

Commercials/Insititutional (1A4a), CO₂ 2%

Cement (1A2f), CO₂ 2%

Aluminium Production (2C3), CF 1%

Lime Production (2A2), CO₂ 1%

Manure Management (3A2), N₂O 1%

Figure ES2: Greenhouse gas emissions by category, GgCO 2e, 2016.

The energy sector accounted for about 75 per cent of the total GHG emissions for the
year 2016. Electricity production was the single largest source in this category,
accounting for about 40 per cent of the national total GHG emissions in 2016. The
manufacturing industries and construction together emitted 18.68 per cent of total
emissions from the energy sector.

Transport contributed to 13 per cent of emissions from the energy sector with
predominant share of 90 per cent arising from road transport followed by civil aviation
(6 per cent), railways (3 per cent) and domestic water-borne navigation (1 per cent).
In 2016, the ‘other sectors’ together contributed about 10 per cent to energy sector
emissions with approximately 60 per cent share coming from the residential sector,
about 32 per cent from the commercial sector and the remaining 8 per cent from
biomass burnt for energy (non-CO2 GHGs) and agriculture/fisheries sectors put
together. A comparison of fossil fuel combustion emissions using both the reference
approach and the sectoral approach was conducted, and the difference was found to
be 6 per cent in 2016.

21
The total fugitive emissions in the year 2016 were 37,179 Gg CO 2e, of which 46 per
cent was from coal mining and post mining operations, and 54 per cent from oil and
natural gas production and handling systems. Fugitive methane emissions have
registered a decrease of 2 per cent between 2014 and 2016, mainly due to a relative
reduction in underground mining activities. Fugitive emissions contributed to 1.8 per
cent of emissions from the energy sector.

The Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU) category accounted for 8 per cent
of the total GHG emissions. In 2016, the main GHG emitted by the sector was carbon
dioxide (CO2), representing 73.4 per cent of the total GHG emissions in the sector,
followed by carbon tetrafluoride (CF4) with 10.67 per cent, hydrofluorocarbon (HFC)
with 8.51 per cent, hexafluoroethane (C2F6) with 4.11 per cent, methane (CH4) with
1.73 per cent, nitrous oxide (N2O) with 1.52 per cent and SF6 with 0.04 per cent.

The agriculture sector is the main source of CH4 and N2O emissions. CH4 emissions
occur from this sector mainly due to livestock rearing (enteric fermentation and manure
management) and rice cultivation. N2O is principally emitted due to the application of
fertilizers to agricultural soils. In the year 2016, the agriculture sector emitted 407,821
Gg of CO2e, which amounted to around 14 per cent of the emissions of India for that
year. It is a decrease of 2.25 per cent since 2014, the first time a decrease in India’s
inventory was registered for a sector between two consecutive inventory years. Within
agriculture, in 2016, 54.6 per cent of GHG emissions were due to enteric fermentation,
followed by 17.5 per cent from rice cultivation, 19.1 per cent from fertilizer applied to
agricultural soils, 6.7 per cent from manure management, and 2.2 per cent due to field
burning of agricultural residues.

The LULUCF sector was a net sink of 307,820 Gg CO2e in 2016, registering an
increase in the net sink activity by 39 per cent since 2000. Forest land, cropland and
settlements categories were net sinks while grassland was a net source of CO2. About
15 per cent of India’s carbon dioxide emissions in 2016 were removed from the
atmosphere by the LULUCF sector.

The waste sector contributed 2.7 per cent to total GHG emissions in 2016. It was
dominated by emissions from wastewater treatment and discharge. More than three
fourth (78.9 per cent) of the emissions from the waste sector come from wastewater
treatment and discharge, followed by 21.04 per cent from solid waste disposal.

The key categories are identified for India’s National GHG inventory 2016 based on
the level assessment using Approach 1, where a 95 per cent cumulative contribution
threshold has been used in this analysis to define an upper boundary for the key
category identification. The level assessment without LULUCF reveals that CO2
emissions from electricity production were the largest category with 39.5 per cent of
total emissions occurring in the country, followed by CO2 emissions from road
transport with 8.6 per cent, and by CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation that
accounts for about 7.8 per cent.

22
According to the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines
(2006), uncertainty estimates are an essential part of a comprehensive inventory of
GHG emissions and removals. The overall inventory uncertainty was estimated using
the Tier 1 methodological approach. An estimate of the overall quantitative uncertainty
is ±6.96 per cent level uncertainty and ±7.90 per cent trend uncertainty.

Mitigation actions

As per the provisions of Article 12, paragraphs 1(b) and 4, and Article 10, paragraph
2(a), of the Convention, India made a voluntary declaration to reduce the emission
intensity of its GDP by 20-25 per cent from 2005 levels by 2020 (excluding emissions
from agriculture) in 2010. In 2015, India further enhanced ambition in its NDCs to
reduce the emission intensity of its GDP by 33-35 per cent below 2005 levels by 2030.
Based on the National GHG Inventory, it is confirmed that India has successfully
continued decoupling its economic growth from GHG emissions, resulting in reduction
of the emission intensity of its GDP by 24 per cent between 2005 and 2016.

This result is the outcome of the pro-active efforts of the GoI in the implementation of
the provisions of the Convention, contextualizing it to its national circumstances and
widening the mitigative efforts across sectors. The planned and implemented policies
and measures mitigate emissions of GHGs across sectors either directly or indirectly.
In addition to effective policymaking, appropriate measures to increase the share of
cleaner and renewable energy in the total energy mix by replacing fossil fuels are also
being carried out across sectors. Electricity generation from renewable energy
sources such as solar, wind, hydro and nuclear, and modern sources such as waste
to energy and biofuels has contributed significantly to the mitigation of emissions.
Through proactive measures and conscious action, the economy has been
increasingly making efforts to improve energy efficiency and enhance CO2 removal
through increasing tree and forest cover, without compromising on the developmental
priorities of the country.

Power sector
Ensuring energy security, improving access and affordability of modern energy
resources for all Indians, diversifying energy resources, enhancement of resource use
efficiency, reducing technical and commercial losses in power transmission, and
enhancing renewable energy are the pillars of India’s energy policies.

The power sector in India is fuelled by conventional sources such as coal, lignite,
natural gas, oil and nuclear power and renewables such as wind, hydro, solar, waste,
and biofuels. The power sector in India has witnessed a transformation over the past
few years, with an increasing focus on clean and sustainable power generation
sources. In 2015-16, the Indian government set a target of achieving 175 GW of
renewable energy capacity by 2022 which was later indicated to be enhanced to 450
GW. In recent years, policies and programmes have been developed and
implemented in the energy sector with a focus on addressing climate change
23
concerns. India’s NDC includes a target to achieve 40 per cent electric power installed
capacity from non-fossil fuel-based sources by 2030.

The share of non-fossil-fuel-based electricity generation in total installed capacity

reached approximately 38.18 per cent in November 2020. There has been an
increasing focus on the use of renewables in power generation which is further aided
by enabling government policies, together with regulatory support, at both the Centre
and the States. The power generation capacity share of renewables grew from 4.98
per cent as on March 2006 to 23.92 per cent by September 2020. Other sources of
power generation like gas, diesel, and nuclear witnessed a diminishing trend between
2005 and 2020.

As of 30 November 2020, installed renewable power capacity (excluding hydro above

25 MW) has reached 90.39 GW, contributing approximately 24 per cent of the
country’s installed capacity of electricity generation.

The Energy Conservation Act came into existence in 2001, with the objective of
conservation and the efficient use of energy. The adoption of energy efficiency
schemes/ programmes has led to the overall energy savings of 23.728 Mtoe for the
year 2018-19. After the success of the first Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT I) cycle
(2012-13 to 2014-15), which resulted in total energy savings of 8.67 Mtoe, and
emission reduction of 31 MtCO2, PAT II was rolled out. PAT II cycle (2016-17 to 2018-
19) resulted in total savings of approximately 13.28 Mtoe savings, translating into
61.34 MtCO2.

The MSME sector in India recorded a total 63.38 million units, employing about 110.98
million persons. To promote technology upgradation and modernization, GoI has been
employing several measures aimed at fostering a regime that could remove barriers
for accelerated technology upgrades focusing on energy efficiency and innovation in
the MSME sector. The objective is mainly to improve the energy efficiency of MSME
sector in India through accelerating adoption of energy efficient technologies,
knowledge sharing, capacity building and development of innovative financial
mechanisms. The initiatives led to a total emission reduction of 0.124 MtCO 2 in 2018-
19.

Under Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All (UJALA) scheme, as on November 2020,
over 366.85 million LED bulbs, 7.207 million LED tube lights, and 2.340 million energy
efficient fans have been distributed across India. This has led to a GHG emission
reduction of 180.08 MtCO2 from 2014-15 to November 2020.

Under SLNP, up to September 2020, EESL has installed over 11.25 million Light
Emitting Diode (LED). This has resulted in cumulative energy savings of 18.071 billion
units and emission reduction of 14.82 MtCO2 from 2015-16 to 2019-20.

24
Building sector

India currently has about 7.61 billion sq. ft. of green building footprint, 6,055 registered
projects, and 780 certified projects as on 15 October 2020.

So far, 17 states and UTs have notified the Energy Conservation Building Code
(ECBC) and around 335 demonstration buildings are ECBC compliant. Fifty buildings
have been constructed, with a cumulative built-up area of 0.16 billion sq. m ensuring
an approximate energy saving of 0.17 billion kWh.

EESL is implementing the Buildings Energy Efficiency Programme (BEEP) to retrofit

commercial buildings in India into energy efficient complexes. Till date, EESL has
completed building energy efficiency projects in 10,344 buildings including railway
stations and airports. Energy audits shows energy saving potential to the tune of up to
30-50 per cent in these buildings.

To recognize energy-efficient buildings, as well as to stimulate their large scale

replication, India has developed its building-energy rating system GRIHA (Green
Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment), based on 34 criteria such as site planning,
conservation and efficient utilization of resources. As on October 2020, India has 1,825
GRIHA registered projects with approximately 52.5 million sq. m of ‘green’ built-up
area.

Under the Smart City Mission, 100 Smart Cities have been selected through a two-
stage competition. A total of 5,151 projects worth INR 20,50,180 million have been
included by selected 100 cities in their Smart City proposals.

Transport sector

The transport sector is rapidly growing in India, contributing significantly to the GDP of
the country. However, the sector is largely oil-dependent and accounts for 9.7 per cent
of the country’s total GHG emissions (without LULUCF).

While India is operating in the same global context as other countries who have
adopted an Electric Vehicle (EV) policy, its unique mobility pattern necessitates an EV
policy that is tailor-made to India’s particular needs. India is one of 16 member
countries of the Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI), a multi-government policy forum
dedicated to accelerating the introduction and adoption of electric vehicles worldwide.

One of the major regulatory announcements was the skipping of Bharat Stage (BS)-V
emission norms and the advance introduction of BS-VI from 1 April 2020.

An increase in the share of alternative fuels in the overall fuel mix is yet another
strategy to reduce emissions from the sector. GoI has notified the National Policy on
Biofuels-2018, which inter-alia aims to develop alternate fuels and to reduce import
dependency as one of the objectives. The policy envisages an indicative target of 20

25
per cent blending of ethanol in petrol and 5 per cent blending of bio-diesel in diesel by
the year 2030.

The Green National Highways Corridor project will help in building safer, greener and
more resilient national highway corridors in the Indian states of Rajasthan, Himachal
Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.

The National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) aimed to deploy 400,000
passenger battery electric vehicles (BEVs) by 2020. The sales of electric two-wheelers
in India rose from 54,800 units in 2018 to 1,26,000 units in 2019. The Department of
Heavy Industry is administering the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid)
and Electric Vehicles (FAME) India Scheme for promotion of electric/hybrid vehicles
in India since 1 April 2015. In the first phase of the scheme 0.28 million hybrid and
electric vehicles are supported by way of demand incentive amounting to about INR
3,590 million. Phase-II of FAME India Scheme for a period of three years began
in April 2019 with a total budgetary support of INR 100,000 million. From April 2019,
the second phase of the FAME II scheme encompasses strict speed, range and
energy efficiency requirements. The States of Karnataka, Telangana, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi and a few more have
rolled out their EV/Draft EV policies. These states are proposing several fiscal
incentives to car and battery manufacturers, charging infrastructure companies and
consumers.

Urban Rail, popularly referred to as Metro Rail, has seen substantial growth in India in
the recent years. More cities are becoming reliant on the metro rail to meet their day-
to-day mobility requirements. India has currently eleven operational metro systems in
18 cities, while 900 km Metro/RRTS is under construction in 27 cities.

Agriculture sector

The National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) under the National Action
Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), aims to transform agriculture into an ecologically
sustainable, climate-resilient production system by devising appropriate adaptation
and mitigation strategies for ensuring food security, equitable access to food
resources, enhancing livelihood opportunities and contributing to economic stability at
the national level.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), another scheme to achieve

convergence of investments in irrigation at the field level, expand cultivable area under
assured irrigation, and improve on-farm water use efficiency to reduce wastage of
water, has resulted in an emissions reduction of 11.979 MtCO2 during 2017-18 and
2018-19.

Crop diversification programme has been implemented since 2013-14 to promote

alternatives to water-intensive paddy cultivation including crops like pulses, oilseeds,

26
maize, cotton, and agroforestry to tackle the problem of depleting water table in select
states.

Forestry sector

Approximately 80 per cent of the country’s terrestrial biodiversity exists in forests, and
more than 300 million people have a high dependency on the forest for their livelihood.
Forests as a carbon sink have a prominent role in mitigating climate change. Various
legislations and acts have been formulated by the Indian government for the
conservation of forests and their resources. LULUCF sequestered 330.76 Mt of CO2,
which is about 15 per cent of India’s total CO2 emissions from all sectors in 2016. The
forest and tree cover has increased from 8,02,088 km2 in 2017 to 8,07,276 km2 in
2019. The net change in the carbon stocks of forests was +42.6 Mt or 156.2 MtCO2
equivalent between the assessments of 2017 and 2019.

The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 laid the foundation for protection and
conservation of the country’s natural forests. The Compensatory Afforestation Fund
Act 2016 has made compensatory afforestation mandatory, in case of diversion of
forest land to non-forestry uses. Similarly, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund
Management and Planning Authorities (CAMPAs) at both the Centre and States
ensure expeditious and transparent utilization of amounts realized from forest land
diverted for non-forestry purposes.

Progress on various fronts has been made under plantation programmes such as the
Twenty Point Programme, National Afforestation Programme, National Green
Highways Mission, and the National Mission for Green India. It is expected that the
afforestation drive under National Green Highways Mission, launched in July 2016,
will help in sequestering approximately 0.156 million tonne CO2 annually.

A total of 29 State Forest Department Agency projects are currently operating in the
country with a total expenditure of INR 38.20 billion to treat an area of 2.19 million ha
till 2018-19 under the National Afforestation Programme. In 2018-19, INR 1.59 billion
have been earmarked for the Green India Mission which marks an increase of 48.8
per cent over the previous allocation. Green India Mission (GIM) has also taken up the
World Bank Funded Ecosystems Service Improvement Project (ESIP) which is being
implemented in two States namely, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.

The GoI made the Bonn Challenge pledge in 2015 to bring under restoration 13 million
hectares (Mha) of degraded land by 2020 and an additional 8 Mha by 2030. In total,
9.81 Mha were brought under restoration across India (from 2011 till 2016-17). Out of
the total restoration efforts carried out across the country, 94.4 per cent were by
government agencies, 3.6 per cent by NGOs and 2 per cent by private companies.

27
Waste sector

The current focus of the GoI is on the rapid expansion and modernization of waste
management infrastructure as well as sanitation infrastructure and facilities. This is
considered indispensable for mitigation action from the waste sector.

As on September 2020, a total of 216 Waste-to-Energy plants with aggregate capacity

of 370.45 MWeq have been set up in the country to generate power or biogas or Bio
CNG from agricultural, urban, industrial and municipal solid wastes. The estimated
potential to generate power from Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is about 500 MW
which would be increased to 1,075 MW by 2031. Apart from this, the Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is implementing a programme on energy recovery
from urban and industrial wastes including wastewater. MNRE has also undertaken
various other programmes on energy from urban, industrial and agricultural
wastes/residues.

Under Swachh Bharat Mission, IR had earlier set a target to fit bio-toilets in the entire
fleet of railway coaches by the year 2021-22. This target was achieved earlier than
targeted. All passenger carrying BG coaches, from April 2020 onwards, are fitted with
bio-toilets and direct discharge of human waste from trains has thus been eliminated.

Mitigation Action: Global Context

Independent scientific studies of global climate action in comparative terms agree that
India’s climate actions are 2o C warming compliant and that India is on track to fulfilling
its pre-2020 voluntary pledge as well as being on track to meeting its commitment
under the Paris Agreement.

In contrast, Annex-I Parties have failed to meet their pre-2020 commitments, as noted
by the Subsidiary Body on Implementation report on “Compilation and synthesis of
Fourth Biennial reports of Parties included in Annex I to the Convention” has noted.
Non-EIT (Economies in Transition) Annex-I Parties reduced their annual total
emissions from 1990 to 2018 by only 1.5 per cent without LULUCF (and 3.1 per cent
with LULUCF). Annex-I Parties as a whole have reduced emissions from 1990 to 2016
only by 12.5 per cent without LULUCF (and 16.6 per cent with LULUCF) in contrast to
the benchmark of 25-40 per cent established in the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4)
of the IPCC.

Contextualizing India's efforts, it is to be noted that the 28 most developed nations

(non-EIT Annex-I Parties) with only 13.5 per cent of the global population and 58 per
cent of global GDP have contributed 57 per cent of global cumulative emissions
between 1850 and 1990, and 37 per cent between 1990 and 2017. This implies a
permanent overdrawing from the global carbon budget by any measure or
consideration of equity, thus having a permanent impact on the development path of
all developing nations.

28
This overdrawing from the global carbon budget cannot be redressed by
commitments to carbon neutrality by 2050, especially as in the next 10 years the most
that developed countries are set to reduce their annual emissions is only 2.2 per cent
to 5.8 per cent, based on their Fourth Biennial Reports to the UNFCCC. Without
carbon neutrality being achieved by these countries substantially before 2050, and
without further substantial removal of carbon by them through sinks, the Paris
Agreement goal of global balance between emissions by sources and removals by
sinks by 2050 cannot be achieved in keeping with equity and climate justice. India,
for its part, is mindful of the challenge of neutrality, and where ecological
considerations dictate is taking pro-active steps for carbon neutral development as in
the Union Territory of Ladakh.

Domestic Measurement, Reporting and Verification Arrangements

The operational design of MRV in India is implemented in a decentralised manner,

with efforts distributed at multiple levels of governance. The governance framework in
the country mainly adopts a 3-tier system for administering and monitoring policy
schemes and actions as the flow of information involves a bottom-up approach with
several tiers (local, sub-national and national) of standard reporting.

Enhancing transparency and accountability by making information accessible through

online web-portals/ digital dashboards has led to effective tracking of schemes’
performances across all States, on a single platform. GoI has developed numerous
dashboards in related sectors such as power, transport, agriculture and forestry.

Building a robust national data repository system is essential for the development of
baselines and estimating accurate GHG emission inventories (identifying emission
sources, baseline projections and forecasting trends). In India, there are a number of
data repositories at various levels (sub-national and national) maintained by
respective departments/ministries. For example, the National Power Portal developed
by Central Electricity Authority (CEA) provides information on installed renewable
capacity and its generation. The Open Government Data (OGD) India platform
supports the open data initiative of the GoI.

It is important to develop a robust MRV system to assess the performance of schemes

and actions and outline the responsibilities of key actors (nodal agencies and
implementing bodies). A robust Monitoring & Verification system has been developed
by BEE for the PAT scheme in order to assess the savings achieved by industries.
The assessment is done only for the final year of the three-year cycle to establish
whether the Designated Consumers (DCs) have achieved their targets or not.
Similarly, the Standards & Labelling programme, the national standards for emission
and discharge of environmental pollutants for the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), and the Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework developed by the
Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) under the Smart Cities Mission are
key examples of some of the scheme specific MRVs. For such monitoring and

29
evaluation mechanisms on a widespread scale, finance and additional support
(technology, infrastructure, capacity building) is required.

MRV alone, however, is of insubstantial value if not accompanied by adequate climate

action. Further reporting under the Enhanced Transparency Framework of the Paris
Agreement will result in enhanced burdens on developing country Parties in terms of
diversion of expenditure and highly skilled human resources from the needs of both
development and real climate action.

Finance, technology and capacity building needs and support received

India has been reporting on constraints and gaps and related financial, technical and
capacity-building needs, consistently and periodically since 2004 with the submission
of INC to UNFCCC and thereafter, the second national communication in 2012, the
first BUR in 2016 and the second BUR in 2018.

India’s financial needs to fulfil its obligations under the Convention and its Paris
Agreement are enormous and multiplying rapidly in the present-day context. The
transition to low carbon economy while continuously weathering climate-induced
events and disasters is a costly affair, requiring new, additional and climate-specific
financial resources.

As regards financial needs in Indian NDCs, preliminary estimates indicate that India
would need around USD 206 billion (at 2014-15 prices) between 2015 and 2030 for
implementing adaptation actions in key areas like agriculture, forestry, fisheries,
infrastructure, water resources and ecosystems. The GCF finance to India as per the
latest available information amounts to only USD 177 million (since inception), out of
which only USD 77.8 million is grant-based finance. These funds would be insufficient
if the current trend prevails, falling short of meeting our requirements.

The funds for GEF-7 replenishment (2018-2022) is lower than GEF-6 and the funds
under climate change focal area have also reduced. India’s STAR allocation for
climate change declined by almost 50 per cent from GEF-6 (USD 87.88 million) to
GEF-7 (USD 47.24 million). India has about 8.45 per cent of total GEF-7 STAR
indicative allocation under climate change.

India’s climate actions are largely financed from domestic sources both budgetary as
well as a mix of market mechanisms together with fiscal instruments and policy
interventions. The national initiatives include Climate Change Action Programme
(CCAP) and NAFCC.

Connecting science, technology and innovation with societal outcomes drive

sustainable economic and social progress for India. It is the guiding principle of the
Government of India’s perspective on science and technology.

30
The upgradation of the emission inventory system is a dynamic process, and
sustained efforts are being made to ensure that India’s GHG emission inventory is of
high quality, transparent and consistent with the requirements of the IPCC inventory
guidelines. The GoI plans to ride the tier ladder using key category analysis and
uncertainty assessment which requires new and additional financial, technical and
capacity support.

As expressed through the national reporting process to the Convention since 2004,
support for enhancing capacity building is of vital importance to India. All Government
programs have a component on capacity building/ training/ awareness creation and
most of these programs have started accounting for climate variabilities in their
respective sectors to ensure economic growth and sustainable development. Weather
and climate forecasting and other services, and establishment of robust energy
management systems are some of the key areas where capacity building support is
needed.

There are persistent inadequacies in the fulfilment of commitments by the Annex-I

Parties with respect to finance. These include postponement of the target date for USD
100 billion per year from 2020 to 2025, lack of transparency in reporting, lack of clarity
on finance from public sources that is new and additional, the preponderance of loans
over grants, and the skewed emphasis on mitigation in contrast to adaptation.

In technology transfer, despite arguing for the sanctity of the international property
rights regime, technology development in all the Annex-I countries has registered a
significant slow-down across all sectors of the UNFCCC recognized categories of
“climate change mitigation technologies.” Following a peak in 2009 to 2011, patenting
activity in these technologies has fallen over a range from 30 to 80 per cent, indicating
that in the absence of legally binding commitments, Annex-I parties have significantly
slowed down their technology development.

Additional Information

The Additional Information chapter contains, among others, information and success
stories from renewable energy sector, sustainable transportation, and international
cooperation and initiatives,

One of the world’s largest solar rooftop systems was installed on Brabourne stadium
in Mumbai in August 2018 with a total roof area of 1.621 million sq. ft. of roof sheds,
with 2,280 installed solar panels and the potential of offsetting 840 tonne of CO2
annually. Similarly, the world's largest solar park is located in Bhadla, Rajasthan with
a total area of 10,000 acres (40 km2) with a total capacity of 2,245 MW.

Setting up of Asia's largest solar power project at Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, and
enabling Cochin International Airport to be the first airport in the world to be fully

31
powered by solar energy are examples of India’s growing efforts in expanding the
renewable energy sector.

Indian Railways, the third largest rail network in the world is striving towards green
mode of transport. The National Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020, hydrogen fuel bus
and car projects in Leh and Delhi, India’s first solar-powered ferry “Aditya” in Kerala
and flying transport aircraft with blended bio-jet fuel vouch for India’s plans to turn from
fossil fuel to green sources in the transport sector.

There are several new initiatives in weather and climate services including the upgrade
of forecast models, adoption of high performance computing and improved
agrometeorological services.

In international cooperation, apart from championing and safeguarding the tenets of

multilateralism, India leads two key initiatives, by hosting, supporting and nurturing the
ISA and CDRI. Furthermore, following the United Nations Climate Action Summit,
2019, India, with Sweden, is co-leading the Leadership Group for Industry Transition
to drive transformation in hard-to-decarbonize and energy-intensive sectors. This BUR
shows that it is not only that India is going above and beyond its fair share of the
burden of mitigation, but that it is in reality emerging as the front-runner in fair climate
action.

*****

32
 Background Information and Institutional Arrangements
MoEFCC is the nodal Ministry in the GoI for coordination and management of climate
change-related programmes, actions and reporting information under Article 4.1 of the
Convention. According to the Article, all Parties, taking into account their common but
differentiated responsibilities and their specific national and regional development
priorities, objectives and circumstances, shall develop, periodically update, publish
and make available to the Conference of the Parties (COPs), the information following
Article 12 of the Convention and decisions of the COPs and related guidelines
(UNFCCC, 1992). Accordingly, Parties communicate information on national
inventories of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, steps taken
or envisaged to implement the Convention and any other information that the Party
considers relevant to the achievement of the objective of the Convention and suitable
for inclusion in its communication. Later, through its decision 1/CP.16, paragraph 60,
the COPs decided to enhance reporting from Parties not included in Annex I to the
Convention stating that “Developing countries, consistent with their capabilities and
the level of support provided for reporting, should submit biennial update reports
containing updates of national greenhouse gas inventories, including a national
inventory report and information on mitigation actions, needs and support received”.
The decision also states the need to consider national capabilities and financial
support required to facilitate the timely preparation of biennial update reports. Decision
2/CP.17, Paragraph 41(f) and (g) mandated Non-annex I Parties to submit BURs every
two years with the national GHG inventories being not more than four years older than
the submission year. In fulfillment of these requirements, MoEFCC with its cross-
ministerial and institutional network is implementing and executing the matters related
to the NCs and BURs.

Previous submissions

Towards the fulfillment of reporting obligations under the UNFCCC, India has so far
furnished two full national communications and two BURs (Figure IA1) to the
UNFCCC:
(i) Initial National Communication (INC) in June 2004, containing national GHG
inventory of 1994.
(ii) Second National Communication (SNC) in May 2012, containing national GHG
inventory for the year 2000.
(iii) First Biennial Update Report (BUR-1) in January 2016, containing national
GHG inventory for the year 2010.
(iv) Second Biennial Update Report (BUR-2) in December 2018, containing
national GHG inventory for the year 2014.
As a proactive measure, the national GHG inventory for the year 2007 was published
domestically in 2010 (MoEF, 2010). Summary of the 2007 inventory was provided in
Second National Communication (MoEF, 2012). As a fulfilment of the requirement of

33
enhanced reporting and updating of information, India’s Third BUR is being presented
to the UNFCCC.

Figure IA1: India's National Communications and BURs

The second BUR (MoEFCC, 2018) gave an account of the National Inventory for the
year 2014 and time series for 2000-2014 covering the five IPCC Categories: Energy,
IPPU, Agriculture, LULUCF, and Waste. Total emissions in 2014 excluding LULUCF
were 2,607,488 GgCO2e. Distribution of emissions by gases and sectors is as shown
in Figure IA2.

Figure IA2: Distribution of GHG emissions, by gases and sectors in 2014

In 2014, about 12 per cent of national emissions (without LULUCF) were sequestered
by the LULUCF sector. With LULUCF sequestration included, total GHG emissions
were 23,06,295 Gg CO2e for 2014.

The second BUR presented government schemes relating to low carbon economic
development such as those relating to renewable energy, energy efficiency, transport,
power and status of implementation of the mitigation actions in the country.

Government of India and various State governments under the federal constitutional
structure of India have undertaken many proactive policies and measures across
sectors and regions as general steps taken or envisaged to implement the Convention,
its Protocol, and Agreement keeping in mind the national circumstances. Most of these
policies and measures mitigate GHGs directly or indirectly.

The third BUR presents updated information on the National GHG Inventory,
Mitigation Actions and Financial, Technology and Capacity Building needs. It also
addresses the suggestions made during the International Consultation and Analysis

34
(ICA) process for BUR-1 and BUR-2 wherever relevant and within the scope of present
capacity in order to enhance the transparency of mitigation actions and their effects.
This would be without engaging in discussion on the appropriateness of India’s
mitigation actions and their effects, and enhancing the consistency of the methods
used for preparing GHG inventories with the appropriate methods as per IPCC 1996
Revised guidelines and 2006 guidelines as referred to in the UNFCCC reporting
guidelines on BURs. These are appropriately reported in various chapters of BUR-3.

Institutional Arrangements

For the preparation of National Communications including the BURs, MoEFCC

established National Communication (NATCOM) Project Management Unit, which
comprises Programme Officers who assist the National Project Director in the
compilation of the communications. The current implementation arrangement is
depicted in Figure IA 3. After the submission of the BUR-1, activities for the preparation
of India’s BUR-2 and BUR-3 were launched under the GEF-UNDP-GOI project
“Preparation of Third National Communication (TNC) and Other New Information to
the UNFCCC”.

Figure IA3: Implementation Arrangement for the third BUR

For the preparation of National Communication on a continuous basis, GoI has taken
steps and made efforts towards creating a sustainable institutional structure.
Preparation of the BUR required a comprehensive study, and technical as well as
administrative arrangements, in addition to stakeholder’s participation in various tasks
and activities. To ensure adequate attention and participation, elaborate
implementation arrangements have been formulated. National Steering Committee

35
(NSC) under the chairmanship of the Secretary, MoEFCC is in place that oversees
the preparation and implementation of the work programme of the BUR. Various line
Ministries and Government departments that are most concerned with various
elements of information in this report have representation in the National Steering
Committee. Composition of NSC is provided in Annexure II.

Technical consultations on multiple and multidisciplinary aspects of information

relating to GHG inventory and mitigation actions were held during the process.
Considering the range of requirements, it was found practical to have a Technical
Advisory Committee (TAC) to provide technical guidance to the preparation of BUR.
This committee has members from the government, academia and society.
Composition of TAC is provided in Annexure II.

This report encompasses information on National Circumstances, National GHG

Inventory, Mitigation Actions, and an analysis of the Constraints, Gaps, and related
Financial, Technical and Capacity Needs including information on domestic MRV.
Several studies were launched to accommodate the requisites of the third BUR. These
studies were carried out by institutions having sector-specific expertise. Besides,
various ministries, government departments, and PSUs provided inputs for
preparation of this BUR (Figure IA 4).

SAC DEA
DHI
ISRO DoS National GHG CIMFR
Inventory
DoWR CII
DARE
RD&GR Activity Inventory CRIDA
NISE MNRE Data preparation CEEW
National
MoAFW FSI
Circumstances
MoC IIM-A
MoCA IIP
MoCF Ministry of Environment,
Ministries Forest and Climate Change Network Institutions ICFRE
IMD MoES (NATCOM Cell) IISc
MoHFW
IARI
PCRA MoHUA
IORA
PPAC MoPNG
Programmes Mitigation Actions and Study NEERI
BEE MoP and Policies domestic MRV Outputs
NRSC
CEA MoR
NDRI
MoRTH
TERI
MoS
Constraints, Gaps and TIFAC
DST MoS&T technology, finance
MoSPI needs

NITI Aayog

Figure IA4: Institutional Arrangements for the Third BUR

36
Acronyms:
Network Institutions Ministries / Departments
CEEW: Council on Energy, Environment and BEE: Bureau of Energy Efficiency
Water, New Delhi
CII: Confederation of Indian Industry, CEA: Central Electricity Authority
New Delhi
CIMFR: Central Institute of Mining and Fuel DARE: Department of Agricultural Research
Research, Dhanbad and Education
DEA: Department of Economic Affairs
DHI: Department of Heavy Industry
DOS: Department of Space
CRIDA: Central Research Institute of Dryland DST: Department of Science and Technology
Agriculture, Hyderabad
IMD: India Meteorological Department
FSI: Forest Survey of India, Dehradun ISRO: Indian Space Research Organization
IARI: Indian Agricultural Research Institute, MoAFW: Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers
New Delhi Welfare
MoC: Ministry of Coal
ICFRE: Indian Council of Forestry Research MoCF: Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers
and Education, Dehradun
IIM-A: Indian Institute of Management, MoCA: Ministry of Civil Aviation
Ahmedabad
IIP: Indian Institute of Petroleum, MoES: Ministry of Earth Sciences
Dehradun
IISc: Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru MoHFW: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
MoHUA: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
IORA: IORA Ecological Solutions, New MoP: Ministry of Power
Delhi
MoPNG: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas
NDRI: National Dairy Research Institute, MoR: Ministry of Railways
Karnal
MoRTH: Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways
NEERI: National Environmental Engineering MoS: Ministry of Steel
Research Institute, Nagpur
MoSPI: Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation
NRSC: National Remote Sensing Centre, MoS&T: Ministry of Science and Technology
Hyderabad
TERI: The Energy and Resources Institute, DoWR Department of Water Resources, River
New Delhi RD&GR: Development & Ganga Rejuvenation
TIFAC: Technology Information, Forecasting MNRE: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
and Assessment Council, New Delhi
NISE: National Institute of Solar Energy
NITI National Institution for Transforming
Aayog: India
PCRA: Petroleum Conservation Research
Association
PPAC: Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell
SAC: Space Application Centre

37
Institutional Network

MoEFCC, being the implementing and executing entity assigns several studies and
conducts activities including workshops and national consultations for the preparation
of BUR. The institutional network of second BUR was also employed for the third BUR.
This BUR also includes some elements from the studies carried out under the Impacts,
Vulnerability and Adaptation component. A large number of experts not engaged in
preparation of BUR also provided their inputs, comments and feedback. For details on
the institutions and the experts involved in preparation of BUR-3, please refer to
Annexure II.

Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC) and uncertainty analysis are
performed at appropriate stages, including at the time of data collection and inventory
preparation by the concerned institutions. The expert institutions, relevant ministries
and NGOs together have supported the preparation of BUR. These coordinating
institutions and supporting network institutions are in the process of developing the
required technical capacity, especially for the GHG inventory preparation, which India
envisages as a continuous process. India is currently in the process of developing a
National Inventory Management System (NIMS) that will coordinate consistently with
the supporting institutions with adequate capacity for the preparation of National
Communications and BURs on a continuous basis. Formalizing such an institutional
arrangement requires financial, technological and capacity-building support from
international institutions and Annex-I Parties on a continuous basis.

References

MoEF. (2010). India: Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2007 (INCCA Indian Network for
Climate Change Assessment, p. 64). Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India.
MoEF. (2012). India Second National Communication to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (p. 310). Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Government of India.
MoEFCC. (2018). India Second Biennial Update Report to the UNFCCC (p. 228).
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
UNFCCC. (1992). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf
/application/pdf/conveng.pdf

38
Avsenik, K. (2019). Nature Scene, Karsha, Ladakh.
 Key Points
Chapter 1 National Circumstances
 India's annual average temperature is increasing at a statistically significant rate
of 0.61oC per 100 years over the period 1901-2019. There is a significant
increasing trend in the maximum temperature of 1oC/100 years and a relatively
lower increase, also significant, in minimum temperatures of 0.22oC/100 years.
 The year 2019 was the seventh warmest year on record since 1901 with annual
mean surface air temperature +0.36oC above the 1981-2010 period average.
 Between 1989 and 2018 there have been significant changes in the frequency of
dry days, rainy days (rainfall of amount 2.5 mm or more but less than 6.5 cm),
and heavy rainfall (rainfall of amount 6.5 cm or more).
 A significant decreasing trend (at 99 per cent level of confidence) of the
frequency of intense cyclonic disturbances during monsoon season is noticed
during the last 59 years from 1961 to 2019 over the Indian region.
 Based on the observed cyclonic activities during 1891-2019, on an average 5
cyclones developed over the north Indian Ocean region in a year, with an
average of 4 cyclone activities developing over the Bay of Bengal and 1 cyclone
activity developing over the Arabian Sea.
 During 2019, eight cyclonic storms formed over the north Indian Ocean. Out of
these eight systems, one system each formed during the winter and pre-
monsoon season, over the Bay of Bengal.
 The frequency and duration of heat waves over north-west India and the east
coast of India have increased. The duration of heat waves over central and north-
west India has increased by about five days over the past 50 years.
 Monitoring of winter precipitation and temperature in the Western Himalaya
suggests a significant increase in total precipitation but a decrease in snowfall
from 1991 to 2015.
 Although no significant trend in mean snow cover for the entire Himalaya has
been reported, some inter-annual and intra-annual variations in basins have
been observed.
 Most of the Himalayan glaciers are retreating and the rates of retreat have
probably accelerated in the past few decades, but the observed tendencies are
not regionally uniform. The mean rate of retreat is 14.2±12.9 ma-1, but with high
levels of uncertainty in the estimates.
 India launched the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) on the
sidelines of the UN Secretary General's Climate Action Summit in September
2019. This international partnership of national governments, UN agencies,
multilateral development banks, private sector, and knowledge institutions will

40
 promote the resilience of new and existing infrastructure systems to climate and
disaster risks, thereby ensuring sustainable development.
 Approximately 30 per cent of India’s population is dependent on the rich,
exploitable coastal and marine resources, and a number of urban and economic
centers of strategic importance, including two of the megacities of India, Mumbai
and Chennai, are located along the coast.
 Currently, sea levels along the Indian coast are rising. The long term average of
sea level rise is about 1.7 mm/year. However, these are changing at different
rates along the Indian coast.
 India is the second largest aquaculture producing country in the world accounting
for about 6.3 per cent of the global fish production. The government has taken
several initiatives to enhance productivity and sustainable fish production. India is
among the few countries in the world where, alongside ongoing developmental
efforts, forest and tree cover are increasing considerably. Comparison with some
other emerging and advanced economies shows that India’s growth in forest
cover has been positive.
 In contrast to the huge emissions from forest fires globally, the emissions from
forest fires in India contribute a mere 1.0-1.5 per cent of all global emissions from
wildfires, even though India accounted for 2 per cent of the total global forest
area in 2015, according to the Global Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) by the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
 At the national level, 18-28 per cent of forests grids are expected to be affected
by projected climate change under different emission scenarios in the short
(2030s) and long (2080s) term. The impacts are anticipated to be high on
Himalayan and North-eastern forest ecosystems, particularly in the long term,
while the Western Ghats are likely to be less impacted, particularly in the short-
term scenario.
 Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy. Of the total workforce 54.6 per
cent was engaged in agricultural and allied sector activities (Census 2011). The
share of agricultural and allied sector activities in the economy's total Gross
Value Added (GVA) at current prices is 18.0 per cent and 17.1 per cent,
respectively, for years 2017-18 and 2018-19.
 The net sown area is approximately 140 million ha, which has remained the
same in recent years. Food grain production in 2019-20 rose to 295.67 million
tonne along with significant increase in production of horticultural crops, milk,
meat, fish and eggs.
 Net irrigated area in the country is 68.385 million ha. The total micro-irrigation
area covered under Centrally Sponsored Schemes on micro-irrigation from 2005-
06 to 2019-20 (as on November 2019) is 8.747 million ha.

41
 Soil health and quality remain a matter of great concern for GoI. By August 2019,
27.232 million soil samples have been collected and analysed and 107.952
million soil health cards have been distributed to farmers.
 Livestock is an important additional source of income for millions of rural families,
apart from those directly dependent on it, and has an important role in achieving
the goal of doubling farmers' incomes. The livestock sector has grown at a
compound annual growth rate of 7.9 per cent during the last five years.
 Agriculture in India is dominated by marginal, small and medium farmers and not
by "industrial agriculture" as in developed countries. These vulnerable sections
will suffer the brunt of climate change impact while having no hand in the making
of the problem of global warming. The National Initiative on Climate Resilient
Agriculture (NICRA) is the flagship project dedicated to the building of climate
resilience of the agricultural sector in the country.
 India’s per capita energy consumption grew from 19,669 MJ (mega joules) in
2011-12 to 24,453 MJ in 2018-19(P). In 2018-19(P), primary energy supply
added up to 906.09 million tonne of oil equivalent (Mtoe).
 As per present estimates, India has a renewable energy potential of about
1,097,465 MW for commercially exploitable sources viz. wind – 3,02,251 MW (at
100 m mast height), small hydro - 21,134 MW; bio-energy - 22,536 MW, solar
power – 7,48,990 MW and industrial waste - 2,554 MW.
 In the year 2018-19(P), India’s per capita energy consumption was 24,453 MJ
which is just one-third of the world average. Per capita energy consumption of
India grew by 24.32 per cent from 2011-12 to 2018-19.
 In India, CNG is being widely used in transport across the country. City Gas
Distribution (CGD) networks have been declared as a "public utility". At present
(October 2019), 1838 CNG stations are making available CNG to meet the
requirement of 3.454 million CNG vehicles in the country.
 The share of the construction sector in the economy's total GVA (at constant
prices) is 7.7 per cent and 7.8 per cent, respectively, for years 2017-18 and
2018-19 and the share of construction sector in the country's GDP at current
prices is 7.0 per cent and 7.1 per cent, for the years 2017-18 and 2018-19
respectively.
 India’s achievement in the composite SDG index score has improved from 57 in
2018 to 60 in 2019.
 In India, all States/UTs have declared themselves open defecation free,
recording a jump from the 2014 figure of 38 per cent villages with sanitation. In
2019-20, 95.97 per cent of wards had 100 per cent door to door waste collection
system as compared to 40.91 per cent in 2015-16.
 The response to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has had a serious
contractionary impact on the economy. In the short-term, India has made every

42
effort to maintain its climate action on track successfully through this period.
However, notions that India can go completely “green” immediately or that it can
take dramatic steps such as ceasing all new coal commitments with immediate
effect, are beyond even the realm of speculation. The foremost priorities will lie in
restoring the economy to its normal condition, restore normalcy in business,
commercial and social life, before climate action can take dramatic new steps
forward. The scale of GDP loss and reduction in GVA speak to this issue clearly
and unambiguously.

43
 Chapter 1
National Circumstances
1.1 Climate

India has a diverse geography with landscapes varying from snow-capped mountain
ranges to deserts, plains, hills, plateaus, coastal regions and islands. India manifests
varied climate regimes ranging from continental to coastal, from extremes of heat or
cold, with aridity and negligible rainfall to excessive humidity and torrential rainfall.
India’s climate is significantly influenced by the presence of the Himalaya and the
Thar Desert as the former acts as an orographic barrier to atmospheric circulation for
both the summer monsoon and the winter westerlies and keeps them confined within
the subcontinent, thus playing a major role in rainfall. The northern parts of the
country have a continental climate with severe summer conditions that alternate with
cold winters when temperatures drop below the freezing point. In contrast, there are
the coastal regions of the country, where the warmth is unvarying with moderate
temperatures and the rains are frequent throughout the year. India's climate
variability is due to several characteristic features, including the southwest and
northeast monsoon seasons, a hot weather season characterized by severe
thunderstorms and heat waves, and cold weather seasons characterized by cold
waves. The temperatures over India show large spatial and seasonal variation, while
the South-west monsoon is the principal weather system which contributes to the
major part of precipitation in the country, between June and September. Agriculture
and water resources are the two sectors which are largely dependent on the
monsoon thus affecting the livelihoods of a large part of India's population.

1.1.1 Precipitation

Nearly 75 per cent of the annual rainfall of the country is received during the
southwest monsoon season with a large spatial variability in its distribution. The
Indian monsoon is one of the most prominent parts of the world’s monsoon systems,
which blows from the southwest during the warmest months of the year and reverses
direction to blow from northeast during cooler months. This process brings large
amount of rainfall to the region during June to September and is regarded as the
principal rainy season during which an average of about 880.6 mm of rainfall is
received over the country (IMD, 2019). Overall, there is a large inter-annual
variability in its onset and withdrawal dates over different parts of the country.

Rainfall distribution and intensity have a significant impact over different socio-
economic sectors, besides their impact on landscapes and ecosystems. The rainfall
amount exceeds 1000 mm annually in areas in Eastern India and extends to over
2500 mm along almost the entire West Coast and the northeast India. On the west of
the line joining Porbandar to Delhi and then to Ferozepur in Punjab, the rainfall
reduces rapidly from 500 mm to less than 150 mm in the extreme west. The pre-
monsoon and post-monsoon seasons contribute about 11 per cent and 10 per cent
44
of annual rainfall (on all India basis, respectively).

Although there is inter-annual variability, the total precipitation during the Indian
summer monsoon has remained largely stable over the period 1901-2019 and has
shown a weak decreasing trend during the recent few decades (Figure 1.1). Based
on the rainfall data from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) Observational
Network, it is found that five states viz. Bihar, Meghalaya, Nagaland, West Bengal
and Uttar Pradesh have shown significant decreasing trends in Southwest monsoon
rainfall during 1989-2018. Other states do not show any significant changes in
monsoon rainfall in the recent 30 years period (1989-2018). However, there are
many districts which show significant changes in southwest monsoon and annual
rainfall during the recent 30 years period (1989-2018). The annual and monsoon
season district wise rainfall trends are presented in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.1: Percentage departure of area weighted monsoon season rainfall over India as a
whole (1901-2019). Source: IMD, 2020.

45
 (a) (b)

Figure 1.2: (a) District-wise annual rainfall trend; and (b) monsoon season rainfall trends for
the period 1989-2018. Source: IMD, 2020.

1.1.2 Rainfall situation in recent years

The long period average (LPA) rainfall for the period 1961-2010 over the country as
a whole for summer monsoon season is 880.6 mm and annual average is 1176.9
mm. The annual rainfall during 2019 over the country was 110 per cent of LPA and
rainfall during the SW monsoon season was 110 per cent of LPA. During the
monsoon season in 2019, among the four large geographical regions of the country,
Central India and South Peninsular India received 129 per cent and 116 per cent of
its LPA rainfall respectively, while Northwest India received 99 per cent and East and
Northeast India received 88 per cent of its LPA rainfall. The 2019 northeast monsoon
season (October-December) rainfall over the country as a whole was above normal
(130 per cent of LPA). The seasonal rainfall during the northeast monsoon season
over the core region of the southern peninsula (comprising of 5 subdivisions viz.
Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Yanam, Rayalaseema, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and
Karaikal, South Interior Karnataka and Kerala and Mahe), was normal (109 per cent
of LPA). The 2018 northeast monsoon season rainfall over the country as a whole
was substantially below normal (56 per cent of LPA), the 6th lowest since 1901 (IMD,
2020).

46
1.1.3 Climate variation over India

The surface air temperature shows wide spatial and seasonal variation over India.
Due to the influence of continental winds over most of the country, the winter is
severe in the north, but the temperature becomes moderate as one moves towards
the south. During the coldest months of December and January, the mean maximum
temperature varies from 33°C in southern parts of the country to about 12°C in the
plains of north, while the mean minimum temperature varies from about 25°C in the
extreme south to about 3°C in the plains of the north.

Temperature variations are even more pronounced in mountainous regions such as

the Western Ghats in the South and the Himalaya in the north. March to May is
usually a period of the continuous and rapid rise of temperature. The highest
temperatures occur in central and northern India, particularly in the desert regions of
the north-west where the maximum may exceed 48°C for a considerable time
duration often causing heat wave conditions. With the onset and advent of southwest
monsoon in June, there is a rapid fall in the maximum temperature in central India.
The temperature stays uniform in the areas covering two-thirds of the country that
gets a good amount of rainfall. The temperature again falls in September when the
monsoon retreats from northern India. Temperatures fall below freezing point during
winter in the extreme northern parts of the country.

The annual mean temperature during 1901-2019 showed a significant increasing

trend of 0.61°C/100 years (Figure 1.3) with a higher increasing trend in maximum
temperature (1.0oC/100 years) as compared to a lower increasing trend (0.22oC/100
years) in the minimum temperature. The trend is highest during the post-monsoon
season (0.88°C/100 years) followed by winter season (0.68°C/100 years). The rise of
maximum and minimum temperatures, during the past 30 years, is mostly confined
to the northern, central and eastern/ north-eastern parts of the country. Spatial
warming trends (Figure 1.4) obtained from mean annual temperature anomalies
based on the data for the period 1901-2019 suggest significant positive (increasing)
trend over most parts of the country except in parts of some States that include
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, where significant decreasing trend was
observed.

1.1.3.1 Temperature in recent years

The 2018 annual mean land surface air temperature for the country was +0.41 oC
above the 1981-2010 average, thus making the year 2018 as the sixth warmest year
on record since 1901. The year 2019 was the seventh warmest year on record since
1901 with annual mean surface air temperature +0.36 oC above the 1981-2010
period average. The five warmest years on record in order were: 2016 (+0.71oC),
2009 (+0.54oC), 2017 (+0.54oC), 2010 (+0.54oC) and 2015 (+0.42oC). It may be
mentioned that 11 out of 15 warmest years were recorded during the recent past
fifteen years (2005-2019). Past decades (2001-2010/2010-2019) were also the

47
warmest decades on record with anomalies of +0.23 oC/+0.36oC. The country
averaged seasonal mean temperatures were also above the average during all the
four seasons with the monsoon season (anomaly +0.58 oC) being the warmest since
1901. The country averaged mean monthly temperatures during 9 months of the
year, 2019 (except January, March and December) were warmer than the normal
with mean temperatures exceeding the normal by about 1.02 oC during June (fourth
warmest since 1901) and by 0.77oC during the months of April (seventh warmest),
July (0.68oC, warmest) and November (0.72oC, third warmest).

48
Figure 1.3: All India mean temperature anomalies (A) Annual, (B) Winter, (C) Pre Monsoon, (D)
Monsoon and (E) Post monsoon for the period 1901-2019 shown as vertical bars. The solid
blue curve had sub-decadal time scale variations smoothed with a binomial filter (departures
from the 1981 - 2010 average). Source: IMD, 2019.

Figure 1.4: Annual mean temperature anomaly trends (°C /100 years) are shown as contour
lines. The trends significant at the 95% level are shaded. Positive trends are shown in red
while the negative trends are shown in blue. Period of analysis: 1901–2019. (Departure from
1981-2010 average). Source: IMD, 2020.

49
1.2 High impact weather events

1.2.1 Dry and rainy days, rainstorms

The recent 30 years data (1989-2018) shows significant changes in the frequency of
dry days, rainy days (rainfall of amount 2.5 mm or more but less than 6.5 cm) and
heavy rainfall (rainfall of amount 6.5 cm or more) (Figure 1.5). IMD state wise rainfall
reports on observed rainfall variability and trends (IMD, 2020) show a significant
increasing trend in the frequency of dry days during the period 1989-2018 over
Guntur and Prakasam districts of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, northern parts of
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal during the south west monsoon rainfall and all these states along with
Telangana have also shown significant increasing trends in dry days in annual scale
while significant decreasing trends in dry days over Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra
and Punjab states. Significant increasing trends in the frequency of rainy days over
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, northern parts of Madhya
Pradesh and parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh while significant decreasing trends in
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab and northeastern parts of the country.

50
(i)
(ii)

Figure 1.5: Spatial

(iii)

distribution of trend in
frequency of (i) Dry
Days (ii) rainy days
(daily rainfall of 2.5
mm or more but less
than 6.5 cm) (iii) heavy
rainfall events (rainfall
greater than equal to
6.5 cm) during
southwest monsoon
season over India
based on 30 (i)years of
data (1989-2018).
Source: IMD, 2020.

51
1.2.2 Cyclonic disturbances

The synoptic scale systems, including low-pressure areas and cyclonic disturbances
(depressions and cyclones) that form over the northern Indian Ocean and particularly
over the Bay of Bengal (BoB) during the southwest monsoon season, contribute
significantly to the southwest monsoon rainfall over India. The long coastline of over
8,000 km of flat coastal terrain, shallow continental shelf, high population density,
geographical location and physiological features of its coastal areas make India
extremely vulnerable to cyclones and its associated hazards. Thirteen coastal States
and Union Territories (UTs) in the country, encompassing 84 coastal districts, are
affected by tropical cyclones.

As shown in Figure 1.6 (a), the significant decreasing trend (at 99 per cent level of
confidence) of the frequency of intense cyclonic disturbances during monsoon
season is noticed during the last 59 years from 1961 to 2019 over the Indian region.
Figure 1.6 (b) shows the decreasing trend of the frequency of cyclonic storms over
the North Indian Ocean (NIO) (BoB and the Arabian Sea together) during the post-
monsoon season from October to December which is significant at 95 per cent
confidence level.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1.6: Frequency of depressions and cyclonic storms formed over the northern Indian
Ocean. Legends: D - depression (maximum sustained wind speed 17-27 kt), DD - deep
depression (maximum sustained wind speed 28-33 kt), CS & above - cyclonic storm and above
(maximum sustained wind speed ≥ 34 kt). Source: IMD, 2020.

52
Based on the observed cyclonic activities between 1891-2019, on average, while at
least 5 cyclones developed over NIO in a year, with an average of 4 cyclone
activities developing over BoB and 1 cyclone activity developing over the Arabian
Sea (AS). A decreasing trend observed in the total number of Cyclonic Disturbances
(CDs – cyclonic storms and depressions put together) during the period 1961 – 2019
is shown in Figure 1.6. This is consistent with the significant decreasing trend in the
CDs for the monsoon and post monsoon season as well as in the annual frequency
found by Mohapatra et al. (2017). However, during last two years, enhanced activity
was observed. During 2018, seven cyclonic storms were formed over NIO. One
cyclonic storm formed over BoB in monsoon season (September) and crossed north
Andhra Pradesh-Odisha coast near Gopalpur on 20th September. Three systems,
which formed over BoB during the post monsoon season, crossed the Indian coast.
The first system “Titli” formed over the east central BoB on 8th October and crossed
the Odisha coast on 11th. This storm claimed over 78 lives from coastal districts of
Odisha. The second one “Gaja” which formed over the east central Bay on the 10th
November, crossed Tamil Nadu coast on 15th and after moving across the south
peninsula, it re-emerged into the Arabian Sea as a deep depression. This storm
claimed over 40 lives from coastal districts of Tamil Nadu. The last cyclonic storm of
the year 2018 “Phethai”, which formed over the southeast BoB on the 13th
December, crossed the Andhra Pradesh coast on 17th December. It did not cause
any loss of life.

During 2019, eight cyclonic storms formed over the North Indian Ocean. Out of these
8 systems, one system each formed during the winter (Cyclonic Storm “Pabuk”) and
pre-monsoon season ESCS, “Fani”) over the Bay of Bengal. The ESCS “Fani”
crossed the Odisha coast near Puri on 3 May 2019 and claimed 64 lives from
different districts of the state. The monsoon season too witnessed 2 very severe
cyclonic storms (VSCS) “Vayu” and “Hikka” over Arabian Sea in the month of June
and September respectively. During the post-monsoon season, 3 systems formed
over the AS and 1 system over BoB. The VSCS “Bulbul” which formed over the BoB
crossed West Bengal and Bangladesh coasts across Sundarbans forest on 9th
November. Considering the past data (1891-2018), the highest number of cyclones
formed in both the Indian seas together was 10 during four years (1893, 1926, 1930
and 1976). In case of AS, the 5 cyclones formed during 2019 equals the previous
record of 1902 for the highest frequency of cyclones. The year 2019 also witnessed
development of more intense cyclones over the Arabian Sea. Out of 5 cyclones
formed in the AS, there have been two very severe cyclonic storms, one extremely
severe cyclonic storm and one super cyclonic storm. However, the cyclone activity
over BoB during 2019 has been subdued as only 3 cyclones formed against the
normal of 4 per year.

The performance of cyclone landfall, track and intensity forecast has shown
significant improvement. The annual average track forecast errors in 2019 have
been 69 km, 104 km and 149 km, respectively for 24, 48 and 72 hours against the
53
past five years average error of 86, 132 and 178 km based on data of 2014-2018.
Accurate forecast of the recent cyclones has saved thousands of human lives.

1.2.3 Heatwave and coldwave trends

The heatwaves typically occur between March to June, and in some cases even
extend till July in India. Heatwaves (HWs) are more frequent over the Indo-Gangetic
plains of India. On an average, 5-6 HW events occur every year over the northern
parts of the country. The temperatures in excess of 46°C have been recorded in
many parts of the country in the past, especially over north and central India. Higher
daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense HWs are becoming increasingly
frequent globally due to climate change. The climatology of HW days over the
country based on data from the observational network of IMD point out that except
over northeast India and large parts of Peninsula (South of ~21°N & West of 80°E),
most areas of the country have experienced on an average ≥ 2 HW days. Many
areas of West Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, northern parts of East Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Vidarbha, western Uttarakhand, East Uttar Pradesh,
western parts of Jharkhand and Bihar, Gangetic West Bengal, northern parts of
Odisha, Telangana, Coastal Andhra Pradesh, eastern parts of Rayalaseema and
north Tamil Nadu on an average have experienced ≥8 HW days. It has been
observed that average Severe Heatwave (SHW) days of 1-3 days were mainly
experienced over northwest, north and eastern parts of the country. Increasing
trends in the HW were observed over most of the stations except a few stations in
the plains along foothills of Himalaya, southern parts of central India and east India,
which showed decreasing trends during the period 1961-2019 (Figure 1.7a).
Decreasing trends in coldwave (CW) days were observed at most of the stations
(Figure 1.7b).

The frequency of occurrence of hot days (>90 percentile) during the pre-monsoon
season shows a significant increase over the east and west coasts of India and
interior peninsula. Likewise, an increasing trend in the frequency of warm nights is
seen on the east coast, west coast and north-west India. The frequency and duration
of heat waves over north-west India and east coast of India have also increased. The
duration of HW over central and north-west India has increased by about five days
over the past 50 years.

54
 (a)

(b)

Figure 1.7: (a) Trends in the Heat Wave (HW) days of 103 stations during April, May and June
for the period 1961–2019. (b) Trends in the Cold Wave (CW) days of 86 stations during the
December, January and February for the period 1971–2019. Nonparametric Mann–Kendall test
was used to test the significance of the trends. Source: IMD, 2020.

55
1.2.4 Heatwave and coldwave during recent years

Severe Heatwave/Heatwave (SHW/HW) conditions were observed from 26 March to

4 April 2018 over Rajasthan and Gujarat State and on one or two days in
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and north Konkan. Its spatial extent and severity
started to diminish gradually from 5 April 2018. The heat wave conditions re-
emerged on 28 April, and till 18 May, it was mainly confined to some parts of
Rajasthan and Vidarbha. From 19-30 May, heatwave was observed over Madhya
Pradesh on many days and over Haryana, Chandigarh & Delhi, Uttar Pradesh,
Saurashtra & Kutch on a few days. During 31 May to 5 June, heatwave conditions
were confined to west Rajasthan and then from 16 to 20 June, it was observed over
Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha and Gangetic West Bengal and coastal Andhra Pradesh. It
was observed over parts of north and central region during 22-25 June. The heat
wave conditions fade away from the entire country by 26 June 2018. During 2019,
HW/SHW conditions were observed in all the months of the summer season. HWs
were observed during 26-31 March, 1-16 April 26-30 April 2019 at a few places in
parts of central & northwest India. Heat wave conditions again re-emerged in the last
week of the month of April over some parts of central India and Maharashtra. During
the month of May, its spatial extent increased as it was observed on few days in
isolated parts of the entire country except over northeast, extreme north & west
coast of India. Vidarbha experienced heatwave to severe heat wave conditions
throughout the month of May 2019.

Severe Coldwave (SCW) conditions prevailed over most parts of the country on most
of the days during January 2018. Severe cold day/cold day conditions also prevailed
at a few places over Bihar and Uttar Pradesh on most of the days during the month.
During 17–31 December 2018, SCW conditions prevailed mainly over north, north
western and central parts of the country and on isolated days over some parts of
Bihar, Jharkhand, Central Maharashtra, Marathwada, north Interior Karnataka and
north coastal Andhra Pradesh.

The plains of north India and adjoining Central India experienced unusual cold day
conditions during the second half of December, 2019 following an active Western
Disturbance, which affected the region during 11-14 December 2019. Widespread
cold day conditions were observed over Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi and
Uttar Pradesh on the 16 December which intensified further to severe cold day
conditions during 17-19 December. Severe cold day conditions prevailed in most
places over northern parts of the country till 30 December 2019. The 30 December,
2019 was the coldest day. On this day maximum temperature departures of up to -
15oC were observed over the north Indian region. Table 1.1 shows some of the
weather extremes during the years 2018, 2019 and 2020 that caused disasters in
many areas.

56
Table 1.1: Weather extremes in India in the recent years (2018-2020)

Temperatures
Year Month Event Details
Intense cold wave related incidents in northern parts
January and Severe
2018 of the country including Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
December Coldwave
Jharkhand.
Severe Intense cold wave related incidents in northern and
2019 December Coldwave / central parts of the country including Uttar Pradesh,
cold day Bihar, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh.
Severe Intense heat wave conditions prevailed over eastern
2019 April-June heat wave and central parts of the country including Bihar and
(SHW) Maharashtra.
Severe Intense cold wave related incidents in northern parts
2020 January
Coldwave of the country.

Precipitation
Year Month Event Details
Heavy rainfall
June- Heavy rainfall resulting in floods caused loss of
resulting in
September life in Kerala, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh.
floods
Lightning and thunderstorm events caused loss of
2018 life in various parts of Uttar Pradesh from April to
March- Lightning and September, in Jharkhand from 2nd May to 14th
November thunderstorm September, in West Bengal from 30th March to
14th November, in Bihar from 30th March to 8th
June.
Heavy rainfall Heavy rainfall resulting floods caused loss of life
July-
resulting in in Bihar, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and
September
floods northern parts of Kerala.
Lightning and thunderstorm events caused loss of
March- Lightning and life in various parts of Jharkhand from March to
2019 October thunderstorm October, in Bihar from May to October and
Maharashtra from April to October.
January-
March- Snow avalanche caused loss of life in Jammu &
Snowfall
November- Kashmir and Leh.
December
Snow avalanche caused loss of life in Jammu &
January Snowfall
Kashmir.
Thunderstorm & lightning caused loss of life in
March to Thunderstorm
various parts of country including Bihar,
2020 July and lightning
Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh
Heavy rainfall Heavy rainfall resulting floods caused loss of life
June- resulting in and properties in Assam, Bihar, Rajasthan,
August floods, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, South
Landslide Chhattisgarh and Telangana.

57
Dust storm
Year Month Event Details
May and Dust storm caused loss of life in various parts of Uttar
2018 Dust storm
June Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana.

Cyclones
Year Month Event Details
Cyclonic storm ‘SAGAR’ No adverse weather over west coast of
May
over Arabian Sea India was reported due to this system.
Extremely severe
No adverse weather over west coast of
May cyclonic storm ‘MEKUNI’
India was reported due to this system.
over Arabian Sea
The storm caused extremely heavy rainfall
Cyclonic storm ‘DAYE’
at isolated places over Odisha, north
over east central Bay of
September Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Vidarbha
Bengal and adjoining
and heavy to very heavy rainfall at a few
Myanmar
places over Telangana.
Very severe cyclonic
No adverse weather over west coast of
October storm ‘LUBAN’ over east
2018 India was reported due to this system.
central Arabian Sea
Very severe cyclonic Loss of life due to Very Severe Cyclonic
October storm ‘TITLI’ over east storm ‘TITLI’ in Odisha and Andhra
central Bay of Bengal Pradesh.
Very severe cyclonic
storm ‘GAJA’ over east Loss of life due to Very Severe Cyclonic
November
central Bay of Bengal storm ‘GAJA’ in Tamil Nadu.
(10-19 November)
Severe cyclonic storm
The storm caused heavy to very heavy
‘PHETHAI’ over
December rainfall over coastal Andhra Pradesh and
southeast Bay of Bengal
adjoining Odisha.
(13-18 December 2018)
Cyclonic storm ‘PABUK’ No adverse weather over west coast of
January
over Andaman Sea India was reported due to this system.
Extremely severe
cyclonic storm (ESCS)
‘FANI’ over east central
April-May Loss of life due to ESCS ‘FANI’ in Odisha.
equatorial Indian Ocean
and adjoining southeast
Bay of Bengal
Very severe cyclonic
storm ‘VAYU’ over No adverse weather over west coast of
2019 June
southeast and adjoining India was reported due to this system
east central Arabian Sea
Very severe cyclonic
No adverse weather over west coast of
September storm ‘HIKAA’ over
India was reported due to this system
Arabian Sea
Super cyclonic storm
No adverse weather over west coast of
November ‘KYARR’ over Arabian
India was reported due to this system.
Sea
Extremely severe No adverse weather over west coast of
November
cyclonic storm ‘MAHA’ India was reported due to this system.

58
 over Arabian Sea
Very severe cyclonic
November storm ‘BULBUL’ over Claimed 13 lives in West Bengal.
Bay of Bengal
Cyclonic Storm
No adverse weather over west coast of
December ‘PAWAN’ over Arabian
India was reported due to this system.
Sea
Super cyclone
May ‘AMPHAN’ over the Bay Claimed 86 lives in West Bengal.
of Bengal
2020
Severe cyclonic storm
June ‘NISARGA’ over the Claimed 4 lives in Maharashtra.
Arabian Sea
Source: IMD, 2020.

1.2.5 Floods

Floods are a natural calamity that India faces every year, in some part or the other of
its territory, of varying degrees of magnitude, leading to loss of human lives and
livestock, loss of flora and fauna, and extensive damage to crops, houses and public
utilities. The occurrence of floods can be attributed to various factors, including wide
variability in rainfall both in time and space, inadequate carrying capacity of rivers,
river bank erosion and silting of river beds, landslides and poor natural drainage in
flood prone areas. In the Himalayan regions snowmelt and glacial lake out-bursts are
additional potential causal factors. Flood management schemes are formulated and
implemented by the concerned State Governments as per their priority. The Union
Government supplements the efforts of the States by providing technical guidance
and promotional financial assistance for the management of floods in critical areas.
The GoI launched the Flood Management Programme (FMP) during the XI Plan
(2007-12) for providing Central assistance to the State Governments for taking up
works related to river management, flood control, anti-erosion works, drainage
development, flood proofing works, restoration of damaged flood management works
and anti-sea erosion works which were continued during the XII (2012-17) Plan. It
was extended beyond as a component of the "Flood Management and Border Areas
Programme" (FMBAP) for the three-year period from 2017-18 to 2019-20. In order to
formulate the strategy for flood management works in the entire country and river
management activities and works in the border areas for the period 2020-2023, a
Committee has been constituted by NITI Aayog. (MoJS, 2020a). MoES have
installed flood warning systems in Chennai and Mumbai, and are also steering the
South Asia Flash Flood Guidance (SAsiaFFG) System. The damage due to floods /
heavy rains during 2010 to 2018 is given in Table 1.2 and Figure 1.8.

59
Table 1.2: Damage due to Floods / Heavy rains during 2010 to 2018

(Area in million ha)

Damage to Houses
Area affected in million ha

Damage to Public
Damage to Crops

Crops, Houses &

Human live Lost (Nos.)

Total damages
Population affected in

Public utilities
Cattle Lost (Nos.)

Utilities in
million
S. No.

Year

Value Value INR

Area INR
(INR Nos. (INR million
(mha) million
million) million) (6+8+11)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
i. 2010 2.62 18.30 4.994 58,874 2,93,830 8760 39,706 1582 1,27,573 1,95,206
ii. 2011 1.90 15.97 2.718 13,938 11,52,518 4105 35,982 1761 60,536 78,579
iii. 2012 2.14 14.69 1.95 15,341 1,74,526 2406 31,558 933 91,700 1,09,446
iv. 2013 7.55 25.93 7.484 63,781 6,99,525 20,328 1,63,958 2180 3,89,378 4,73,488
v. 2014 12.78 26.51 8.007 72,552 3,11,325 5820 60,196 1968 77,109 1,55,481
vi. 2015 4.48 33.20 3.374 1,70,439 39,59,191 80,470 45,597 1420 3,22,002 5,72,911
vii. 2016 7.07 26.56 6.658 40,527 2,78,240 1147 22,367 1420 15,079 56,753

viii. 2017 6.08 47.34 4.972 89,520 12,52,914 93840 26,673 2063 1,23,298 3,06,658

ix. 2018 7.72 37.40 2.515 37,082 9,13,414 25,087 60,279 1839 1,21,329 1,83,498
Source: CWC, 2020a.

Impact of Floods
700000 50
45
600000
40
500000 Population (Million)
INR million

35

400000
30
25
300000
20

200000 15
10
100000
5
0 0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Total damages in INR million (crops+ houses+ public utilities) Population affected in million

Figure 1.8: Population affected and total damage caused including crops, housing and public
utilities (at current prices). Source: CWC, 2020a.

60
1.2.6 Extreme heat warning systems and preparedness

Drawing lessons from the ground-breaking Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan released in
2013, actions have been taken up at the city, state, and national levels to implement
extreme heat warning systems and preparedness plans. The National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) identified 23 heat-prone states in 2019, up from 19
states in 2018 and convened annual workshops on preparedness, monitoring and
management strategies with local officials and key experts. At the national level, the
NDMA is leading efforts by supporting state-level heat action plans and facilitating
coordination at the national level through updated National Guidelines for
Preparation of Action Plan – Prevention and Management of Heat Wave. State
governments who are currently dealing with Heat Wave crisis have prepared Heat
Action Plans; and Do’s & Don’ts to alleviate the impact of heat wave. Heat Wave
Guidelines aim to facilitate the stakeholders in preparing a Heat Wave Action Plan by
providing insights into heat-related illness and the necessary mitigative and response
actions to be undertaken. The IMD continues to provide the vital seasonal outlook for
the hot weather season; and daily temperature forecasts for over 447 cities. The IMD
forecasts are a critical trigger for prompting early warning for extreme heat by city
officials. Sustained efforts, including timely release, update and effective
implementation of the National Guidelines on Heat Wave, preparation of Heat Action
Plans by vulnerable states and cities, regular follow-up and monitoring by NDMA,
extensive awareness generation campaigns, preparedness workshops, have all
assisted to significantly bring down the number of heat-related deaths and illnesses
in the past few years. According to NDMA, heatwave related mortality has reduced
from 2,040 deaths in 2015 to 1,111 deaths in 2016 and further reduced to 384
deaths in 2017 and 25 deaths in 2018. Though it increased marginally in 2019 to
226, this has dipped to 4 in 2020.

1.2.7 Early warning systems for thunderstorms and lightning in India

A dedicated end-to-end forecast system for predicting thunderstorms and lightning

has been developed and 48 real-time lightning sensors have been installed across
the country. A mobile application called 'DAMINI' has also been developed to give
alerts on impending lightning activity over the given area. These tools help to
disseminate forecasts and warnings on time and help in preparing appropriate
strategies to disseminate early warning to the concerned stakeholders.

1.2.8 Decreasing trend in Aerosol Black Carbon over India

Black Carbon (BC) is one of the most important light-absorbing aerosol species in
the atmosphere, which has the potential to affect regional climate due to its
absorption and consequent atmospheric warming. The long-term measurements of
BC over the Indian region from the regional network of aerosol observatories
(ARFINET) over the Indian mainland and adjoining islands under the Aerosol
Radiative Forcing over India (ARFI) project of ISRO-GBP clearly showed a
61
decreasing trend in BC over India. The emission control measures imposed by the
government in various sectors have played a significant role in keeping the
particulate emission, including that of BC under check. Studies in this regard indicate
that improvement in combustion technology and fuel quality has resulted in an
increase in efficiency and a consequent decline in BC emission intensities from
industries, the residential sector and transportation in India.

Figure 1.9: Long term trend in (a) BC over Trivandrum (TVM) during the period 2000-2016 (b)
mean BC over the peninsular region during the period 2007-2016 and (c) mean BC over the
Indian region during the period 2007-2016. The points represent the monthly mean data and
the vertical bars represent the standard deviation. A linear fit (red line) with 95% confidence
band (shaded portion) is shown. N represents the number of stations from which data has
been used. Source: Manoj et. al., 2019.

1.3 Development of climate resilience and disaster risk reduction

India plays an active role in global initiatives on disaster management. India is a

signatory to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and is committed to
achieve the priorities and the objectives through systematic and institutional efforts.
With multi-dimensional initiatives and expertise, India is taking a leading role in
strengthening regional cooperation among South Asian countries for reducing
disasters. India is one of the participating countries and works closely with the United
Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction 2015-2030 (MoHA, 2018).

62
1.3.1 Weather forecasting mechanism

The weather forecasting and early warning systems in the country are comparable to
most of the developed countries in the world in terms of accuracy, lead time and
associated impact. The IMD is dedicated for monitoring, detection and forecasting of
weather and climate including early warning for severe weather events such as
cyclones and heavy rainfall. The IMD continuously expands its infrastructure for
meteorological observations, data exchange, monitoring and analysis, forecasting
and warning services using contemporary technology. IMD uses a suite of quality
observations from satellites, radars and conventional and automatic weather stations
for monitoring of cyclones and prediction of weather. It includes INSAT 3D, 3DR and
SCATSAT-1 satellites, Doppler Weather Radars (DWRs) along the coast and coastal
automated weather stations (AWS), automatic rain gauges (ARGs), meteorological
buoys and ships. The High Performance Computing (HPC) system has been
upgraded by 6.8 peta flops so as to support the ongoing efforts on modelling (MoES,
2020).

Heavy rainfall events lead to floods over different river basins of the country. River
basin floods are dealt by the Central Water Commission (CWC), MoJS. In order to
meet specific requirements of flood forecasting, which is provided by CWC, MoJS,
IMD operates Flood Meteorological Offices (FMOs) at thirteen locations viz., Agra,
Ahmedabad, Asansol, Bhubaneshwar, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jalpaiguri, Lucknow,
New Delhi, Patna, Srinagar, Bengaluru and Chennai. Apart from this, the IMD also
supports Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) by providing Quantitative Precipitation
Forecast (QPF) for Damodar river basin areas for their flood forecasting activities.
CWC is working in close association with IMD and State governments for timely
flood forecast whenever the river water level rises above warning level. The FMOs
operated by the IMD provide meteorological support to the CWC for issuing flood
warnings well in advance in respect of the 43 rivers of India covering 146 river
basins. The CWC issues flood forecasts 6 hours to 30 hours in advance for 176
stations using QPF received from FMOs and in-situ hydrometeorological data.

1.3.2 Ocean state forecast, warning and advisory services (OSF) from INCOIS

The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) provides
operational ocean information, forecast and advisory services. At present, under the
ocean state forecast services, INCOIS provides forecasts of wave height, direction
and period (of both wind waves and swell waves), sea surface currents, sea surface
temperature, mixed layer depth (the well mixed upper layer of the sea), depth of the
20o isotherm (a measure of the depth of the thermocline), astronomical tides, wind
speed and direction and oil-spill trajectory. This prior information on the state of the
seas surrounding the Indian subcontinent is vital for the smooth operational activities
of not only for those who are venturing out into the sea but also for those at the sea
shore. The users can take appropriate informed decisions based on the forecast of
sea conditions for saving life and property. The forecast is available separately for
63
various oceanic basins in the Indian Ocean. These services are being utilized by a
wide spectrum of stakeholders ranging from fishermen to commercial operational
agencies. These forecasts are generated operationally on HPCs and disseminated in
local languages by different modes, including the latest information and
computational technology tools. It is estimated that about one million users are using
these services through direct or indirect channels.

Warning services such as high wave alerts, rough sea alerts, swell surge alerts,
perigean spring tide alerts and INCOIS-IMD joint bulletins are also in place. User-
friendly customized products like 'Ocean state forecast along ship routes', ‘Search
and Rescue Aid Tool (SARAT)’, ‘Oil spill trajectory prediction system’, 'Sea state
forecast for port and harbors’, 'OSF-Web map services' and many other services
have been developed and made operational. Water quality nowcasts and forecasts,
impact-based forecast system and climate service - advisories on future sea level,
wave surge, and productivity, are being developed and would be operational in near
future.

During extreme weather conditions, the INCOIS-IMD joint bulletins consisting of

meteorological and oceanic information, forecasts and advisories, along with high
sea state warnings are issued. Storm surge and related inundation warnings are also
included in these bulletins. The storm surge and wave surge conditions or rough sea
conditions due to the combined/isolated effects of swells (long period ocean surface
waves) and/or tides in the form of warnings and advisories are also included in these
bulletins.

High wave alerts or warnings are issued whenever there is a chance to have high
impending waves during the coming days in the coastal waters of India. These are
found to be helpful to the users for their operational planning and safety.

Warnings on swell surges or related rough sea conditions are issued when there is a
chance of high period swells (“Kallakkadal” phenomena) to hit Indian coastline and
the bulletins are disseminated to the coastal population through various modes. If the
swell surge is associated with a spring tide (or perigean spring tide), the devastation
will be much more. This is also warned well in advance.

1.3.3 Tsunami early warning service 24 X 7 operations

The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) was established in 2007 at
INCOIS, Hyderabad, as an autonomous body under Ministry of Earth Sciences. It
came into being after the deadly Tsunami that hit India on 26 December 2004. The
centre functions 24X7 to provide timely tsunami advisories to Indian coastal regions
and countries in Indian Ocean. As a Tsunami Service Provider for Indian Ocean
under IOC-UNESCO Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System
(IOTWMS), India is providing tsunami bulletins to 25 Indian Ocean Rim countries,
i.e., Australia, Bangladesh, Comoros, France (La Réunion), India, Indonesia, Iran,

64
Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Myanmar, Oman,
Pakistan, Seychelles, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor
Leste, UAE and Yemen.

1.3.4 Storm surge early warning service

The INCOIS developed the Storm Surge Early Warning System in 2014 and
providing services to IMD for further dissemination to the stakeholders and public.
Decision Support System (DSS) based on a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP)
was developed to provide timely information on the storm surge heights and
associated coastal inundation along the Indian coast due to cyclones in the NIO.
Since 2014, INCOIS monitored about 40 cyclones and provided the storm surge
early warning services to IMD. It is planned to extend the service to WMO-ESCAP
countries.

Figure 1.10: Storm surge forecast of very severe cyclonic storm – ‘Fani’
INCOIS has also monitored the cyclonic storm ‘Hikka’ that crossed Oman coast and provided the
necessary information to IMD to disseminate for the international stakeholders.

65
1.3.5 Multi hazard vulnerability mapping

Coastal multi hazard vulnerability assessment was done considering the implication
of future sea level rise. INCOIS has generated multi hazard vulnerability maps on
1:25000 scale using the following parameters like rate of sea level change, shoreline
changes, extreme water level and their return periods and higher resolution
topography of entire mainland. These maps are used to assess risk from coastal
inundation and various hazards, viz., storm surges and tsunami. The 3D visualization
and analysis system (3DVAS) application was integrated with updated data and
maps. The application includes the following data - 3D Data: Realistic buildings
associated with socio-economic data and high resolution coastal topography; 2D
data: aerial photos; imageries; administrative boundaries; land use; transport;
landmarks and multi-hazard vulnerability maps; geophysical data (tsunami),
historical earthquakes; observation networks; coastal forecast points; coastal
forecast zones and unit sources.

(a)
(A)

66

(C)
 (b)

(c)

Figure 1.11: 3DVAS integrated with 3D and 2D spatial data (a) MHVM, (b) 3D Buildings and (c)
Overlaid on 3D terrain

1.3.6 Disaster management and response

India’s effective handling of extreme weather events in the recent past is an outcome
of a series of policy initiatives and enhancement of early warning capabilities,
advanced preparation, training and capacity development. The improved forecasting
models, public awareness campaigns and well-drilled evacuation plans helped
minimise the loss of life from various extreme events including cyclones.

The primary responsibility for disaster management rests with the State
governments. The concerned State governments undertake relief measures in the

67
wake of natural disasters including floods from the State Disaster Response Fund
(SDRF) in accordance with GoI’s approved norms. Additional assistance is extended
from the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF) as per established procedure.
State-wise details of releases from SDRF and NDRF during the year 2018-19 to
2019-20 (as on 29 January 2020) are presented in Table 1.3. There are institutional
mechanisms at the national, state and district level in the country to develop
appropriate preparedness and prompt response mechanism for effective
management of natural disasters. Accurate advance forecasts of tropical cyclone
‘Amphan’ in India underpinned a successful disaster mobilization campaign,
including the evacuation of more than 3 million people, which has been praised for
limiting casualties and serve as a textbook example for multi-hazard early warning
systems (WMO, 2020).

Table 1.3: Statement showing state-wise details of releases of funds during the year 2018-19
and 2019-20 (As on 29 January 2020)

Sanctioned (from 2009-10 to Central share

2014-15)@ No of released (from
S. No. State Area of the projects 2009-10 to
Total no. of
projects completed ** 2019-20#)
Projects
(million ha) (in million) INR
1. Andhra Pradesh* 432 1.810 158 10,606.8
2. Arunachal Pradesh 156 0.467 13 2,443.3
3. Assam 372 1.577 143 4,927.5
4. Bihar 123 0.612 - 1,513.1
5. Chhattisgarh 263 1.195 112 3,078.8
6. Gujarat 610 3.103 292 12,886.4
7. Haryana 88 0.362 - 987.0
8. Himachal Pradesh 163 0.840 - 2,835.8
9. Jammu & Kashmir^ 159 0.652 - 2,308.2
10. Jharkhand 171 0.911 20 1,915.2
11. Karnataka 571 2.569 304 18,947.0
12. Kerala 83 0.423 26 1,093.0
13. Madhya Pradesh 517 2.937 204 14,974.9
14. Maharashtra 1186 5.128 598 24,139.5
15. Manipur 102 0.491 5 1,491.0
16. Meghalaya 96 0.236 47 1,730.3
17. Mizoram 89 0.373 23 2,598.9
18. Nagaland 111 0.476 61 5,391.5
19. Odisha 310 1.700 127 10,043.1
20. Punjab 67 0.314 - 604.2
21. Rajasthan 1025 5.764 361 24,152.7
22. Sikkim 15 0.066 - 220.8
23. Tamil Nadu 270 1.368 112 9,249.4
24. Telangana* 330 1.399 121 5,903.0
25. Tripura 65 0.213 20 2,109.6
26. Uttarakhand 65 0.346 - 1,310.8

68
 27. Uttar Pradesh 612 3.045 86 8,084.9
28. West Bengal 163 0.693 - 1,970.8
Total 8,214 39.07 2,833 1,77,517.5
Source: MoA&FW, 2019a.
@Sanctioned under the erstwhile Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP), which has
been amalgamated as the Watershed Development Component (WDC) of the Pradhan Mantri Krishi
Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) with effect from 2015-16.
*As per final audited details received from Andhra Pradesh and Telangana after bifurcation of
erstwhile Andhra Pradesh ^^erstwhile Jammu & Kashmir
**As on 31.10.2019 reported by States
#As on 31.10.2019 including releases under the erstwhile IWMP.
Note: There is no sanctioned project in Goa.

India launched the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) on the side-
lines of UN Secretary General’s Climate Action Summit in September, 2019. This
international partnership of national governments, UN agencies, multilateral
development banks, private sector, and knowledge institutions will promote the
resilience of new and existing infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks,
thereby ensuring sustainable development. Developed through consultations with
more than 35 countries, CDRI envisions enabling measurable reduction in
infrastructure losses from disasters, including extreme climate events. Currently, 19
countries and 4 multilateral organizations are members of the Coalition.

A few notable initiatives taken by the government to make its forecasting systems
more accurate in the wake of increasing climate disasters with various research
institutes and other leading agencies include the following: i) Bilateral agreement
with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), United States of
America (USA) and United Kingdom Met. Office for improvement in numerical
weather prediction (NWP) modelling w.r.t. global forecast system and Unified Model
(UM) respectively. ii) With the support of World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)
and Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), an ensemble prediction system has been
installed in IMD in 2011 for cyclone track prediction and prediction of location specific
cyclone strike probability iii) A bilateral collaboration between India and United States
involving National Centre for Environment Prediction (NCEP), USA, IMD, INCOIS
and Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Bhubaneswar has resulted in experimental
implementation of high resolution Ocean Atmosphere Coupled Model viz. Hurricane
Weather Research & Forecast (HWRF) Model for north Indian Ocean with resolution
of 2, 6 and 18 km (MoES, 2020).

1.4 Himalayan cryosphere

The Himalayan mountain range is one of the major water towers of Asia, and a large
concentration of snow and glaciers make it possible to support water supply of major
Indian Rivers as the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The Indus River is
considered more vulnerable under future climate change scenarios due to large
population, high water stress, snow/glacier melt and geopolitical conditions

69
(Immerzeel et al., 2019). In addition, the livelihood of large Himalayan mountain
communities also depends on the availability of water from snow and glacier melt.

Figure 1.12. Glacier area in Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra basins based on Randolph Glacier
Inventory (RGI) 5.0. The divisions of Karakoram-Himalayan region from Bolch et al., 2012.

1.4.1 Snow cover

Snow during winter covers a large area (1.59±0.15 million km2) in the Hindu Kush
Himalayan region (Gurung et al., 2011a). The snow cover area (SCA) in Indus,
Ganga and Brahmaputra basins ranges from 85 per cent in the winter to
approximately 10 per cent in the summer (Figure 1.13). Monitoring of winter
precipitation and temperature in Western Himalaya suggest a significant increase in
total precipitation but a decrease in snowfall from 1991 to 2015 (Negi et al., 2018).

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 (a) (b)

Figure 1.13: (a) Seasonal snow cover variability in three major Himalayan basins (2000 to 2011)
(b) Inter-annual SCA variability shows no significant trend. Source: Singh et al., 2014.

Although no significant trend in mean snow cover for the entire Himalaya has been
reported, however, some significant inter-annual and intra-annual variations in basins
have been observed. SCA in Jhelum, Kosi, Gandaki and Manas river basins have
shown a decreasing trend (2003-2012), with a statistically significant negative
correlation with temperature (Gurung et al., 2017).

Figure 1.14: Variation in snow cover area for basins in western and west central Himalaya from
2004 to 2014. Source: Rathore et al., 2018.
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1.4.2 Glacier area

The total glacial extent in the Indian Himalaya (excluding Nepal, Bhutan and
Karakoram) varies from 20,785 to 27,915 km 2.The best estimate for the total glacier
area in the Indian Himalaya is 25,041±1,726 km 2 (Kulkarni & Karyakarte, 2014). A
few glacier inventories in the Himalaya suggest that the Indus basin has the
maximum number of glaciers and the largest glaciated area, whereas the Ganga
basin has the least (Figure 1.15). The average glaciated area in the Indus basin is
26,150±3,744 km2, whereas the average glaciated areas in Ganga and Brahmaputra
basins are 11,621±3,773 km2 and 15,606±3,584 km2, respectively.

Figure 1.15: Comparison of the glaciated area in the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra basins
estimated by Space Applications Centre (SAC), International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD), Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI), International Water Management
Institute (IWMI)and GAMDAM glacier inventory. Source: Sharma et al., 2013.

1.4.2.1 Glacier retreat and area loss

Most of the Himalayan glaciers are retreating and the rates of retreat have probably
accelerated in the past few decades, but the observed tendencies are not regionally
uniform (Bolch et al., 2012; Bahuguna et al., 2014). In the Himalayan region, the
retreat of glaciers will have an enormous impact, as glaciers play an important role in
river runoff (Huss & Hock, 2018; Singh et al., 2020). The mean rate of retreat is
14.2±12.9 ma-1. In Himalaya, investigation of 39,500 km2 glacier area indicate rate of
loss as 4.3±2.4%/decade (Dobhal & Mehta, 2008; Sharma et al., 2016). In the Indus
basin, the area loss rate is observed to be 2.5±2.5%/decade whereas Ganga and
Brahmaputra basins were observed to lose glacier area at the rate of
2.7±2.4%/decade and 7.7±9.4%/decade, respectively. In another study carried out
by SAC - Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), 2018 Glaciers representing
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climatically diverse terrains in the Himalaya were mapped and monitored between
2001 and 2010/2011 (Bahuguna et al., 2014). The net loss in 10,250.68 km2 area of
the 2018 glaciers put together was found to be 20.94 km2 or 0.2 per cent.

1.4.2.2 Glacier mass

Limited data on ice thickness and volume is available in Himalaya due to challenges
involved in the application of radar and other field methods in rugged terrain. Recent
estimates of glacier mass were made using Randolph glacier Inventory (RGI 5.0)
and various scaling methods. This suggests a mass of glacier stored water in
Himalaya to be 4190±2662 Gt (Kulkarni et al., 2020), large uncertainties indicate the
need for further improvement in the techniques.

1.4.2.3 Glacier mass balance

Glacier mass balance is estimated using field, remote sensing and modelling
techniques. Mass balance estimates using the glaciological method are available for
30 glaciers in the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra basins (Kulkarni & Shirsat, 2019).
The cumulative mass balance of these glaciers is calculated using the available field
data (Figure 1.16). This analysis suggests an overall negative mass balance trend
for all the glaciers, indicating a substantial mass loss. Out of the 211 measurements,
only 16 positive mass balance records are observed since 1975. To summarize, the
decadal trend in field mass balance indicates a negative trend, varying from -0.42
m.w.e.a-1 in the 1970s to -0.78 m.w.e.a-1 in 2000s (Bolch et al., 2012; Pratap et al.,
2016; Azam et al., 2018).

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Figure 1.16: Cumulative mass balance of 30 glaciers based on the glaciological mass balance
data from 1975 to 2015. Glaciers in the Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra basins are shown by
circles, triangles and squares, respectively. Source: Kulkarni & Shirsat, 2019.

1.4.2.4 Contribution of snow and glacier melt in stream runoff

Seasonal snow and glacier melt contribute significantly to the stream runoff of rivers
originating in the Himalaya. The Indus basin has the most considerable dependence
on snow and glacier melt, followed by the Brahmaputra and the Ganga basins
(Kulkarni & Shirsat, 2019). It contributes to about 62 per cent of the total annual
discharge in Indus, 20 per cent in Ganga and 25 per cent in Brahmaputra basins
(Lutz et al., 2014).

1.4.2.5 Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF)

Many glaciers form glacial lakes in the Himalayan region. Due to an increased ice
and snowmelt the accumulation of water in these lakes is increasing. Sudden
discharge of large volumes of water with debris from these lakes potentially causes
glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in valleys downstream.

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NDMA released “Guidelines for the Management of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
(GLOFs)” in October 2020. The guidelines aim to mitigate GLOF disaster risks that
are increasing, including plausibly due to climate change. These guidelines will
enable concerned ministries or departments of State/UT, central governments and
other stakeholders to take concerted action for preparedness, prevention, mitigation,
and response to GLOFs. These Guidelines also emphasize on awareness and
capacity building of the relevant stakeholders including communities and tourists in
hilly mountain regions.

1.5 Coastal and marine ecosystems

Coastal regions are unique because of their position at the interface of atmosphere,
lithosphere and hydrosphere. India’s coastline over 8,000 km spans nine maritime
states and five UTs, including two island territories. It has 1,208 island territories and
an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million km2.

Among various types of marine ecosystems in India, tidal mudflats, mangroves,

estuaries, lagoons, beaches, marshes, vegetated wetlands and coral reefs have a
major share. There are 25 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) with an area of 6,200 km 2
in peninsular India, along with 97 major estuaries, 34 major lagoons and 5,790 km 2
of coral reefs. The mangroves are spread over an area of 4,975 km2, which is 0.15
per cent of the country’s total geographical area (MoEFCC, 2019d; FSI, 2019).
These areas have been mapped and identified in India for conservation and
sustainable management. The conservation of the marine ecosystems is largely
linked to coastal zone management activities. However, like most coastal regions of
the world, coastal areas of India are densely populated and approximately 30 per
cent of its human population is dependent on the rich exploitable coastal and marine
resources. A number of urban and economic centres of strategic importance,
including two of the four megacities (Mumbai and Chennai) of India are located along
the coast (EnviStats India Vol II, 2020).

Seaweeds are an essential component of our coastal communities, and seaweed

aquaculture has the potential to locally reduce the negative impacts of climate
change through carbon uptake, reduction of agricultural GHG emissions, and
protection of shores from coastal erosion. These positive effects will depend on local
environments and the local use of the seaweeds being farmed (e.g., sea vegetable,
commercial compounds, livestock supplement).

1.5.1 Protection and management of coastal areas

The Survey of India and National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management
(NCSCM) have mapped the hazard line for the entire coast of India, which includes
vulnerability mapping of flood, erosion and sea level rise. The outputs will be used by
all the coastal States and UTs in managing coastal vulnerability in the coming years
and as a tool for preparation of disaster management plans.
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The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2011 mandated the preparation of Coastal
Zone Management Plan (CZMP) within two years from the date of publication of
notification. The government issued a new Coastal Regulation Zone Notification in
January 2019. The coastal States/UTs are required to revise/update their CZMPs
prepared as per CRZ Notification, 2011 to align it with CRZ Notification, 2019, as per
guidelines issued by this Ministry on 26 June 2019 (MoEFCC, 2019a).

With the objective of assessing the impact of climate change on the coastal areas of
the country, the National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR), Ministry of Earth
Sciences (MoES) is carrying out work on developing a decision support system for
climate change impact assessment on geographical areas and socio economic
impact in the coastal areas. NCCR has also prepared shoreline change maps for the
period 1990-2018. In the past three decades, the overall long-term shoreline change
result along entire Indian mainland coast shows that about 32 per cent of the
coastline is under varying degree of erosion, 27 per cent is of accreting nature and
the remaining 41 per cent is in a stable state (MoES, 2020b).

A national strategy for coastal protection, along with guidelines for coastal protection
measures, has been framed for all coastal States and UTs by MoEFCC. Under the
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP), MoEFCC has undertaken
delineating and demarcating the hazard line along the entire coastal belt of the
country, including the inter-tidal areas. The hazard line is indicative of the shoreline
changes, including the sea level rise due to climate change and is a projection of
impact due to sea level rise, and shoreline changes over a long period of time viz.
over 100 years. This line is required to be used by the coastal state agencies
concerned, as a tool for disaster management for the coastal environment, including
planning of adaptive and mitigation measures. The hazard line for the entire coast of
the country has been mapped and is featured in the new CZMPs of the coastal
states/UTs approved by the government.

The ICZMP also envisages large-scale assessment of the risks associated with
shoreline changes and preparation of a framework for development of management
solutions to combat these risks. Under the Phase-I of the project, shoreline
management plans are prepared for five identified coastal stretches in Gujarat,
Odisha and West Bengal, on a pilot basis (MoEFCC, 2019b).

In the arena of adaptation to climate change, in the context of coastal protection

management, a Technical Assistance (TA) agreement was signed by the
Government of India with the Asian Development Bank (ADB) for the project
“Climate Resilient Coastal Protection and Management Project (CRCPMP)”, to
support mainstreaming of climate change considerations into coastal protection and
management. As a part of this project, a reference manual on "Climate Change
Adaptation Guidelines for Coastal Protection and Management in India" was
prepared and released in March 2019 by CWC, DoWR, RD & GR and MoJS, New
Delhi.
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The Coastal Management Information System (CMIS) has been initiated by the
DoWR, RD & GR, MoJS, during the XIIth Plan (2012-17) for the collection of 9
coastal parameters viz. Tide, Wave, Current, Wind, Riverine Data, Bathymetry,
Shoreline change, Beach Profile and Coastal Sediment at 8 nos. of CMIS sites,
covering 5 States and 1 UT (viz. Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa and
UT of Puducherry) to create an integrated data bank on coastal processes. This will
further help in determining causes of erosion/ sediment transportation/ defining
sediment cell and sediment budget for evolving long term plans for coastal protection
measures which can also facilitate climate change adaptations.

1.5.2 Fisheries

India is the second largest aquaculture producing country in the world and its total
fish production accounts for about 6.3 per cent of the global fish production. The
sector provides livelihood to about 16 million fishers and fish farmers at the primary
level and almost twice the number along the value chain.

The government has taken several initiatives in a sustainable and responsible

manner to enhance fish production and productivity. India has about 0.26 million
marine fishing crafts of different categories to harness the estimated potential of
marine fishery resources (5.31 million metric tonne) available in our jurisdictional
waters (MoFAH&D, 2019a). The total fish production in the country stood at 13.42
million metric tonne (provisional) during 2018-19. Of this, the marine fisheries
contributed 3.71 million metric tonne and the inland fisheries contributed 9.71 million
metric tonne (DEA, 2020). During 2018-19, export of marine products stood at 13,
92,559 metric tonne and valued at INR 4,65,890 million.

The fish production in the country is growing at an annual average rate of 7 per cent
from 2017-19. The details of total fish production and GVA in the fisheries sector in
the country during the last four years are given in the Table 1.4.

Table 1.4: Fish production (in million tonne) and its GVA in India

Gross Value Added (GVA)

Year Marine Inland Total Growth rate (%)
(in INR million) at current prices
2015-16 3.600 7.162 107.62 4.89 13,27,200
2016-17 3.625 7.806 114.31 6.22 15,46,430
2017-18 3.688 8.902 125.90 10.14 18,65,610
2018-19 (p) 3.710 9.710 134.20 6.60 (p) 21,29,150
Source: MoFAH&D, 2020 (p-provisional), GVA Figures are as per First Revised Estimates of National
Income 2018-19.

1.5.2.1 Programmes to promote fisheries

Realizing the immense scope for development of fisheries and aquaculture, the GoI
has restructured the Central Plan Schemes under an umbrella of Blue Revolution.
The restructured Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) on Blue Revolution: Integrated
77
Development and Management of Fisheries was approved in December, 2015 by
the CCEA with a total central budgetary outlay of INR 30,000 million for five years
(i.e., till end of 2019-20). Under the CSS, central financial assistance of INR 3120.9
million has been released to various coastal state governments/UTs during last two
years i.e. 2017-18 to 2018-19 and current year (2019-20) for introduction of a total
918 deep sea fishing vessels and 313 traditional fishermen have been trained
(MoFAH&D, 2019b).

Government of India has created a new Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and
Dairying (MoFAH&D) with two separate Departments i.e., (i) the Department of
Fisheries and (ii) the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying vide Cabinet
Secretariat's Gazette Notification No. 1763 dated 17 June 2019, with a view to
providing sustained and focussed attention towards the development of fisheries
sector including welfare of fishermen and other fisher-folk and strengthening of their
livelihoods (MoFAH&D, 2019c).

Fisheries resources

The National Policy on Marine Fisheries, 2017 proposes to keep sustainability of the
resources at the core of all actions. The State/UT Governments are implementing
their respective ‘Marine Fishing Regulation Act(s)’ (MFRAs) to ensure sustainable
fishing practices. Workshops, meetings and awareness programs are organized from
time to time by the Central and State/UT Governments, Coast Guards, Fisheries
Research Institutions, Inter-governmental Organization (IGO), Fisheries Universities
and Colleges, other agencies as well as Fishermen Associations/Federations to
sensitize the stakeholders including fishermen to spread awareness and to follow
sustainable practices in the fisheries to ensure quality (MoFAH&D, 2019d).

Table 1.5: Marine and inland resources

Marine resources and dependency on livelihoods

Length of coastline (km) 8,118**
Exclusive economic Zone (million sq.km) 2.02*
Number of fish landing centres 1,547**
Number of fishing villages 3,477**
Number of fisherman families 8,93,258**
Fisher-folk population 3,774,577**
Inland Resources
Rivers and canals (million km) 0.195*
Reservoir (million ha) 3.15*
Tanks and ponds (million ha) 2.41*
Flood plain lakes (million ha) 0.812*
Brackish water (million ha) 1.24*
Saline/alkaline affected areas (million ha) 1.2*
Source: *DEA, 2020; **EnviStats India Vol I, 2020.

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1.5.2.2 Fishery advisory services

INCOIS provides Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) and Tuna Fishery Advisory services
every day on operational basis. The advisory provides real-time information to the
fishermen on the most probable areas of fish aggregation so that the fishermen can
directly navigate to such areas without having to search for the fish shoals. This
results in reduction of time and effort spent and the search time for finding the fish
shoals. In addition to these direct benefits to the fishermen, indirect benefits are in
terms of reduction in emission of CO2 to the atmosphere. Several researchers and
institutes have made independent studies towards estimation of these environmental
benefits.

1.5.2.3 Coral bleaching alert system

Satellite based Coral Bleaching Alerts were provided as advisories on the hotspots,
degree of heating weeks and the variation of SST anomalies on bi-weekly basis.
There have been no events of coral bleaching recorded since 2016.

Figure 1.17: Numbers of Coral bleaching advisories issued during 2019-20

These products are disseminated from INCOIS through the web and made available
on user interactive interface.

Box 1: Implementation of Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (Source:

Transforming India, 2020).

 Total estimated investment of INR 2,00,500 million to be implemented during FY

2020-21 to FY 2024-25

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 To augment fish productivity at a sustained average annual growth rate of 9 per
cent to achieve target of 22 MMT
 To generate direct employment to about 1.5 million fishers, fish farmers and fish
vendors.
 Doubling of fishers, fish farmers and fish worker’s income by 2024.

1.6 Sea level rise

With a coastline over 8,000 km in length and numerous islands as part of the
national territory, India is also vulnerable to sea-level rise and will be in the frontline
of its impacts as well as suffering from increased exposure to coastal hazards
including storm surges during cyclones, increased impact of cyclones and related
hazards. The total population of the coastal districts of India is 171 million,
accounting for 14.1 per cent of India’s population, based on the 2011 Census
(IOMENVIS, 2017). This includes sections of the population with heightened
vulnerability such as fisherfolk using low-powered or traditional craft, salt pan
workers, farmers in coastal agriculture, and fisherfolk whose livelihoods depend on
aquaculture in the coastal regions. The urban population of major cities and urban
settlements along the coast have also vulnerable sections liable to be affected by
alluvial flooding, with a clear link between urban slum populations and vulnerability to
alluvial flooding. These urban areas are also the location of considerable wealth in
the form of assets and infrastructure, including the megacities of Mumbai and
Chennai. Thus, coastal vulnerability is a key aspect of vulnerability to climate change
and India is one of the leading affected countries in this regard. India’s vulnerability
to sea-level rise and its exposure to coastal hazards are thus very comparable to
that of the Small Island Developing States.

Table 1.6: Rate of change of sea-level at 10 major ports in India

Rate of change of sea-level

S. No. Location Duration of data used (years)
(mm/year)
1. Chennai 0.33 1916-2005
2. Diamond Harbour 5.16 1948-2005
3. Haldia 2.89 1972-2005
4. Kandla 3.18 1950-2005
5. Kochi 1.30 1939-2005
6. Mumbai 0.74 1878-2005
7. Paradeep 1.03 1966-2005
8. Port Blair 2.20 1916-1964
9. Vizag 0.97 1937-2005
10. Okha 1.5 1964-1991
Source: MoEFCC, 2020a.

Sea level rise is a slow phenomenon and varies globally depending on local site
factors. Based on the study by INCOIS as well as the studies published in scientific

80
literature, on an average, at present, the sea level along the Indian coast is
estimated to be rising at about 1.7 mm/year (MoEFCC, 2020a). It was observed that,
the sea levels are changing at different rates along the Indian coast. Rising sea
levels alone may not impact much, but it can exacerbate the coastal inundation
along low lying areas during the extreme events such as tsunami, storm surge,
coastal flooding and coastal erosion. It will have cumulative impact on inundation
during extreme events causing increased coastal inundation. INCOIS has estimated
rate of change in the sea levels from the long term data (monthly mean sea levels)
obtained from the sea level gauges installed at 10 major ports given in Table 1.6.

These rates may also include the manifestations in sea level change due to the
subsidence or uplift of land at those locations. Since no long term data on land
subsidence or upliftment is available for these locations, the rate of increase of sea
level due to the changes in climate could not be separated. For example, the higher
rate of sea level increase at Diamond Harbour is also due to the larger land
subsidence happening there. The same may apply to Kandla, Haldia and Port Blair
as well.

The INCOIS has prepared a Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) for the entire coastline
as part of the Tsunami Early Warning System. CVI mapped at 1:100000 scale was
prepared based on the assessment of probable implications of sea-level rise to the
coast (climatic and momentary due to tsunami/storm surge), coastal slope, shoreline
change rate, coastal elevation, coastal geomorphology, tidal range and significant
wave height. These maps are available through website of INCOIS
(https://www.incois.gov.in/portal/cvi/index.html). In addition, INCOIS has also
prepared the Multi-Hazard Vulnerability Maps (MHVM) for mainland of India at
1:25000 scale. The MHVMs indicate the probable coastal flooding due to
oceanogenic disasters like tsunami and storm surges. Both have used the sea level
change rate as one of the parameters (MoEFCC, 2020a).

INCOIS has also initiated ocean climate change advisory services under the Deep
Ocean Mission with an aim to assess and provide future projections of the impact of
climate change on various coastal oceanographic parameters. This initiative will
provide quantitative indicators for the possible changes in sea-level, coastal erosion,
increasing intensity of cyclone, wind waves and storm surges and change in the
marine water quality parameters at seasonal to decadal timescale for helping the
planning for future marine system driven economy and offshore/coastal
installations/constructions. These advisory services will be based on a suite of state-
of-the-art numerical ocean models and an improved network of ocean observation.
The proposed mission will be implemented during the financial period 2020-2025
(MoES, 2020).

With a view to conserve and protect the unique environment of the marine areas of
the country, and to promote development in a sustainable manner, the Central

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Government issued the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) and Island Protection Zone
notification which lay down strong emphasis on adaptation to impact of sea level
rise. To enforce the provisions of the notification, the GoI has constituted National
Coastal Zone Management Authority (NCZMA) and Coastal Zone Management
Authorities (CZMA) for coastal states/UTs under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
(EPA). Adequate powers under EPA have been provided to these authorities to
ensure implementation of the provisions of the notification. The notification also
provides for constituting district level committees in each coastal district.

The preparation of Shoreline Change Atlas of Indian Coast was initiated by Space
Application Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad in collaboration with Central Water
Commission. The Atlas comprises shoreline change maps prepared using satellite
data of 1989-91 and 2004-06 time-frame on 1:25000 scale for the entire country. The
maps show eroding, stable and accreting coast along with the status of coastal
protection measures taken up by maritime States/UTs (CWC, 2020b).

1.6.1 Ocean Observational programmes

MoES has scaled up efforts to establish and sustain various in-situ ocean
observational systems in the Indian Ocean to support operational ocean state
forecast and services. Such platforms include tsunami gauges, tide gauges, Wave
Rider Buoy (WRB), coastal Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs), Argo floats,
drifters, AWS, and moorings networks. These systems provide information on
tsunamis and trends on sea-level, wave characteristics, ocean currents, and other
ocean physical and biogeochemical variables. Information obtained through these
platforms is essential to improve weather and disaster warning and the development
of coastal economies, which in turn helps the policymakers, social and
environmental conservationists for better preparedness and disaster risk
management capacity. These observational programmes are implemented by
INCOIS, National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) and National Institute of
Oceanography (NIO).

1.7 Water resources

Water has been recognized as being vital to India’s economic growth, well-being of
its people, and the sustainability of ecosystems. Over the last few years, GoI as well
as state governments have been implementing a range of projects focused on
groundwater recharge; responsible use of water for agriculture; and use of
technologies such as micro-irrigation.

To deal with water issues in an integrated manner under a single umbrella, MoJS
has been created by the government in May 2019. The Ministry includes two
Departments namely, the Department of Water Resources, River Development &
Ganga Rejuvenation (DoWR, RD & GR) and the Department of Drinking Water and

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Sanitation (DW&S). The mandate of DoWR, RD & GR includes development,
conservation and management of water as a national resource; overall national
perspective of water planning and coordination in relation to diverse uses of water
and interlinking of rivers; formulation of general policy, guidelines and programmes
for development and regulation of the country’s water resources; conservation,
development, management and pollution abatement of rivers; regulation and
development of inter-state rivers and river valleys; water laws and legislations;
assessment of water quality; and matters relating to rivers common to India and
neighbouring countries.

The government has launched Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) to enable every rural
household in all the States and UTs to have functional household tap connection for
providing potable water at service level of 55 litre per capita per day by the year
2024 (MoJS, 2020). Currently, there are 28.95 per cent households with functional
household tap connections (FHTC) for water supply. Percentage of the rural
population getting safe and adequate drinking water within premises through pipe
water supply has increased to 42.49 in 2019-20 compared to 35.76 in 2015-16
(MoSPI, 2020b).

Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA) is also launched by the government to spread awareness
among all stakeholders in 256 water stressed districts about water conservation in
two phases. Currently, 93 per cent of the population has access to basic water with
another approximately 90 million to be covered, while the prevalence of open
defecation in rural India has dropped from 90 per cent in 2000 to 36 per cent in 2017,
compared to 4.75 per cent in urban India (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2019). Further, a
number of states have done notable work in the field of water
management/conservation. Of these, mention can be made of ‘Mukhyamantri Jal
Swavlamban Abhiyan’ in Rajasthan, ‘Jalyukt Shibar’ in Maharashtra, ‘Sujalam
Sufalam Abhiyan’ in Gujarat, Mission ‘Kakatiya’ in Telangana, ‘Neeru Chettu’ in
Andhra Pradesh, ‘Jal Jeevan Hariyali’ in Bihar among others. To supplement the
efforts of the Ministry of Jal Shakti, NITI Aayog has prepared the second Round of
Composite Water Management Index (CWMI 2.0). NITI Aayog first launched and
conceptualized the Composite Water Management Index in 2018 as a tool to instill a
sense of cooperative and competitive federalism among the states. The CWMI is an
important tool to assess and improve the performance of states/ UTs in efficient
management of water resources.

CPCB, in collaboration with the State Pollution Control Boards, monitors the water
quality of aquatic resources across the country through a network of 4022 monitoring
stations under the National Water Quality Monitoring Programme (MoEFCC, 2019c).
To prevent pollution in water bodies, 60 action plans out of 61 Priority I and Priority II
polluted river stretches pertaining to 18 States and 1 UT have been approved. These
action plans cover aspects such as source control (municipal sewage management,
industrial pollution control, waste management), river catchment/basin management

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(adoption of good irrigation practices, rainwater harvesting, utilization of treated
sewage, groundwater recharge aspects), flood plain zone protection and its
management (setting up of biodiversity parks, removal of encroachments, plantation
on both sides of the river), Ecological/Environmental Flow (E-Flow), in-situ
remediation of drains, septage management, water conservation in industries
through Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD), bio-mining of existing legacy dumpsites and
watershed management.

The dynamic groundwater resources of the country are being periodically assessed
jointly by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) and state governments. As per the
2017 assessment of CGWB, out of the total 6,881 assessment units (Block/ Taluks/
Mandals/ watersheds/ Firkas) in the country, 1,186 units in various States/UTs (17
per cent) have been categorized as ‘Over-exploited’ where the annual groundwater
extraction is more than annual extractable groundwater resource. There are 313
units categorized as ‘Critical’ while 972 units are categorized as ‘Semi-critical’. The
aforementioned assessment also reports 4,310 units as ‘Safe’ and 100 units as
‘Saline’.

Further, CGWB periodically monitors the groundwater levels throughout the Country
on a regional scale, through a network of monitoring wells. In order to assess the
decline in water level on a long-term basis, pre-monsoon water level data collected
by CGWB during pre-monsoon 2019 has been compared with the decadal average
(2009-2018). Analysis of water level data indicates that about 61 per cent of the
wells monitored have registered decline in groundwater levels, mostly in the range of
0-2 m. During the pre-monsoon period of 2019, the depth to water level in the
country ranged from less than 2 metre to more than 40 metre below ground level
(mbgl). In a major part of the country, water level is in the range of 5 to 10 metre
(MoJS, 2020).

A similar situation prevails with respect to sanitation; India’s other major

development deficit, one that is closely related to the question of water resources
and the prevention of pollution. Rural India registered a dramatic decline in recourse
to open defecation from the 2000 level of close to 90 per cent to 36 per cent in 2017.
In urban India the number has dropped to 4.75 per cent in 2017 from 26.5 per cent in
2000. Overall in 2017, in rural India 59.5 per cent had access to basic service in
sanitation, while the corresponding figure for urban India was 72 per cent. It may be
noted that, for a number of reasons, behavioural change associated with sanitation
practices may not immediately follow the provision of adequate infrastructure and
physical facilities to which the government is devoting attention (WHO/UNICEF JMP,
2017). Further, under Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban) to make the country open
defecation free (ODF), more than 6.2 million individual toilets and 0.59 million
community and public toilets have been constructed (SBM, 2020). As on December
2020, under the mission, 4,340 cities have been declared ODF, while 100 per cent
door-to-door waste collection has been achieved in over 83,434 wards. Similarly,

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under the Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen), about 107.29 million household toilets
have been constructed in rural areas and all States/UTs have declared themselves
open defecation free (SBM, 2020a).

1.7.1 Irrigation

The National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRD)

in its 1999 Report assessed the percentage of water demand for irrigation for the
years 2010 and 2025 at 78 and 72 per cent respectively of the total water demand in
India. The net irrigated area in the country is 68.385 million ha.

PMKSY was launched during the year 2015-16 with the motto of ‘Har Khet Ko Paani’
for providing end-to-end solutions in irrigation supply chain, viz. water sources,
distribution network and farm level applications. PMKSY includes Accelerated
Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP), Command Area Development and Water
Management (CADWM), Surface Minor Irrigation (SMI), and Ground Water Irrigation
schemes of the Department of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga
Rejuvenation (DoWR, RD&GR).

Under AIBP, 99 major and medium irrigation projects having combined ultimate
irrigation potential of 7.543 million ha are under implementation; and under CADWM,
development of the command area of these 99 projects has been taken up, targeting
4.435 million ha of Culturable Command Area (CCA). These 99 prioritized projects
are funded through creation of ‘Long Term Irrigation Fund’ under National Bank for
Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) for mission mode completion of
projects. Irrigation deprived areas having adequate replenishable groundwater
resources are covered under the groundwater irrigation scheme. The beneficiaries
under this scheme are small and marginal farmers only, with priority to women
farmers.

Government of India vide Gazette Notification dated 9 October 2018, has notified the
minimum environmental flows for River Ganga that has to be maintained at various
locations on the river. The order applies to the Upper Ganga River Basin starting
from originating glaciers and through respective confluences of its head tributaries,
finally meeting at Devprayag up to Haridwar and the main stem of River Ganga up to
Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh. CWC has been entrusted the responsibility of
monitoring the compliance by project authorities on maintenance of desired e-flows.
Monitoring of e-flows is being carried by Upper Ganga Basin Organization (UBGO),
CWC since 1 January 2019.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MoA&FW) implements ‘Per Drop
More Crop’ (PDMC) component of PMKSY, focusing on enhancing water use
efficiency at farm level through precision/micro-irrigation by providing financial
assistance to the States. The scheme also supports micro level water storage or
water conservation/management activities to supplement micro-irrigation. As on 31
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October 2019, a total of 2,833 watershed projects have been completed covering
over 39.07 million ha (MoA&FW, 2019a). For the current year 2020-21, annual
allotment of INR 40,000 million has already been allocated and conveyed to the
State Governments. The state governments have identified the beneficiaries to be
covered under the programme. Fund release to some of the states is already under
process. Further, micro-irrigation fund corpus of INR 50,000 million has been created
with NABARD. The objective of the fund is to facilitate the states in mobilizing the
resources for expanding coverage of micro-irrigation by taking up special and
innovative projects and also for incentivising micro-irrigation beyond the provisions
available under PMKSY-PDMC to encourage farmers to install micro- irrigation
systems. So far, micro-irrigation funds have been released to the States of Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu for INR 6161.4 million and for INR 4787.9 million,
respectively through NABARD. The area covered under these projects is 0.1021
million ha in Andhra Pradesh and 0.176 million ha in Tamil Nadu. During the last five
years (2015-16 to 2019-20), an area of 4.696 million ha has been covered under
micro-irrigation through PMKSY-PDMC (PIB, 2020e).

Table 1.7: Details of prioritized Major Irrigation Projects covered under PMKSY AIBP

Irrigation
No. of prioritized Ultimate No. of prioritized
potential
S. major irrigation irrigation major irrigation
State created up to
No. projects under potential projects
March 2020
PMKSY-AIBP (mha) completed
(mha)
Andhra
1. 8 262.49 194.544 1
Pradesh
2. Assam 3 114.29 90.492 1
3. Bihar 2 37.27 14.79 0
4. Chhattisgarh 3 44.63 41.83 2
5. Goa 1 21.05 11.826 0
6. Gujarat 1 1792 1665.9 0
Jammu &
7. 4 25.71 22.44 1
Kashmir
8. Jharkhand 1 236.85 107.93 0
9. Karnataka 5 268.81 262.09 3
10. Kerala 2 38.10 29.456 0
Madhya 14 (Total 21 including
11. 927.61 788.02 13
Pradesh 7 phases)
12. Maharashtra 26 812.63 541.41 9
13. Manipur 2 36.99 25.54 1
14. Odisha 8 330.33 182.73 5
15. Punjab 2 27.44 92.0 2
16. Rajasthan 2 342.39 342.328 2
17. Telangana 11 583.98 324.66 3
Uttar
18. 4 1653.04 1387.37 1
Pradesh
99 (Total 106
Grand total 7555.39 6125.36 44
including 7 phases)
Source: MoJS, 2019.
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1.8 Forests

Forests and trees are revered and worshipped in India and are a source of livelihood
to millions of her people. India is among the top 10 biodiverse countries with
recorded around 47,153 species of plants and around 91,000 species of animals. A
large number of country's plants and animals are yet to be taxonomically identified,
named and described. In spite of the large human population, India has still retained
a largely intact biodiversity. It is recognized that there has been remarkable faunal
continuity in the Indian subcontinent over the past 1,00,000 years in contrast to the
extinctions in other continents (Roberts et al., 2014). This has been achieved in spite
of the fact that the cumulative numbers of modern humans (Homo sapiens) to have
ever lived on this planet have lived in the Indian subcontinent over this period
(Joseph, 2019).

India is among a few countries in the world where, despite ongoing developmental
efforts, forest and tree cover is increasing. A comparison with some other emerging
and advanced economies shows that India’s growth in forest cover has been
positive. In terms of canopy density classes, area covered by Very Dense Forest
(VDF) is 99,278 km2 (3.02 per cent), Moderately Dense Forest (MDF) is 3,08,472
km2 (9.39 per cent) and Open Forest (OF) is 3,04,499 km2 (9.26 per cent) (Figure
1.18). The forest and tree cover has reached 80.73 million ha which is 24.56 per cent
of the geographical area of the country. The total forest cover of the country, as per
the latest assessment (FSI, 2019) is 7,12,249 km2 which is 21.67 per cent of the total
geographic area of the country. There has been an increase of 3,976 km2 (0.56 per
cent) of forest cover, 1,212 km2 (1.29 per cent) of tree cover and 5,188 km2 (0.65 per
cent) of forest and tree cover put together, at the national level as compared to the
previous assessment of 2017 (FSI, 2019).

India accounted for 2 per cent of the total global forest area in 2015, as per the
Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) by Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO). Forest plays a crucial role in adaptation and mitigation to climate change.
Forests help to store more carbon than any other terrestrial ecosystem (FSI, 2019).
India has among the lowest rates of gross deforestation, both in absolute terms, in
per capita terms, and in annual rates. India does not figure in the top 10 countries in
terms of absolute rates of deforestation. Annual rates of deforestation have also
been consistently coming down in the country in recent decades (Reddy et al.,
2015).

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Figure 1.18: Forest cover map of India 2019. Source: FSI, 2019.

Protected areas

India has greatly expanded its network of Protected Areas (National Parks, Wildlife
Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves) over the years. The
870 notified Protected Areas (in 2019) cover 5 per cent of the total land area of the
country, a target which was set some decades ago. About 13.2 per cent of the land
area is also under government control in the form of Reserve Forests and State
Forests (many of which are also under PAs) which cannot be diverted for other use
without an elaborate process of permits. India has over 20 per cent of the total
geographical area under biodiversity conservation, thereby exceeding the global
Aichi Target of 17 per cent (MoEFCC, 2018). Recently, there have been calls for
extending the no-use protected area coverage at global scale of 30 per cent for land
and 30 per cent for oceans (Waldron, 2020). Given India's very large human
population, high dependence of people on forest products and insufficient land under
direct government control, it would not be possible for the country to meet a 30 per
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cent target for Protected Areas. India would prefer to use a more inclusive
sustainable landscapes approach to build resilience for biodiversity under a changing
climate. However, India would expect that countries with large area under natural
lands and low human populations would contribute to a greater than 30 per cent
share of lands under protection in order to achieve any global target which may be
agreed upon in the future to conserve biodiversity in the face of climate change.

Change in forest cover is a dynamic process. A change matrix (Table 1.8) gives a
quantitative account of class wise change and also the flux of changes among the
classes between the current and previous assessments. The values shown in green
colour represent improvement whereas those shown in red colour indicate
impairment or loss of forest cover in the three density classes, scrub and non-forest
areas.

Table 1.8: Forest cover change matrix for India between 2017 and 2019 assessments

2019 Assessment (area in km2)

Class
VDF MDF OF Scrub NF Total ISFR 2017
Very Dense Forest 97,309 626 50 2 171 98,158
Moderately Dense
1,755 3,03,781 699 109 1,974 3,08,318
Forest
Open Forest 127 2,244 2,89,358 1,069 8,999 3,01,797
Scrub 2 48 1,732 41,831 2,366 45,979
Non Forest 85 1,773 12,660 3,286 25,15,413 25,33,217
Total ISFR 2019 99,278 3,08,472 3,04,499 46,297 25,28,923 32,87,469
Net change 1,120 154 2,702 318 -4,294
(0) Gain
(0) Loss
Source: FSI, 2019.

1.8.1 Forest cover mapping using remote sensing

The biennial assessment of forest cover of the country used mid-resolution Satellite
data based on interpretation of LISS-III data from Indian Remote Sensing satellite
(ResourceSat-II) with a spatial resolution of 23.5 meters with the scale of
interpretation 1:50000 to monitor forest cover and forest cover changes at District,
State and National level. Satellite data for the entire country was procured from
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) for the period October 2017 – February
2018. The satellite data interpretation was followed by rigorous ground truthing.
Information from other collateral sources was also used to improve the accuracy of
the interpreted image. For the first time, ortho-rectified satellite data was used for
forest cover mapping due to its better positional accuracy as it removes effects of
image perspective (tilt) and relief (terrain) and scale distortions in the image to
represent features in their true positions for accurate measurement of distances,
angles and areas (PIB, 2019a).

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1.8.2 Fire prone forest areas

In contrast to the huge emissions from forest fires in regions such as Western USA
and Canada, Siberian Arctic, Amazonian basin, Indonesian rainforests, and south-
eastern Australia, the emissions from forest fires in India contribute a mere 1.0-1.5
per cent of all global emissions from wildfires. Forest fire regimes however are
expected to change with climate change. This is an important issue in the Western
Himalayan states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Increasing temperatures
would desiccate vegetation and increase their flammability

Fire prone forest areas of different severity classes have been mapped using grids of
5 km x 5 km based on the frequency of forest fires and published in the India State of
Forest Report, 2019. The analysis reveals that 21.4 per cent of the forest cover of
the country is extremely highly fire prone. However, as reported by the States, an
area of 93,273 ha or only 13.1 per cent of the country’s forest cover has been
affected by fire in 2019 (MoEFCC, 2020b).

1.8.3 Mapping of wetlands within forest

Wetlands within forest areas form important ecosystems and add richness to the
biodiversity in forest areas, both of faunal and floral species. During 2019-2020, India
added 13 Ramsar Sites to the List of Wetlands of International Importance, thus
increasing the overall national wetlands network from 26 to 39 sites, and area from
0.63 million ha to 1.07 million ha (Ramsar Sites Information Service, 2020). India
also introduced the regulatory framework for wetlands in the form of Wetlands
(Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017 which have been framed under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and guidelines for implementation in 2020.
These rules supersede those issued in 2010, and provide for decentralized
regulation through creation of wetlands authorities within states and union territories,
and their wise use as the basis of regulation and management decisions. Due to
importance of wetlands, Forest Survey of India (FSI) has carried out an exercise at
the national level to identify wetlands of more than 1 ha within Recorded Forest Area
(RFA). There are 62,466 wetlands covering 3.8 per cent of the area within the
RFA/GW of the country.

1.8.4 Climate change impacts and vulnerability of Indian forests

India’s forests are very diverse, ranging from tropical wet evergreen forests in the
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, the southern Western Ghats and the Northeastern
States, through tropical dry deciduous forests across large swathes of the country to
temperate forest and dry alpine scrub in the Northwestern Himalaya (Figure 1.19).
As per FSI (2019), very dense forests cover 3 per cent, moderately dense forests 9.4
per cent and open forests 9.3 per cent of India’s geographic area (Table 1.9).
Additionally, the carbon stock in India’s forests has been estimated to be 7,124.6

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million tonne in 2019, showing an increase of 42.6 million tonne C or 156.2 MtCO2
equivalent as compared to the estimates of the previous assessment of 2017. Soil
organic carbon accounts for 56.2 per cent of total carbon stock in forests.
The high dependence of local communities on forest resources and commercial
interests such as mining on forested land make India’s forests especially vulnerable
in the context of a changing climate. There is a need to understand the vegetation
dynamics for proper assessment of impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems.
Species responses to climate change include both their direct responses to changes
in the abiotic environment (e.g., air temperature, moisture availability, atmospheric
CO2 concentration), but also indirect responses through alterations in biological
interactions (e.g., pollinators, herbivores, seed dispersers, soil microbes). Various
approaches have been used for better understanding of climate change impacts on
forest ecosystems at local, to regional to global scales. Large-scale modelling
approaches, which include dynamic vegetation models, environmental niche models
and species distribution models, typically focus on direct responses of species to
changes in the environment and are used to assess the vulnerability of different
vegetation types and fauna across the country to climate change. At the same time,
smaller-scale ecological studies provide ground-level information on how biological
interactions and species-environment relationships might get altered due to climate
change. Besides native vegetation, studies on the impacts of alien invasive plant
species are important because climate change can exacerbate their impacts on
native flora and fauna. In this report, climate change impacts and vulnerability
assessments are reported for the forest sector in India at the national-scale as well
as at the regional-scale based on a number of studies which were commissioned as
well as other research reports.

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Figure 1.19: Forest types of India. Source: FSI, 2019.

Table 1.9: Forest and tree cover of India

Class Area (km2) Per cent geographical area

Very dense forest 99,278 3.02
Moderately dense forest 3,08,472 9.39
Open forest 3,04,499 9.26
Total forest cover 7,12,249 21.67
Scrub 46,297 1.41
Non-forest 25,28,923 76.92
Total geographical area 32,87,469 100.00
Source: FSI, 2019.

A dynamic vegetation model (Lund-Postdam-Jena or LPJ Model) and multi-model

ensemble of high resolution downscaled (CORDEX/IITM) climate projections were
used for assessment of impacts of climate change on Indian forests (Ravindranath &

92
Bala, 2019). In addition to this, a vulnerability profile for the forest sector was
developed at the national level.

Figure 1.20: Projected impacts of climate change on different forest types and regions of India.
Grids in red indicate change in vegetation type in the near term (2030s) and the long term
(2080s). Source: Ravindranath & Bala, 2019.

On the national level, 18-28 per cent forests grids are expected to be impacted by
projected climate change under different emission scenarios in the short (2030s) and
long (2080s) term. The impacts are anticipated to be high on Himalayan and north-
eastern forest ecosystems, particularly in the long term, while the Western Ghats are
likely to be less impacted particularly in the short-term scenario (Ravindranath and
Bala, 2019). Another national-scale study on the relationship between forest cover
and annual precipitation suggests that while the forest cover in most of the wetter
climatic regimes (including the Western Ghats and Western Himalaya) were highly
resilient to alterations in the precipitation regime, the drier regions of trans-Himalaya
were highly vulnerable to the same (Das et al., 2019). The LPJ-model simulations
show an increase in mean net primary productivity (NPP) with increase shown as
high as 30-50 per cent under RCP 8.5 scenario. All-India mean vegetation carbon is
expected to increase by 92 per cent and 114 per cent under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5
scenarios, respectively in the long term. The increase in vegetation carbon is
expected over most parts of India while the increase is relatively low in the western
Indian region. A marginal increase in soil carbon is projected over most parts of India
with a range of 1.7-7.2 per cent under different RCP scenarios.

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Vulnerability is the degree to which a system is susceptible to and unable to cope
with adverse effects. Biological richness (BR), Disturbance Index (DI), Canopy Cover
(CC) and Slope (S) of forest ecosystems were used as vulnerability indicators.
Approximately 40 per cent of forested grids are assessed as coming under ‘High’
and ‘Very High’ vulnerability classes. At the national level, 23 per cent, 37 per cent,
24 per cent and 16 per cent forest grid points show low, medium, high and very high
inherent vulnerability, respectively. The forest grid points with high and very high
inherent vulnerability are widely distributed across the peninsular states of Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, the central Indian States of Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand, and in West Bengal, and the North-Eastern States
of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur and Tripura.

Indian Western Himalaya

The Indian Western Himalayan (IWH) region consists of different vegetation types
along an altitudinal gradient, including subtropical forests, coniferous forests, alluvial
grasslands and alpine meadows. The IWH is especially vulnerable to climate change
like most of the other high-altitude regions of the world. Some of the plant species
inhabiting this region are witnessing shifting of their boundaries. This was evaluated
at a regional scale using forest grids of size 0.5 x 0.5 degree, equivalent to the
available resolution of climatic variables under various climate change scenarios, for
the impact and vulnerability assessment (Kumar et al., 2019). Undisturbed forests, in
the IWH region, with high species diversity and large canopy cover are the least
vulnerable and most resilient to climate change. A study on net primary productivity
(NPP) in relation to climatic variability in Western Himalaya suggests that NPP is
primarily driven by the precipitation regime and, as a consequence, three quarters of
the forest area in Uttarakhand State is vulnerable to climate change (Kumar et al.,
2019).

Central Indian forests

Central India has extensive tropical deciduous forest with domination of Teak
(Tectona grandis) or Sal (Shorea robusta). Land use and land cover change (LULC)
analysis was carried out for area under different forest types in Satpura Tiger
Reserve (STR) and Kanha Tiger Reserve (KTR) during 1990-2016 (Sinha et al.,
2019). In STR, an increase in the area under grassland and decrease under open
forests was seen, whereas in KTR, the area under grassland was seen to have
reduced and area under forests increased during this 27 year period. The LPJ model
showed an increase in NPP in KTR under both RCP 4.5 and 8.5 emission scenarios.
In case of STR, decrease in NPP was seen for RCP 4.5 whereas an increase was
seen under RCP 8.5 scenario.

The study also examined the relationship between climate variables with vegetation
indicators (NDVI/EVI) to understand the sensitivity of teak and sal forest for the
period 2000 to 2015. This indicated that these dominant tree species are more
sensitive to change in temperature than rainfall, with Sal being more sensitive to
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minimum temperature and Teak to change in maximum temperature. Conversely, a
study of Teak forests across tropical Asia suggests that land use/land cover change
and elevation were the primary determinants of the distribution of Teak, followed by
mean annual precipitation (MAP), precipitation seasonality, and temperature (Deb et
al., 2017). Changes in MAP, precipitation seasonality and mean annual actual
evapotranspiration under climate change are predicted to result in shifts in the
distribution of Teak across India (Deb et al., 2017). A niche modelling study of Sal in
central India suggests that given the sensitivity of this tree species to moisture
availability, its distribution is likely to shift in the northern and eastern directions as a
consequence of increasing temperatures (Chitale & Behera, 2012).

Tropical dry forests

Tropical dry forests occupy large areas of the country including the eastern rain-
shadow slopes of the Western Ghats in peninsular India. The dry forests of
Mudumalai (Tamil Nadu) in the Ghats have been monitored for over three decades
through permanent forest plots established since the 1980s (Sukumar et al., 1992);
this study has provided unprecedented empirical data on the sensitivity of tree
species dynamics to climatic variables. The effect of key environmental variables,
including fire, rainfall and temperature on species recruitment, mortality and growth
was estimated using machine-learning approaches.

The time since last fire burn, precipitation, and minimum and maximum temperatures
were the strongest predictors across all three processes, with recruitment,
survivorship and growth of several species lower during periods of low precipitation
and immediately following fires. Recruitment increased, and growth and survival
largely decreased, with increasing temperatures. One of the important findings from
this study is that tropical dry forests are relatively resilient to carbon stock changes
with either stability during periods of extreme stress such as drought and fire, and
overall increase seen over a three decadal period. This underscores the role of
tropical dry forests in carbon sequestration under a changing climate.

Grassland ecosystems of India

Grass ecosystems represent an important ecological component of vegetation
across India but have historically received less attention than India’s forests.
Different categories of grassy ecosystems include coastal grasslands, riverine
alluvial grasslands, montane grasslands, Terai grasslands, tropical savannas and
wetlands. Indian grasslands are affected by climate change in addition to many local
threats including land-use conversion, overgrazing and invasive species. In recent
decades, woody-shrubs have established in grassland ecosystems globally thereby
altering their structure and function. Land cover data from Moulds et al. (2018) and
satellite-derived information on vegetation phenology (leaf-area index (LAI) time-
series data obtained from MODIS) were used to interpret loss of grasslands and
woody-shrub expansion across India’s grasslands. This study showed that

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approximately 35 per cent of grassland habitat in the country has been lost during
1980-2010. Also, approximately 20 per cent of grassland ecosystems are
experiencing woody-shrub encroachment. Among the individual types, alpine
grasslands seem to be relatively intact while losses are seen in the terai grasslands
and sub-Himalayan region, across the peninsula, and in the northwestern arid
region. Other studies concur with the prediction of increasing woody encroachment
into grassy biomes in India primarily as a consequence of increasing atomospheric
CO2 concentrations which favour the growth of the former over the latter plant
category (Manish et al., 2016, Kumar et al., 2020). This would also have impacts on
a number of wildlife species which are specialized to living on grasslands.

Box 2: Climate Change and Alien Invasive Plants in India

Alien invasive plant species are a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystem
functioning in several forests in India. Studies from around the world suggest that
climate change can have a significant impact on the spread of invasive species.
Some of the major alien invasive plants in India include Lantana camara (a tropical
American shrub that has invaded many dry forests and savannas in India),
Parthenium hysterophorus (a tropical American herbaceous plant that invades open
landscapes including croplands), and Mikania micrantha (a tropical American climber
that is particularly invasive in wetter forests of north-eastern India and the southern
Western Ghats). A study of 11 alien invasive plant species in a Western Himalayan
landscape concluded that the distribution of most species is likely to increase under
future climate-change scenarios (Thapa et al., 2018). A recent niche-modeling study
on invasive Lantana camara and Cassia tora suggests that both species could
experience a shift in their distributions in the northern and north-eastern directions in
India under climate change (Panda et al., 2018). A local-scale study on the dynamics
of Lantana camara over a two-decade period suggests that Lantana responses to
rainfall fluctuations may be mediated by the presence fire, allowing Lantana to
spread even during low-rainfall periods (Ramaswami & Sukumar, 2013). A global-
scale study modeling the spread of Mikania micrantha suggests that parts of central
and northern India would become climatically suitable for the species under climate
change (Banerjee et al., 2019). Species distribution modeling of Parthenium
hysterophorus suggests that it could expand into currently uninvaded regions such
as Western Himalaya (Ahmad et al., 2019). Similarly, a niche-modeling study
suggests that another South American herbaceous invasive plant, Ageratum
conyzoides, is likely to expand in range in north-eastern India (Ray et al., 2019).

Box 3: Climate change and forest fires in India

Recent analysis by FSI showed that about 36 per cent of country’s forests are highly
prone to fires (FSI, 2019). Although wildfires are largely casued by human action,
they need favourable environmental factors including weather conditions for them to
spread. A hybrid process-based and Neural Net Fire Model developed under the

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‘Third National Communication’ project was used to show wildfires under RCP 4.5
and 8.5 scenarios, after independent calibration with the Global Fire Emissions
Database (GFED4.1s) and Climate Change Initiative (CCI) data. The CCI dataset
appears to better capture the spatial patterns of burned area in the subcontinental
part of India while severely underestimating burned area in Northeast India. The
GFED dataset better captures fire prone areas in Northeast India but fails to capture
the spatial variability in burned area. The CCI-trained model predicts a drastic
increase (82.2–195.0 per cent in subcontinental India and 27.5–83.5 per cent in
Northeast India) in burned area in future. By contrast, the GFED-trained model
predicts only a modest increase (17.6–34.5 per cent increase in the subcontinent
and 9–14.9 per cent decrease in the Northeast). Therefore, reconciliation of different
burned area datasets is crucial to reduce uncertainty in future fire projections (Figure
1.21). A study on the incidences of forest fire in the Western Himalayan states of
Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand suggests that the predicted increase in April
temperatures and decrease in mean annual preciptiation under future climate
change scenarios is likely to result in increased fire incidences (Ahmad et al., 2018).
Carbon emissions from forest fires in India are negligible on a global scale. For all
types of fires in India, a modeling effort in Rao et al. (2019) estimates this to be ~87
Tg/year over a 110 year period (1901-2010). National Remote Sensing Centre
estimated emissions of 98 Tg/year for the year 2014 from forest fires (Reddy et al.,
2015).

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Figure: 1.21 Time series of projected burned area for India from the two (GFED-trained and
CCI-trained) models, showing burned area (Mha/yr) for the historical period (1975-2005) and
projections for the future (2006-2100), under the RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios. Also shown is
the observed burned area from the GFED dataset between 1997-2016 and the CCI dataset
between 2001-2016. Source: Joshi et. al., 2020.

1.9 Agriculture

Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy. Of the total workforce, 54.6 per cent
was engaged in agricultural and allied sector activities (Census 2011). The share of
agricultural and allied sector activities in the economy's total Gross Value Added
(GVA) at current prices is 18.0 per cent and 17.1 per cent, respectively, for years
2017-18 and 2018-19 (MoSPI, 2020d). With a net sown area is approximately 140
million ha, which has remained the same in recent years, food grain production in
2019-20 rose to 295.67 million tonne along with significant increase in production of
horticultural crops, milk, meat, fish and eggs.

Agriculture is the most significant sector of vulnerability to climate change for India
and correspondingly the most significant sector of adaptation. It is critical to the
livelihood of millions of the population, and growth, particular for the small and
marginal farmers, is critical to their climbing out of poverty and deprivation and the
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attainment of the basic standard of living. The farmers of India in general, and
especially those of the marginal, small and medium sections in particular, have
traditionally always had to struggle with the impact of climate variability. Climate
change is now an additional burden, as a consequence of anthropogenic emissions
to which their contribution has been minimal. The burden of mitigation due to
emissions arising primarily out of industrial and related sectors cannot be passed on
to this section of the population, not only in India, but across the developing world.

According to the latest round of the Agricultural Census, with data for 2015-16
(AGCENSUS, 2019), the following key highlights are to be noted:

 The number of operational holdings has risen from 138.35 million in 2010-11
to 146.45 million in 2015-16, an increase of 5.86 per cent.
 The total operated area in the country has decreased from 159.59 million ha
in 2010-11 to 157.82 million ha in 2015-16 showing a decrease of 1.11 per
cent.

14 out of 36 States/UTs in the country accounted for about 91.01 per cent of the total
number of operational holdings and about 88.19 per cent of the total area operated
in the country. These States were Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

 The average size of operational holding has declined to 1.08 ha in 2015-16 as

compared to 1.15 ha in 2010-11.

 The percentage share of female operational holders has increased from 12.79
per cent in 2010-11 to 13.96 per cent in 2015-16 with the corresponding figures
of 10.36 per cent and 11.72 per cent in the operated area. This shows increase
in participation of females in the management and operation of agricultural lands.

 The small and marginal holdings taken together (less than 2 ha) constituted
86.08 per cent of the total holdings in 2015-16 against 85.01 per cent in 2010-11
while their share in the operated area stood at 46.94 per cent in the current
census as against 44.58 per cent in 2010-11.

 The semi-medium and medium operational holdings (2-10 ha) in 2015-16 were
only 13.35 per cent with 43.99 per cent operated area. The corresponding
figures for 2010-11 census were 14.29 per cent and 44.82 per cent.

 The large holdings (10 ha and above) were merely 0.57 per cent of total number
of holdings in 2015-16 and had a share of 9.07 per cent in the operated area as
against 0.70 per cent and 10.59 per cent respectively for 2010-11 census.

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This data clearly highlights, apart from quantifying the predominance of small and
marginal farmers, the absence of any serious incidence of “industrial agriculture”,
and the increasing “feminization” of Indian agriculture. This data substantiates the
social and economic vulnerability associated with Indian agriculture. The small and
marginal holders, and even some sections of the semi-medium and medium
category, particularly women, require significant income support, especially outside
the main cropping season. This is provided through the Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). GoI pays special attention to
the needs of this section in all the schemes for agriculture through preferential
treatment and special considerations. These sections are also the most vulnerable to
the impact of extreme events, though the intervention of the Government through
special relief helps to diminish the severity of the impact.

The Production of food grains, horticultural crops and increase in the growth rate of
agriculture GVA and allied sector (as per the figures released by Central Statistics
Office) from 2016-17 to 2019-20 are in Table 1.10. The consistent increase in
production of both food grains and horticulture in India indicates resilience to climate
change made possible by development of climate resilient varieties, appropriate
farming system and other interventions.

Table 1.10: Growth rate of GVA of agriculture and allied sector

Food Grains Horticulture crops Growth rate of GVA of agriculture

Year
(million tonne) (million tonne) and allied sector (at 2011-12 prices)
2016-17 275.11 300.64 6.8
2017-18 285.01 311.70 5.9
2018-19 285.21 310.74 2.4@
2019-20 295.67* 320.48** (3.7%) #
Source: MoA&FW, 2020a.
*Third Advance estimates of production of food grains
**Second advance estimate of production of horticulture crops
@Revised estimates of national income released by NSO on 31 January, 2020

#Second advance estimates of national income released by NSO on 28 February, 2020

Net sown area and net irrigated area in the country is 140.13 million ha and 68.385
million ha respectively. The total micro-irrigation area covered under the Centrally
Sponsored Schemes on micro-irrigation from 2005-06 to 2019-20 (as on November
2019) is 8.747 million ha (drip 4.589 million ha and sprinkler 4.158 million ha)
(MoA&FW, 2019b).

1.9.1 Programmes to promote agriculture

Given the importance to agriculture sector, GoI has taken several steps for its
development in a sustainable manner. Steps have been taken to improve soil fertility
through the Soil Health Card Scheme; to provide improved access to irrigation and
enhanced water efficiency through PMKSY; to support organic farming through
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Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY); and to support the creation of a unified
national agriculture market to boost the income of farmers. Further, to mitigate risk in
agriculture sector, a scheme “Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana” (PMFBY) was also
launched in 2016 (MoA&FW, 2018). The scheme also aims at supporting sustainable
production in agriculture sector by way of providing financial support to farmers
suffering crop loss/damage arising out of unforeseen events.

Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) promotes holistic growth

of horticulture sector, duly ensuring backward and forward linkages. A total of 384
districts in 19 States and 4 UTs are covered under MIDH. Sixteen National Level
Agencies (NLAs) have also been included for providing support for developmental
efforts, which require inputs at the National level. The Mission includes various
activities of Coconut Development Board, Horticulture Development Board and
Development of Commercial Horticulture through production and post-harvest
management, capital investment subsidy for construction, expansion, modernization
of cold storages for horticulture produce, technology development and transfer for
horticulture produce. This includes provision for National Beekeeping and Honey
Mission (MoA&FW, 2018).

The PM-KISAN Scheme – Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi was introduced in
February 2019 to increase the income of farmers by providing income support to the
land holding farmer’s families and to enable them to afford the expenditure related to
agriculture and allied activities as well as the domestic requirements. Provision to
transfer INR 6,000 per year to the beneficiary farmer’s account in four-monthly equal
instalment of INR 2,000 has been made.

Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati Programme (BPKP) is being promoted from

2020-21 under existing sub-scheme of PKVY. It is aimed at promoting traditional
indigenous practices and is largely based on on-farm biomass recycling with major
stress on biomass mulching, use of cow dung-urine formulations; time to time
working for soil aeration and exclusion of all synthetic chemical inputs directly or
indirectly. BPKP has same components as PKVY with more emphasis on capacity
building and awareness generation. According to the information presented by the
Department of Agriculture, Co-operation and Farmers Welfare, an amount of INR
12,200/ha is provided for cluster formation, capacity building, incentives to farmers
and certification. During 2020-21, an area of 0.308 million ha was taken up by the
states under BPKP.

1.9.2 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)

We report here the components of the NMSA that are related to adaptation and
climate resilience.

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1.9.2.1 Rainfed Area Development (RAD)

RAD is being implemented as a component of NMSA in a cluster approach,

depending on the type and extent of natural resources/assets/commodities already
developed or supported. RAD focuses on Integrated Farming System (IFS) for
enhancing productivity and minimizing risks associated with climatic variability.
Under this system, crops/cropping systems are integrated with activities like
horticulture, livestock, fishery, agro-forestry and apiculture to enable farmers not only
in maximizing farm returns for sustaining livelihood, but also to mitigate the impacts
of drought, flood or other extreme weather events, by providing alternate or
additional income opportunities from allied activities. RAD is being implemented
since 2014 across all States and UTs except Punjab and Goa.

Year-wise area brought under IFS under the RAD programme of NMSA, since
inception till 2018-19 is as follows:

Table 1.11: Area under the Integrated Farming System (IFS)

Area under the IFS (ha)

2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19
87,011 78,896 79,999 76,719 104,990
Source: DAC&FW, 2020.

1.9.2.2 Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and Mission for Organic Value
Chain Development for North eastern Region

PKVY was implemented in 2015 to promote chemical-free organic farming in cluster

approach with Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) certification. The scheme aims
at maintaining soil health, reducing cost of cultivation, empowering farmers through
Institutional building, and also supports farmers in providing value addition and
marketing linkage to their organic products. Under the scheme assistance is
provided to the farmers for cluster formation, capacity building, procuring inputs,
processing, packaging, labelling, branding and marketing of organic products. An
area of 0.379 million ha was covered under organic farming in 2018-19.

Realizing the potential of organic farming in the North eastern region of the country,
Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare launched a Central Sector Scheme
entitled “Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region
(MOVCDNER)” for implementation in the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura, during 2015-16 to
2017-18. The scheme aims at development of certified organic products in a value
chain mode to link growers with consumers and to support the development of entire
value chain starting from inputs, seeds, certification and creation of facilities for
collection, aggregation, processing, marketing and brand building initiative. The
scheme was approved with an outlay of INR 4 billion for three years. Major

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components of MOVCDNER are: Value Chain Production, Value Chain Processing,
Value Chain Marketing, and Value Chain Support Agencies.

1.9.3 Key progress in agriculture towards climate resilience

In the country, extensive research has been carried out for the development of
drought and heat tolerant genotypes in chickpea, pigeon pea and mung bean; and
development of drought tolerant onion.

India also has developed eco-friendly flood/drought tolerant seeds such as Rice
variety CR Dhan 201 a, medium duration (110-115 days), semi-dwarf, non-lodging
variety suitable for water limited/aerobic conditions with an average productivity of
3.8 t ha-1. This variety was released for states of Chhattisgarh and Bihar for aerobic
conditions.

ICAR-National Rice Research Institute (NRRI) has developed CR Dhan 801 and CR
Dhan 802 possessing submergence as well as drought tolerance ability in the
background of mega variety ‘Swarna’.

Mung bean variety IPM 205-7 (Virat) is early maturing (52-55 days), suitable for
summer cultivation in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.

DBW 14 (Raj 3765 / PBW 343): Early maturing wheat variety for late sown, irrigated
condition of North Eastern Plains Zone (NEPZ). This variety was first indigenously
developed through shuttle breeding approach and is suitable for rice-wheat system
of eastern India.

Besides developing these two varieties, more than 250 climate resilient varieties
developed by ICAR/SAUs have been evaluated for adaptation under vulnerable
agro-ecologies (MoA&FW, 2020b).

1.9.3.1 National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA)

The goal of NICRA is to enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture, covering crops,
livestock and fisheries to climatic variability and climate change through the
development and application of improved production and risk management
technologies, to demonstrate site specific technology packages on farmers’ fields for
adapting to current climate risks, and to enhance the capacity of scientists and other
stakeholders in climate resilient agricultural research and its application.

The project has been implemented in 151 districts involving over one hundred
thousand farm families across the country. The interventions in the village
panchayats are finalized following a participatory approach through the Village
Climate Risk Management Committee (VCRMC) to assess the climate-related
problems in the village and baseline survey. The programme was launched formally

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in all the villages by involving the state line department functionaries and leaders of
the panchayats to ensure local ownership of the project from the beginning and
convergence of related schemes currently in operation in the panchayat.

The project comprises four components:

 Strategic research through network as well as sponsored/competitive grants

mode;
 Technology demonstrations on farmers’ fields to cope with current climate
variability;
 Knowledge management and
 Capacity building of different stakeholders.

Figure 1.22: Map of 151 NICRA-KVK districts along with the climate vulnerabilities addressed
along with number of districts covered

Under the technology demonstrations component, participatory demonstration of

climate coping technologies are being done on farmers’ fields. Improved practices
like water harvesting, direct seeded rice, community nurseries, green manuring,
deep placement of fertilizers and feed supplements for livestock are being
demonstrated in 151 vulnerable districts of the country with interventions in NRM,
crops, livestock and fisheries. These demonstrations are quite successful and have

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attracted the attention of development departments in several States and triggered
horizontal out scaling on a significant scale.

The demonstrations are taken up in farmers’ fields across 151 climatically vulnerable
districts of the country by choosing one representative village from each district.
During 2018-19, 663 demonstrations were conducted on in-situ moisture
conservation and ex-situ water harvesting structures. During 2018-19, 2,332 training
programmes were conducted in 121 KVKs, benefitting 39,104 farmers for creating
awareness on climate change and sustainable crop production under variable
climate (MoA&FW, 2019c). As a part of institutional interventions, 121 Custom Hiring
Centres (CHCs) of farm machinery have been set up and this became the first Pan-
India pilot programme to promote small scale mechanization in the country.

Knowledge management (portal development) and communication: A dedicated

knowledge portal will be designed as knowledge portal on climate change and
agriculture (KPCCA). This will be done partly by outsourcing through competitive
bidding and also through internal cooperation among ICAR institutes and SAUs who
have expertise in the field. Efforts are being made to develop the management portal
which will act as a repository for all climate change related activities with latest
information. Some of the major achievements so far in the project are establishment
of state-of-the-art climate change research infrastructure viz. free air temperature
enrichment facility (FATE), free air CO2 enrichment (FACE), carbon dioxide
temperature gradient chamber (CTGC), temperature gradient tunnels (TGT), high
throughput plant phenomics, rainout shelters, eddy covariance towers, gas
chromatography, satellite data reception facility, automatic weather stations (AWS)
and research vessel for marine fisheries which are being used to study the impact of
climate change and variability on crops, livestock, fisheries and natural resources
like soil and water.

1.9.4 Soil as an ecosystem

Soil is a major carbon reservoir comprising more carbon than the atmosphere and
terrestrial vegetation combined. Soil carbon includes both inorganic carbon as
carbonate minerals, and as soil organic matter. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is the
engine of any soil and plays an important role in maintaining fertility by holding
nitrogen, phosphorus and a range of other nutrients.

Soil health and quality remain a matter of great concern for GoI. Of the several
programmes being run by the GoI for monitoring soil health, some date back to
1955-56. Soil Health Card (SHC) scheme is a flagship programme launched in
February 2015. The scheme is managed by Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)
Division in the MoA&FW, GoI. During the 1st Cycle (2015-16 to 2016-17), 25.349
million soil samples were collected and 107.389 million soil health cards were
distributed to farmers and during the 2nd Cycle (2017- 18 to 2018-19), as on 23

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August 2019, 27.232 million soil samples have been collected and 107.952 million
soil health cards have been distributed to farmers (EnviStats India Vol II, 2020).

1.9.5 Livestock

The 20th Livestock Census was conducted with the in participation with all States and
UTs. The enumeration was done both in rural and urban areas. Various species of
animals (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun, Yak, Sheep, Goat, Pig, Horse, Pony, Mule, Donkey
Camel, Dog, Rabbit and Elephant)/poultry birds (Fowl, Duck, Emu, Turkey, Quail and
other poultry birds) possessed by the households, household enterprises/non-
household enterprises and institutions were counted at their site. The 20 th Livestock
Census is indeed a unique attempt as for the first time such a major initiative has
been taken to digitise household level data through online transmission from the
field. National Informatics Centre (NIC) has developed mobile application software
and was used for data collection as well as online transmission of data from the field
to the NIC server. As per the 2019 census, the total livestock population is 535.780
million in the country showing an increase of 4.6 per cent over Livestock Census-
2012; and the total poultry in the country is 851.810 million in 2019, with a registered
increase of 16.8 per cent. Furthermore, the growth rate of dairy sector in terms of
total milk production in the country was 36.6 per cent from 2013-14 to 2018-19. To
overcome the shortage of feed and fodder in the country, MoA&FW has been
implementing the Centrally Sponsored Scheme National Livestock Mission with a
sub mission on Feed and Fodder Development since 2014-15 (PIB, 2019b).

Table 1.12: Number of livestock and poultry (in thousands)

Year Total Livestock Total Poultry

2003 4,85,002 4,89,012
2007 5,29,696 6,48,829
2012 5,12,057 7,29,209
2019 5,35,780 8,51,810
Source: PIB, 2019b.

Livestock income has become an important secondary source of income for millions
of rural families and has assumed an important role in achieving the goal of doubling
farmers’ income. Livestock sector has grown at a compound annual growth rate of
7.9 per cent during last five years. Government has launched a new Central Sector
Scheme “National Animal Disease Control Programme (NADCP) for control of Foot
& Mouth Disease (FMD) and Brucellosis” with a financial outlay of INR 133.43 billion
for five years from 2019 to 2024. This will result in increased domestic production
and increased exports of milk and livestock products.

India continues to be the largest producer of milk in the world. Milk production in the
country was 187.7 million tonne in 2018-19 and registered a growth of 6.5 per cent
over the previous year. The per capita availability of milk has reached a level of 394
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grams per day during 2018-19. Egg production in the country, which was 95,217
million in 2017-18, increased to 103,318 million numbers in 2018-19 (DEA, 2020).

1.9.6 Pest incidence: Recent locust infestation in India

The recent locust infestation, that was successfully controlled, provided valuable
learnings for dealing with the threat of pest incidence on a large scale, potentially
exacerbated by global warming. Starting from 21 May 2019 till 17 February 2020, a
total of 4,03,488 ha area was treated for controlling the infestation, including the
efforts of the Agriculture Department of the States of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Punjab
in the cropped areas of the States, covering 3,93,933 ha in 11 districts of Rajasthan,
9,505 ha in 2 districts of Gujarat and 50 ha area in 1 district of Punjab (PIB, 2020f).
Eighty-nine teams of the fire brigade for pesticide spraying, 120 survey vehicles, 47
control vehicles with spray equipment and 810 tractor mounted sprayers were
deployed as required on different days. Ministry of Civil Aviation also approved
special permission for drone operations under a “conditional exemption to
Government entity (DPPQS) for the use of Remotely Piloted Aircraft System for anti-
locust operations”. A Bell helicopter was also deployed in Rajasthan for use in the
scheduled desert area as needed. The Indian Air Force also assisted in anti-locust
operations by deploying a Mi-17 helicopter (MoA&FW, 2020). In India, more than
2,00,000 km2 area comes under the purview of the Scheduled Desert Area, that is
susceptible to locust attacks. Locust Warning Organization and 10 Locust Circle
Offices (LCO) of the Government of India are situated in Rajasthan (at Jaisalmer,
Bikaner, Phalodi, Barmer, Jalore, Churu, Nagaur, Suratgarh) and Gujarat (Palanpur
and Bhuj). These are responsible for monitoring, survey and control of the desert
locust in the Scheduled Desert Area in coordination with state governments.

1.10 Energy profile

In terms of energy consumption, India uses only 6 per cent of the world’s primary
energy, but sustained economic growth is placing an enormous demand on its
energy resources. India’s per capita energy consumption grew from 19,669 MJ
(mega joules) in 2011-12 to 24,453 MJ in 2018-19(P). In 2018-19(P), primary energy
supply added up to 906.09 million tonne of oil equivalent (Mtoe). Both power and
industry sectors are large consumers of energy in the country. The estimated
consumption of raw coal by industry has increased from 587.81 MT during 2009-10
to 968.25 MT during 2018-19(P) with a CAGR of 5.12 per cent. The maximum use of
natural gas is in the fertilizers industry (27.84 per cent) followed by power generation
(22.30 per cent), and 17.10 per cent natural gas is used in transport/distribution
network (MoSPI, 2020a). India’s energy intensity and its reduction is a cornerstone
of India's mitigation policies and is discussed at the appropriate location in Section
3.4.

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1.10.1 Primary energy supply

India is striving to meet the basic need of access to energy at an affordable price
while addressing the concerns of climate change. Enhancing energy supply and
access to energy for all are key components of the national development strategy. In
2018-19(P), Primary Energy Supply added up to 9,06,089.14 kilo tonne of oil
equivalent (ktoe). The share of coal accounted for 64.13 per cent, and the
contribution of crude oil was 29.40 per cent (Table 1.13).

As per present estimates, India has a renewable energy potential of about 1,097,465
MW for commercially exploitable sources viz. wind – 3,02,251 MW (at 100 m mast
height), small hydro - 21,134 MW; bio-energy - 22,536 MW, solar power - 748,990
MW and 2,554 MW from industrial waste. The share of wind and solar energy in total
potential of renewable energy is 28 per cent and 68 per cent respectively (MoSPI,
2020a).

Table 1.13: Share of different fuels in total primary energy supply

S. No. Fuel Primary energy supply for 2018-19 provisional (in ktoe)
1 Coal 5,81,156.76
2 Crude Oil 2,66,435.82
3 Oil Products -30,408.05
4 Natural Gas 56,675.60
5 Wind, Hydro and Nuclear 32,558.99
6 Electricity -329.98
Source: MoSPI, 2020a.

1.10.2 Primary energy demand

Energy consumption in India is characterized by low per capita level and a large
disparity between urban and rural areas. It is expected that the energy basket would
shift with an increase in income.

As compared to India’s population, energy resources are meagre. In the year 2018-
19(P), India’s per capita energy consumption was 24,453 MJ (Table 1.14) which is
just one-third of the world average. Per capita energy consumption of India grew by
24.32 per cent from 2011-12 to 2018-19(P).

To meet its energy needs, India is highly dependent on the import of crude oil. Net
imports of crude oil have increased from 159.26 Mt during 2009-10 to 226.50 Mt
during 2018-19(P) (MoSPI, 2020a).

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Table 1.14: Per capita energy consumption in India

S. No. Year Per capita energy consumption in (MJ)

1 2011-12 19,669
2 2012-13 20,790
3 2013-14 20,916
4 2014-15 21,871
5 2015-16 22,227
6 2016-17 22,630
7 2017-18 23,587
8 2018-19(P)# 24,453
#P = Provisional, Source: Per capita energy consumption in India. MoSPI, 2020a.

1.10.3 Energy future and energy security

Despite the growth in the renewable energy sector in India, the country’s industrial
growth is still significantly dependent on fossil fuels, coal being the predominant
source of energy. The power sector and industry are the main consumers of primary
energy from coal and natural gas. The growth of 5.12 per cent in coal production
between 2009-10 and 2018-19 was accompanied by an increase in coal imports by
over 12 per cent in the same time period, signalling a higher growth in demand than
could be supplied by domestic production. India will therefore need to focus on
enhancing domestic production of coal to be able to reduce import dependence in
this sector (MoSPI, 2020a). However, India’s per capita coal consumption is still
lower (0.73 tonne/person) than that of most developed countries and other emerging
economies as well (USA: 1.91 tonne/person; Germany: 2.62 tonne/person; Australia:
4.52 tonne/person; China: 2.70 tonne/person) (IEA, 2019).

The current situation created by COVID-19 will change the demand, supply, and
import scenario in ways that is not yet known or easy to forecast. For India, coal is
the only reliable source of energy that is domestically available in abundance. India
also has indigenous capacity to use this resource while maximizing economic
benefits from the same for its population. All other sources of energy, conventional
and non-conventional, currently require significant dependence on imported
technology and/or fuels. Natural gas, oil, uranium, solar photovoltaics, and battery
technology for energy storage are the main sources and technologies for energy
supply other than coal. While at India’s current stage of development cannot replace
coal fully in the industrial sector, even in the power sector, an over-reliance on these
without the capacity to manufacture them domestically, would be an economic
disadvantage for the country. It would also lead to higher costs for consumers in the
country in the absence of any mechanism for compensation by developed countries
that are responsible for emissions currently in the atmosphere.

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1.11 Transport

The development of transportation infrastructure is an important element in ensuring

economic growth. The EIA report on Global Transportation Energy Consumption
noted that while the OECD countries currently account for 55 per cent of the total
energy consumed by the transportation sector globally, the non-OECD countries
show higher incremental growth in demand from this sector. This is due to the
changing economic situation in developing countries, where increased urbanization,
diversification of employment, and increase in incomes is the driving factor in the
growth of the transportation sector and consequently of the energy demand from the
same. The energy demand from the transportation sector in developed countries
corresponds to a high level of economic prosperity and a lack of investment in
enhancing green transportation alternatives and reducing energy consumption from
the sector. On the other hand, developing countries such as India have a
dynamically changing economy with faster growing secondary and tertiary sectors,
leading to essential growth in transportation infrastructure and services.

The transport sector currently accounts for 10 per cent of the total energy
consumption in India. This is much lower than energy consumed by the transport
sector in other countries (USA: 28 per cent; Germany: 28 per cent; UK: 18 per cent
and China: 20 per cent). Energy consumption from passenger transport in developed
countries accounts for over 50 per cent of the energy consumed by the transport
sector as a whole in most OECD countries (Australia and New Zealand have a
slightly lower contribution) (International Energy Outlook, 2016).

In India, passenger vehicles account for less than 30 per cent of the total energy
consumed by the transportation sector (data for 2012 from International Energy
Outlook, 2016). The highest contributor to energy consumption in this sector is
freight transport. Air transport is also a relatively low consumer of energy in India.
This indicates the essential character of transportation emissions in India, in the
context of development needs.

However, GoI is aware that with rising income levels and growth of urban
agglomerations, the growth in demand for passenger transportation in India is likely
to increase significantly. Policies and programs implemented in the past decade
have been driven by this understanding and efforts are being made to achieve
growth and provide clean and affordable transportation services with minimal
environmental impact. Programs for Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) implemented
under the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission, provided funds for increasing
the number of CNG (compressed natural gas) buses in cities, thus incentivizing bus
transport to improve urban air quality, while reducing overall emissions from this
sector.

The investments made in large public transportation systems such as metros in

many cities across the country also aim to reduce the potential increase in private
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transportation. India has operational metro systems in the cities of Kolkata, Delhi,
Gurugram, Noida, Greater Noida, Bengaluru, Mumbai, Jaipur, Lucknow, Hyderabad,
Chennai, Kochi, Nagpur, Ahmedabad, Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Ballabhgarh and
Bahadurgarh (MoHUA, 2019a). With an increasing supply of renewable energy in
power generation, large public transportation systems such as metro and suburban
railway lines can alleviate the potential impact of increased demand for passenger
transportation on the environment. The Government has introduced the Faster
Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid & Electric Vehicles in India (FAME India)
Scheme for promotion of electric/hybrid vehicles (xEVs) in India.

CNG is being widely used in transport across the country. City Gas Distribution
(CGD) networks have been declared as a "public utility". At present (October 2019),
1,838 CNG stations are making available CNG to meet the requirement of 3.454
million CNG vehicles in the country. Government is meeting 100 per cent gas
requirement of CNG (Transport) segment of the CGD networks across the country
(PIB, 2019d).

Indian Railways with over 68,000 route kms is the third largest network in the world
under single management. During the year 2018-19, IR carried 1,200 million tonne of
freight and 8,400 million passengers making it the world’s largest passenger carrier
and 4th largest freight carrier. Revenue Earning Freight load carried by IR during
2018-19 was 1221.5 million tonne as against 1159.6 million tonne during 2017-18,
registering an increase of 5.34 per cent. Passengers originating was 8,439 million in
2018-19 as compared to 8285.8 million in 2017-18, registering an increase of 1.85
per cent in 2018-19 over the previous year (DEA, 2020). The continued widespread
use of railways for both passenger and freight transportation, in contrast to the
situation in developed countries, contributes to sustainable development and growth
in India.

Box 5: Assessing Mitigation Impact of Transport Sector Decarbonization

An inter-model comparison exercise was used to understand the impact of policies in

decarbonization of the Indian transport sector. The study results concluded that by
2030 and 2050 increased fuel efficiency and a modal shift towards public
transportation will have the maximum potential for CO 2 emissions reduction.
Although electrification provides emission reduction benefits in the long run, it isn’t
substantial once upstream emissions from the power sector are accounted for.
Hence, ambitious electrification targets need to be accompanied by decarbonization
of the power sector also.

Source: CSTEP, CEEW, IRADe, PNNL, and TERI, 2019

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1.12 Urbanization

India is one of the fastest growing countries in the world with rapid urbanization.
There were about 377 million people residing in the urban habitats of India (Census
2011), comprising about 31 per cent of the total population which is expected to
reach 606 million by 2030.The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana Urban (PMAY (U)) was
launched in June, 2015 to provide pucca house with basic amenities to all eligible
urban poor. The States/UTs were mandated to conduct demand survey to estimate
the housing demand in their respective cities/towns. So far, a validated demand of
11.2 million houses has been registered.

Urban habitats and cities are the epicentres of economic growth which has
contributed significantly to the Indian economy. Over 60 per cent of India’s current
GDP comes from the cities and towns. The share of construction sector in the
economy's total GVA (at constant prices) is 7.7 per cent and 7.8 per cent,
respectively, for years 2017-18 and 2018-19 and the share of construction sector in
the country's GDP at current prices is 7.0 per cent and 7.1 per cent for years 2017-
18 and 2018-19 respectively. (MoSPI, 2020d). Therefore, the investment made
under PMAY(U) not only provides pucca house to the eligible families to achieve the
goal of ‘Housing for All’ but also triggers multiplier effect on the overall economy.
PMAY-U is one of the largest housing schemes of the world covering complete
urban India. PMAY(U) is being implemented through four verticals. The scheme of
PMAY(U) is rapidly moving towards achieving the vision for providing a pucca house
to every household by 2022. Under the Mission, 4,427 cities have been included till
March 2020 wherein 10.5 million houses have been approved, and 6.5 million have
been grounded for construction. Of which 3.44 million houses have been completed
and delivered (MoHUA, 2020).

The Smart Cities Mission (SCM) and Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban
Transformation, both Centrally Sponsored Schemes, were launched on 25 June
2015. Under SCM, 100 Smart Cities have been selected through a two-stage
competition. A total of 5,151 projects worth INR 2,050,180 million have been
included by selected 100 cities in their Smart City Proposals.

As regards AMRUT, in total 500 cities have been included in the AMRUT covering
approximately 60 per cent of urban population in the country. The thrust areas of
AMRUT are water supply, sewerage & septage management, storm water drainage,
green spaces and parks, and non-motorised urban transport (MoHUA, 2019).

Provision of climate-resilient, comfortable housing meeting basic standards is a

sector requiring further efforts as part of human development and the attainment of
SDG goals. The Census of India, 2011, reported the presence of 187 million houses
covering 192 million households. Of these, only 50 per cent was categorised as
“good’’. With respect to the construction material for roofs, walls and floors, concrete
roofs covered only 20 per cent, burnt brick walls only 43.7 per cent, and tiled or
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cement floors only 34 per cent (Census, 2011). This data shows the enormous
challenge of adaptation in India, of which the provision of safe, durable and resilient
housing is one of the foundational components. In an inter-country comparison, the
OECD study on Economic Survey of India, 2019 (OECD, 2019) reported that cost of
housing is a significant barrier and that it had risen faster than the rate of growth of
GDP per capita and was higher than in other comparable countries. The challenge is
compounded by an intensification of the housing shortage in urban areas, a
consequence of the current rate of urbanisation.

1.13 Employment

As per Periodic Labour Force Survey estimates, the share of regular wage/salaried
employees has increased by 5 percentage points from 18 per cent in 2011-12 to 23
per cent in 2017- 18 as per usual status. In absolute terms, there was a significant
jump of around 26.2 million new jobs in this category with 12.1 million in rural areas
and 13.9 million in urban areas (DEA, 2020).

Various steps are being taken for generating employment in the country like
encouraging private sector of economy, fast-tracking various projects involving
substantial investment, and increasing public expenditure on schemes such as
Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP), MGNREGS, Pandit
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) and Deendayal
Antodaya Yojana-National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM). As a result of
these policy interventions, the nature of employment has changed significantly.

1.14 Major economic transformations

1.14.1 India’s jump in World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Report 2020

India ranks 63rd among 190 countries, improving by 14 ranks from its rank of 77 in
2019. India has improved its rank in 7 out of 10 indicators and has moved closer to
international best practices. The 2020 edition of the Report acknowledges India as
one of the top 10 improvers, third time in a row, with an improvement of 67 ranks in 3
years. It is also the highest jump by any large country since 2011.

1.14.2 India’s remarkable jump on the Global Innovation Index (GII)

In the past 4 years India’s rank in the GII has improved from the 81 st rank in 2015 to
the present 52nd rank in GII 2019 report. India became the first developing country to
launch the GII in association with World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)
and Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) (MoCI, 2019).

Economic transformation of a developing country like India crucially depends on the

performance of its agriculture and allied sectors. This sector plays a significant role
in rural livelihood, employment and national food security. It happens to be the

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largest source of livelihood in India. Mechanization is an essential input to modern
agriculture to increase the productivity by making judicious use of other inputs and
natural resources, besides reducing the human drudgery and cost of cultivation. With
the shrinking land and water resources and labour force, the onus rests on
mechanization of production and post-harvesting operations. There is a linear
relationship between availability of farm power and farm yield and government has
decided to enhance farm power availability from 2.02 kW per ha (2016-17) to 4.0 kW
per ha by the end of 2030 to cope up with increasing demand for foodgrains.

1.14.3 Digital India

Digital India is a flagship programme of the GoI with a vision to transform the country
into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy, with direct climate-
related co-benefits. GoI is promoting extensive use of technology for ensuring
efficient service delivery and responsive governance.

The use of digital technology is actively promoted in the education sector, weather
advisories, connecting agricultural markets through e-NAM, and connecting gram
swaraj through mobile applications. The use of digital technology is promoted in
financial transactions and digital payments by leveraging the power of JAM (Jan
Dhan, Aadhar, and Mobile) of "just achieving maximum”. Digitalization, e-commerce,
internet banking and mobile banking services assist rural populations and have
become significant channels for the government to transfer financial benefits to the
vulnerable population during the ongoing pandemic. In the fight against COVID-19,
the government launched the Aarogya Setu Application to connect essential health
services with the people by proactively informing application users regarding risks,
best practices, and relevant advisories (MoEIT, 2019a).

The Digital India programme is centred on three key vision areas: digital
infrastructure as a core utility to every citizen, governance and services on demand,
and citizens' digital empowerment. Some relevant illustrations from each of these
visions areas are provided below.

BharatNet: As on December 2019, 3,80,988 km of optical fibre has been laid

connecting 1,40,668 gram panchayats of which 1,28,376 gram panchayats are ready
for service.

Common Services Centre (CSC): CSCs are internet-enabled centres operated by

local entrepreneurs, called Village Level Entrepreneurs (VLEs) that provide e-
Services to rural citizens. These CSCs offer over 350 digital services. The number of
functional CSCs (urban & rural) across the country is 0.0364 million, out of which
0.0262 million CSCs are functional at the Gram Panchayat level.

Digital Locker: Digital locker provides an ecosystem with a collection of repositories

and gateways for issuers to upload documents to these digital repositories. As of

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December 2019, there are 32.3 million registered users of DigiLocker with 3.69
billion authentic documents having been issued. There are 144 issuers and 42
requestor organizations that have been on boarded.

Government e-Market Place (GeM): To facilitate online procurement of goods and

services required by various government departments, organisations, and PSUs,
Government e-Marketplace (GeM) has been implemented. There are 14,85,806
products, and more than 19,415 services available on the portal.

BHIM: Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) is an application that makes payment
transactions simple, easy, and quick using Unified Payments Interface (UPI). BHIM-
UPI platform has shown transaction growth of 589 per cent during the financial year
2018-19 (5,391.5 million) as compared to the financial year 2017-18 (915.2 million).
BHIM-UPI currently has 144 member banks offering this service to their customers
(MoEIT, 2019b).

1.15 Sustainable Development Goals

India is aiming to combine the 'sustainability' aspect to economic growth through

well-designed equitable growth initiatives including electrification of rural households,
augmenting the use of renewable sources, eliminating malnutrition, eradicating
poverty, access to education for all girls, provide sanitation and housing for all,
equipping young people with skills to compete in the global labour market, and
enabling access to finance and financial services. As noted before, mega-diverse
developing countries like India are undertaking considerable efforts for holding onto
and enhancing their forests and biodiversity with little or no international support. In
India forests are not mere sinks for carbon sequestration, but they serve as perennial
sources sustaining lives and livelihoods, are even revered and worshipped and
contribute to uplifting the very human spirit and endeavour of millions, who live in
close harmony with them. When compared with several developed and developing
countries, it is noteworthy that India has among the lowest rates of gross
deforestation in absolute terms, in per capita terms, and in annual rates.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) constitute a befitting framework in the

short-term (up to 2030) to answer the developmental challenges in proceeding to a
sustainable future, free from social, economic, and environmental inequalities and
thereby ensuring a greener and healthy planet for future generations. India’s
achievement in the composite SDG index score has improved from 57 in 2018 to 60
in 2019 (NITI Aayog, 2020b).

Increased focus on sustainability requires various actions towards building individual

and institutional capacity, accelerating knowledge and enhancing technology transfer
and deployment, enabling financial mechanisms, implementing early warning
systems, undertaking risk management and addressing gaps in implementation and
upscaling.

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While considerable and noteworthy progress has been made by India towards
achieving the various SDG goals, significant gaps still remain in achieving the goals
related to overcoming poverty and malnutrition. Further, substantial effort is still
required for strengthening food security, providing adequate housing, and ensuring
better access to basic social services such as education and health.

While developmental efforts and public welfare are at the core of the government’s
policies and programmes, India continues to face challenges in the provision of
poverty eradication, safely managed drinking water, solid waste management, and
drainage. Significant gaps also remain in ensuring expansion of economic and social
opportunities for all individuals and groups resulting in decent and dignified
employment and improved incomes and standard of living.

Improving gender equality is also an area of focus. India also needs substantial
investment in order to develop sustainable and resilient physical infrastructure (e.g.,
all-weather roads) and digital infrastructure to overcome its current infrastructure
deficit under the changing climate regime.

For a country with 1.3 billion people, improving access, affordability and quality of
sanitation, nutrition and health services has been a ceaseless endeavour. There is a
nationwide nudge provided by the Clean India Campaign and the National Nutrition
Mission. In India, all States/UTs have declared themselves open defecation free
(SBM, 2020a), recording a jump from the 2014 figure of 38 per cent villages with
sanitation (NITI Aayog, 2020b). Similarly, child and maternal mortality and stunting
levels have also reduced. India’s infant mortality rate (IMR) was at 32 per 1,000 live
births in 2016-18, and the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) declined from 122 in 2015-
17 to 113 in 2016-18 (7.4 per cent decline), as per the Special Bulletin on MMR
released by the Registrar General of India (PIB, 2020g). The SDG goal is to reduce
IMR to 12 per 1000 live births and MMR to 70 per 1,00,000 live births by 2030
(WHO, 2020).

Global Goalkeeper Award, 2019 – The Hon’ble Prime Minister of India received the
‘Global Goalkeeper’ Award by Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, for Swachh Bharat
Abhiyan on 24 September 2019 in recognition of his prioritization and leadership on
sanitation as a national priority, directly contributing to the global progress towards
Sustainable Development Goal 6 through the Swachh Bharat Mission. India
contributed to reducing the global open defecation burden by over 50 per cent (PMO,
2019). In last five years, record toilets were constructed benefitting the poor and
women of the country the most, in addition to boosting economic activity in villages.
India called for increasing the global sanitation coverage through mission mode
movements like Fit India Movement and Jal Jeevan Mission.

The SDG progress of the States/ UTs is measured on a set of 100 indicators spread
across 16 goals. The Index also includes a qualitative assessment on SDG goal 17.
As per the SDG Index 2019, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
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Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Goa, Sikkim, Chandigarh and Puducherry are the
front runners. The composite score for India has improved from 57 in 2018 to 60 in
2019. This positive stride towards achieving the target is largely driven by significant
country wide performance in five goals - 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), 7
(Affordable and Clean Energy), 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure), 15 (Life
on Land) and 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions) - where India has scored
between 65 and 99 (Niti Aayog, 2019a).

India has taken several steps in measuring the progress of Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) since the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for SDGs. In this endeavour,
Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has developed a
monitoring framework, namely the National Indicator Framework (NIF) on SDGs
based on national priorities and needs for tracking the progress made towards
achieving SDGs after a series of consultations with different stakeholders. At
present, there are 302 indicators in the NIF covering all the 17 Goals. MoSPI has
brought out the “SDG NIF Progress Report 2020 (Version 2.1)” on 29th June 2020
covering all 17 SDGs with time series data from 2015-16 (or the baseline year) to
2019-20 (or latest available year). The report provides an overview of the progress
made on SDGs and will help policy makers in identifying thrust areas where
interventions need to be focused (MoSPI, 2020c).

Box 6: Sustainable Development Goals Progress 2020

SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

 Nearly 99.77 per cent of households are electrified up to March 2020.

 The percentage of households using clean cooking fuel has increased to 98.10 per
cent in 2018-19 from 63.11 per cent in 2015-16.
 The renewable energy shares in the total installed electricity generation increased
from 13.40 per cent in 2015-16 to 19.2 per cent in 2018-19.

SDG11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

 In 2019, 34.93 per cent cities have master plans, whereas in 2015 only 33.17 per
cent cities had master plans.
 In 2019-20, 95.97 per cent of wards had 100 per cent door to door waste collection
system as compared to 40.91 per cent in 2015-16.
 During 2019, on an average 34.4 persons were injured per lakh population in road
accidents as compared to 36.2 persons in 2018. Further, during the third Global
Ministerial Conference on Road Safety at Stockholm during 19-20 February 2020 it
was decided to deliver a 50 per cent reduction in deaths and injuries over the next
decade on our way to Vision Zero by 2050.

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SDG 13: Climate Action

 There are 33 States and UTs with strategies for enhancing adaptive capacity and
dealing with climate extreme weather events in India in 2017-18.
 Despite having no binding mitigation obligation under UNFCCC in the pre-2020
period, India has achieved 21 per cent reduction in emission intensity of its GDP by
2014 in line with the voluntary declaration.

Source: MoSPI, 2020b.

1.16 India’s efforts in combating climate change

India submitted its NDC under the Paris Agreement on a “best effort basis” keeping
in mind the developmental imperatives of the country. In its NDC, India promised to
reduce its emission intensity of GDP by 33 to 35 per cent below 2005 levels by the
year 2030; 40 per cent of cumulative electric power installed capacity would be from
non-fossil fuel sources by 2030 and create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3
billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
The Paris Agreement is to be implemented in post-2020 period in line with the
guidelines adopted under Paris Agreement Work Programme.

India has strived to ensure that it follows a growth path that delivers sustainable
development and protects the environment by investing in various schemes aligned
with its NDC, like Swachh Bharat Mission, National Smart Grid Mission and Atal
Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation. Notwithstanding the economic
actualities, India’s mitigation strategies have emphasized on clean and efficient
energy system, enhanced energy efficiency, resilient urban infrastructure, safe,
smart and sustainable green transportation network, planned afforestation, as well
as holistic participation across all sectors.

There has been a significant leap forward for renewable energy with India
undertaking one of the world’s largest renewable energy expansion programmes in
the world. India had announced 175 GW targets for renewable by 2022 and has
already achieved 89 GW by September 2020. Further, the Hon'ble Prime Minister of
India in his address at the UN Climate Action Summit in September 2019 has stated
that “India's renewable energy capacity would be increased too much beyond 175
GW and later till 450 GW”.

As a Party to the UNFCCC, India submitted its Second Biennial Update Report
(BUR) to the UNFCCC towards fulfilment of the reporting obligation under the
Convention. As per BUR-2, the emission intensity of India’s GDP has reduced by 21
per cent over the period of 2005-2014 which is the result of India’s proactive and
sustained actions on climate change. India is on track to achieve its nationally
determined contributions. In 2016, the net national GHG emissions after including
LULUCF were 25,31,069 GgCO2 equivalent (around 2.531 billion tonne of CO2

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equivalent). India’s NAPCC identifies a number of measures that simultaneously
advance the country’s development and climate change related objectives of
adaptation and mitigation through focused National Missions. It was also meant to
focus on key adaptation requirements and creation of scientific knowledge and
preparedness as climate change acts as a “risk multiplier” for the vulnerable groups,
worsening existing social, economic and environmental stresses. India has decided
to revise the NAPCC in line with the NDCs under the Paris Agreement to make it
more comprehensive in terms of priority areas.

1.16.1 High Performance Computing (HPC)

India’s first multi petaflop supercomputer ‘Pratyush’ was established as a national

facility for improving weather and climate forecasts and services under the umbrella
of the MoES, GoI at IITM, Pune. This HPC ‘Pratyush’, having a peak computing
performance of 4.0 Peta Flops (PF), is ranked as India’s number one HPC. It has
been ranked 39th in position worldwide based on its computational capacity, as per
record on www.top500.org in the list published in June 2018. After commissioning 10
Peta Flops of HPC, India developed earth system models and contributed
associated simulations for inclusion in IPCC AR6 report for the first time. HPC
Pratyush is part of the MoES’s newly augmented HPC facility of 6.8 PF
computational power, with the other leg of the facility of 2.8 PF installed at
NCMRWF, Noida. This HPC facility at Indian Institute of Technology Madras (IITM)
is being used by IITM and other MoES institutes (like INCOIS, IMD, NIOT, NCAOR,
NCESS) for carrying out research and improving their respective weather and
climate forecasts and their applications. More information about HPC Pratyush is
available at: http://pratyush.tropmet.res.in. This facility has helped in improving the
prediction of CFS model for forecasting monsoon on different space and time scales.
IITM’s efforts in improving and providing reliable capabilities for seasonal, extended
range and short range prediction of monsoon rainfall, heat/cold waves prediction,
winter fog forecast for north India, air quality forecast and early warning for Delhi,
lightning, and cyclones have been much appreciated, which could not have been
possible without this HPC facility.

Figure 1.23: Inauguration of HPC Pratyush

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1.16.2 India at COP 25, calls upon more countries to join the International Solar
Alliance (ISA)

The 25th Session of the Conference of the Parties (COP 25) to UNFCCC was held
under the Presidency of Chile in Madrid, Spain on 02-15 December 2019. Some of
the key issues discussed at COP-25 were Pre-2020 implementation and ambition
gaps, Article 6 under the Paris Agreement, Enhanced Transparency Framework
(Monitoring, Reporting and Verification), Warsaw International Mechanism (WIM) for
Loss and Damage associated with climate change impacts, adaptation related
matters wherein India has been stressing on parity between mitigation and
adaptation and technology development and transfer. At COP-25, India also called
upon more countries to join the ISA to reduce dependence on fossil fuels to meet the
growing energy requirement, even as it acknowledged the phenomenal progress
made by the Alliance and the growing solar energy capabilities the world over (DEA,
2020).

1.17 India and the COVID-19 pandemic response

On 30 January 2020, Director-General World Health Organization (WHO) declared

that the outbreak of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) constituted a Public Health
Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) as per the advice of International
Heath Regulations (IHR) Emergency Committee.

On 30 January 2020, a laboratory confirmed case of 2019-nCoV was reported in

Kerala (Andrews et al., 2020). The Prime Minister’s Office and the Ministry of Health
and Family Welfare (MoH&FW) closely monitored the 2019-nCoV situation and
intensified preparedness and response efforts. Surveillance was strengthened and
enhanced at points of entry, in health facilities and in the community including
contact tracing and follow up around the confirmed cases. The National Centre for
Disease Control (NCDC) activated the Strategic Health Operations Centre (SHOC)
to provide command and control functions and a helpline was opened to answer
public queries. Since beginning of January 2020, WHO India as a member of the
Joint Monitoring Group and through other means provided MoH&FW, NCDC, Indian
Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
with technical advice, guidance and resources for enhanced vigilance, preparedness
and response to 2019-nCoV at both national and sub-national level.

As on 28 June 2020, there were 2,03,051 Active Cases, 3,09,712 Cured/

Discharged, Migrated and 16,095 Deaths in India. Gap between recoveries and
active cases had crossed 1,00,000 and recovered cases exceeded the active cases
by 1,06,661 as of 28 June 2020 (WHO, 2020a).

As of 6 September, MoHFW estimated that active cases were 8,62,320, total deaths
at 70,626 and discharged cases at 31,80,865. These correspond to a total of
41,13,811 cases since the inception of monitoring. The COVID-19 health impact in
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India has been notable for the low fatality rate in comparison to many other countries
across the world. However, as in almost all countries globally, the response to
COVID-19 has led to severe stress on the health care system, and on the provision
of routine health care and health development activities alongside the need to fight
the pandemic.

The nature of the unprecedented stress to not only health system but all other
aspects of national life is illustrated by the extraordinary efforts required to repatriate
India’s stranded nationals from all over the world. Thus, India launched the Vande
Bharat Mission (VBM) on 7 May 2020 after intensive inter-ministerial consultations
and approval at the highest level. As on 16 November 2020, more than 2.4 million
stranded Indian nationals abroad had safely returned to India involving more than
11,000 flights of Air India, chartered flights, now, under Air Bubble arrangements.
Around 0.2 million Indian nationals have returned via land crossings from Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar; 8,000 people have returned from Iran, Sri Lanka
and Maldives by 8 naval ships.

The impact of the pandemic therefore has acted to increase vulnerability among
those sections of the population who are already vulnerable to health shocks. The
COVID-19 pandemic has also created a new category of health vulnerability among
sections of the population that are economically on a sound footing but suffer from a
variety of lifestyle diseases including cardiac ailments, obesity and related problems
and diabetes. These conditions have become co-morbidities in the context of
COVID-19 and have increased the vulnerability of such sections.

Apart from the health sector, the pandemic response has had a major impact on the
economy as a whole, through the series of measures such as lockdowns, imposition
of containment zones and even curfews that have been undertaken to protect the
population from the immediate large-scale impact of the virus, while preparing the
infrastructure and facilities required for dealing with eventual large-scale spread of
the virus. These economic measures have had a serious contractionary impact on
the economy, especially over the period late March to early September. The National
Statistical Office (NSO) has published estimates for GDP and GVA for the national
economy, for the first quarter April-June 2020. The official statement noted that:

GDP at Constant (2011-12) Prices in Q1 of 2020-21 is estimated at INR 26.90

trillion, as against INR 35.35 trillion in Q1 of 2019-20, showing a contraction of 23.9
per cent as compared to 5.2 per cent growth in Q1 2019-20. Quarterly GVA at Basic
Price at Constant (2011-12) Prices for Q1 of 2020-21 is estimated at INR 25.53
trillion, as against INR 33.08 trillion in Q1 of 2019-20, showing a contraction of 22.8
per cent.

GDP at Current Prices in the year Q1 2020-21 is estimated at INR 38.08 trillion, as
against INR 49.18 trillion in Q1 2019-20, showing a contraction of 22.6 per cent as
compared to 8.1 per cent growth in Q1 2019-20. GVA at Basic Price at Current
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Prices in Q1 2020-21, is estimated at INR 35.66 trillion, as against INR 44.89 trillion
in Q1 2019-20, showing a contraction of 20.6 per cent.

GoI has had to announce a series of significant economic measures affecting all
sectors to meet the crisis. The package of such measures so far announced, as of
30 August 2020, amounts to a total of INR 20.97 trillion as the COVID-19 economic
stimulus package. This amounts to about 10 per cent of India’s GDP. A significant
part of this sum relates to provision of employment through India’s flagship
employment guarantee scheme, MGNREGS and a significant package of measures
for the MSME sector. Further measures may be expected as necessary for the
continued revival of the economy.

Despite these measures, the unprecedented economic impact of the pandemic is

expected to have a serious influence for some time, though the nature of the
recovery and its characteristics are much debated in the academic and policy
literature. Since the MSME sector has been the most severely affected, progress on
India’s NDC in energy efficiency may potentially be impacted. However, currently
quantitative estimates are not reliably available to comment on this further.

While there are significant learnings for the future from the pandemic response, the
view that such emergency measures perhaps should be undertaken even with
respect to global warming cannot be given serious consideration. The pandemic will
be brought under control soon after vaccines become available (which are being
pursued by a serious global effort), but global warming arises from structural, deep-
rooted causes, that are difficult to change as the experience of the developed
countries has shown in their inability to reduce emissions based on the demands of
science. GHG mitigation and sustainable development are not curable by magic
bullets such as vaccines.

Among the significant learnings from the pandemic relevant to the multilateral
processes related to global warming is the importance of global cooperation. India
has consistently emphasized this in both statements and declarations as well as in
practical terms. India has stepped up production of masks, personal protective
equipment, and other related materials required for pandemic related health activity
and has provided materials to other countries as well. Amidst uncertainties in the
nature of pharmaceuticals required, India has provided key supplies as feasible of
drugs such as hydroxycholoroquine. It is also collaborating with other institutions
world-wide in knowledge exchange and generation and production activity for front-
line drugs as well as trials of vaccines once these are readied.

Consistent information and knowledge flow are also a key requirement for the kind of
international cooperation that confronting global warming will require. This the
pandemic has established beyond doubt.

In the short-term, while India has made every effort to maintain its climate action on

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track successfully through this period, notions such as India can go completely
“green” immediately or take dramatic steps such as ceasing all new coal
commitments from now, in 2020, are beyond even the realm of speculation. The
foremost priorities will lie in restoring the economy to its normal condition, restore
normalcy in business, commercial and social life, before climate action can take
dramatic new steps forward. The scale of GDP loss and reduction in GVA speak to
this issue clearly and unambiguously.

The significance of the principles of equity and common but differentiated

responsibilities has also to be upheld and the economic impact of COVID-19 on the
Indian economy shows that this fully applies even in the experience of the pandemic.

The pandemic has also had some impact on the climate sector and related activities.
India’s scientific community has had to be drafted on a large-scale in the COVID-19
response for some months. In the meanwhile, field activities in various sectors, as
well as the implementation of the government schemes and projects relevant to
climate action have been variously slowed down or even brought to a complete halt
in this period. This may also slow down the process of restoring climate action on the
pre-pandemic or on an increased scale, as well as potentially introducing delays in
India’s reporting requirements under the UNFCCC and its Agreement and Protocol.

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 Reduction in emission intensity
2005-2010: 12%
2005-2014: 21%
2005-2016: 24%

India is decoupling economic growth from

emissions.

India's annual and cumulative emissions

in absolute and per capita terms have
been significantly low, and far less than its
equitable share. India is not responsible
for the problem of global warming, but we
are and will be part of its solution.
Nishar, R. (2020). City View, Mumbai, Maharashtra.
 Key Points
Chapter 2 National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
 India’s GHG emissions in 2016 were 2,838,889 Gigagram of CO 2-equivalent
(CO2e) without Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF). The
LULUCF sector remained a net sink. With the inclusion of both GHG emissions
and removals from the LULUCF sector, net national emissions were 2,531,069 Gg
of CO2e.
 The energy sector contributed 75 per cent of emissions, followed by 14 per cent
from agriculture, 8 per cent from IPPU and 3 per cent from waste. Total national
emissions (including LULUCF) have increased by 9.75 per cent from 2014.
 In 2016, the CO2 emissions from electricity production were the largest category,
accounting for 39.53 per cent of total emissions occurring in the country, followed
by CO2 emissions from road transport accounting for 8.57 per cent and methane
emissions from enteric fermentation accounting for 7.84 per cent.
 The top five key categories of emissions remained the same during the period
2014 to 2016, but their share in the total emissions was reduced.
 The share of CO2 emissions from electricity production in total GHG emissions
(without LULUCF) was 39.53 per cent in 2016 compared to 41.35 per cent in 2014.
Similarly, CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation were 7.84 per cent in 2016
compared to 8.71 per cent in 2014 while CO2 emissions from iron and steel
industries reduced to 4.75 per cent in 2016 from 5.90 per cent in 2014. It may be
noted here that the access to electricity, the population of livestock and the
production of iron and steel are all on the ascendance.
 The total emissions of the energy sector were 21,29,428 Gg CO2e in 2016,
increasing by 11.50 per cent from 2014. This sector constituted 93 per cent of total
national CO2 emissions in 2016. This was primarily from fossil fuel combustion,
comprising energy industries and construction, manufacturing industries, transport
and other sectors.
 The transport sector is largely oil-dependent and accounted for 9.67 per cent of
the country’s GHG emissions (without LULUCF).
 The industrial processes and product use (IPPU) category emitted 2,26,407 Gg of
CO2e in the year 2016 and accounted for 8 per cent of the total GHG emissions.
Within IPPU, cement production is the largest emission source, accounting for
about 47 per cent of total IPPU sector emissions.
 The agriculture sector in the year 2016, emitted 4,07,821 Gg of CO2e, which
amounted to around 14 per cent of the emissions of India for that year, registering
a decrease of 2.25 per cent since 2014.
 The LULUCF sector was a net sink of 3,07,820 Gg CO2e during 2016, registering
an increase in the sink activity of the sector. Cropland dominates the CO 2

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 emissions/removal estimates for India for the year 2016. Forest land, Cropland and
Settlement categories were net sinks while Grassland was a net source of CO 2.
About 15 per cent of India’s CO2 emissions were offset by the LULUCF sector.
 The waste sector emitted 75,232 Gg CO2e to total GHG emissions in 2016. The
waste sector was dominated by emissions from wastewater handling which
account for more than 79 per cent of the sectoral emissions and remaining 21 per
cent emissions from solid waste disposal.
 India’s annual and cumulative emissions in absolute and per capita terms have
been significantly low, and far less than its equitable share. India is therefore
entitled to increased emissions in the pursuit of development, based on the
principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities and respective
capabilities, principles that are foundational to global action against climate change
and are enshrined, by mutual international agreement, in the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change.

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 Chapter 2
National Greenhouse Gas Inventory
2.1 General aspects

The chapter contains information on India’s GHG inventory for 2016 including
descriptions of methods, data sources, uncertainties, QA/QC activities carried out,
along with trend analysis. In order to ensure the transparency, consistency,
comparability, completeness and accuracy of the inventory, the chapter also contains
information from the previous inventory submission.

As required by UNFCCC guidelines to prepare BURs, the national inventory is

prepared in accordance with the paragraphs 8-24 of the Annex to Decision 17/CP.8
(UNFCCC, 2002), meant for reporting of National Communications (NC) from Non-
Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC. The update is consistent with capacities, time
constraints, data availability and the level of support received for reporting.

This chapter presents the estimates of anthropogenic GHG emissions from sources
and removals by sinks for the inventory year 2016. The GHGs included in this report
are CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, and SF6. It also contains a description of institutional
arrangements for the inventory preparation, brief descriptions of the process of
inventory preparation, methodologies and data sources used and the key sources in
the inventory. In the end, there is information about the progress of QA/QC work, the
general uncertainties in the inventory and on the completeness of inventoried
emissions.

This inventory is organized according to the IPCC Guidelines, and covers the following
sectors: Energy; Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU); Agriculture; Land Use,
Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF); and Waste. GHG removals by sinks occur
in the LULUCF sector as a result of management activities in protected areas and
reforestation. India has applied the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines (IPCC, 1996), 2003
IPCC Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (IPCC,
2003) and the 2006 IPCC guidelines (IPCC, 2006) for GHG Inventories. The 2006
IPCC guidelines have been followed to the extent possible, as per the extant
capacities.

India’s submission of its BURs is in keeping with its view of the paramountcy of the
multilateral process under the UNFCCC to face the challenge of global warming. The
uniform and timely submission of BURs of developing countries however cannot be
considered on par with the submission of the Biennial Reports of the developed
countries, who are to take the lead in climate action. It is also necessary to emphasize
that these BRs, and the proposed Biennial Transparency Reports under the Paris
Agreement, are no substitute for real climate action. For a large country like India, the
preparation of the inventory is a considerable financial burden, that requires the
mobilization of significant expertise for its preparation. Further detailing of inventory

138
requirements under the PA, especially in relation to the large-scale presence of the
informal sector, is a new and additional burden. The reporting requirements that have
come to be part of not only the global climate regime but also a number of other
environmental agreements and protocols should not lead to a situation where the
undertaking of real action suffers from an over-emphasis on reporting.

2.2 Institutional Arrangements

Preparation of the national inventory involved the participation of India’s scientific and
research institutions, in addition to various government agencies. MoEFCC
coordinates the preparation of the inventory, including by convening different expert
institutions that collate sectoral information and conduct studies to obtain country-
specific emission factors. The MoEFCC awards studies to expert institutions and
establishes contact with other government agencies responsible for official statistics
and data. After establishing these agreements, the technical team in charge of the
inventory conducts technical discussions with the partners, monitors the updating and
availability of information, and carries out quality control.

Twelve Indian institutions carried out the inventory preparation exercise in the areas
of their respective sectoral expertise. Many of these institutions/experts have been a
part of the inventory preparation exercise since India’s Initial National Communication
(MoEF, 2004). Various Ministries and Government departments, public sector
undertakings provided inputs for preparation of the national inventory. Figure 2.1 lists
the institutions engaged in inventory preparation in different sectors.

139
Figure 2.1: Institutions involved in GHG Inventory preparation

CII: Confederation of Indian Industry, New Delhi

CIMFR: Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Dhanbad
FSI: Forest Survey of India, Dehradun
IARI: Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
IIMA: Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
IIP: Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehradun
IISc: Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru
IORA: IORA Ecological Solutions, New Delhi
NDRI: National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
NEERI: National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur
NRSC: National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad

140
2.3 Methodology

The IPCC Guidelines (IPCC, 2006) provide a detailed estimation methodology for all
the sectors and sub-sectors. A system of methodological tiers has been developed by
IPCC to represent different levels of methodological complexity. Tier 1 uses an IPCC
default value, Tier 2 uses country specific emission factors that are based on either
measurements or IPCC Tier 2 emission factors, and Tier 3 is the most demanding in
terms of complexity and data requirements. Tier 3 may include models and inventory
management systems tailored to address national circumstances, repeated over time,
and determined by high-resolution activity data and disaggregated at the sub-national
level. Both default and country-specific emission factors have been employed and
presented in Table 2.1 for all categories and gases (IPCC, 1996).
Table 2.1: Summary of emission factors and methodologies in the Third Biennial Update Report

Type of emission factor and level of methodological Tier employed for GHG estimation
Gas CO2 CH4 N2O
Method Emissio Method Emissio Method Emissio
Sector/ Category
used n Factor used n Factor used n Factor
1. Energy
A. Fuel combustion activities
1. Energy industries T1,T2,T3 D, CS T1 D T1 D
2. Manufacturing industries &
T1,T2,T3 D, CS T1,T2 D T1 D
construction
3. Transport T1,T2 D, CS T1, T2 D T1, T2 D
4. Other sectors T1,T2 D, CS T1 D T1 D
B. Fugitive emission from fuels
1. Solid fuels NO T2,T3 CS NO
2. Oil and natural gas NO T1 D NO
2. Industrial Process
A. Mineral industry T1,T2 D, CS NO NO
B. Chemical industry T1,T2 D, CS T1 D T1, T2 D, CS
C. Metal industry T1,T2 D, CS T1 D NO
D. Non-energy product use NO NO NO
E. Production of halocarbons NO NO NO
3. Agriculture
A. Enteric fermentation NO T1,T2 D, CS NO
B. Manure management NO T1 D T1 D
C. Rice cultivation NO T2 CS
D. Agricultural soils NO NO T2 CS
F. Field burning of agricultural
NO T1 D T1 D
residues
4. Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF)
A. Forest land T2 CS T2 D, CS T2 D, CS
B. Cropland T2 CS NO NO
C. Grassland T2 CS NO NO
D. Settlements T2 CS NO NO

141
 E. Wetlands NE NE NE
F. Other Land NA NA NA
5. Waste
A. Solid waste disposal on
NO T2 D, CS NO
land
B. Waste-water handling NO T1, T2 D, CS T1, T2 D, CS
Memo item (not accounted in total emissions)
International bunkers T1, T2 D T1, T2 D T1, T2 D
CO2 from biomass T1 D NO NO
T1- Tier 1; T2- Tier 2; T3- Tier 3; CS- Country Specific; D- IPCC Default, NO-Not Occurring, NA-
Not Applicable, NE-Not Estimated

A global warming potential is a quantified measure of the globally averaged relative

radiative forcing of a particular GHG (see Table 2.2). It is defined as the accumulated
radiative forcing within a specific time horizon caused by emitting 1 kilogram (kg) of
the gas, relative to that of the reference gas CO2. Direct radiative effects occur when
the gas itself absorbs radiation. Indirect radiative forcing occurs when chemical
transformations involving the original gas produce a gas or gases that are GHGs, or
when a gas influences other radiative important processes such as the atmospheric
lifetimes of other gases. All calculations in the present report use the Global Warming
Potential (GWP) of GHGs for 100 years, IPCC AR2 (IPCC, 1995).
Table 2.2: Global Warming Potentials Used

Gas GWP (100 year)

CO2 1
CH4 21
N2O 310
HFC-23 11700
HFC-134a 1300
CF4 6500
C2F6 9200
C4F10 7000
C6F14 7400
SF6 23900

Furthermore, for the national GHG inventory, as set forth in paragraph 12 of Decision
17/CP.8, to the extent possible, the key categories are analyzed, pursuant to IPCC
Good Practice Guidance, to identify the subsectors that should be prioritized in terms
of methodological refinement, taking into consideration the national circumstances, as
well as the contribution of the identified subsectors to the total emissions (UNFCCC,
2002).

2.4 Quality Assurance (QA), Quality Control (QC)

Following the 2006 IPCC Guidelines, national inventories have to be transparent, well
documented, consistent, complete, comparable, assessed for uncertainties, and

142
should be subjected to verification and QA/QC exercise. The quality system includes
several procedures such as training of personnel, inventory planning and preparation,
QA/QC procedures, peer-reviewed publications, data storage, and follow-up and
improvements. The QA/QC plan also includes a scheduled timeframe describing the
different stages of the inventory from its initial development to final reporting. The
quality system ensures that the inventory is systematically planned, prepared and
followed up in accordance with specified quality requirements, so that the inventory is
continuously developed and improved (IPCC, 2006a).

MoEFCC and other government agencies which take part in the climate-reporting work
have to ensure that the methodologies applied in the reporting and inventories of
emissions and removals attain the quality required to maintain the highest level of
accuracy in climate reporting. The government agencies have to follow internal
routines to plan, prepare, check and act/follow up the quality assurance and control
work and consult one another with the aim of developing and maintaining a
coordinated quality system. All Tier 1 general inventory level QA and QC procedures
listed in the IPCC GPG section are used (IPCC, 2006a). In addition, the emission of
every category is checked and compared with previous years. The time series for all
data have been studied carefully in search for outliers and to make sure that levels are
reasonable.
Quality Control

Quality control is the check that is made during the inventory preparation on different
types of data, emission factors and calculations that have been made. The quality
control takes place according to general requirements (Tier 1) which applies to all
types of data used as support material for the reporting, and the specific requirements
for quality control (Tier 2) which are applied to certain types of data and/or emission
sources (IPCC, 2006a). In this inventory preparation exercise, general Tier 1 QC
measures, according to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines, have been carried out as follows:

 Check whether assumptions and criteria for the selection of activity data,
emission factors, and other estimation parameters were documented, compare
with international agency estimates.
 Check for transcription errors in data input and references.
 Check that emissions and removals are calculated correctly.
 Check that parameters and units are correctly recorded and that appropriate
conversion factors are used.
 Check the integrity of database files.
 Check for consistency in data between source categories.
 Check that the movement of inventory data among processing steps is correct.
 Check that uncertainties in emissions and removals are estimated and
calculated correctly.
 Check time series consistency.
 Check completeness.
 Compare the reference and sectoral approach.

143
  Conduct trend checks.
 Review of internal documentation and archiving.
Quality Assurance

According to IPCC Good Practice Guidance, good practice for QA procedures requires
an objective review to assess the quality of the inventory and to identify areas where
improvements should be made. Furthermore, it is good practice to use QA reviewers
who have not been involved in preparing the inventory. In India, MoEFCC is
responsible for reviewing the inventory with regard to quality and areas for
improvement. The following are the responsibilities/tasks to perform in order to
prepare the national GHG inventory.

 Determining information needs to comply with the methodological requirements

stipulated by the 2006 IPCC Guidelines.
 Preparation and sending of information queries to select data sources using
official correspondence, telephone, and e-mail.
 Identification of potential data sources, including organizations and
independent experts.
 Data collection (activity data and emission factors) for all source/sink categories
for Energy, IPPU, Agriculture, Waste and LULUCF Sectors.
 Analysis of the information, so obtained for the possibility of its immediate use
for calculation of emissions and reductions.
 Reliability check of input data through the comparison of the same or similar
data from alternative data sources and time-series assessment in order to
identify changes that cannot be explained.
 Data processing and archiving.
 Assessment of consistency of the methodologies applied, inventory
improvement recalculations.
 Reliability check of results, elimination of errors.
 Development and implementation of QC procedures under supervision of
MoEFCC.
 Implementation of Quality assurance conducted by MoEFCC staff and relevant
experts
 Key category analysis.
 Uncertainty assessment.
 Final validation done by expert’s group and the steering committee through
MoEFCC.
 Preparation of the final version of the inventory report.
 Documentation and archiving of all data used in preparation of the national
inventory report.
 Submission of the inventory report by MoEFCC to UNFCCC Secretariat.

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2.5 National Greenhouse Gas Emissions

In 2016, India’s total GHG emissions excluding LULUCF amounted to 2,839 MtCO2e
and including LULUCF amounted to 2,531 MtCO2e. Total national emissions
(including LULUCF) have increased by 9.75 per cent with respect to 2014 and by 106
per cent since 1994 (Figure 2.2 and Table 2.3). The main contributors of the total GHG
emission are CO2 emissions generated due to burning of fossil fuels, methane
emissions from livestock and increasing aluminium and cement production. The
LULUCF sector was a net sink during the inventory period 2016.

Table 2.3: Sector-wise National GHG emission in MtCO2e for 1994-2016

GHG Sources and Removals 1994 2000 2007 2010 2014 2016
Mt CO2e
Source INC SNC SNC BUR-1 BUR-2 BUR-3
Energy 744 1027 1374 1510 1910 2129
Industrial Processes and
103 89 142 172 202 226
Product Use
Agriculture 344 356 373 390 417 408
LULUCF 14 -223 -177 -253 -301 -308
Waste 23 53 58 65 78 75
Total (without LULUCF) 1214 1524 1947 2137 2607 2839
Total (with LULUCF) 1229 1301 1772 1884 2306 2531
Source: (MoEF, 2004); (MoEF, 2012); (MoEF, 2010); (MoEFCC, 2015); (MoEFCC, 2018).

145
 3500

3000

2500

2000
Mt CO2e

1500

1000

500

-500

2016
1994

2000

2007

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015
Energy Industrial Processes and Product Use Agriculture LULUCF Waste

Figure 2.2: Sector-wise National GHG emission in Mt CO2e for 1994-2016.

Source: (MoEF, 2004); (MoEF, 2012); (MoEF, 2010); (MoEFCC, 2016); (MoEFCC, 2018).

350

325

300
Growth in emissions, CO2e (1994=100)

275

250

225

200

175

150

125

100

75
1994 2000 2007 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Energy Industrial Processes and Product Use

Agriculture Waste
Total (without LULUCF) Total (with LULUCF)

Figure 2.3: Growth in emissions of greenhouse gases, relative to 1994, illustrated by source
categories, 1994-2016. Index 1994 = 100.
Source: (MoEF, 2004); (MoEF, 2012); (MoEF, 2010); (MoEFCC, 2016); (MoEFCC, 2018).

146
Activity data and country specific emission factors used in the inventory preparation
have been listed in a tabular format in the sector-wise emission section. India has used
IPCC 2006 guidelines default emission factors wherever emission factors have not
been indicated. India has experienced substantial economic growth since 1994,
generating a general growth in GHG emissions. Examining the overall trend from
1994 to 2016, CO2e emissions (without LULUCF) increased by 134 per cent. The
waste sector has the highest growth of 224 per cent over the period of 1994 to 2016
due to the increase in population and industrial activities, but its contribution to overall
emissions always remains around 3 per cent, as their absolute contribution is very low.
Energy sector has the second-highest growth of 186 per cent for the same period due
to continuous increase of fossil fuel combustion. IPPU sector has growth of 120 per
cent and Agriculture sector has 18 per cent growth for same period. (Figure 2.3).
Removals of GHGs from LULUCF sector has reported growth of 38 per cent between
2000 and 2016.

2.5.1 Summary GHG Emission in 2016

In 2016, India emitted 28,38,889 Gg of CO2e GHGs from Energy, IPPU, Agriculture
and Waste sectors. LULUCF sector remained a net sink in 2016, accounting for the
removal of 3,07,820 GgCO2e of emissions. Considering total emissions and removals,
net national emissions in 2016 were 25,31,069 GgCO2e. The energy sector
contributed the most to the overall emissions with 75 per cent, followed by agriculture
sector 14 per cent, IPPU by 8 per cent and Waste by 3 per cent (Figure 2.4). A
summary of sector wise national emissions and removals is presented in the Table
2.4.
Table 2.4: Sector-wise National GHG emission in Gg for 2016.

GHG sources CO2 CO2 HFC CO2

CH4 N2O CF4 C2F6 SF6
and removals emission removal 23 equivalent
Energy 2064840 NO 2072 68 NO NO NO NO 2129428
IPPU 166227 NO 187 11 2 4 1 0.004 226407
Agriculture 0 NO 14423 339 NO NO NO NO 407821
LULUCF 21289 330765 55 2 NO NO NO NO -307820
Waste NO NO 2820 52 NO NO NO NO 75232
Memo Items 789305 NO 1 0.13 NO NO NO NO 789359
Total without
2231068 --- 19502 469 2 4 1 0.004 2838889
LULUCF
Total with
2252356 330765 19557 471 2 4 1 0.004 2531069
LULUCF
Abbreviation: NO – Not Occurring.

147
 Energy

7.98%
Industrial Processes and Product Use
75.01%
14.37%
Agriculture

2.65% Waste

Figure 2.4: Distribution of GHG emissions (GgCO2e) by sector, 2016

Energy sector emissions comprises of emissions from electricity production (1A1a-

CO2), contributing 40 per cent of the total emissions; road transport (1A3b-CO2), 9 per
cent of the total emissions; non-specific industries (1A2m-CO2), 5 per cent of the total
emissions; iron and steel (1A2a-CO2), 4 per cent of the total emissions; residential
(1A4b-CO2), 3 per cent of the total emissions; refinery (1A1b-CO2), 2 per cent of the
total emissions; commercial/institutional (1A4a-CO2), 2 per cent of the total emissions
and cement (1A2f-CO2), 2 per cent of the total emissions. Emissions from enteric
fermentation (3A1-CH4) are 8 per cent of the total emissions, while rice cultivation
(3C7-CH4), agricultural soils (3C4-N2O) and manure management (3A2-N2O)
contribute 3, 3 and 1 per cent of the total emissions respectively. In the Industrial
processes and product use sector, cement production (2A1-CO2), aluminium
production (2C3-CF) and lime production (2A2-CO2) contribute 4, 1 and 1 per cent of
total emissions respectively (Figure 2.5). Figure 2.5 shows the top 15 key emission
categories for India for 2016 in terms of CO2e.

Electricity Production (1A1a), CO₂ 40%

Road Transport (1A3b), CO₂ 9%
Enteric Fermentation (3A1), CH₄ 8%
Nonspecific Industries (1A2m), CO₂ 6%
Iron & Steel (1A2a), CO₂ 5%
Residential (1A4b), CO₂ 4%
Cement Production (2A1), CO₂ 4%
Agricultural Soils (3C4), N₂O 3%
Refinery (1A1b), CO₂ 3%
Rice Cultivation (3C7), CH₄ 3%
Commercials/Insititutional (1A4a), CO₂ 2%
Cement (1A2f), CO₂ 2%
Aluminium Production (2C3), CF 1%
Lime Production (2A2), CO₂ 1%
Manure Management (3A2), N₂O 1%

Figure 2.5: Greenhouse gas emissions by category, GgCO2e, 2016.

148
2.6 Emission trends by gas

In 2016, GHG emissions excluding LULUCF at the national level by type of gas were
as follows: emissions of CO2 accounted for 22,31,068 Gg (78.59 per cent); CH4
emissions accounted for 4,09,537 GgCO2e (14.43 per cent) and N2O emissions
accounted for 1,45,469 GgCO2e (5.12 per cent). In the case of fluorinated gases,
emissions of HFC were 19,259 GgCO2e (0.68 per cent), CF4 emissions 24,158
GgCO2e (0.85 per cent), C2F6 emissions 9,298 GgCO2e (0.33 per cent) and SF6
emissions 100 GgCO2e (Figure 2.6).

CO₂ emission
14.43%
CH₄
5.12%
78.59% N₂O
1.86%
Other Gases

Figure 2.6: Gas-wise emission for the year 2016

2.7 Emission trends by sources

2.7.1 Energy sector

The Energy sector, which includes the consumption of fossil fuels in the country and
their associated fugitive emissions, is the main GHG emitting sector in the country,
contributing to 75 per cent of the total GHG emissions in 2016 (excluding LULUCF).
The total emissions from the energy sector were 21,29,428 Gg CO2e in 2016,
increasing by 11.5 per cent since 2014, mainly due to the steady increase in the
country’s energy consumption, including the consumption of coal and natural gas for
power generation and the consumption of liquid fuels for transportation. Figure 2.7
shows the relative distribution of GHG emissions across the energy sector.

149
 18.68% 12.89%

0.80%
10.03%

0.94%

56.66%

Energy Industries Manufacturing Industries & Construction

Transport Other Sectors
Solid Fuels (Fugitive emission) Oil and Natural Gas (Fugitive emission)

Figure 2.7: Distribution of CO2e emissions (Gg) across the Energy Sector Categories in 2016

Energy sector emitted 93 per cent of the total national CO2 emissions in 2016. This
was primarily from fossil fuel combustion activities, comprising energy industries,
manufacturing industries, transport and other sectors. Within the energy sector, 98.25
per cent of total emissions are from fuel combustion activities. Fugitive emissions
contributed to 1.75 per cent of the total GHG emissions from the energy sector.

Fuel combustion activities (1.A)

The fuel combustion category includes emissions from fossil fuel burning, inside or
outside of a device designed to heat, or provide heat to a process through heat or
mechanical work. The total emissions from this category were 20,92,250 GgCO2e
emission in the year 2016, which has increased by 2,20,541 Gg (12 per cent) from
2014 levels. Within the category, energy industries are the largest contributor with a
58 per cent (12,06,587 GgCO2e) of total emissions, followed by 19 per cent (3,97,739
GgCO2e) from manufacturing industries and construction, 13 per cent (2,74,434
GgCO2e) from transport and 10 per cent (2,13,490 GgCO2e) from other sectors in
2016 (Figure 2.8).

150
 2500

2000

1500
Mt CO2e

1000

500

0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Energy Industries Manufacturing Industries & Construction Transport Other Sectors

Figure 2.8: Fuel combustion activities: GHG emissions (MtCO2e) per subcategory, 2011-2016

Energy industries (1.A.1)

This subcategory considers GHG emissions due to fossil fuels combustion for energy
production industries and fuel extraction. Electricity production is accounted for
approximately 40 per cent of the total national emissions without LULUCF in 2016,
which is the highest emitting category in India. In 2016, these emissions accounted for
11,27,732 GgCO2e, increasing 4 per cent (44,294 GgCO2e) since 2014. Within this
subcategory, the main activities are electricity and heat production contributing 93.5
per cent, followed by 6 per cent from petroleum refining and 0.5 per cent from
manufacture of solid fuels and other energy industries. The consumption patterns of
the fuels in energy industries have been shown in Table 2.5 and Figure 2.9. The Table
2.6 shows the overall country-specific emission factors used in energy industries’
emission estimation. It may be noted that for specific categories, namely power
generation, iron and steel industries, cement and a few other industries, sector-specific
conversion factor and carbon emission factors have been estimated (Table 2.8).
Table 2.5: Category wise fuel consumption in the energy industries (1A1) in 2015 and 2016.

Manufacture of solid fuels

Fuel Electricity and heat Petroleum refining
and other energy
consumption production (1A1a) (1A1b)
industries (1A1c)
(TJ)
2015 2016 2015 2016 2015 2016
Liquid fuels 172487 144706 - - - -
Gaseous fuels 494610 529086 1145934 1254148 - -
Solid fuels 11182062 11226259 - - 572464 496792
Abbreviations: NA – Not Applicable, IE – Included elsewhere.
Sources: (CEA, 2015, 2016, 2017); (MoC, 2015, 2016, 2017); (CMIE, 2019); (MoC, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a);
(MoPNG, 2014, 2015, 2016); (MoSPI, 2015, 2016) (MoPNG, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a); (CEA, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a).

151
 10.37%

7.32%

5.74% 2.76%

72.75%

0.80% 0.12%

0.12%

Non Coking Coal Coking Coal Refinery Gas Natural Gas(Dry) Lignite

LPG Naptha Gas/Diesel Oil Residual Fuel Oil

Figure 2.9: Share of fuel consumption for energy industries for the year 2016

Table 2.6: Country Specific emission factors used in the energy industries (1A)

Electricity and heat production Manufacture of solid fuels and other

(1A1a) energy industries (1A1c)
Fuel-wise
Carbon
emission factors Net calorific Net Calorific Carbon emission
emission factor
value (TJ/Kt) value (TJ/Kt) factor (tC/TJ)
(tC/TJ)
Coking coal 23.66 25.55 23.66 25.55
Non coking coal 17.09 26.39 18.26 26.28
Lignite 9.8 28.9 -- --

Manufacturing industries & construction (1.A.2)

This subcategory includes GHG emissions generated by fossil fuels burning in

industry, including burning for power and heat generation for in-house use. In 2016,
GHG emissions accounted for 3,97,739 GgCO2e, which was 18.68 per cent of total
CO2e emissions from the energy sector, category emission was increasing by 13.02
per cent (45,830 GgCO2e) since 2014. Although there has been an increase in the
overall emission in the sector, there has been downward trend for the Iron & Steel,
Chemical, Pulp & Paper, Textile/Leather and Bricks categories. Cement, Nonferrous
Metal and Nonspecific categories played key role in increasing emissions from 2014
to 2016. Within the subcategory, Non-specific Industries contribute the most with 45.68
per cent, followed by 34 per cent by Iron and Steel industry, 13.49 per cent by Cement
industry, 1.94 per cent by Non-ferrous metals, 1.51 per cent by Fertilizer industry, 1.03
per cent by Mining and Quarrying and less than 1 per cent by Chemical, Pulp and
Paper, Textile/Leather and Bricks and engineering sectors individually (Figure 2.10
and Table 2.7).

152
 1.94%
1.51%
34.05% 0.66%
13.49% 1.03%

0.58%

0.50%

45.68% 0.41%
0.15%

Nonspecific Industries Iron & Steel Cement Non-ferrous metals

Fertilizer Mining & Quarrying Pulp & Paper Textile and Leather

Chemicals Engineering Sector Bricks

Figure 2.10: Distribution of CO2e emissions (Gg) across the manufacturing industries &
construction categories in 2016

Table 2.7: Category wise fuel consumption in the manufacturing industries & construction (1A2)
in 2015 and 2016.

Liquid fuels Solid fuels Gaseous fuels

Fuel consumption (TJ)
2016 2015 2016 2015 2016 2015
Iron & steel (1A2a) 45,951 45,951 1,392,348 1,486,452 38,394 21,439
Cement (1A2f) 7889 8796 546,182 502,486 - -
Non-ferrous metals (1A2b) 11,169 9916 70,640 8117 - -
Pulp & paper (1A2d) - - 26,721 28,958 - -
Chemicals (1A2c) 15,158 14,351 8428 9533 - -
Mining & quarrying (1A2i) 54,994 51,070 - - - -
Textile and leather (1A2l) 4737 5054 18,809 25,976 - -
Bricks (1A2k) - - 5903 5708 - -
Fertilizer (1A2e) 20,672 19,496 47,205 50,122 - -
Engineering sector (1A2h) 22,071 19,035 - - - -
Nonspecific industries (1A2m) 211,930 200,722 16,18,257 1,582,322 184,194 219,314
Sources: (MoPNG, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a); (CMIE, 2019); (MoS, 2015, 2016, 2017).

India specific emission factors of coal have been derived from the analysis of a large
number of coal samples of different categories found in India. Summary of sector
specific and country-specific values are presented in Table 2.8.

153
Table 2.8: Country specific emission factors used in the manufacturing industries &
construction (1A2) and electricity power generation (1A1ai)

Pulp & Paper (1A2d)

(1A2e), Nonspecific
Generation (1A1ai),

Non-ferrous metals
Textile and Leather
Iron & Steel (1A2a)

Chemicals (1A2c),

Industries (1A2m)
Electricity Power

(1A2k), Fertilizer

Cement (1A2f)
(1A2l), Bricks

(1A2b)
Fuel wise
Emission
Factors

Carbon Emission
Carbon Emission

Carbon Emission

Carbon Emission

Carbon Emission
Factor (tC/TJ)

Factor (tC/TJ)

Factor (tC/TJ)

Factor (tC/TJ)

Factor (tC/TJ)
Value (TJ/Kt)

Value (TJ/Kt)

Value (TJ/Kt)

Value (TJ/Kt)

Value (TJ/Kt)
Net Calorific

Net Calorific

Net Calorific

Net Calorific

Net Calorific
Coking coal 23.66 25.55 23.66 25.55
Non coking coal 17.09 26.39 20.4 26.06 18.35 26.26 18.17 26.28 20.15 26.08
Lignite 9.8 28.9 9.8 28.9

Transport (1.A.3)

This subcategory includes GHG emissions generated by fossil fuels burning in all
activities of national transportation (aerial, terrestrial, railways and navigation),
excluding military operations (maritime and aerial). Emissions from the transport
sector are 2,74,434 GgCO2e which is about 13 per cent of the total GHG emissions
from the energy sector in the country for the year 2016, and also the second highest
emission category for India without LULUCF. It has increased by 10 per cent (24,261
GgCO2e) from 2014 levels, mainly due to higher fuel consumption and improvement
of the road infrastructure in the country.

The road transport sector accounted for 90 per cent of the total GHG emissions from
the transport sector, followed by civil aviation (6 per cent), railways (3 per cent) and
water-borne navigation (1 per cent). Fuel consumption data for road, aviation and
navigation sectors have been sourced from the statistics provided by Ministry of
Petroleum and Natural Gas. For railways, data has been sourced from the statistics
published by the Ministry of Railways (MoR), GoI.
Table 2.9: Category wise fuel consumption in the road transport (1A3b) in 2015 and 2016.

Fuel consumption (TJ) 2015 2016

Petrol 930,506 1,043,945
Diesel 1,932,352 1,971,517
Light distillate oil 9 -
Road transport
Fuel oil 1817 1492
Compressed natural gases 103,440 113,520
Liquefied petroleum gases 8084 7912
Off Road (Tractors) Diesel 237,527 241,918
Sources: (MoPNG, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a), (PPAC, 2019).

154
The Railways sector consumes electricity, diesel, petrol, furnace oil and nominal
amounts of coal. To avoid double counting, GHG emissions due to consumption of
electricity in railways is not included, but is covered under 1A1a in electricity
generation category (1A1), Table 2.10.
Table 2.10: Category wise fuel consumption in the railways (1A3c) in 2015 and 2016.

Fuel consumption (TJ) 2015 2016

Coal 39.63 34.42
Wood 0.16 0.06
High speed diesel 103,948.56 102,180.42
Light diesel oil 0.78 0.62
Petrol 2.59 2.41
Kerosene 108.63 97.52
Source: MoR, 2015, 2016, 2017.

For the aviation sector, comprising of domestic and international aviation, segregated
Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) consumption data for both the sectors was collected. The
emission estimates made for the combustion of ATF in international aviation is
reported separately as the memo item under international bunkers. In India, 1,81,312
TJ and 1,96,273 TJ of aviation turbine fuel were consumed in 2015 and 2016,
respectively.

The Navigation sector emission estimates are based on fuel consumption (HSDO,
LDO and FO) segregated across national and international maritime fleet. Emission
estimates made for international fleet is reported as the memo item under marine
bunkers separately.
Table 2.11: Category wise fuel consumption in the navigation (1A3d) in 2015 and 2016

Fuel Consumption (TJ) 2015 2016

Fuel oil 9098 9384
High speed diesel oil 31,677 29,528
Light diesel oil 104 250
Source: MoPNG, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a.

Other sectors (1.A.4)

This subcategory includes GHG emissions from fossil fuels burnt in commercial and
institutional buildings, in homes and in activities related to agriculture, forestry,
fisheries and the fishing industry. Cooking, lighting, space heating and cooling,
refrigeration, and pumping characterize the residential, commercial, and agriculture
sectors included in this category. In 2016, the other sectors together emitted 2,13,490
Gg of CO2e, of which approximately 60 per cent was contributed by the residential
sector, about 32 per cent by the commercial sector and rest 8 per cent by the biomass
burnt for energy (non-CO2 GHGs) and agriculture/fisheries sectors put together.

155
Table 2.12: Category wise fuel consumption in the other sectors (1A4) in 2015 and 2016

Commercial/ Agriculture/Forestry
Fuel consumption Residential (1A4b)
institutional (1A4a) /Fishing (1A4c)
(TJ)
2015 2016 2015 2016 2015 2016
Coking coal 59,150 66,248 44,954 49,686 - -
Non coking coal 49,99,77 57,52,80 26,81,12 32,53,80 - -
Natural gas 32,473 34,522 26,16,86 33,01,67 8900 8845
Liquefied petroleum
69,247 84,005 81,27,09 89,25,98 325 359
gases
Other kerosene 2803 3373 29,12,26 22,79,35 - -
Gas/diesel Oil - - - - 26,545 26,428
Residual fuel Oil - - - - 2277 2119
Source: (MoPNG, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a); (PPAC, 2019); (IEA, 2020); (MoC, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a).

Comparison with reference and sectoral approach

A comparison of CO2 emissions results obtained with the reference approach and the
sectoral approach allows verifying the validity of the overall calculations performed.
The reference approach uses the total values of national energy statistics, while the
sectoral approach uses values related to each category that as a whole add up to the
national energy sector.

The reference approach was also used to estimate CO2e emissions from fuel
combustion for the year 2016. The difference in estimates of CO2 emissions from fuel
combustion using the sectoral and reference approaches was around 7 per cent in
2015, and 6 per cent in 2016. It is proposed to work on refining the GHG estimates in
future communications and reduce the gap. The reference approach emissions were
around 71 per cent from solid fuel combustion, around 26 per cent from liquid fuel and
the remaining 3 per cent was from gaseous fuel combustion in 2016.

8%

7%

6%
Percentage Difference

5%

4%
7.38%
3% 6.30%

2%

1%

0%
2015 2016

Figure 2.11: Percentage difference between CO2 emission with the Sectoral approach and the
Reference approach, 2015-2016

156
Fugitive emissions from fuels (1.B)

All intentional or unintentional GHG emissions released during the extraction,

processing, storage and distribution of fossil fuels are considered as fugitive
emissions. The total fugitive emissions in the year 2016 were 37,179 GgCO2e, of
which 46 per cent were from coal mining and post mining operations and 54 per cent
were from oil and natural gas production and handling systems. Fugitive emissions to
the atmosphere have registered a decrease of 2 per cent between 2014 and 2016,
mainly due to reduction in oil and gas production and gas processing levels.

Solid fuels (1.B.1)

Methane is the major GHG emitted during coal mining and handling. For estimating
methane emissions, activity data on coal production from surface and underground
mines was collected. Emissions from surface mining increased by 7 per cent and
underground mining decreased by 3 per cent over the period 2014-2016. Underground
coal production data from underground mines is available under different categories
(like Degree I, II and III). Due to a very few number of abandoned coal mines in India,
abandonment done many years back, and very low production when the mines were
active, the contribution of methane from these is considered insignificant and not
estimated.

Emission factors for fugitive methane emissions (both underground and above ground
mining) is the amount of methane generated per tonne of coal production. Several
measurements were conducted for the determination of fugitive methane emission
factors for coal mining and handling activities. The list of country-specific emission
factors for fugitive methane emission from coal mining and handling activities is
presented in Table 2.13. It may not be out of place to mention here that these emission
factors (EFs) from coal mining and handling activities have been incorporated in the
IPCC Emission Factor Database after due vetting of the Editorial Board with
designated EF IDs 122973-122975 for underground mining and 124920-124921 for
surface mining (IPCC, 2020)
Table 2.13: Country-specific emission factors for coal mining activities

Methane emission factor (m3/tonne)

Operation (Mining /
Underground mining
Post mining) Surface mining
Degree - I Degree - II Degree - III
Mining 1.18 2.91 13.08 23.64
Post Mining (Handling) 0.15 0.98 2.15 3.12

Table 2.14: Coal production in coal mining activities in 2015 and 2016

Coal production (million tonne)

Operation (Mining / Post
Underground mining
mining) Surface mining
Degree - I Degree - II Degree - III
Mining and handling (2015) 607.83 54.91 9.61 0.39

157
 Mining and handling (2016) 626.41 56.59 9.9 0.4
Sources: (MoC, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a); (DGMS, 2015).

Efforts have also been made to provide an outlook towards future directions in
inventory preparation in coal mining. It has been postulated that CO 2 emissions from
coal mining might be significant and need investigation in line with 2019 IPCC
Refinements (Singh, 2019).
Oil and natural gas (1.B.2)

The sources of fugitive emissions from oil and gas systems include, but are not limited
to, equipment leaks, evaporation and flashing losses, venting, flaring, incineration and
accidental releases (e.g., pipeline dig-ins, well blow-outs and spills). While some of
these emission sources are engineered or intentional (e.g., tank, seal and process
vents and flare systems), and therefore relatively well characterized, the quantity and
composition of the other emissions are generally subject to significant uncertainty.
Emission due to leakage/venting and flaring decreased by 8.2 per cent, while total
emission from oil and gas systems decreased by 6.75 per cent over the period of 2014-
2016. The data on flaring activities from the oil and gas sector to estimate CO2
emissions needs further refinement in future reporting. As per the assessment, the
associated fugitive CO2 emissions are much less and considered as insignificant.

For fugitive emissions from oil and natural gas handling activities such as production,
processing, distribution and venting/flaring, the IPCC default values of methane
emission factor have been used and estimated methane emission from oil and natural
gas system in India is presented in Table 2.15.
Table 2.15 Methane emissions from oil & gas systems in India (Gigagram) (2015-2016)
Throughput

distribution
Processing
Production

Production

Emission
Leakage
Refinery

Flaring
Wells

Total
Year

Gas

Gas

Gas
Oil

2015 53 12 15 117 336 274 166 0.6 975

2016 55 12 17 112 330 267 162 0.6 955

2.7.2 Industrial Processes and Product Use Sector

The IPPU sector, which includes GHG emissions produced by a variety of industrial
activities that transform raw materials by chemical or physical means, represented
7.98 per cent of GHG emissions (without LULUCF) in 2016. The same year, their
emissions reached 2,26,407 GgCO2e, increasing by 12 per cent since 2014 mainly
due to the increase in the production of lime, aluminium, ethylene and ammonia
(Figure 2.12). List of country-specific emission factors used in the IPPU sector are
listed in the Table 2.20.

158
 250

200
Mt CO2e

150

100

50

0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Production of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride
Other Industry
Metal Industry
Chemical Industry
Mineral Industry

Figure 2.12: Industrial Processes and Product Use: GHG emissions (MtCO 2e) per subcategory,
2011-2016

The category includes the emission estimates of CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC-23, CF4, C2F6,
and SF6. In 2016, the main GHG emitted by the sector was CO2, representing 73.4 per
cent of the total GHG emissions in the sector, followed by CF4 with 10.67 per cent,
HFC with 8.51 per cent, C2F6 with 4.11 per cent and N2O with 1.52 per cent. CH4
amounts to 1.73 per cent of the emissions and SF6 to 0.04 per cent (Figure 2.13).

10.67%

8.51%
1.73%

3.30%

1.52%
73.42%

0.04%

CO₂ CF₄ HFC 23 C₂F₆ CH₄ N₂O SF₆

Figure 2.13: Gas wise distribution of emissions from IPPU sector in 2016

159
Mineral industries (2.A)

This category includes CO2 emissions related to the processes resulting from the use
of carbonated raw materials in the production and use of a variety of industrial mineral
products. There are two broad pathways for release of CO2 from carbonates:
calcination and the acid-induced release of CO2. The process-related CO2 equivalent
emissions for the year 2016 from Cement, Lime, Glass and Ceramics are 1,06,591 Gg
(79 per cent), 28,480 Gg (21 per cent), 377 Gg (0.28 per cent) and 20 Gg (0.01 per
cent) respectively.

In India, about 97 per cent of the total production of limestone during 2016-17 was of
cement grade and 3 per cent of other grades (IMYB, 2019). GHG emissions
associated with use of limestone in cement manufacturing sector have been
accordingly apportioned to avoid any double counting.
Table 2.16: Types of production in the mineral industries (2A) during 2015 and 2016.

Production/consumption (million tonne) 2015 2016

Clinker production 207.19 201.42
Quick lime production 173.47 178.72
Dolomitic lime production 2.67 2.07
Glass (Float, Sheet, Bottles) production 2.469 2.465
Mass of calcium carbonate consumed 0.0204 0.0220
Mass of dolomite consumed 0.0218 0.0235
Sources: (CMA, 2015, 2016, 2017); (MoM, 2015, 2016); (AIGMF, 2015, 2016); (MoM, 2015, 2016).

Chemical industries (2.B)

This category includes GHG emissions resulting from the production of several
inorganic and organic chemicals for which the experience of several countries has
confirmed that the sector contributes significantly to global emission levels or national
GHG emissions.

In 2016, GHG emissions from this sector accounted for 25,358 GgCO2e, an increase
of 14.36 per cent since 2014. This is due to increase in production of ammonia, nitric
acid, ethylene and carbon black. For the same period emissions from methanol and
acrylonitrile decreased. Within the category, ammonia production was the highest, with
total CO2 emissions of 11,539 Gg in 2016, followed by emissions from ethylene
production 7,883 GgCO2e, emissions from nitric acid production is 3,202 GgCO2e,
emissions from soda ash production 888 GgCO2e, emissions from carbon black
production 829 GgCO2e, emissions from EDM & VCM production 288 GgCO2e,
emissions from caprolactam production 242 GgCO2e, emissions from ethylene oxide
production 188 GgCO2e, emissions from methanol production 125 GgCO2e,
emissions from carbide production 93 GgCO2e and titanium dioxide production 81
GgCO2e (Figure 2.14).

160
Table 2.17: Types of production in the chemical industries (2B) during 2015 and 2016.

Production (million tonne) 2015 2016

Ammonia production 14.75 14.93
Nitric acid production 1.532 1.589
Caprolactam production 0.0862 0.0867
Calcium carbide production 0.0843 0.0846
Titanium dioxide production 0.0558 0.0584
Soda ash production 2.646 2.749
Carbon black production 0.463 0.518
Methanol production 0.174 0.173
Ethylene production 3.593 3.948
Ethylene dichloride production 0.279 0.281
Vinyl chloride monomer production 0.072 0.791
Ethylene oxide production 0.187 0.209
Acrylonitrile production 0.01000 0.00048
Sources: (MoC&F, 2015, 2016); (FAI, 2019); (CMIE Prowess, 2019); (MoC&F, 2015a, 2016a); (AMAI, 2015, 2016)

12.63%
31.08% 0.95%

0.74%
2.87%

0.49%

0.37%
45.50%
0.32%

Ammonia production Ethylene production Nitric acid production

Soda ash Production Carbon Black production EDC & VCM production
Caprolactam Ethylene Oxide production Methanol production
Carbide production Titanium dioxide production

Figure 2.14: Distribution of CO2e emissions (Gg) across the Chemical Industries Categories in
2016

161
Metal industries (2.C)

This category includes GHG emissions resulting from the production of metals such
as ferroalloys, lead, zinc, aluminum and magnesium. Metallurgical coke related
process emissions in Iron & Steel making have been reported under the energy sector.
The total CO2 equivalent emissions from metal industries for 2016 are 40,814 Gg,
which was 39.6 per cent higher than 2014 levels. This may be attributed to the
increased production of aluminium. Aluminium industry emissions cover 93 per cent
of the emissions of the metal industries in India and also a key emission category in
India. Magnesium production is the single estimated source of SF6 for 2016 emitting
100.95 GgCO2eq.
Table 2.18: Types of production in the metal industries (2C) during 2015 and 2016.

Production (million tonne) 2015 2016

Ferro chromium 0.944 0.944
Ferro manganese 0.518 0.518
Ferro silicon 0.090 0.090
Silico manganese 0.264 0.292
Aluminium 2.272 2.761
Lead 0.140 0.142
Zinc 0.752 0.693
Magnesium 0.0002 0.0002
Source: (MoM, 2015, 2016); (Brown, et al., 2019); (MoC&F, 2015a, 2016a).

Non-energy product use (2.D)

This category estimates emissions from first use of fossil fuels as a product for primary
purposes other than, i) combustion for energy purposes, and ii) use as feedstock or
reducing agent. The products covered here comprise lubricants and paraffin waxes.

In India, the lubricant market is dominated by the transportation sector. The total CO 2
emissions resulting from lubricant use in 2016 were 2,061 GgCO2e, an increase by
5.64 per cent since 2014.

Emissions from the use of waxes result primarily when the waxes or derivatives of
paraffin are burnt during use (for example, candles), and when these are incinerated
with or without heat recovery or in wastewater treatment (for surfactants). Total GHG
emission from paraffin wax for non-energy purposes was 106 GgCO2e in 2016,
decrease by 52.39 per cent since 2014.
Table 2.19: Types of production in the non-energy product use (2D) during 2015 and 2016.

Production (million tonne) 2015 2016

Lubricant production 3.506 3.495
Paraffin wax consumption 0.167 0.172
Source: MoPNG, 2015a, 2016a, 2017a.

162
Production of halocarbons (2.E)

This category estimates emission from production of halocarbons which generated

19,259 GgCO2e (HFC23) in 2016, increasing by 3.68 per cent since 2014. Production
of Hydrochlorofluorocarbon was 0.0533 million tonne in 2015 and 0.0569 million tonne
in 2016.
Other industry (2.H)

This category estimates emission from Pulp & Paper industries, which generated
3,341 GgCO2e in 2016, showing an increase of 2.63 per cent compared to 2014
emissions. Production of paper was 17.45 million tonne in 2015 and 17.08 million
tonne in 2016.
Table 2.20: Country specific emission factor used in the IPPU sector

Type
Category Emission factor Source
of gas
0.5292 tonne
2.A.1 CO2/tonne clinker Country specific emission factor developed
CO2
Cement produced (With CKD during INC
correction factor)
2.B.2 Nitric 4 – 11 kg N2O/tonne
N2O Company specific and based on CDM database
Acid HNO3
250 kg CO2/tonne
natural soda ash
produced
2.B.7 Soda 70 kg CO2/tonne of Technical EIA Guidance for soda ash industry -
CO2
Ash Soda Ash produced MoEF. Prepared by IL&FS, 2010.
and
3 kg CO2/tonne of soda
ash produced
Country specific emission factor considered
0.0289 tonne HFC- from Monitoring Report of Gujarat
HFC-
2.B.9.a 23/tonne HCFC-22 Fluorochemical Ltd. (Major producers of HCFC-
22
produced 22), Ratio of HFC23 generation to HCFC22
production as 2.89 per cent.
Prebaked: 0.44 kg C2F6
Data taken from the International Aluminium
produced/tonne of
Institute report on the aluminium industry’s
2.C.3 Aluminium produced
C2F6 global perfluorocarbon gas emissions reduction
Aluminium Soderberg: 0.07 kg
programme results of the 2004 anode effect
C2F6/tonne of
survey.
Aluminium produced

2.7.3 Agriculture sector

The main GHG emissions from the agriculture sector are methane from livestock’s
enteric fermentation and rice cultivation and nitrous oxide from manure management
and agriculture soil. The Agriculture sector represented 14 per cent of the total GHG
emissions (4,07,821 GgCO2e) in 2016, a decrease of 2.25 per cent since 2014 (Figure

163
2.15). The share of agriculture in the total pie of emissions is decreasing. In absolute
terms agriculture sector had registered growth in previously reported inventory years
i.e. between 1994 to 2000, 2000 to 2010 and 2010 to 2014. This is the first instance
between two inventory years (2014 and 2016) where it has registered an absolute
decrease.

450
400
350
300
Mt CO2e

250
200
150
100
50
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Enteric Fermentation Manure Management
Rice Cultivation Agricultural Soils
Field Burning of Agricultural Residues

Figure 2.15: Agriculture: GHG emissions (MtCO2e) per subcategory, 2011-2016

Agricultural activities contribute to emissions of GHGs (CH4 and N2O) through a variety
of processes. The main sources of CH4 and N2O emission in India are animal
husbandry and crop production. Animal husbandry in India is dominated by cattle,
buffalo, sheep, goat and pig. With regard to categories, 54.60 per cent of GHG
emissions corresponds to enteric fermentation, followed by 19.07 per cent from
agricultural soils (15.88 per cent from direct N2O and 3.20 per cent from indirect N2O),
17.49 per cent from rice cultivation, 6.68 per cent from manure management and 2.17
per cent corresponding to field burning of agricultural residues in 2016 (Figure 2.16).

Enteric Fermentation

Rice Cultivation

3.20% Agriculture Soil Direct N2O

Emissions
5.36%
Manure Management

2.17% Agriculture Soil Indirect

N2O Emissions
Field Burning of Agricultural
Residues

Figure 2.16: Distribution of CO2e emissions (Gg) across the Agriculture sector Categories in
2016

164
Enteric fermentation (3.A)

This category includes CH4 emissions from herbivores as a by-product of the enteric
fermentation. Ruminant livestock (e.g., cattle, buffalo, goat and sheep) are important
sources while non-ruminants produce moderate amounts as well.

In 2016, emissions from this category accounted for 2,22,655 GgCO2e, a decrease of
1.98 per cent since 2014, largely due to decrease in animal population, consisting of
a 1.74 per cent decrease in indigenous cattle, 7.13 per cent decrease in crossbred
pig, 2.54 per cent decrease in indigenous pig and 11.09 per cent decrease in other
animals (animal population is responsible for more than 60 per cent of total emissions
from the sector) (DoAHD&F, 2014), (DoAH&D, 2019). There was a 7.13 per cent
increase in crossbred cattle, 0.30 per cent in buffalo, 2.82 per cent in goat and around
2.27 per cent in crossbred and 4.89 per cent in indigenous sheep (Figure 2.17 and
Figure 2.18).

600

550

500 Other

450 Crossbred Pig

Population in Millions

400
Crossbred Sheep
350
Indigenous Pig
300
Crossbred Cattle
250

200 Indigenous Sheep

150 Buffalo
100 Goat
50
Indigenous Cattle
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Figure 2.17: Population in millions by livestock category, 2011-2016

165
 20.76%
1.41%

2.86%
0.75%
27.14%
27.71%
0.41%
0.29%

Indigenous Cattle Goat Buffalo

Indigenous Sheep Crossbred Cattle Indigenous Pig
Crossbred Sheep Crossbred Pig Other

Figure 2.18: Population in percentage by livestock category, 2016

Manure management (3.B)

This category includes CH4 and N2O emissions of manure decomposition under
conditions of low oxygen or anaerobic conditions. In 2016, the GHG emissions from
this category accounted for 27,227 GgCO2e, a decrease by 3.11 per cent over the
period of two years (2014-2016). Within the category, for methane emissions, buffalo
account for most of the emissions, representing 40.22 per cent of the subcategory,
followed by indigenous cattle with 36.39 per cent, Crossbred cattle with 15.80 per cent,
while the rest cover around 7.60 per cent of emissions (Figure 2.19).
Table 2.21: Dung generation and country-specific emission factors across various livestock
category in 2015 and 2016

Dung generation (kilo tonne) 2015 2016

Crossbred cattle 39,749 41,176
Indigenous cattle 1,02,821 1,01,327
Buffalo 1,21,354 1,21,302
Goat 11,203 11,300
Crossbred sheep 544 546
Indigenous sheep 8,153 8,344
Crossbred pig 129 124
Indigenous pig 606 597
Others 1,334 1,247
Methane Emission Factors (Gram/ kg DMI) 2015-2016
Crossbred cattle 14 - 23*
Indigenous cattle 14.24 - 19.21*
Buffalo 9.25 - 21*
Goat 10.5 – 12.54*
Sheep 10.84 – 13.5*
*Emission factor varies according to type of feed and age of animal

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 0.20% Buffalo
15.80%
Indigenous Cattle
36.39%
0.19% Crossbred Cattle
Goat
0.86%
Indigenous Sheep
0.47%
Indigenous Pig
Crossbred Sheep
40.22%
Other

Figure 2.19: Methane emissions from manure management by livestock category, 2016

Indirect emissions result from volatile nitrogen losses that occur primarily in the forms
of ammonia and NOx during storage as solid. Within the category, for methane
emissions, buffalo account for most of the emissions, representing 42.42 per cent of
the subcategory, followed by indigenous cattle with 35.43 per cent, crossbred cattle
with 14.40 per cent and remaining with 7.75 per cent of the emissions (Figure 2.20).

0.21%
Buffalo
14.40%
35.43%
Indigenous Cattle
0.19% Crossbred Cattle
Goat
0.88%
Indigenous Sheep
0.48% Indigenous Pig
Crossbred Sheep
42.42%
Other

Figure 2.20: Nitrous Oxide emissions from manure management by livestock category, 2016

Rice cultivation (3.C)

This category includes emissions of methane by the anaerobic decomposition of soil

organic material in flooded rice paddies. In 2016, GHG emission from this category
accounted for 71,322 GgCO2e, a decrease of 2.09 per cent from 2014. This change
in trend of rice cultivation is directly related to reduction in area under rice.
In 2016, the total area under rice cultivation in the country was 43.19 million ha, and
3,396.27 Gg of methane was emitted. Emissions from different ecosystem types under
different water regimes were estimated separately and are presented in Figure 2.21.
Of the total land under rice cultivation, 33.19 per cent is drought-prone, 16.44 per cent
is single aeration, 15.89 per cent is continuous flooding, 13.02 per cent is upland,

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12.42 per cent is multiple aeration, 5.90 per cent is flood prone and 3.15 per cent is
deep water rice system.

Drought Prone
13.02%
15.89% Single Aeration
Continuous Flooding

16.44% Upland
Multiple Aeration
Flood Prone
33.19%
Deep Water

Figure 2.21: Rice area (in per cent) under different types of water regimes, 2016

Agriculture soils (3.D)

Agriculture soils sub-sector is the largest single source of N2O emissions in the
national inventory. There are two pathways of N2O emissions from soils - direct and
indirect. Direct N2O emission has been estimated using net N additions to soils
(synthetic or organic fertilizers, deposited manure, crop residues) and mineralization
of N in soil due to cultivation/land-use change on mineral soils. Indirect N2O emission
was estimated from the volatilization of NH3 and NOx from managed soils and the
subsequent re-deposition of these gases and their products (NH4 and NO3) in soils,
after leaching and runoff of N, mainly as NO3 from managed soils. Total emissions of
N2O from managed soils have been estimated by adding direct and indirect N2O
emissions.

In 2016, GHG emissions from this category accounted for 77,781 GgCO2e, a 3.41 per
cent decrease from 2014. Similar to emissions from enteric fermentation, there has
been a decrease in emissions in this sub-sector also due to the reduction in synthetic
fertiliser based nitrogen consumption (3.67 per cent). Within the category, direct
emissions of N2O from agricultural soils represent 83.24 per cent of the emissions,
while indirect emissions of N2O from agricultural soils represent 16.76 per cent of total
emissions.
Table 2.22: Activity data used in agriculture soil (3D) during 2015 and 2016

Million tonne 2015 2016

Nitrogen consumption* 17,372 16,735
Nitrogen from compost 0.2969 0.2969
Nitrogen from crop residue 2.287 2.354
Manure nitrogen other than poultry 1.149 1.153
Nitrogen input from below ground biomass 2.079 2.125
*Source: (FAI, 2019); (Bandyopadhyay et al., 2001); (Gadde et. al., 2009); (Jain et al., 2014).

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Table 2.23: Country specific emission factor used in agriculture soil (3D)

Country specific
Parameter
coefficients
EF1 (N2O emission from applied fertilizer) 0.58 %
EF4 (N2O emission from volatilized N from fertilizer and manure) 0.50 %
EF5 (N2O emission from leached and run-off N from fertilizer and manure) 0.50 %
FracGASF (Gas loss through volatilization from inorganic fertilizer) 15 %
FracGASF-AM (Gas loss through volatilization from manure) 15 %
Fracleach (Leaching loss of N from applied fertilizer and manure) 10 %
Source: (Pathak et al., 2002); (Bhatia et al., 2005); (Bhatia et al., 2013).

Field burning of agriculture residues (3.F)

The category includes CH4 and N2O emissions generated due to on farm burning of
agricultural waste at cropland. Generally, residues from eight crops (rice, wheat,
cotton, maize, millet, sugarcane, jute, rapeseed and mustard) are burned in the field
as these are widely produced in the country.
Emissions from field burning of agricultural residues were 304.31 Gg of CH4 and 7.89
Gg of N2O. In CO2 equivalent terms, 8,836 Gg of emission occurred in 2016, showing
a 2.88 per cent increase from 2014 levels.
Table 2.24: Country specific emission factor used in field burning of agriculture residues (3F)

Crop Residue to crop ratio Dry matter fraction Fraction burnt

Rice 1.5 0.86 0.08 - 0.8
Wheat 1.7 0.88 0.1 - 0.23
Maize 1.5 0.88 0.1
Jute 2.15 0.8 0.1
Cotton 3 0.8 0.1
Sugarcane 0.4 0.88 0.25
Rapeseed & mustard 3 0.8 0.1
Millets 1.5 0.88 0.1
Source: (Andreae, M. O. & Merlet, P., 2001); (Gadde, B. et al., 2009); (Jain et al., 2018).

2.7.4 Land Use and Land-Use Change and Forestry Sector

The LULUCF sector, which includes GHG emissions and removals associated with
forestry and land-use change, is the only sector that consistently absorbs CO 2 in the
country, making it one of the most relevant for its mitigation potential. This sector
removed 15 per cent of the country’s carbon dioxide emissions in 2016. In the same
year, its emissions reached -3,07,820 GgCO2e, increasing its status as a sink by 2.2
per cent since 2014 (Figure 2.22). The emissions in this sector arise only from a single
land use category - grassland. With respect to total CO2 removals in 2016, 76.18 per
cent corresponds to cropland, followed by 23.28 per cent of forest land and 0.54 per
cent of settlements (Table 2.25).

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 50

2015
2011

2012

2013

2014

2016
-50

-100
Mt CO2e

-150

-200

-250

-300

-350

-400
Forestland Cropland Grassland Settlement

Figure 2.22: LULUCF: GHG emissions/removals (Mt CO2e) per subcategory, 2011-2016

Table 2.25: Total GHG balance for the 2016 in GgCO2e

Land Category Net CO2 CH4 N2O Total

Forest Land -77,000 1155 502 -75,343
Cropland -2,51,975 - - -2,51,975
Grassland 21,289 - - 21,289
Settlements -1,790 - - -1,790
Total -3,09,477 1155 502 -3,07,820

Land use change from 2005 to 2016 was assessed across five classes viz. – Forest
Land, cropland, grassland, settlements and other land, based on remote sensing data
supplemented with ground-based observations. The land use and land-use change
estimates for the period 2005-2016 are given in Table 2.26. It can be observed that
the land area under forests has increased marginally and so has the area under
cropland, grassland and settlements.

Table 2.26: Land use change for India for the period 2005-2016 (in a million ha)

Year Forest Land Cropland Grassland Settlements Other land Total area
2005 69.16 160.65 20.35 8.61 69.96 328.73
2006 69.24 160.94 20.42 8.72 69.41 328.73
2007 69.25 161.23 20.48 8.84 68.91 328.73
2008 69.27 161.53 20.55 8.96 68.42 328.73
2009 69.44 161.82 20.62 9.08 67.76 328.73
2010 69.50 162.12 20.69 9.20 67.23 328.73
2011 69.79 162.41 20.75 9.31 66.46 328.73
2012 69.98 162.71 20.82 9.43 65.79 328.73
2013 70.15 163.00 20.89 9.55 65.14 328.73
2014 70.49 163.29 20.89 9.55 64.51 328.73
2015 70.83 163.85 21.65 9.56 62.84 328.73
2016 71.03 164.40 22.42 9.57 61.31 328.73
Source: FSI, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019.

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Forest land (4.A)

This category includes GHG emissions and removals generated as a result of changes
in living biomass, dead organic matter and soil organic carbon in Forest land that
remains as such and in Land converted to forest land. In 2016, the GHG emissions
recorded -75,343 GgCO2e, increasing its status as a sink by 10.45 per cent since
2014.

The activity data and emission factors for carbon stock estimation are derived from
forest cover assessment and national forest inventory. For the activity data, biennial
forest cover assessment which is a wall-to-wall mapping exercise based on satellite
data (Approach 3) has been used. In addition, forest type information has also been
used for stratification of forest cover into different forest types and canopy densities.
For estimation of emission factors, the data collected during the national forest
inventory has been used (Tier 2). IPCC GPG 2003 methods have been used for
estimation of carbon stock in different pools i.e., above ground biomass, litter,
deadwood and soil organic carbon (SOC) except below ground biomass which has
been calculated using default values of the IPCC (IPCC, 2003).

The area under forest land remaining forest land for the year 2016 is 69.40 million ha,
and the land area converted to forest land during the year 2016 is estimated to be 1.63
million ha. Forest sector in India is a net sink. Wildfires have an important effect on the
trends in GHG emissions and removals. In the year 2016, more than 3.25 million ha
(mild, moderate and heavy fire) area has been affected by fires with an impact on the
net balance of GHG emissions, contributing 1,657 GgCO2e.
Table 2.27: Activity data and emission factors used in forest land category (4A) during 2015 and
2016

Area (million ha), Carbon Stock (million tonne) 2015 2016

Total area under forest 70.83 71.03
Area of forest land remaining forest land 67.77 69.40
Area of land converted to forest land 3.05 1.63
Carbon stock change in forest land remaining forest land -97.38 114.53
Carbon stock change in land converted to forest land 116.38 -93.53
Area subjected to mild fires 1.767 1.321
Biomass burnt (t/ha) in mild fire area 1.33 1.33
Area subjected to moderate fires 1.119 1.205
Biomass burnt (t/ha) in moderate fire area 4.01 4.01
Area subjected to heavy fires 0.690 0.730
Biomass burnt (t/ha) in heavy fire area 11.11 11.11
Source: (IPCC, 2003); (IPCC, 2006); (FSI, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019).

Cropland (4.B)

This category includes CO2 emissions and removals generated in arable and plowable
land, rice fields and agroforestry systems, where the vegetation structure is
significantly different, with a lower threshold than that of forest land, and it is not
expected that this will exceed in the future. In 2016, croplands recorded sequestration

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 of -2,51,975 GgCO2e, a 1.35 per cent increase from 2014, thereby making it the
biggest contributor in this category.

The area under cropland, which is the net sown area, was estimated to be 164.40
million ha during 2016. The net sown area has increased from 160.65 to 164.40 million
ha between years 2005 and 2016. The net sown area is sensitive to a number of
factors such as rainfall, and market prices. In India, the area under cropland includes
both net sown and fallow land area.
The approach adopted for estimating carbon stock changes in cropland is as follows:

i. Change in biomass carbon stock in cropland

ii. Soil organic carbon stock
iii. Biomass and soil carbon rates of change and stocks in cropland
The large sink potential of cropland is due to the following:

i. The mean annual increment in SOC in cropland is 0.367 tC/ha/year over 164.40
million ha, contributing to higher carbon sink from cropland.
ii. Larger area under this land category compared to other land categories including
Forest Land e.g., Cropland accounts for about 50 per cent (164.40 million ha) of the
total geographic area (328.73 million ha) as compared to about 22 per cent by forest
land (71.03 million ha).
iii. The soil carbon in forest land is quite stable and does not change much over the
years. However, cropland carbon is dynamic and as a result of management
practices such as manure and fertilizer application, change in soil carbon in
cropland is substantially higher.
Table 2.28: Activity data and emission factors used in cropland category (4B) during 2015 and
2016

Area (million ha), carbon stock (million tonne) 2015 2016

Total area under cropland 163.85 164.40
Change in biomass carbon stock 7.37 8.38
Change in soil organic carbon stock 60.13 60.34
Rate of change in SOC (tonne carbon/ha/year) 0.367 0.367

Grassland (4.C)

This category includes GHG emissions and removals generated in land that are not
considered arable land or forest land, and all the grassland of wild land for recreational
areas, as well as agricultural systems and silvopastoral lands according to national
definitions. The lands are largely used for livestock grazing. The area under grassland
is estimated to be 22.42 million ha for the year 2016 compared to 20.35 million ha in
2005. In 2016, the GHG emissions balance accounted for 21,289 GgCO2e, an
increase of 23.66 per cent since 2014. This can be attributed to lower rates of
conversion of land to grasslands. Within the category, emissions/removals are not
available for land converted to grassland category due to non-availability of data. More
studies are needed to refine the data, especially of soil carbon fluxes in grassland.

172
Table 2.29: Activity data and emission factors used in grassland category (4C) during 2015 and
2016

Area (million ha), Carbon Stock (million tonne) 2015 2016

Total area under grassland 21.65 22.42
Change in biomass carbon stock 0.97 1.14
Change in soil organic carbon stock -6.71 -6.95
Rate of change in SOC (tonne carbon/ha/year) -0.31 -0.31

Settlements (4.E)

The category includes GHG emissions and removals generated in land where there
are human settlements, urban areas and infrastructure, unless it has already been
included in other categories. The area under settlements increased from 8.6 to 9.57
million ha during the period 2005 to 2016. In this category, only CO2 emissions and
removals from biomass carbon is considered from settlements remaining settlements.
Most of the expansion occurs in and around cities and villages which are dominated
by marginal cropland and grassland. Further, area under forests in India is increasing
which indicates there is no net conversion of forestland to settlements. The
settlements land category was a net sink of CO2 during the period 2005-2016. In 2016,
the balance of GHG emissions accounted for -1,790 GgCO2e increasing by 13.09 per
cent since 2014.
Table 2.30: Activity data and emission factors used in settlement category (4E) during 2015 and
2016

Area (million ha), carbon stock (million tonne) 2015 2016

Total area under settlements 9.56 9.57
Change in biomass carbon stock 0.43 0.49
Rate of change in SOC (tonne carbon/ha/year) 0.045 0.051

2.7.5 Waste

The waste sector, which includes the GHG emissions from microbiological processes
that occur in the organic matter of solid waste under anaerobic degradation, and the
anaerobic treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater represented 2.65 per cent
of GHG emissions in 2016. In the same year, its emissions were 75,232 GgCO2e,
decreasing by 3.83 per cent since 2014 (Figure 2.23). More than three-fourth (78.96
per cent) of the emissions from the waste sector come from wastewater treatment and
discharge, followed by 21.04 per cent of the solid waste disposal.

173
 90
80
70
60
50
Mt CO2e

40
30
20
10
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Solid Waste Disposal Wastewater Treatment and Discharge

Figure 2.23: Waste: GHG emissions (Mt CO2e) per subcategory, 2011-2016

Solid waste disposal (5.A)

The category includes CH4 emissions in the treatment and disposal of municipal,
industrial and others solid wastes, which are handled on solid waste disposal sites
(SWDS). Solid waste disposal covers managed, unmanaged and uncategorized waste
that has been deposited in landfills. In 2016, GHG emissions accounted for 15,832
GgCO2e, increasing by 5.09 per cent since 2014, as a result of an increase in
population. In 2016, 59,372 Gg of MSW reached landfills in India, resulting in 754 Gg
of Methane and 58,093 Gg of MSW generated 736 Gg of CH4 in 2015.

IPCC methodology for estimating CH4 emissions from MSW landfill sites is based on
the first order decay (FOD) method. MSW is relatively scattered and moreover shallow
depths of disposal do not induce anaerobic conditions. A fraction of methane is
released and utilized for gas recovery. As methane recovery is not practiced at most
disposal sites, default value of R is considered zero in estimation.
Wastewater treatment and discharge (5.D)

The category includes GHG emissions of the treatment or disposal of wastewater by

anaerobic means, such as of domestic wastewater, commercial and industrial
wastewater, and which can be treated on site (not collected), transferred through the
sewerage service to a central facility (collected), or eliminated without treatment in the
vicinity or by means of drains. In 2016, GHG emissions from this category accounted
for 59,401 GgCO2e, decreasing by 5.95 per cent since 2014 due to increase in
coverage of the network of domestic water treatment. Within the category, domestic
wastewater treatment and discharge contributes 65.39 per cent, while industrial
wastewater treatment and discharge amounts to 34.61 per cent. Emission from
domestic wastewater treatment and discharge increased by 5.90 per cent and
industrial wastewater treatment and discharge emission decreased by 22.38 per cent
since 2014.

174
Industrial wastewater includes industrial sectors, such as alcohol, coffee, dairy
products, fruits and juices, poultry, organic chemicals, petroleum, plastic and resins,
pulp and paper, sea food processing, soap and detergents, starch production, sugar
refining, tannery, vegetable oils and vegetables. Production in all 16 sectors results in
generation of wastewater with significant organic load having the potential to release
methane emissions, which is dependent on the type of wastewater treatment. The
analysis reveals that the pulp & paper and meat and poultry sectors are critical sectors
with the highest GHG emission per tonne of product or per unit volume of treated
wastewater.

The value of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is taken to be 45 kg per capita per
day from ENVIS (Environmental Information System) Centre on Hygiene, Sanitation,
Sewage Treatment Systems and Technology, whereas the range is 27-41 in IPCC
guidelines. Organic waste removed as sludge is considered to be zero. In general,
methane is generated in anaerobic processes in wastewater treatment facilities and
inefficiently managed aerobic processes. CH4 generated at anaerobic facilities can be
recovered or combusted but in India recovery is considered to be zero due to the
unavailability of appropriate technology.
Table 2.31: Activity data and country-specific emission factors used in the wastewater treatment
and discharge category (5D) in 2015 and 2016

2015 2016
Country population (billion) 1.292 1.313
Average protein consumption (kg/ per capita/ year) 22.02 22.02
Maximum CH4 producing capacity, Bo, kg CH4/kg
0.25 0.25
BOD
Septic tank 0.3
Open space 0.06
PIT latrine 0.3
P latrine 0.258
Type of
Night soil (Open pit) 0.06
latrine
Night soil (Human) 0
Night soil (Animal) 0.06
Open 0
Sewer 0.06
Wastewater Methane
Industry production
2015 2016 generation COD Kg/M3 correction
(million tonne)
(M3 / Tonne) factor
Alcohol 0.231 0.231 11 84 0.8
Coffee 0.327 0.353 15 9 0.8
Dairy products 0.033 0.039 6 2.24 0.5
Fruits and juices 0.300 0.300 20 5 0.8
Poultry 7020 7318 0.02 5 0.8
Organic chemicals 1.589 1.638 67 3 0.3
Petroleum 36.95 36.01 0.6 1 0.3
Plastic and resins 0.005 0.005 0.6 3.7 0.3
Pulp and paper 10.61 11.17 57 5.9 0.8
Sea food processing 0.946 1.135 13 2.5 0.3

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 Soap and detergents 2.936 3.009 3 0.85 0.3
Starch production 0.488 0.487 5.5 10 0.8
Sugar refining 27.39 22.20 0.4 2.5 0.8
Tannery 0.603 0.618 32 3.1 0.8
Vegetable oils 9.180 10.75 2 0.2 0.2
Vegetable 0.211 0.211 20 5 0.8
Source: (MoEF, 2010); (CSE, 2014); (FAO, 2016); (NEERI, 2010); (MoEFCC, 2018); (Census, 2011); (MoSPI,
2014); (CPCB, 2015).

2.8 Key categories

According to 2006 IPCC Guidelines, it is good practice to identify key categories, as it

helps prioritize efforts and improve the overall quality of the national inventory. A “key
category” is defined as a source or sink category, that is prioritized within the national
inventory system because its estimate has a significant influence on a country’s total
inventory of direct GHGs in terms of the absolute level of emissions, the trend or the
uncertainty in emissions and removals (IPCC, 2006).
Table 2.32 presents the result of the level assessment using Approach 1 that identified
23 categories without LULUCF and 25 categories with LULUCF as key categories. As
per IPCC Guidelines, 95 per cent cumulative contribution threshold has been used in
this analysis to define an upper boundary for the key category identification.

In approach 1, key categories are identified using a pre-determined cumulative

emissions threshold. Key categories are those that, when summed together in
descending order of magnitude, add up to 95 per cent of the total level (IPCC 2006
GL volume 1, page 4.12).
Table 2.32: Key category level assessment with and without LULUCF for 2016

2016 Without LULUCF 2016 With LULUCF

Sr. Gg Gg Level
IPCC Code, Category, Gas Level % IPCC Code, Category, Gas
No. CO2e CO2e %
1 1A1a Electricity production, CO2 1122230 39.53% 1A1a Electricity production ,CO2 1122230 35.15%
2 1A3b Road transport, CO2 243344 8.57% 3B2 Cropland, CO2 Removal 251975 7.89%
3 3A1 Enteric fermentation, CH4 222655 7.84% 1A3b Road transport, CO2 243344 7.62%
1A2m Nonspecific industries,
4 180838 6.37% 3A1 Enteric fermentation, CH4 222655 6.97%
CO2
1A2m Nonspecific industries,
5 1A2a Iron & steel, CO2 134731 4.75% 180838 5.66%
CO2
6 1A4b Residential, CO2 126942 4.47% 1A2a Iron & steel, CO2 134731 4.22%
7 2A1 Cement production, CO2 106591 3.75% 1A4b Residential, CO2 126942 3.98%
8 3C4 Agricultural soils, N2O 77781 2.74% 2A1 Cement production, CO2 106591 3.34%
9 1A1b Refinery, CO2 71824 2.53% 3C4 Agricultural soils, N2O 77781 2.44%
10 3C7 Rice cultivation, CH4 71322 2.51% 3B1 Forestland, CO2 Removal 77000 2.41%
1A4a Commercials/Institutional,
11 68653 2.42% 1A1b Refinery, CO2 71824 2.25%
CO2
12 1A2f Cement, CO2 53468 1.88% 3C7 Rice cultivation, CH4 71322 2.23%
1A4a Commercials/Institutional,
13 2C3 Aluminium production, CF 33455 1.18% 68653 2.15%
CO2
14 2A2 Lime production, CO2 28480 1.00% 1A2f Cement, CO2 53468 1.67%
15 3A2 Manure management, N2O 24715 0.87% 2C3 Aluminium production, CF 33455 1.05%
4D1 Domestic and commercial
16 22827 0.80% 2A2 Lime production, CO2 28480 0.89%
wastewater, CH4

176
 17 4D2 Industrial wastewater, CH4 20559 0.72% 3A2 Manure management, N2O 24715 0.77%
2E Production of halocarbons 4D1 Domestic and commercial
18 19259 0.68% 22827 0.71%
and Sulphur hexafluoride, HFC wastewater, CH4
19 1A3a Civil aviation, CO2 16117 0.57% 3B3 Grassland, CO2 21289 0.67%
4D1 Domestic and commercial
20 16015 0.56% 4D2 Industrial wastewater, CH4 20559 0.64%
wastewater, N2O
4A Managed waste disposal on 2E Production of halocarbons
21 15832 0.56% 19259 0.60%
land, CH4 and sulphur hexafluoride, HFC
22 1B2b Natural gas, CH4 14889 0.52% 1A3a Civil aviation, CO2 16117 0.50%
1B1aii Above ground mining, 4D1 Domestic and commercial
23 11742 0.41% 16015 0.50%
CH4 wastewater, N2O
4A Managed waste disposal on
24 15832 0.50%
land, CH4
25 1B2b Natural gas, CH4 14889 0.47%
Total 2704268 Total 3042790

Analysis of the trend of emission contributions from each category is undertaken to

identify where the greatest absolute changes (either increases or reductions) have
taken place over a given time. The Table 2.33 presents India’s National GHG inventory
over the period of 2011-2016 with and without LULUCF based on the trend
assessment Tier 1 methodological approach.
Table 2.33: Key category trend assessment with and without LULUCF for 2011-2016

2011-2016 without LULUCF 2011-2016 with LULUCF

% Contribution

% Contribution
Category, Gas

Category, Gas
Assessment

Assessment
IPCC Code,

IPCC Code,
to Trend

to Trend
Sr. No.

Trend

Trend
(Txt)

(Txt)
1A4a Commercials/Institutional, 1A4a Commercials/Institutional,
1 0.0424860 24.69% 0.0375768 20.70%
CO2 CO2
2 1A1a Electricity production, CO2 0.0272412 15.83% 3B2 Cropland, CO2 Removal 0.0238378 13.13%
3 3A1 Enteric fermentation, CH4 0.0164336 9.55% 1A1a Electricity production, CO2 0.0209186 11.52%
4 1A4b Residential, CO2 0.0158699 9.22% 3A1 Enteric fermentation, CH4 0.0152686 8.41%
5 1A2b Nonferrous metals, CO2 0.0112782 6.55% 1A4b residential, CO2 0.0137378 7.57%
6 3C4 Agricultural soils, N2O 0.0074817 4.35% 1A2b Nonferrous metals, CO2 0.0100061 5.51%
7 1A1b Refinery, CO2 0.0063585 3.69% 3C4 Agricultural soils, N2O 0.0068818 3.79%
8 3C7 Rice cultivation, CH4 0.0061210 3.56% 3C7 Rice cultivation, CH4 0.0056529 3.11%
9 2C3 Aluminium production, CF 0.0053251 3.09% 1A1b Refinery, CO2 0.0054426 3.00%
10 1A2a Iron & steel, CO2 0.0047874 2.78% 1A2a Iron & steel,CO2 0.0046537 2.56%
11 1B2b Natural gas, CH4 0.0031461 1.83% 2C3 Aluminium production, CF 0.0046366 2.55%
12 1A3b Road transport, CO2 0.0025648 1.49% 3B1 Forestland, CO2 Removal 0.0042197 2.32%
1A2m Nonspecific industries,
13 0.0021026 1.22% 3B3 Grassland, CO2 0.0031155 1.72%
CO2
14 4D2 Industrial wastewater, CH4 0.0019729 1.15% 1B2b Natural gas, CH4 0.0028414 1.57%
15 3A2 Manure management, N2O 0.0019188 1.12% 4D2 Industrial wastewater, CH4 0.0018148 1.00%
16 1A2m Fertilizer, CO2 0.0013342 0.78% 3A2 Manure management, N2O 0.0017790 0.98%
17 2B1 Ammonia production, CO2 0.0012454 0.72% 1A3b Road transport, CO2 0.0015641 0.86%
1A1c Manufacturing of Solid
18 0.0010342 0.60% 1A2m Nonspecific industries, CO2 0.0013371 0.74%
Fuel, CO2
19 2A1 Cement production, CO2 0.0009344 0.54% 1A2m Fertilizer, CO2 0.0012040 0.66%

177
 4D1 Domestic and commercial
20 0.0008130 0.47% 2A1 Cement production, CO2 0.0011447 0.63%
wastewater ,N2O
21 1B2b Venting and flaring, CH4 0.0007636 0.44% 2B1 Ammonia production, CO2 0.0011414 0.63%
4D1 Domestic and commercial 1A1c Manufacturing of solid fuel,
22 0.0007254 0.42% 0.0008999 0.50%
wastewater ,CH4 CO2
4D1 Domestic and commercial
23 2C3 Aluminium production, CO2 0.0007131 0.41% 0.0007700 0.42%
wastewater ,N2O
4D1 Domestic and commercial
24 1B1ai Underground mining, CH4 0.0007033 0.41% 0.0007122 0.39%
wastewater ,CH4
1A5a Biomass burnt for
25 0.0006761 0.39% 1B2b Venting and flaring, CH4 0.0006891 0.38%
energy,N2O
26 1B1ai Underground mining, CH4 0.0006412 0.35%
Total 0.164030 Total 0.172488

178
 2.9 Uncertainty assessment

According to the IPCC Guidelines (2006), uncertainty estimates are an essential part of a comprehensive inventory of GHG emissions
and removals. The uncertainty analysis should be considered as a means to prioritize national efforts aimed to increase the accuracy
and precision of future inventories and to guide decisions on the methodology selected. The overall inventory uncertainty was
estimated using the Tier 1 methodological approach. An estimate of the overall quantitative uncertainty (±6.96 per cent level
uncertainty and ±7.90 per cent trend uncertainty) in various categories is shown in Table 2.34. The uncertainty of estimates has been
depicted by a range within which the estimated emissions lie. Uncertainties associated with the activity data were sourced from the
data sources, or from the researchers who have done the collection of such data based on expert judgement of inventory estimation
teams, and/or from IPCC 2006 Guidelines.

Table 2.34: Overall Inventory Uncertainty in India for 2016

Emissions introduced by Emission

Trend in Total National Emissions

Emissions introduced by Activity
Uncertainty in Trend in National

Uncertainty in Trend in National

Uncertainty introduced into the

Factor /Estimation parameter
Emission Factor Uncertainty
2016 emissions or removals
2011 emissions or removals

Contribution to Variance by
Activity Data Uncertainty
Category Number, Name

Combined Uncertainty

data Uncertainty (%)

(Gg CO2 equivalent)

(Gg CO2 equivalent)

Category in Year T

Type A sensitivity

Type B sensitivity

uncertainty (%)
IPCC Category
Sr. No.

Gas

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)
1 Energy 1A1a Electricity production CO2 867254 1122230 10.00% 5.00% 11.18% 0.001953 0.025694 48.43% 0.18169% 6.84884% 0.46940%

2 Energy 1A3b Road transport CO2 193898 243344 5.00% 3.00% 5.83% 0.000025 0.002502 10.50% 0.01061% 0.74255% 0.00551%

3 AFOLU 3A1 Enteric fermentation CH4 219244 222655 5.00% 50.00% 50.25% 0.001553 0.019805 9.61% 1.40046% 0.67942% 0.02423%

4 Energy 1A2m Nonspecific industries CO2 143739 180838 20.00% 5.00% 20.62% 0.000172 0.002046 7.80% 0.01447% 2.20726% 0.04872%

5 Energy 1A2a Iron & steel CO2 119844 134731 5.00% 5.00% 7.07% 0.000011 0.005214 5.81% 0.03687% 0.41112% 0.00170%

179
6 Energy 1A4b Residential CO2 80343 126942 20.00% 5.00% 20.62% 0.000085 0.012301 5.48% 0.08698% 1.54943% 0.02408%

7 IPPU 2A1 Cement production CO2 88810 106591 5.00% 5.00% 7.07% 0.000007 0.000953 4.60% 0.00674% 0.32526% 0.00106%

8 AFOLU 3C4 Agricultural Soils N2O 81701 77781 15.00% 15.00% 21.21% 0.000034 0.009624 3.36% 0.20416% 0.71203% 0.00549%

9 Energy 1A1b Refinery CO2 48648 71824 25.00% 100.00% 103.08% 0.000680 0.005275 3.10% 0.74600% 1.09583% 0.01757%

10 AFOLU 3C7 Rice cultivation CH4 72670 71322 15.00% 20.00% 25.00% 0.000039 0.007638 3.08% 0.21604% 0.65290% 0.00473%
1A4a
11 Energy CO2 23023 68653 20.00% 5.00% 20.62% 0.000025 0.017453 2.96% 0.12341% 0.83797% 0.00717%
Commercials/Institutional
12 Energy 1A2f Cement CO2 43121 53468 5.00% 5.00% 7.07% 0.000002 0.000276 2.31% 0.00195% 0.16315% 0.00027%

13 IPPU 2C3 Aluminium production CF 19950 33455 5.00% 75.00% 75.17% 0.000078 0.003890 1.44% 0.41259% 0.10209% 0.00181%

14 IPPU 2A2 Lime production CO2 24011 28480 10.00% 5.00% 11.18% 0.000001 0.000404 1.23% 0.00286% 0.17381% 0.00030%

15 AFOLU 3A2 Manure management N2O 24600 24715 10.00% 75.00% 75.66% 0.000043 0.002340 1.07% 0.24814% 0.15083% 0.00084%
4D1 Domestic and
16 Waste CH4 20114 22827 15.00% 50.00% 52.20% 0.000018 0.000783 0.99% 0.05536% 0.20897% 0.00047%
commercial wastewater
17 Waste 4D2 Industrial wastewater CH4 21580 20559 15.00% 50.00% 52.20% 0.000014 0.002537 0.89% 0.17938% 0.18820% 0.00068%
2E Production of
18 IPPU halocarbons and sulphur HFC 16392 19259 10.00% 20.00% 22.36% 0.000002 0.000355 0.83% 0.01003% 0.11754% 0.00014%
hexafluoride
19 Energy 1A3a Civil aviation CO2 13504 16117 5.00% 3.00% 5.83% 0.000000 0.000184 0.70% 0.00078% 0.04918% 0.00002%
4D1 Domestic and
20 Waste N2O 14815 16015 15.00% 75.00% 76.49% 0.000019 0.000921 0.69% 0.09772% 0.14660% 0.00031%
commercial wastewater
4A Managed waste disposal
21 Waste CH4 13932 15832 15.00% 50.00% 52.20% 0.000008 0.000534 0.68% 0.03773% 0.14493% 0.00022%
on land
22 Energy 1B2b Natural gas CH4 23814 14889 5.00% 100.00% 100.12% 0.000028 0.006164 0.64% 0.87172% 0.04543% 0.00762%

23 Energy 1B1aii Above ground mining CH4 10089 11742 5.00% 100.00% 100.12% 0.000017 0.000267 0.51% 0.03773% 0.03583% 0.00003%

Total 2317287 2838889 0.004838 0.006236

Total Uncertainties Uncertainty in Total Inventory 6.96% Trend Uncertainty 7.90%

180
2.10 Time series information

Consistent time series information of the GHG inventory starting from the last (second)
national communication (inventory year 2000) to 2016 has been presented in the bar
chart (see Figure 2.24). A summary table (Table 2.35) has been provided for national
GHG inventory information contained in previous submissions. Inventory of 1994 was
communicated in INC (MoEF, 2004). SNC contained a national inventory of 2000
(MoEF, 2012). Inventory of 2007 was given in SNC as a proactive approach (MoEF,
2010). Inventory of 2010 was provided in BUR-1 (MoEFCC, 2016). In 2018, India had
furnished its BUR-2 containing the national inventory of 2014 (MoEFCC, 2018) in
2018.

3000
Energy Industrial Process Agriculture Waste LULUCF
2750

2500

2250

2000

1750
Million tonne CO2e

1500

1250

1000

750

500

250

-250

-500
2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

Figure 2.24: Time series information of GHG emissions

Table 2.35: India’s total emissions, 2011-2016

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

GHG sources and removals
GgCO2 Equivalent
1. Energy 1651928 1747686 1813559 1909766 2092102 2129428
A. Fuel combustion activities 1604503 1704639 1774788 1871709 2055017 2092250
1. Energy Industries 924258 1005813 1053981 1140983 1197123 1206587
2. Manufacturing industries & 338816 343603 356771 351910 394092 397739

181
 construction
3. Transport 221202 236020 241253 250173 261517 274434
4. Other sectors 120228 119202 122783 128643 202286 213490
B. Fugitive emission from fuels 47426 43047 38771 38057 37084 37179
1. Solid fuels 16388 16086 15568 16547 16614 17121
2. Oil and natural gas 31037 26961 23203 21511 20470 20058
C. CO2 Transport and storage NO NO NO NO NO NO
2. Industrial Processes and
185543 196023 192616 202278 214020 226407
Product Use
A. Mineral industry 113193 122469 123369 126856 132075 135468
B. Chemical industry 24387 24419 23190 22175 24269 25358
C. Metal industry 27289 28033 27356 29242 34068 40814
D. Non-energy Products
4283 4812 4955 5428 5581 5507
From Fuels and Solvent Use
E. Production of halocarbons
16392 16290 13745 18576 18027 19259
and sulphur hexafluoride
3. Agriculture 409374 408435 413683 417218 409703 407821
A. Enteric fermentation 219244 221666 224280 227157 222396 222655
B. Manure management 27221 27484 27766 28101 27220 27227
C. Rice cultivation 72670 70600 72884 72843 71834 71322
D. Agricultural soils 81701 80112 80047 80529 79715 77781
E. Prescribed burning of Savannah NO NO NO NO NO NO
F. Field burning of agricultural
8539 8573 8706 8589 8538 8836
residues
4. LULUCF -210913 -364221 -364569 -301193 -296092 -307820
A. Forest Land -71438 -71438 -71222 -68215 -68033 -75343
B. Cropland -163990 -298869 -299410 -248610 -247521 -251975
C. Grassland 27746 10614 10649 17216 21039 21289
D. Wetlands NE NE NE NE NE NE
E. Settlements -3231 -4529 -4586 -1583 -1578 -1790
F. Other Land NA NA NA NA NA NA
G. Harvested wood products NE NE NE NE NE NE
H. Other NA NA NA NA NA NA
5. Waste 70442 73208 76539 78227 73247 75232
A. Solid waste disposal on land 13932 14307 14685 15065 15448 15832
B. Waste-water handling 56509 58900 61854 63162 57799 59401
Memo items 768201 783702 797485 812068 755291 789359
International bunkers 6399 6207 5083 4981 5281 6095
Aviation 3623 3791 3742 3714 3830 4396
Marine 2776 2416 1341 1267 1451 1699
CO2 from biomass 761802 777494 792401 807087 750010 783265
Total (without LULUCF) 2317287 2425352 2496397 2607488 2789072 2838889
Total (with LULUCF) 2106374 2061131 2131828 2306295 2492980 2531069
Abbreviations: IE – Included Elsewhere; NE – Not Estimated; NO – Not Occurring, NA- Not Applicable.

In accordance with Decision 2/CP.17, non-annex I parties should submit updates of

their national GHG inventories in their BUR as contained in paragraphs 8-24 in the
Annex to decision 17/CP.8, India’s national GHG inventory for 2016 is presented in
Tables 2.36 (Table 1 and Table 2).
182
Table 2.36: India’s National GHG Inventory for 2016 (Gg)

Table 1. National greenhouse gas inventory of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks
of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol and greenhouse gas precursors
CO2
Greenhouse Gas Source And CO2 NMVOC
emission CH4 N2O CO NOx SOx
Sink Categories (Gigagram) removals s
s
Total national emissions and
2252356 330765 19557 471 X X X X
removals
1. Energy 2064840 NA 2072 68 X X X X
A. Fuel combustion (sectoral
2064840 302 68 X X X X
approach)
1. Energy industries 1200736 16 18 X X X X
2. Manufacturing industries and
395893 6 6 X X X X
construction
3. Transport 269976 41 12 X X X X
4. Other sectors 198236 239 33 X X X X
5. Other (please specify) NO NO NO X X X X
B. Fugitive emissions from fuels NO 1770 X X X X
1. Solid fuels 815 X X X X
2. Oil and natural gas 955 X X X X
2. Industrial processes 166227 NO 187 11 X X X X
A. Mineral products 135468 X X X X
B. Chemical industry 21344 27 11 X X X X
C. Metal production 7249 0.45 NO X X X X
D. Other production NO X X X X
E. Production of halocarbons
and sulphur hexafluoride
F. Consumption of halocarbons
and sulphur hexafluoride
G. Other (Pulp and paper) 2167 159 NO X X X X
1. Lubricant 2061 NO NO X X X X
2. Paraffin wax 106 NO NO X X X X
3. Pulp & paper NO 159 NO
3. Solvent and other product
NO NO X
use
4. Agriculture NO 14423 339 X X X X
A. Enteric fermentation 10603
B. Manure management 120 80 X
C. Rice cultivation 3396 X
D. Agricultural soils NO 251 X
E. Prescribed burning of
NO NO X X X
savannahs
F. Field burning of agricultural
304 8 X X X
residues
G. Other (please specify) NO NO NO X X X
5. Land-use change and
21289 -330765 55 2 X X X X
forestry
A. Changes in forest and other
NE NE
woody biomass stocks
B. Forest and grassland
NO -77000 NO NO X X
conversion
C. Abandonment of managed
NE
lands
D. CO2 emissions and removals
21289 -251975
from soil

183
 E. Other (please specify) NO -1790 55 2 X X
6. Waste 2820 52 X X X X
A. Solid waste disposal on land 754 X X
B. Waste-water handling 2066 52 X X X
C. Waste incineration X X X X
D. Other (please specify) NO NO X X X X
7. Other (please specify) NO NA NO NO X X X X
Memo items
International bunkers 6040 0.62 0.13 X X X X
Aviation 4348 0.51 0.12 X X X X
Marine 1692 0.11 0.01 X X X X
CO2 emissions from biomass 783265
Abbreviations: IE – Included Elsewhere; NE – Not Estimated; NO – Not Occurring, NA – Not Applicable.

Table 2. National greenhouse gas inventory of anthropogenic emissions of HFCs, PFCs and SF 6
HFCs a, b PFCs a, b SF6 a
Greenhouse Gas Source And
Other (to Other (to
Sink Categories (Gigagram) HFC-23 HFC-134 CF4 C2F6
be added) be added)
Total national emissions and
1.646 NO NA 3.717 1.011 NA 0.004
removals
1. Energy
A. Fuel combustion (sectoral
approach)
1. Energy industries
2. Manufacturing industries and
construction
3. Transport
4. Other sectors
5. Other (please specify)
B. Fugitive emissions from fuels
1. Solid fuels
2. Oil and natural gas
2. Industrial processes 1.646 NO NA 3.717 1.011 NA 0.004
A. Mineral products
B. Chemical industry
C. Metal production NA NO NA 3.717 1.011 NA 0.004
D. Other production
E. Production of halocarbons and
1.646 NA NA NA NA NA NA
sulphur hexafluoride
F. Consumption of halocarbons and
NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
sulphur hexafluoride
G. Other (please specify)
3. Solvent and other product use
4. Agriculture
A. Enteric fermentation
B. Manure management
C. Rice cultivation
D. Agricultural soils
E. Prescribed burning of savannahs

184
 F. Field burning of agricultural
residues
G. Other (please specify)
5. Land-use change and forestry
A. Changes in forest and other
woody biomass stocks
B. Forest and grassland conversion
C. Abandonment of managed lands
D. CO2 emissions and removals
from soil
E. Other (please specify)
6. Waste
A. Solid waste disposal on land
B. Waste-water handling
C. Waste incineration
D. Other (please specify)
7. Other (please specify) NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Memo items
International bunkers
Aviation
Marine
CO2 emissions from biomass
Abbreviations: IE – Included Elsewhere; NE – Not Estimated; NO – Not Occurring, NA – Not Applicable.

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plains of India, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 77 (2), 163-178
PPAC. (2019). Petroleum Planing & Analysis Cell . Retrieved from Ministry of
Petroleum & Natural Gas, Government of India:
https://www.ppac.gov.in/content/147_1_ConsumptionPetroleum.aspx

Singh, A. K. (2019). Better accounting of greenhouse gas emissions from Indian coal
mining activities - A field perspective. Environmental Practice, 21(1), 36-40.
UNFCCC. (2002, October 23). Guidelines for the preparation of national
communications from Parties not included. Retrieved from United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change:
https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/workshops/other_meetings/application/pdf/dec
17-cp.pdf

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Appendix
Detailed Greenhouse Gas Emissions from India, in 2016, by Sources and Removals by Sinks (Emissions are in Gigagrams).
HFC
CO2 emission CO2 removal CH4 N2O CF4 C2F6 SF6 CO2 equivalent
23
TOTAL without LULUCF (Gg) 2231067.52 19501.77 469.25 1.646 3.717 1.011 0.004 2838888.58
TOTAL with LULUCF (Gg) 2252356.39 330765.45 19556.79 470.87 1.646 3.717 1.011 0.004 2531069.02
1. ENERGY (Gg) 2064840.50 2072.38 67.96 2129428.48
A. Fuel Combustion Activities 2064840.50 301.97 67.96 2092249.93
1. Energy Industries 1200735.63 15.94 17.80 1206586.83
a. Electricity production 1122229.67 12.19 16.92 1127732.23
b. Refinery 71823.97 3.25 0.13 71931.17
c. Manufacturing of solid fuel 6681.99 0.50 0.75 6923.43
2. Manufacturing Industries &
395893.24 5.79 5.56 397739.15
Construction
a. Cement 53467.87 1.22 0.53 53658.08
b. Iron & steel 134731.33 1.57 2.12 135420.48
c. Nonferrous metals 7667.24 0.10 0.11 7704.35
d. Chemicals 1974.69 0.05 0.02 1982.48
e. Pulp & paper 2620.45 0.03 0.04 2633.43
f. Food & beverages NE
g. Nonmetallic minerals NE
h. Mining & quarrying 4082.09 0.16 0.03 4095.79
i. Textile/leather 2299.56 0.03 0.03 2309.87
j. Bricks 605.79 0.01 0.01 608.66
k. Fertilizer 5979.79 0.11 0.08 6007.88
l. Engineering Sector 1626.85 0.07 0.01 1632.20
m. Nonspecific Industries 180837.58 2.44 2.57 181685.93
n. Glass Ceramic NE
3. Transport 269975.76 41.19 11.59 274433.69
a. Road transport 243344.18 40.25 10.98 247593.77
b. Civil Aviation 16116.57 0.23 0.52 16283.73

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 Detailed Greenhouse Gas Emissions from India, in 2016, by Sources and Removals by Sinks (Emissions are in Gigagrams).
HFC
CO2 emission CO2 removal CH4 N2O CF4 C2F6 SF6 CO2 equivalent
23
c. Railways 7582.10 0.51 0.06 7611.89
d. Navigation 2932.91 0.20 0.02 2944.30
4. Other sectors 198235.86 239.05 33.01 213490.26
a. Commercials/Institutional 68653.23 0.94 0.98 68975.54
b. Residential 126942.39 4.07 0.82 127282.50
c. Agricultural/fisheries 2640.25 0.10 0.02 2647.85
d. Biomass burnt for energy 233.95 31.20 14584.37
B. Fugitive Emission from fuels 1770.41 37178.55
1 Solid fuels 815.26 17120.52
a. Above ground mining 559.14 11742.03
b. Underground mining 256.12 5378.48
2 Oil and Natural gas 955.14 20058.04
a. Oil 83.02 1743.35
b. Natural gas 709.01 14889.17
c. Venting and flaring 163.12 3425.52
2. Industrial Processes and
166227.02 186.68 11.11 1.646 3.717 1.011 0.004 226406.78
Product Use
A. Minerals 135467.75 135467.75
1. Cement production 106590.64 106590.64
2. Lime production 28479.65 28479.65
3. Limestone and dolomite use NE
5. Glass 377.14 377.14
6. Ceramics 20.31 20.31
B. Chemicals 21343.75 27.15 11.11 25358.14
1 Ammonia production 11538.97 11538.97
2 Nitric acid production 10.33 3202.31
3. Carbide production 93.10 93.10
4. Titanium dioxide production 80.99 80.99

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 Detailed Greenhouse Gas Emissions from India, in 2016, by Sources and Removals by Sinks (Emissions are in Gigagrams).
HFC
CO2 emission CO2 removal CH4 N2O CF4 C2F6 SF6 CO2 equivalent
23
5. Soda ash production 888.11 888.11
6. Methanol production 116.16 0.40 124.54
7. Ethylene production 7633.81 11.84 7882.54
8. EDC & VCM production 287.73 287.73
9. Ethylene Oxide production 180.47 0.37 188.33
10. Acrylonitrile production 0.38 0.00 0.38
11.Carbon Black production 524.03 14.53 829.11
12. Caprolactam 0.78 242.03
C Metal Production 7248.75 0.45 3.717 1.011 0.004 40813.95
1s Iron & Steel production IE
2 Ferroalloys production 2686.53 0.45 2695.99
3 Aluminium production 4473.16 3.717 1.011 37928.52
4. Lead production 55.68 55.68
5. Zinc production 32.81 32.81
6. Magnesium production 0.57 0.004 100.95
D. Non-energy product use 2166.78 2166.78
1. Lubricant 2060.80 2060.80
2. Paraffin wax 105.98 105.98
E. Production of halocarbons and
1.646 19259.45
sulphur hexafluoride
H. Other 159.08 3340.72
1. Pulp & paper 159.08 3340.72
3. AGRICULTURE 0.00 14422.82 338.52 407820.88
A. Enteric fermentation 10602.63 222655.25
B. Manure management 119.60 79.73 27226.77
C. Rice cultivation 3396.27 71321.71
D. Agricultural soils 250.91 77780.76
Direct N2O Emissions 208.86 64747.28

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 Detailed Greenhouse Gas Emissions from India, in 2016, by Sources and Removals by Sinks (Emissions are in Gigagrams).
HFC
CO2 emission CO2 removal CH4 N2O CF4 C2F6 SF6 CO2 equivalent
23
Indirect N2O Emissions 42.04 13033.48
F. Field burning of agricultural
304.31 7.89 8836.39
residues
4. LULUCF 21288.87 330765.45 55.02 1.62 -307819.56
A. Forest Land 77000.00 55.02 1.62 -75342.98
B. Cropland 251975.00 -251975.00
C. Grassland 21288.87 21288.87
D. Settlement 1790.45 -1790.45
F. Other land NA
5. WASTE 2819.90 51.66 75232.44
A. Solid waste disposal on land 753.90 15831.84
1. Managed waste disposal on land 753.90 15831.84
B. Waste-water handling 2066.00 51.66 59400.60
1. Industrial wastewater 979.00 20559.00
2. Domestic and commercial
1087.00 51.66 38841.60
wastewater
Memo Item (not accounted in total
789304.54 0.62 0.13 789359.05
Emissions)
International Bunkers 6040.02 0.62 0.13 6094.54
Aviation 4347.61 0.51 0.12 4395.74
Marine 1692.42 0.11 0.01 1698.80
CO2 from Biomass 783264.51 783264.51
Abbreviations: IE – Included Elsewhere; NE – Not Estimated; NO – Not Occurring, NA – Not Applicable.

*****

193
Generation from renewable
energy sources doubled

Generation from non-

renewable sources
increased by 19%

2014-15 2018-19 2014-15 2018-19

Share of fossil-fuel based

electricity generation in total
installed capacity reduced from
68% to 62% between March
2014 to September 2020

March 2014 September 2020

Freepik. (2020). Ecology comparative illustration vector.
 Key Points
Chapter 3 Mitigation Actions

 Based on the National GHG Inventory, India has successfully reduced the
emission (excluding emissions from agriculture sector) intensity of its GDP by 24
per cent between 2005 and 2016.
 Thus, India is one of the very few countries on track to fulfilling its declared
voluntary mitigation action up to 2020. This has been corroborated by independent
scientific studies of global climate action by experts across different countries.
 Annex-I Parties as a whole, however, have reduced emissions from 1990 to 2018
only by 12.5 per cent without LULUCF (and 16.6 per cent with LULUCF). This is in
contrast to the benchmark of 25-40 per cent reduction below 1990 levels by 2020
called for by the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Within this category, the
non-EIT Parties have reduced their annual emissions over this period by only 1.5
per cent (without LULUCF).
 India in its NDCs enhanced its ambition to reduce the emission intensity of its GDP
by 33-35 per cent below 2005 levels by 2030. India is on track to meeting this
enhanced commitment as well. Through proactive measures and planned action,
India has been increasingly making efforts to i) increase the share of non-fossil
fuel in overall energy mix, ii) improve energy efficiency measures, iii) enhance CO2
removal through increasing forest and tree cover, without compromising on the
developmental priorities of the country.
 India’s power sector priorities include ensuring energy security, improving access
and affordability of modern energy resources for all, diversifying energy resources,
enhancing resource use efficiency, reducing T&D losses in power transmission,
and enhancing the contribution of renewable energy.
 India has set a target of achieving 175 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2022
which will be enhanced to 450 GW subsequently.
 As on 30 November 2020, India’s total renewable energy installed capacity
(excluding hydropower above 25 MW) had reached over 90 GW and constituted
over 24 per cent of the country’s installed power capacity. With inclusion of large
hydro, the total installed capacity is ~136 GW and the share of renewable energy
in electric installed capacity is over 36 per cent.
 The adoption of energy efficiency schemes/ programmes led to overall energy
savings of 23.728 Mtoe for the year 2018-19.
 Schemes such as UJALA have led to a GHG emission reduction of 180.08 MtCO2
from 2014-15 to November 2020. Under the Street Lighting National Programme
(SLNP), 11.25 million LED street lights have been installed up to September 2020,
leading to a cumulative emissions reduction of 14.82 MtCO2 between 2015-16 and
2019-20.
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 The Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) scheme for improved energy efficiency in
industry saved 31 MtCO2 of emissions in PAT-I (2012-15), and 61.34 MtCO2 of
emissions in PAT-II (2016-19).
 Under the Buildings Energy Efficiency Programme (BEEP), EESL has completed
building energy efficiency projects in 10,344 buildings including railway stations
and airports. This has resulted in estimated energy savings of 224 million kWh per
year with avoided peak demand of 75.64 MW and emission reduction of 0.18
MtCO2 per year.
 In the transport sector, India has leapfrogged one stage of emission norms, moving
directly from Bharat Stage (BS)-IV emission norms to the introduction of BS-VI
norms in 2020. These Bharat Stage norms are equivalent to Euro 4 and Euro 6
emission norms.
 Under the Department of Heavy Industry administered Faster Adoption and
Manufacturing of (Hybrid) Electric Vehicles in India (FAME India) Scheme, the
deployment of about 0.28 million hybrid and electric vehicles is supported in Phase
I. FAME under Phase II has expanded with an outlay of INR 100,000 million for a
period of 3 years, starting from April 2019.
 The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (Prime Minister’s Agricultural
Irrigation Scheme) aims at convergence of investments in irrigation at the field level
and expansion of cultivable area and improvement of water use efficiency,
resulting in an emissions reduction of 11.979 MtCO2 during the period 2017-18 to
2018-19.
 A number of other schemes in crop production, such as crop diversification from
paddy, direct seeding of rice and system of rice intensification, and other
agricultural sectors such as livestock, horticulture and fisheries are all contributing
to the lowering of emissions. This effort is despite the fact that agricultural
emissions are survival emissions for India and the sector, in this country,
contributes to food and nutrition security for the second largest population in the
world.
 LULUCF sequestered 330.76 Mt of CO2, which is about 15 per cent of India’s total
CO2 emissions from all sectors in 2016. The net change of the carbon stock in
forests was an increase of 42.6 million tonne between the assessments of 2017
and 2019.
 In spite of the large human population, and at a time when many countries of the
world are losing their forests due to various anthropogenic causes, India has been
able to retain a larger proportion of forest cover and protect its biodiversity.
 In the waste sector, the current focus of India is the rapid expansion of the
modernization of sanitation facilities and infrastructure and waste management
system in general. These actions are indispensable for further mitigation actions
in the waste sector.

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 Both historically and in the contemporary period, India has consumed far less than
its fair share of the global carbon budget, while developed countries have
consumed significantly greater than their fair share so far (for both 1.5 o and 2o
warming). In per capita energy use and per capita consumption of various fuels,
India is consistently and significantly below the world average.
 Despite every effort at decoupling development from emissions, India’s emission
will rise. This is a consequence of India’s current stage of development and
available technologies. This is also in keeping with the preamble of the UNFCCC
which notes, inter alia, that “the largest share of historical and current global
emissions of greenhouse gases has originated in developed countries, that per
capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low and that the share
of global emissions originating in developing countries will grow to meet their social
and development needs”.

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 Chapter 3
Mitigation Actions
3.1 India's declared voluntary action until 2020
Climate change is a global collective action problem. It is therefore necessary to
contextualize India’s contribution keeping in view the mitigation actions of other
countries, especially the Annex-I Parties of the UNFCCC. Such contextualization will
be in accordance with the Article 3.1 of the Convention which calls for climate action
“on the basis of equity in accordance with common but differentiated responsibilities
and respective capabilities” of each Party. In the absence of such contextualization, it
will not be possible to provide the correct metrics to assess India’s progress in
mitigation.

India is currently home to 17.8 per cent of the global population (MoSPI, 2018). India’s
per capita GHG emissions (including LULUCF) in 2016, based on the national
inventory reported in Chapter 2, were 1.96 t CO2e which is less than one third of the
world’s per capita GHG emissions (6.55 t CO2e) (CAIT database, 2020) for the same
year. Historically, between 1850 and 2017, India has only contributed about 4 per cent
to global cumulative emissions (Gütschow et al., 2019a). Even after 1990, entering a
period of rapid economic growth, India’s contribution to global cumulative emissions
has only been 4.9 per cent. In contrast, the 28 Annex-I parties account for 37 per cent
of the global cumulative emissions between 1990 and 2017 despite being home to
only 13.5 per cent of the global population. India’s responsibility towards mitigation of
GHG emissions is therefore low, by any equitable measure of responsibility. As the
Indian economy continues to grow rapidly, meeting India’s developmental needs will
require scaling up of infrastructure and energy use. India’s commitments under the
Convention and the Paris Agreement are such as to ensure efficient growth that will
allow for development and contribute to mitigating GHG emissions.
Under the provisions of Article 12, paragraphs 1(b) and 4, and Article 10, paragraph
2(a), of the Convention, India made a voluntary declaration in 2010 to reduce the
greenhouse gas emission intensity of its GDP by 20-25 per cent by 2020 from 2005
levels. Agriculture sector emissions are excluded from the assessment of emission
intensity, considering that these are survival emissions for a country like India. In
keeping with this pledge, an emission intensity reduction of 24 per cent has been
achieved between 2005 and 2016 (excluding emissions from the agriculture sector).
In 2015, India further enhanced this ambition in its NDCs to reduce the emission
intensity of GDP by 33-35 per cent by 2030 from 2005 level (UNFCCC, 2016).
Effective policymaking, implementation, strengthening of institutions and building of
capacities have aided the reduction in emission intensity of India’s GDP. The
Government of India has taken various steps to implement the provisions of the
Convention in keeping with national circumstances by widening the efforts across

199
sectors. The planned and implemented policies and measures mitigate emissions of
GHGs across sectors either directly or indirectly.
Effective measures to increase the share of cleaner and renewable energy in the total
energy mix by replacing fossil fuels are also being carried out across sectors and
across all States and UTs by providing them with targets for capacity addition of RE
technologies in a set timeframe. Non-fossil fuel sources such as solar, wind, nuclear
and modern energy technology-based sources such as waste to energy and biofuels
have already been deployed at a steadily increasing rate and have contributed to the
reduction in emissions intensity. Through proactive measures and conscious action,
the country has been increasingly making efforts to improve energy efficiency and
enhance tree and forest cover in India, without compromising on its developmental
priorities.

Coal will however continue to play a critical role in India's fuel and energy mix. Unlike
those countries who are pro-active in planning for phase-out of coal, only to replace
them by oil and gas, India is transparent in its need for coal for its energy security,
lacking any major domestic oil and gas resources. India will however use coal
responsibly as testified by the number of clean coal initiatives that are being
undertaken.
This chapter focuses on the actions undertaken for mitigation, capturing the initiatives
and targets and charting the progress of the measures undertaken, over a wide range
of sectors across the entire economy.

3.2 National Action Plan on Climate Change

The second BUR elaborated the objectives and progress of the National Action Plan
on Climate Change (NAPCC) which was launched in 2008 to address climate change-
related concerns and promote long term sustainability. Eight missions which form the
core of the NAPCC have been listed below with an update on the progress of each of
the missions.
Table 3.1: Implementation of NAPCC

Mission Target / Deliverables Key achievements

(i) Achieve 100 GW of solar power by
2022.  The cumulative capacity of
(ii) The target of 100 GW solar power 36.05 GW has been
is to be achieved in seven years commissioned till September
starting from 2014-15, with 40 GW of 2020. Around 36 GW of solar
grid-connected rooftop projects and 60 energy capacity is under
National Solar
GW of large and medium land-based installation, and an additional 19
Mission
solar-power projects. GW capacity has been
(iii) Enabling the policy framework for tendered. Consequently, the
implementation of the mission. total capacity that is already
(iv) Promoting 2 GW of off-grid solar commissioned or in the pipeline
applications, including 20 million solar is about 91 GW.
lights by 2022.

200
Mission Target / Deliverables Key achievements
(v) Creating a conducive environment  Under the PM-KUSUM solar
for developing solar manufacturing pumpsets scheme, a total of
capability in the country. 25.75 GW of solar power
(vi) Supporting research, development capacity is expected to be
and capacity building activities. developed by 2022. Currently,
0.256 million solar pumps have
been set up till March 2020
(MNRE, 2020).
 40 solar parks in 17 States with
an aggregate capacity of 22.61
GW have been approved and
7.94 GW solar projects have
been commissioned inside such
parks (MNRE, 2020).
(i) Mandating specific energy
consumption reduction in large energy-
consuming industries, with a system
for companies to trade energy-savings
certificates.  PAT Cycle I (2012-13 to 2014-
(ii) Energy incentives, including 15) emission reduction of 31
reduced taxes on energy-efficient MtCO2 was achieved.
appliances.  PAT Cycle II (2016-17 to 2018-
National Mission
(iii) Financing a public-private 19), emission reduction of 61.34
for Enhanced
partnership to reduce energy MtCO2 was achieved.
Energy Efficiency
(NMEEE)
consumption through demand-side  PAT Cycle III (2017-18 to 2019-
management programmes in municipal 20) concluded on 31 March
buildings and the agricultural sector. 2020, results of this cycle are
(iv) NMEEE includes four initiatives: awaited.
Perform, Achieve and Trade; Energy
 PAT cycles IV, V and VI have
Efficiency Financing Platform; Market
been notified.
Transformation for Energy Efficiency;
and Framework for Energy Efficient
Economic Development.
(i) To increase forest/tree cover by 5
million ha of forest/non-forest lands
and improved quality of forest cover on
another 5 million ha (a total of 10
 An amount of INR 894.20 million
million ha).
has been released between 2017
(ii) Improved ecosystem services
and 2019 (MoEFCC, 2019).
National Mission including biodiversity, hydrological
 The afforestation activities have
for Green India services and carbon sequestration as
been carried out over an area of
(GIM) a result of treatment of 10 million ha.
1,42,684 ha during the period
(iii) To increase forest-based livelihood
2015-16 to 2019-20.
income of about 3 million households
living in and around the forests.
(iv) To enhance annual CO2
sequestration by 50 to 60 million tonne
in the year 2020.

201
Mission Target / Deliverables Key achievements
 Evolution of the standards with
respect to water supply and
sewerage sector (MoHUA,
2012).
 Under the Energy Conservation
Building Code (ECBC), 335
demonstration buildings have
been supported with technical
(i) Development of sustainable habitat
assistance for compliance in
standards that lead to robust
the States/UTs. Cumulative
development strategies while
built up area of 0.16 billion m 2
simultaneously addressing climate
ensuring an approximate
change-related concerns.
energy saving of 0.17 billion
(ii) Preparation of city development
National Mission units.
plans that comprehensively address
on Sustainable  Under the Smart Cities Mission
adaptation and mitigation concerns.
Habitat (NMSH) (SCM), 1,987 projects have
(iii) Preparation of comprehensive
been already completed while
mobility plans that enable cities to
4,375 projects are under
undertake long-term, energy-efficient,
implementation. SCM requires
and cost-effective transport planning.
cities to have at least 10 per
(iv) Capacity building for undertaking
cent energy coming from solar
activities relevant to the mission.
and at least 80 per cent
buildings to be energy efficient
and green. (MoHUA, 2020).
 As on 12 November 2020,
3,085 projects of INR 130.7
billion have been completed
under the AMRUT mission
(MoHUA, 2020a).
 Financial assistance of INR 5
million to major states and INR 3
million to small states/UTs as a
grant for the formulation of State
(i) Creating a comprehensive water
Specific Action Plans (SSAPs)
database in the public domain and
for the water sector.
assessing the impact of climate
 The National Institute of
change on a water resource.
Hydrology is also acting as
(ii) Promoting citizen and state action
Nodal agency to get the State
for water conservation, augmentation,
National Water Specific Action Plan for the
and preservation.
Mission (NWM) water sector for 16 States and
(iii) Focusing attention on
UTs namely, Bihar, Haryana,
overexploited areas.
Himachal Pradesh, Kerala,
(iv) Increasing water-use efficiency by
Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar
20 per cent.
Pradesh, Andaman & Nicobar
(v) Promoting basin-level integrated
Islands, Chandigarh, Dadar &
water resources management.
Nagar Haveli (+ Daman & Diu),
Delhi, Goa, Jammu & Kashmir,
Jharkhand, Lakshadweep,
Puducherry (NWM, 2020).

202
Mission Target / Deliverables Key achievements
 Five States have completed the
first phase of SSAP.
 A total of 33,487 ha of the area
has been brought under the
System of Rice Intensification
(SRI) in 2018.
 Total of 41,526 ha has been
brought under the Direct Seeded
(i) To make agriculture more
Rice (DSR) system in 2018.
productive, sustainable, remunerative,
 23 million trees have been
and climate resilient.
planted till 2018-19, covering an
(ii) To conserve natural resources
area of 52,003 ha (DAC&FW,
through appropriate soil and moisture
2020).
National Mission conservation measures.
for Sustainable (iii) To adopt comprehensive soil  During 2018-19 & 2019-20
Agriculture health management practices. under the National Bamboo
(iv) To optimize the utilization of water Mission, an area of 14,236 ha
resources through efficient water was covered along with other
management. envisaged value chain
(v) To develop the capacity of farmers development and skill
and stakeholders. development activities.
 16,826 Custom Hiring Centres
(CHCs) of in-situ crop residue
management machinery have
been established in 2018-19 and
2019-20 to reduce crop residue
burning.
 Climate Cells/Centres have
been established in 11 out of the
(i) To understand the complex
12 Himalayan States for building
processes affecting the Himalayan
the institutional capacity of
ecosystem.
Himalayan States in the area of
(ii) To continuously assess the health
climate change adaptation
status of the Himalayan Ecosystem.
(MoST, 2018).
(iii) Enable policy bodies in their policy-
 Indo-Swiss Capacity Building
formulation functions.
Programme on Himalayan
National Mission (iv) Assist states in the Indian
Glaciology was also organized
for Sustaining Himalayan region with their
to help build capacities and
Himalayan implementation of actions selected for
contributed to the training of 51
Ecosystems sustainable development.
researchers.
(NMSHE) (v) Networking and strengthening of
 Common Framework for Climate
knowledge institutions.
Vulnerability and Risk
(vi) Start of new centres relevant to
Assessment developed to
climate change in the existing
understand the vulnerability
institutions in the Himalayan States.
profile of the entire Himalayan
(vii) Regional cooperation with
region (MoST, 2018), by DST in
neighbouring countries in Glaciology.
collaboration with SDC and
scientists from IISc, IIT Guwahati
and IIT Mandi.

203
 Mission Target / Deliverables Key achievements
(i) Formation of knowledge networks
among the existing knowledge
institutions engaged in research and
development relating to climate
 116 Training programmes have
science and facilitate data sharing and
been launched and 14,000
exchange.
people have been trained.
(ii) Establishment of global technology
 A total of 23 major R&D
watch groups with institutional
programmes have been spread
capacities to carry out research on risk
over the country.
minimisation technology selection for
 7 Human Capacity Building and
developmental choices.
National Knowledge Network
(iii) Development of national capacity
National Mission programmes in the areas of
for modelling the regional impact of
on Strategic climate change science,
climate change on different ecological
Knowledge for adaptation and mitigation have
zones within the country.
Climate Change been launched.
(iv) Establishing research networks
(NMSKCC)  8 Global Technology Watch
and encouraging research in the areas
Groups in the areas of
of climate change impacts.
renewable energy technology,
(v) Generation and development of the
advance coal technology,
conceptual and knowledge basis for
enhanced energy efficiency,
defining sustainability of development
green forest, sustainable habitat,
pathways.
water, sustainable agriculture
(vi) Providing an improved
and manufacturing have been
understanding and awareness of the
set up (DEA, 2020).
key climate processes and resultant
climate risks.
(vii) Creating institutional capacity for
research infrastructure.

State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCC)

The broader intent of the SAPCCs has been to ensure that state-level priorities on
climate change adaptation and mitigation actions converge with the NAPCC missions
as well as existing policies and programmes. Thirty-three SAPCCs have been
approved and are being implemented since 2009. With the intent of strengthening the
existing SAPCCs using recent scientific assessments and projections, MoEFCC
issued guidelines to all the states for their revision in 2018. These guidelines seek to
incorporate local and regional dimensions for assessing vulnerability, broader
participatory approaches, efficient monitoring and evaluation systems and, clear
financial roadmaps in the revised SAPCCs. The revised SAPCCs encourage a
focused and structured approach towards strengthening climate action in priority
sectors through sectoral plans.

The work done by India at sub-national levels with the SAPCC, first in 2012 and now
with the revision underway according to the revised framework, reflects not just a
concentrated effort by the country towards a more transformative narrative in the
climate discourse but also highlights the recognition of sub-national actors as key
influential stakeholders in national climate action.

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3.3 Mitigation actions in power sector
The power sector in India is fuelled by diverse conventional sources such as coal,
lignite, natural gas and oil, nuclear power as well as renewables such as wind, hydro,
solar, biomass, waste, and biofuels. The rising electricity demand in the country has
necessitated the expansion of installed generating capacity. India has had substantial
growth in the transmission and distribution infrastructure to meet the rising demand.
Enabling government policies and initiatives have led to a reduction in energy
shortages, peak supply shortages, and building of surplus generation capacity.
The power sector in India has witnessed steady transformation over the past few
years, with an increasing focus on clean and sustainable power generation sources.
In 2015-16, the Indian government set a target of achieving 175 GW of renewable
energy capacity by 2022, with a further increase proposed up to 450 GW (PIB, 2020i).
In recent years, policies and programmes have been developed and implemented in
the energy sector with a focus on addressing climate change concerns. India’s NDC
has declared a target of 40 per cent of cumulative electric power installed capacity
from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030. The share of non-fossil fuel-
based electricity generation installed capacity has already reached 38.18 per cent in
November 2020 (CEA, 2020c). There has been an increasing focus on the use of
renewables in power generation which is further aided by enabling government
policies. The power generation capacity share of renewables (excluding large hydro
and nuclear) grew from 4.98 per cent as on March 2006 to about 23.92 per cent by
September 2020 (CEA, 2020c).

3.3.1 Renewable energy (RE)

The renewable energy (RE) sector in India is experiencing a period of rapid expansion,
buoyed by strong government focus and policy support.
India's RE target is made up by 100 GW from solar PV power, 60 GW from wind power,
10 GW from bioenergy, and 5 GW from small hydropower.
As of November 2020, installed renewable power capacity (excluding hydro above 25
MW) has already crossed 90 GW, contributing to about 24 per cent of the country’s
installed electricity capacity. Besides, comparison between 2005 and 2020 shows that
reliance on other sources like gas and diesel for meeting power demand has declined
over the years. The share of renewable energy continues to progressively increase in
the electricity mix with renewable energy generation in India crossing 100 billion units.
The cumulative renewable power installed capacity (excluding hydro above 25 MW)
has increased by 2.6 times from 35 GW on 31 March 2014 to 90.39 GW on 30
November 2020 and constitutes over 24 per cent of the country's installed power
capacity. With the inclusion of large hydro, the total installed capacity would be ~136
GW and the share of renewable energy in installed capacity would be over 36 per cent
(PIB, 2020l). The share of non-fossil sources in installed capacity of electricity

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generation increased from 32.31 per cent in March 2014 to 37.99 per cent in
September 2020 (CEA. 2020e).
Table 3.2: Installed power generation capacity in India

As on 31.03.2006 As on 31.03.2012 As on 31.03.2017 As on 30.09.2020

Fuel MW Share MW Share MW Share MW Share
Coal 68,519 55.13% 1,12,022 56.05% 1,92,163 58.80% 2,05,855 55.18%
Gas 12,690 10.21% 18,381 9.20% 25,329 7.75% 24,957 6.69%
Diesel 1,202 0.97% 1,200 0.60% 838 0.26% 510 0.14%
Hydro 32,326 26.01% 38,990 19.51% 44,478 13.61% 45,699 12.25%
RES 6,191 4.98% 24,503 12.26% 57,244 17.51% 89,229 23.92%
Nuclear 3,360 2.70% 4,780 2.39% 6,780 2.07% 6,780 1.82%
Total 1,24,287 100.00% 1,99,877 100.00% 3,26,833 100% 3,73,029 100%
*Figures at decimal may not tally due to rounding off
Source: CEA, 2020e.

6.69%

Coal
0.14%

Gas

12.25%
Diesel
55.18%

Hydro

23.92% RES

Nuclear

1.82%

Figure 3.1: Installed power generation capacity, September 2020

Renewable Energy Sources (RES), apart from adding capacity into the grid are also
increasingly being used for captive power generation. Generation from renewable
energy sources has doubled between 2014-15 and 2018-19, while the generation from
non-renewable sources has increased by 19 per cent during the same period. This
has been actively promoted by the “must-run” status of renewable energy generation.
The status of renewable energy-based power in the country is presented below.

Table 3.3: Year-wise details of RE generation

Years RES Generation (billion units)

2014-15 61.72
2015-16 65.78
2016-17 81.55
2017-18 101.84

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 Years RES Generation (billion units)
2018-19 126.76
2019-20 138.34
2020-21 (till October 2020) 89.52

Table 3.4: Installed capacity of renewables in India as on 30 September 2020

Target for Achievement Total Installed

2020-21 (Apr-Sept 2020) Capacity
1. Grid-Interactive Power (Capacities in MW)
Wind power 3,000 380.40 38,124.15
Solar power – Ground mounted 9,000 721.93 32,834.42
Solar power – Rooftop 2,000 700.98 3,216.28
Small hydro power 100 56.80 4,739.97
Biomass power/cogeneration 200 173.37 9,373.87
Biomass (non-bagasse,
50 97.24 772.05
cogeneration/captive power plant)
Waste to Power (WtP) 30 21.00 168.64
Total 14,380 2,151.72 89,229.38
2. Off-grid/ grid power (capacities in MW equivalent)
Waste to Energy (WtE) 10 6.53 204.73
SPV systems 500 27.07 1,005.46
Total 510 33.60 1,210.19
3. Other non-renewable technologies (capacity in Nos)
Biogas plants 0.60 0.09 50.50
Source: MNRE, 2020c.

Installed capacity of renewable energy sources as on 30 November 2020 stands at

90.39 GW. This includes solar power installed capacity of 36.91 GW, wind power
38.43 GW, bioenergy 10.31 GW and small hydro 4.74 GW. Solar and wind power
dominated the installed capacity generation of power from renewables with a share of
36 per cent and 43 per cent respectively in FY 2019-20. The solar and wind sectors
have seen rapid growth owing to policy and regulatory support, at both the central and
state levels. State regulators have been periodically issuing policies and regulations
for renewable energy with a special focus on solar. Cumulative capacity addition grew
at CAGR of 125 per cent for solar and 12 per cent for wind between FY 2010 and FY
2020 for development in the country (PIB, 2020b).
Table 3.5: On grid solar capacity growth in India

Solar capacity growth in India

Year Yearly installation (GW) Cumulative capacity (GW)
2010 0.005 0.010
2011 0.028 0.038
2012 0.862 0.900
2013 0.746 1.646
2014 1.001 2.647
2015 1.096 3.743
2016 3.019 6.762

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 Solar capacity growth in India
Year Yearly installation (GW) Cumulative capacity (GW)
2017 5.526 12.288
2018 9.363 21.651
2019 6.529 28.180
2020 (September 2020) 7.871 36.051
Source: MNRE, 2020d.

50

45

40

35 36.051

30 Yearly installation (GW)

28.18
25 Cumulative capacity (GW)
21.651
20

15 12.288
6.762 9.363
10 7.871
0.9 5.526 6.529
0.038 1.646 3.743
0.01 2.647 3.019
5
0.028 1.096
0.005 0.862 0.746 1.001
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Figure 3.2: Solar capacity growth in India

The cumulative installed capacity of wind power in the country was 38.12 GW (as on
30 September 2020), the fourth highest in the world, after China, USA, and Germany.
Table 3.6: Wind Capacity Growth in India

Wind Capacity Growth in India

Year Yearly installation (GW) Cumulative capacity (GW)
2010 1.6 11.8
2011 2.4 14.2
2012 3.2 17.4
2013 1.7 19.1
2014 2.1 21.2
2015 2.9 24.1
2016 3.5 27.6
2017 5.5 33.1
2018 1.8 34.9
2019 1.5 35.6
2020 (September 2020) 2.52 38.12
Source: CEA, 2020

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 50 45

45 38.12 40
Yearly installation (GW)
35.6
40 34.9
33.1 35
Cumulative capacity (GW)
35
27.6 30
30 24.1
25
21.2
25
19.1
17.4 20
20
14.2
15
15 11.8

10
10
5.5
5 3.2 2.9 3.5 5
1.6 2.4 1.7 2.1 1.8 1.5 2.5

0 0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Figure 3.3: Wind capacity growth in India

The per-unit cost for solar and wind energy has decreased substantially, further
incentivizing their deployment. The lowest tariff discovered through bidding process
for solar is INR 2.36 / kWh (Mercom, 2020) and for wind INR 2.43 / kWh (PIB, 2018).
The rapidly decreasing tariff for fresh deployment implies however that return on
investment may be lowered and that longer time scales may be required for recovering
initial investments. Early entry into renewables by India also implies that older projects
provide power at higher tariff. As a consequence, India’s mitigation costs are higher
due to the “must-run” status of renewable power generation and the commitment to
renewable power obligations of its DISCOMs. These enhanced costs of mitigation
have not been supported in any form by Annex 2 Parties, particularly through climate
finance.

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 20
17.91
18

16

14

12

10

8 7
6.45 6.47 6.17
6
4.34
4 3.30
2.44 2.44 2.50
2

0
2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20

Figure 3.4: Solar tariff in India

Round-The-Clock (RTC) Power Procurement

MNRE has announced guidelines for procuring round-the-clock power from grid-
connected renewable energy projects supported by conventional thermal power
projects. The guidelines require that the generator shall supply dispatchable RE Power
complemented with thermal power, in RTC manner, adhering to at least 85 per cent
availability annually and at least 85 per cent availability during the peak hours. Peak
hours are four hours out of the daily 24 hours and are to be clearly specified by the
procurer beforehand in the bidding documents. The generator has to offer power such
that at least 51 per cent of the annual energy offered corresponds to renewable energy
and the balance is offered from thermal sources (MNRE, 2020b). The e-Reverse
Auctioning for 400 MW RE projects with RTC supply conducted by SECI Limited in
May 2020 resulted in a historic first-year tariff of INR 2.90 / kWh. This is for firm,
schedulable and affordable RTC supply through 100 per cent RE power.

Distribution
Improved grid connections, improved financial health of DISCOMs and competitive
auctions are critical elements to sustain progress in the growth of renewables in the
country (IEA, 2020a; 2020b). Transmission and distribution (T&D) losses in India are
high due to the wide spatial distribution of electricity consumers who are very often
unable to pay the full cost of electricity. Government of India has assisted the State
/DISCOMs in reducing the technical as well as commercial losses by providing
the funds for strengthening and augmentation of distribution system, and also
by introducing Aerial Bundled (AB) cables and various antitheft means under its
ongoing schemes such as DDUGJY, Integrated Power Development Scheme (IPDS)

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and Saubhagya. Recovering costs is therefore difficult for utilities resulting in financial
stress and difficulties in strengthening the distribution network. However, the GoI has
made significant progress in the last few years in addressing this problem. The
ongoing developments under the financial restructuring reform UDAY (Ujwal DISCOM
Assurance Yojana) intend to strengthen the financial and operational status of
DISCOMs, thereby reducing the overall AT&C losses in the country (UDAY, 2020).
The Table 3.7 depicts the good practices followed by some states to reduce their
AT&C losses.
Table 3.7: Good practices to reduce AT&C losses

States Good practice

Rajasthan Enhanced community participation and anti-theft vigilance squad
Gujarat Continuous efficiency improvement measures
Haryana Elimination of manual intervention in meter reading, reward scheme for
vigilance work
Assam GIS mapping and systematic augmentation of the distribution system
Kerala Computerization of billing, better manpower deployment
Manipur Installation of prepaid meters
Source: UDAY, 2020.

Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPOs)

In continuation of the RPO targets, MoP has notified annual targets for a further period
of three years from 2019-20 to 2021-22. Under the new targets, by 2021-22, RPOs
amount to 21 per cent, of which 10.50 per cent must be from solar (MNRE, 2018).
Table 3.8: Long-term Trajectory of RPO

Long-term RPO trajectory 2019-20 (%) 2020-21 (%) 2021-22 (%)

Non-solar 10.25 10.25 10.50
Solar 7.25 8.75 10.50
Total 17.50 19.00 21.00
Source: MoP, 2018.

Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) By an order dated 30 December 2019, the

validity period of the RECs has been extended to 31 March 2020. The inventory of
RECs as on June 2020 in the REC Registry is given below (POSOCO, 2020).
Table 3.9: Inventory of RECs

Solar REC 2,14,063

Non Solar REC 56,94,609
Total (Solar + Non Solar) 59,08,672

3.3.2 Nuclear power in India

In the overall cost of electricity generated from nuclear fuel, the cost of fuel is a much
smaller component compared to the other components (DAE, 2020). Besides, spent
fuel is a resource for fuel to be used in fast breeder reactors (FBR).

211
Further, the fuel discharged from nuclear reactors also contains a fissile component
that can be recovered by reprocessing and recycled, preferably in FBRs, thereby
further multiplying the fissile material. Thus, if the import of energy is a necessity, from
strategic considerations, nuclear fuel is a preferable option.

6,780 6,780 6,780 6,780

Nuclear Installed Generation Capacity in MW

5,780 5,780

4,780 4,780 4,780

4,560
4,120
2009-10

2010-11

2011-12

2012-13

2013-14

2014-15

2015-16

2016-17

2017-18

2018-19

2019-20
Figure 3.5: Nuclear power installed generation capacity from 2009-2019
Source: MoSPI, 2020a.

Thermal capacity addition after the 10th Plan (2002-03 to 2006-07) has increased
significantly but capacity addition from hydro and nuclear has not been able to keep
pace with the targets. At present, the Nuclear Power Corporation India Limited
(NPCIL) is operating 22 commercial nuclear power reactors with an installed capacity
of 6,780 MW as on September 2020, which is around 2 per cent of the power
generation capacity from all sources in the country (CEA, 2020d).
Currently, NPCIL has eight reactors under various stages of construction, totalling
6,200 MW capacity. Given that nuclear projects are given priority and considered as
must run projects on account of their inherent advantages, the government has
committed nuclear capacity addition of 3,300 MW during 2017-22 and a further
capacity addition of 6,800 MW during the 2022-27 period. The existing nuclear power
capacity of 6,780 MW is proposed to be increased to 22,480 MW by 2031 (PIB,
2020e).
To ensure better utilization of nuclear energy, two public sector enterprises of the DAE,
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) and Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut
Nigam Limited (BHAVINI) are already in place for generation of power from nuclear
energy. The generation targets are set on an annual basis, as a part of the MoU
between the NPCIL and DAE. NPCIL’s target achieved for the year 2018-19 is
37,812.81 million units (MU). NPCIL’s target set for generation in the year 2019-20

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was 39,600 MU. The generation in the year up to October 2019 was 28,339 MU (DAE,
2019).
3.3.3 Green energy corridor project
In order to facilitate renewable power evacuation and reshape the grid for future
requirements, Green Energy Corridor (GEC) projects have been initiated. The first
component of the scheme, the Inter-state GEC with target capacity of 3,200 circuit
kilometre (ckm) transmission lines and 17,000 MVA capacity sub-stations, was
completed in March 2020. The second component, Intra-state GEC with a target
capacity of 9,700 ckm transmission lines and 22,600 MVA capacity sub-stations is
expected to be completed by May 2021. The present efforts are focused on
strengthening institutions, resources and protocols, and investing judiciously in grid
infrastructure. In addition, Renewable Energy Management Centres (REMCs) are also
being set up under the GECs. Presently, 55 GW of Renewable (Solar and Wind) is
being monitored through eleven REMCs. This places India among a league of a few
nations, which have state-of-the-art management centres for renewable energy
integration (PIB, 2020).

3.3.4 Clean coal technology initiative

Coal (including lignite) based power accounts for about 55 per cent (205.4 GW) of
India’s installed capacity as of March 2020. More than 73 per cent of total generation
comes from coal/lignite based power plants. The status of various clean coal
technologies being adopted is as follows:
i) Supercritical technology: Already, 66 supercritical units with a total capacity of
45,550 MW have been installed, and 51,260 MW of supercritical capacity was
under construction as of March 2018. The National Electricity Plan of India of 2018
included plans to build 94 GW of new coal fired capacity (mainly supercritical coal
units) between 2017/18 and 2026/27. Currently, 22 have been permitted, while 50
are under construction (IEA, 2020a). A total of 4,240 MW in 2017-18, 4,240 MW
in 2018-19 and 6,220 MW in 2019-20 of supercritical power units were
commissioned (CEA, 2020a).
ii) Coal to Gas: Coal gasification is an alternate use of coal considering the
environmental concerns of burning coal in thermal power plants. India’s effort to
gasify coal is affected due to the non-availability of technologies to gasify high ash
Indian coal. There is a need to develop efficient low-cost gasification technology
and support from technology providers of USA and China to transfer these
technologies at reasonable cost. India aims for 100 million tonne (MT) coal
gasification by 2030 with investments worth over INR 4 trillion. Encouraging use
of clean sources of fuel, government has provided for a concession of 20 per cent
on the revenue share of coal used for gasification. This is to boost the production
of synthetic natural gas, energy fuel, urea for fertilisers and production of other
chemicals (PIB, 2020f). Coal gasification aims at production of methanol, petro
chemicals and ammonia and will support a hydrogen economy. CIL being experts

213
 in the mining of coal, may join hands with oil PSUs to make these efforts viable
(MoC, 2020). CIL is also taking up more projects for surface coal gasification with
relatively lower carbon footprints. The upcoming projects of Coal Bed Methane
(CBM) extraction will also reduce the liberation of CH4 into the atmosphere during
coal mining, which will be taken up in future (MoC, 2020).

Table 3.10: Summary of supercritical and sub-critical units under construction in the country
(As on 30 June, 2020)

Critical Units
Supercritical

Supercritical

Supercritical
Sub-Critical

Total No. of
No. of Sub-

No. of Sub-
Total (MW)

Projects

Projects

Projects
Critical
Sector

No. of

No. of
Units
(MW)

(MW)

Central 17,620 1,500 19,120 25 5 11 7 18

State 16,580 1,180 17,760 23 4 14 2 16
Private 9,240 14,490 23,730 14 39 7 19 26
Total 43,440 17,170 60,610 62 50 32 28 60
Source: CEA, 2020b.

iii) Ultra Supercritical Plants: Two units of 660 MW based on Ultra Supercritical
Technology have already been commissioned (MoP, 2020a). These units have
efficiency of 42.75 per cent on LHV basis. As per the design parameters steam
pressure for these units is 270 kg/cm2 and the temperature of SH/RH is 600oC /
600oC. Plants based on ultra super critical technology emit about 7.6 per cent less
CO2 as compared to conventional sub-critical units. 0.58 MtCO2 can be avoided
annually with the operation of a plant of 1,320 MW capacity.
iv) Advanced Ultra Supercritical (AUSC) Technology: AUSC technology refers to an
advanced coal-based power generation system that works at higher temperatures
(above 700oC) and pressures for improved efficiency, reducing coal consumption
and CO2 generation. As mentioned in BUR-2, the initiative envisages the
development of indigenous capabilities in the field of AUSC technology with 17
per cent less CO2 emissions compared to a typical subcritical plant (500 MW). A
consortium of Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), NTPC Limited and IGCAR
(Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research) was formed in 2010, under the aegis
of the office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the GoI, which has catalysed the
development of the AUSC technology.

Efficiency improvements due to supercritical technology

With a growing emphasis on enhancing the efficiency of power generation along with
reducing emissions, coal-based thermal stations are adopting supercritical
technology. Supercritical units are about 1.8 per cent more efficient than subcritical
technology-based power plants (IEA, 2020b). The average emission rate from coal-
based power plants has been on a declining trend owing to the commissioning of a
greater number of efficient supercritical technology-based units coupled with the

214
introduction of Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme which aims at improving the
efficiency of power plants.
The National Electricity Plan 2018 mentions that as of 31 March 2017, around 60 units
based on supercritical technology have been commissioned in the country. The plan
also indicates that 23 GW of coal-fired capacity is set to retire during 2017-22 and
another 26 GW during 2022-27.
Table 3.11: Impact of supercritical technology-based power generation on CO2 emissions

Total supercritical generation capacity as on September 2020 (in MW) 56,810

Actual generation from these units till September 2020 (in MUs) 14,51,591.25
CO2 emission rate of subcritical unit (kg CO2/kWh) 0.853
CO2 emission rate of supercritical unit (kg CO2/kWh) 0.816
Reduction in CO2 emission due to adoption of supercritical units (in million tonne) 53.7088
Source: CEA, 2020f.

Fossil energy-based power plants have a thermal generating capacity of 2,50,061 MW

as on 30 June 2020. India has 60 GW of capacity of subcritical and supercritical units
under construction, with 72 per cent being supercritical, while in installed capacity less
than one-third is supercritical (CEA, 2020b). India’s subcritical coal-fired fleet is
relatively young with an average age of 15 years. In addition to clean coal technology
initiatives, other initiatives have also been taken to reduce emissions from thermal
power stations. The power generators have been provided an opportunity to optimally
utilize generation from renewable sources and help in reducing emissions.
3.4 Energy efficiency-related mitigation actions
Energy efficiency is one of the cornerstones of India’s mitigation policy, and especially
significant in relation to India’s status as a rapidly developing economy. The trend in
energy intensity of the Indian economy is captured in Table 3.12.
Table 3.12: Trends in energy intensity (2012-2019)

Year Energy Intensity (MJ/ INR)

2011-12 0.2747
2012-13 0.2787
2013-14 0.2670
2014-15 0.2632
2015-16 0.2508
2016-17 0.2388
2017-18 0.2352
2018-19 (P) 0.2321
Source: MoSPI, 2020b.
It is clear that energy intensity has been declining steadily over the years, as a
consequence of structural changes, rapid growth of renewables and active and strong
implementation of policies directed towards this goal.
In section 3.4, energy efficiency-related measures and initiatives in the power and
industry sector are discussed. To improve energy efficiency in various sectors, the

215
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) was constituted under the Energy Conservation
Act, 2001. EESL is a joint venture of NTPC Limited, Power Finance Corporation (PFC),
Rural Electrification Corporation (REC), and Power Grid Corporation of India Limited
(PGCIL) under the Ministry of Power. BEE and EESL under MoP, have initiated energy
efficiency initiatives in the areas of industry, household lighting, commercial buildings,
standards and labelling of appliances. The adoption of energy efficiency schemes/
programme has led to overall energy savings of 23.728 Mtoe for the year 2018- 19
(BEE, 2019). Cleaner fuel use by industry has led to steady decline and increase in
the consumption of petroleum products and LPG respectively (Figure 3.6 and Figure
3.7).

Figure 3.6: Consumption of petroleum products in the industry sector

Source: MoSPI, 2018.

216
Figure 3.7: LPG consumption in industry
Source: MoSPI, 2019.

3.4.1 Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme

As reported in the second BUR, during the first cycle of PAT (2012-15), an energy
saving of 8.67 Mtoe was achieved against the target of 6.686 Mtoe assigned for 478
designated consumers. This translated into avoiding about 31 MtCO2 of emissions.

PAT Cycle II
PAT II (2016-17 and 2018-19) was implemented with the objective of widening the
reach by increasing the sectors under the scheme and the number of Designated
Consumers (DCs) under it. Three new sectors were added, making it a total of 11
sectors under the scheme and an additional 89 DCs. With a reduction target of 11.20
Mtoe, the cycle commenced from April 2016. This cycle resulted in the total savings
of about 13.28 Mtoe, translating into 61.34 MtCO2. The monetary savings estimated
is approximately INR 3,14,450 million. The DCs had made approximately INR 437.21
billion of investments to achieve this target. Subsequent to PAT cycle II, the PAT cycle
III, IV, V and VI have been notified. Under PAT cycle –VI, 135 DCs have been given
a target of 1.277 Mtoe. Details are provided in Table 3.13. PAT cycle III was completed
on 31 March 2020, with the evaluation of 116 new DCs and the monitoring and
verification of the energy savings in progress (MoP, 2020a).
Table 3.13: Details of PAT Cycles

S. No. PAT Cycles Cycle Period Notified on

1 PAT Cycle I 2012-13 to 2014-15 30 March 2012
2 PAT Cycle II 2016-17 to 2018-19 31 March 2016
3 PAT Cycle III 2017-18 to 2019-20 30 March 2017

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 4 PAT Cycle IV 2018-19 to 2020-21 28 March 2018
5 PAT Cycle V 2019-20 to 2021-22 29 March 2019
6 PAT Cycle VI 2020-21 to 2022-23 13 April 2020

Table 3.14: Energy savings and achievement of PAT cycle-II

Reduction Target from the Energy Savings

Sector Total DCs
DCs analyzed (Mtoe) Achieved (Mtoe)
Aluminum 12 0.25 0.573
Cement 111 1.05 1.56
Chlor-Alkali 24 0.102 0.136
Fertilizer 37 0.443 0.383
Iron and Steel 71 2.267 2.913
Pulp and Paper 29 0.121 0.315
Textile 99 0.079 0.126
Thermal Power Plant 154 2.851 3.519
Petroleum Refinery 18 1.009 1.48
Railways 22 0.077 0.196
DISCOM* 44 2.99 2.077
Grand Total 621 11.20 13.28
Source: MoP, 2020a.
* For the DISCOM sector, BEE has assigned T&D loss reduction targets. After the completion of PAT
Cycle-II, it is expected that the total loss reduction of the 44 DISCOMs would be around 10,723 MU.

3.4.2 Standards and Labelling Scheme

The Standards and Labelling (S&L) scheme was initiated with the key objective of
providing consumers an informed choice regarding energy savings and thereby the
cost-saving potential of various energy-consuming appliances. S&L scheme covers
the star labelling program for 26 appliances, out of which 10 appliances are under the
mandatory regime and the remaining 16 appliances under the voluntary regime.
Sustained efforts have led to the following milestones in FY 2018-19. The energy
saving achieved under the scheme in the year 2018-19 amounts to 55.69 billion units
translating to an abatement of 45.67 MtCO2 in emission (MoP, 2020a).
3.4.3 Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency (MTEE) Achievements
This initiative is meant to accelerate the shift to energy efficient appliances in
designated sectors through innovative measures to make such products more
affordable. Under this initiative, refrigerators, ceiling fans, air-conditioners, water
heaters, and motors were identified as the priority products for initial S&L
development. Ceiling fans have been covered in the first phase. The second phase
will include appliances like air conditioners and refrigerators. The programme also
supports the Make in India initiative through accelerated market transformation and
innovative measures. Two programmes were developed under this scheme: Bachat
Lamp Yojana (BLY), now renamed as the Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All
(explained in section 3.4.6), and Super-Efficient Equipment Programme (SEEP).

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Promoting Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency in MSMEs
According to the National Sample Survey (NSS) 73rd round, conducted by the Ministry
of Statistics & Programme Implementation during the period 2015-16, the number of
MSMEs was estimated at 63.38 million, employing about 110.98 million persons. Most
of the enterprises are micro (99.47 per cent), and small and medium-sized enterprises
constitute only 0.53 per cent of total units. The MSME sector in India is generally still
using first-era technologies/processes, resulting in higher energy intensity (MoP,
2020a).
To promote technology up-gradation and modernization, GoI has been employing
several measures aimed at fostering a regime that could remove barriers for
accelerated technology up-grades focusing on energy efficiency and innovation. The
key objectives of the present government interventions are to:
 Enhance training and capacity building programmes, including strengthening of
training delivery institutions. Enhancing skills will also encourage a faster
generation of employment as a result of improved capacity for growth;
 Promote the adoption of clean and emerging technologies to not only reduce
energy intensity (and therefore increase cost competitiveness) but also to upgrade
the quality of output;
 Encourage innovation through setting up a large number of business incubators
in educational institutions of repute;
 Promote market-based energy efficiency measures which are inclusive;
 Accelerate market for EE technologies and adoption of EE measures though
attractive financial support (ex., Credit Linked Capital Subsidy Scheme (CLCSS),
for technology upgradation)
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) entrusted the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (UNIDO) with the implementation of the project “Promoting
Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency in Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises”,
in close cooperation with the Ministry of MSME, GoI (MoP, 2020a).
This project aims to develop and promote a market environment for introducing energy
efficient technologies and enhancing the use of renewable energy technologies in
process applications in energy-intensive MSMEs in 5 sectors (brass, ceramics, dairy,
foundry, and hand tools). The project is being implemented in 12 energy intensive
SME clusters and has scaled up its activities in another 12 energy intensive clusters.
Energy Management Centres established in the clusters under this project are
supporting MSMEs to reduce their energy consumption by inculcating the habit of
periodical energy audits, and thereby promoting the adoption of best operating
practises in daily operations among MSMEs (MoP, 2020a).
Similarly, another project, "Financing of Energy Efficiency at MSMEs" recently
concluded. The project was jointly implemented by GEF, World Bank, and BEE under
the Programmatic Framework for Energy Efficiency in India to increase demand for

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energy efficiency investments in target micro, small and medium enterprise clusters
and to build their capacity to access commercial finance. The project has built
confidence among MSMEs for adopting clean and energy efficient technologies by
preparation of DPRs, carrying out energy audits, development of sectoral
benchmarks, and capacity building of MSMEs. The project has been instrumental in
the implementation of ISO-50001 in 50 MSMEs.
Energy conservation guidelines for MSMEs have also been developed for 24 energy
intensive MSME sectors for quick adoption of best operating practices (BOPs) in their
processes and EE equipment to improve their energy efficiency and productivity. A
digital knowledge portal “SIDHIEE" (Simplified Digital Hands-on Information on Energy
Efficiency in MSMEs) has also been developed for MSMEs. The portal hosts a wealth
of information on energy efficient technologies, best industrial practices, and success
stories including 50 multimedia tutorials on energy efficient technologies. Implemented
as part of the larger MSME energy efficiency programme of the BEE, this programme
will engage in focused efforts in 5 targeted clusters to increase demand for energy
efficiency products and services and mobilize a large group of “decision-ready” units
in partnership with the local industrial associations, energy professionals, local service
providers and leading vendors of energy efficiency equipment. These energy
efficiency demand creation activities will then be linked with the lending programmes
of various financial institutions in the specific cluster.
Additionally, BEE and UNIDO are also engaged in conducting annual 'Innovation
Challenge' competitions that will identify innovative low carbon technologies and
solutions to improve efficient end-use of energy, which in turn will help to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions in the long run.
Considering the urgent need to develop, demonstrate and disseminate energy efficient
technologies at the cluster level, the “National Programme on Energy Efficiency and
Technology Upgradation in SMEs” was evolved by the BEE to address the various
challenges faced by MSMEs in India. The objective of the program is to improve the
energy efficiency of SME sector in India through accelerated adoption of energy
efficient technologies, knowledge sharing, capacity building and the development of
innovative financial mechanisms.
Table 3.15: List of clusters where demonstration projects have been implemented under
“National Programme on Energy Efficiency and Technology Upgradation of MSMEs”

Sr. No. Sector Cluster

1 Textile Pali, Rajasthan
2 Food processing Indore and Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh
3 Bricks Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
4 Forging Ludhiana, Punjab
Source: BEE, 2020.

Table 3.16: Energy savings and emission reduction in 2018-19

Name of Scheme/Initiative Total energy savings (Mtoe) Emission reduction (MtCO2)

BEE-SME Programme 0.001 0.004

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 BEE-UNIDO-GEF Programme 0.009 0.047
BEE-WB-GEF Programme 0.012 0.073
Total 0.022 0.124
Source: BEE, 2020.

3.4.4 Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP)

EEFP provides a platform to interact with financial institutions (FIs) and project
developers for implementation of energy efficiency projects. It is an awareness
generation and capacity building platform for various stakeholders. For capacity
building of FIs, BEE signed an MoU with Indian Banks’ Association for the Training
Programme on Energy Efficiency Financing. The MoU was signed in 2015 and the
training programme was launched in June 2015. Workshops were held in two phases;
Phase 1 included 4 Training of Trainer (ToT) workshops and 2 direct training
workshops. In Phase 2, 22 direct training workshops on energy efficiency financing
were held at different locations (17 States covered) across India for financial
institutions. In these workshops, a total of 682 participants from 72 banks and NBFCs
received training on EE financing (MoP, 2020a).
3.4.5 Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEEED)
One of the key elements of the NMEEE is the FEEED, which focuses on developing
fiscal instruments to promote energy efficiency financing. FEEED is designed to
provide comfort to lenders with the provisions of risk guarantee for performance
contracts through Partial Risk Guarantee Fund for Energy Efficiency (PRGFEE) and
equity infusion through the Venture Capital Fund for Energy Efficiency (VCFEE). The
PRGFEE is a risk-sharing mechanism to provide financial institutions with partial
coverage of risk involved in extending loans for energy efficiency projects, and VCFEE
is a trust fund to provide last mile equity capital to the borrowers. Through PRGFEE,
Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) will be able to receive partial guarantee while
seeking a loan for an energy efficiency project. To operationalize the fund, PRGFEE
rules have been notified and presently five financial institutions have been empanelled
under PRGFEE, namely Andhra Bank, Yes Bank, Tata Cleantech Capital Limited
(TCCL), IDFC Bank, and IndusInd Bank. These institutions are eligible to get a risk
guarantee of up to 50 per cent of the loan amount or INR 100 million per project
whichever is less (MoP, 2020a).
3.4.5.1 Venture Capital Fund for Energy Efficiency (VCFEE)
The Fund was constituted under the provisions of the Indian Trust Act 1882, and its
Rules got notified on 31 March 2017. The Rules mandate that the fund shall provide
last mile equity support to specific energy efficiency projects, limited to a maximum of
15 per cent of total equity required, through Special Purpose Vehicles or INR 20
million, whichever is less. The support under VCFEE will be provided to government
buildings, private buildings (commercial multi-storey residential buildings), and
municipalities (MoP, 2020a). The GoI has approved about INR 2.1 billion for the
VCFEE. The fund helps to create the volume in EE deal flow by the fund manager of
VCFEE through advertising and soliciting opportunities in energy efficiency area.

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Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) and companies that plan to undertake EE
projects in the energy performance contracting mode are the key potential
beneficiaries of the VCFEE.
3.4.6 Efficient lighting in India
In the last few years, technological advancements in lighting have led to the
development of energy-efficient lighting systems that consist of one or more
components such as low loss ballasts; constant wattage high-intensity electronic
ballasts; Energy-efficient luminaires; and better monitoring and control mechanisms.
Under the Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LED for All (UJALA) scheme, LED bulbs, LED
Tube lights, and Energy efficient fans continue to be provided to domestic consumers
for the replacement of conventional and inefficient variants. Under Street Lighting
National Programme (SLNP), conventional street-lights are being replaced with smart
and energy efficient LED street lights across India.
The programme is being implemented by Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL),
a Joint Venture (JV) of PSUs under the MoP, GoI. Till November 2020, over 366.85
million LED bulbs, 7.207 million LED tube lights, and 2.340 million energy efficient fans
had been distributed by EESL across India (MoP, 2020a). This has resulted in
cumulative emission reduction of 180.08 MtCO2 from 2014-15 to November 2020.
Through the scheme, EESL has also been able to engage with the common man at a
significant scale. So far, more than 90 million consumers have availed the benefit of
using these LED bulbs, thus making it the largest non-subsidy based LED lighting
programme in the world.
Under SLNP, up to September 2020, EESL has installed over 11.25 million LED street
lights in Urban Local Bodies and Gram Panchayats across India. This has resulted in
cumulative energy savings of 18.071 billion units and emission reduction of 14.82
MtCO2 from 2015-16 to 2019-20. Under SLNP, 1,508 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) have
been enrolled and out of these ULBs, work has been completed in 972 ULBs. This is
the largest installation of LED street lights across the world. UJALA and SLNP are
voluntary adoption schemes which run without any budgetary support from the GoI
and are based on a sustainable business model where the cost is repaid by
consumer/Urban Local Bodies (ULB) from savings in energy and maintenance
expenditure over some time through savings in electricity bills (MoP, 2020a).
MNRE under its Off-grid and Decentralized Solar PV Applications Programme has
been promoting installation of LED based solar street lights throughout the country.
During the recent years, MNRE has launched Atal Jyoti Yojana (AJAY) Phase-I and
Phase-II Schemes and Off-grid and Decentralized Solar PV Applications Phase-III
Scheme.
Considering the success of Phase-I of AJAY, the Phase-II was launched in December
2018 with expansion of Phase-I and Solar LED Street Lights (SSLs) of higher
illumination (12 W LED with 75 Wp solar panel). Under Phase-II in addition to States

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covered under Phase-I, North-eastern States including Sikkim, Hilly States/UTs,
Island UTs and aspirational districts in balance States were covered as given below:
 PCs of Phase-I state – 1,000 nos. SSLs in each PC
 PCs of other States/UTs fully covered – 2,000 nos. SSLs in each PC
 PCs of Aspirational Districts – 500 to 2,000 nos. SSLs in each PC depending
upon its coverage in that Aspirational District

Under AJAY Phase-I and II, EESL installed over 0.15 million SSLs in rural areas of
Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Rajasthan and Gujarat (EESL, 2020). A total of 0.304 million SSLs were to be installed
under AJAY Phase-II. Before closure of sanctions under the scheme on 31 March
2020, sanctions have been received for installation of 0.144 million SSLs of which
62,736 SSLs have been installed till 10 August 2020. Under Off-grid and Decentralized
Solar PV Applications Scheme Phase-III, about 0.172 million solar street lights have
been sanctioned out of which over 15,000 have been installed and balance are under
installation.
3.4.7 Demand Side Management Programmes (DSM)
Demand Side Management (DSM) has been recognized as one of the major
interventions to achieve energy efficiency.
3.4.7.1 Agriculture Demand Side Management (AgDSM)
The agricultural sector constitutes around 18.5 per cent of India’s total energy
consumption. The total power consumption in the sector is expected to rise by an
estimated 54 per cent between 2015 and 2022. Energy is utilized mainly for two
purposes; irrigation and running the machinery. The irrigation component is estimated
to utilise 70 per cent of the total energy consumption as a result of the usage of 2.1
million pump sets in the country. Poor quality pump sets used for irrigation are both
inefficient and unreliable, causing water waste and higher energy consumption (MoP,
2020a).
A DSM management programme has been designed and implemented, replacing
energy inefficient agricultural pump sets with BEE rated 5-star energy efficient pump
sets. Through this initiative a potential energy saving of 52 billion units has been
estimated, avoiding a peak demand of 48,000 MW. This programme was initiated by
BEE to reduce energy consumption in the agricultural sector. Currently, replacement
of 2,496 pump sets is underway at Rajanagaram Mandal in the East Godavari district
under the Eastern Power Distribution Company of AP Limited, Andhra Pradesh. The
achievement in the state has been estimated to be approximately 30 per cent. This
not only resulted in a reduction in State subsidy but also increased the overall
efficiency of the power sector. A total replacement of 2.1 million pump sets is
envisioned under this programme and measures are being taken to achieve this target
(MoP, 2020a).

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Table 3.17: Activities and initiatives under the AgDSM programme

Agencies
responsible for
Programme Activities Target Progress of programme
the on-ground
implementation
 A total of 74,136 pumps
have been installed by
EESL under the
programme in Andhra
Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh, resulting in
energy savings of 191
million kWh and
State emission reduction of
Stakeholder 0.14 MtCO2 per year.
Designated
consultation and  Haryana, Punjab, Kerala,
Agencies
capacity building Odisha, Karnataka,
(SDAs) To mandate
for DISCOMs, Maharashtra,
the use of
SERCs, SDAs Puducherry (UT),
energy
and Indian Council Uttarakhand, Himachal
efficient pump
manufacturers for Agriculture Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
sets in all
to use energy Research made mandatory the use
States/UTs
efficient pump- of star labelled energy
sets for all new efficient pumps-sets
Agriculture Krishi Vigyan
connections (EEPS) (above 3-star
Demand Kendras
Side rated) for new agriculture
Management connections.
 Uttar Pradesh and
Jharkhand have initiated
the process for
mandating the EE pump-
sets in their respective
States.
Creating To provide
awareness training and
among farmers awareness Conducted nearly 210
by using print programme to number of training and
media and the farmers awareness programmes in
channels. and other 72 Krishi Vigyan Kendras
stakeholders (KVKs) resulting in training
Conducting
covering and capacity building of
awareness
maximum around 8,000 farmers.
workshop for
farmers through KVKs out of
KVKs. the total 706.

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 Agencies
responsible for
Programme Activities Target Progress of programme
the on-ground
implementation

Organizing
training
workshops for
technicians on
best practices
on over-hauling
and
maintenance.
Source: MoP, 2020a.

3.4.7.2 Municipal Demand Side Management (MuDSM)

Frequent changes and rising peaks in power load due to water pumping and street
lighting is characteristic of the energy consumption in the municipality sector.
Municipalities consume a significant amount of energy owing to the limited diffusion of
energy efficiency technology and demand-side management (DSM) initiatives.
Recognizing this immense energy saving potential in the municipal sector, BEE
initiated the Municipal Demand Side Management (MuDSM) project. The programme
has improved the overall energy efficiency of the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and has
led to substantial savings in electricity consumption, and resulted in cost
reduction/savings for the ULBs (MoP, 2020a). These initiatives have led to an
emission reduction of 4.631 MtCO2 in 2018-19 (BEE, 2019).
Table 3.18: Activities and initiatives under the MuDSM programme

Agencies
responsible for Progress of
Programme Activities Target
the on-ground programme
implementation
Capacity building State Designated
workshops for ULBs, public Agencies (SDAs)
water bodies, urban To train,
So far, 37
development department create
capacity
and other implementing Urban Local Bodies awareness
building
agencies in cities under the (ULBs) and build the
Municipal programme
Atal Mission for capacity of the
Demand has been
Rejuvenation and Urban officials at the
Side organized in
Transformation (AMRUT) Urban ULBs, UDDs,
Management nine States.
project. Development MCs on
Directorate (UDDs) energy
Conducting training efficiency
programs for pump measures.
technicians and operator of Municipal
municipal systems. Corporations (MCs)
Source: MoP, 2020a.

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3.4.8 Capacity building of DISCOMs
Capacity building and other support are essential for the DISCOMs to implement DSM
in their respective areas. The BEE has launched a programme for capacity building of
DISCOMs. This will help in the capacity building of DISCOMs and the development of
various mechanisms to promote DSM in their respective States.

Between 2012-17, BEE selected 34 DISCOMs for their capacity building initiative and
provided necessary support for the implementation of DSM related activities (MoP,
2020a).
Activities & Achievements from 2017-18 to 2019-20
The objective of the initiative is to carry out the load management programme,
development of DSM action plan, and implementation of DSM activities in their
respective areas. The following activities have been initiated so far under this
programme in FY 2017-20 (MoP, 2020a).

 The 28 DISCOMs remaining outside the program have now been included for
participation.
 A Tripartite MoU has been signed between BEE, DISCOMs and respective SDAs.
 DSM Cell has been established by 25 DISCOMs for 2nd phase DISCOMs.
 The PMCs would carry out load research studies and development of DSM Action
Plan for each of the new DISCOM. The PMCs have already initiated the
preliminary data collection of load research activity in their respective zone.
 Load Research Studies for 17 DISCOMs have been completed and Draft LR
Reports have been submitted to DISCOMs for approval. Preparation of DSM
action plans is under process.
 DSM regulations have been notified for 29 States and UTs. Remaining states are
pursuing to notify their DSM regulations for their respective states.
 All the activities are to be completed by April 2021.

3.4.9 Zero Defect Zero Effect (ZED)

In order to prepare the MSMEs to create a value chain for the new regime, measures
have been developed to ensure quality and competitiveness of Indian MSMEs. The
ranking system provides an opportunity to the units for continuous improvement of
their processes to move up the maturity assessment model (Bronze-Silver-Gold-
Diamond-Platinum). The Rating is a weighted average of the scores obtained on each
parameter and the rating provided will be valid for a period of 4 years. Surveillance
audit will be carried out by QCI. A total of 25,873 MSMEs participated in the 628
awareness programmes organised. In addition to this, 117 training sessions were
conducted which resulted in the skill development of 3,173 professionals (MoMSME,
2020).

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Figure 3.8: ZED Ranking

Developments under ZED

Quality Council of India (QCI), an autonomous body set up by the Ministry of
Commerce & Industry, GoI has signed a MoU with the Government of Gujarat
(Industries and Mines Department) for promotion & implementation of ZED
Certification Scheme. The MoU was signed in Ahmedabad, Gujarat on 25 February
2019 (MoMSME, 2020).
QCI has signed a MoU with the Government of Odisha (MSME Department) for
promotion & implementation of ZED Certification Scheme. The MoU was signed in
Bhubaneswar, Odisha on 3 December 2018.
The MSMEs will be assessed and rated only on defined enabler & outcome
parameters on operational level indicators which include the following:
 Manufacturing capabilities
 Design capabilities
 Quality/environment/safety assurance systems
 People development and engagement systems
 Standardization and measurement systems for quality and environment
 Learning and improvement systems
 Legal compliances

3.4.10 Carbon Capture, Storage/Utilization

CO2 capture is still at a nascent stage of implementation in India, with only a few
sectors such as refineries and steel having implemented small-scale carbon capture
projects. Some industries which have initiated the process of setting up CCS facilities
include National Aluminium Company (NALCO), ONGC, Bharat Heavy Electrical

227
Limited. (BHEL), and Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation (APGENCO)
(Global Cement, 2019). Dalmia Cement also announced setting up of a large-scale
carbon capture unit (CCU) at one of its plants in Tamil Nadu as a move towards
becoming carbon neutral by 2040. From the various technologies available for CO2
capture, the post-combustion solvent capture and stripping with amine-based
pressure swing adsorption system is the most common. A range of different end-uses
is available for the utilization of captured CO2 which can be broadly categorized as
mineralization (which includes carbon mineralization, concrete curing, and bauxite
residue carbonation), biological (in the form of algae cultivation) and chemical (CO2 to
methanol and ethanol, and urea yield boosting). Carbon capture and geological
sequestration is the process of capturing waste CO2 from large point sources such as
fossil fuel power plants and transporting it to a storage site (normally an underground
geological formation). Typically, CO2 sequestration projects are expensive and
therefore not implemented in isolation in India. A dialogue has been initiated between
US-DoE and DST on clean coal technologies, supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO2)
power cycles and carbon capture utilisation & storage (CCUS) technologies. One of
the notable outcomes of the dialogue is the participation of India in the multilateral
platform for Accelerating CCUS Technologies (ACT) through which avenues have
been generated for possible US - India collaboration (DST, 2020).
3.4.11 Energy access and clean fuels
Energy access and clean fuels constitute two key areas of concern of the GoI, as these
are closely related to fundamental aspects of the well-being of the population,
especially women. Two of the flagship schemes of the GoI are discussed in this
section.
3.4.11.1 Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY)
PMUY was launched in 2016, to safeguard the health of women and children by
providing families that fall Below the Poverty Line (BPL) with clean cooking fuel (LPG),
to avoid cooking in smoke-filled kitchens using biomass. The primary objective is to
reduce and gradually move away from dependence on biomass as the primary
cooking fuel. Under this scheme, with a cap of INR 1,600 per LPG connection, cash
support for connection is provided to BPL families. As a move to empower the female
members of these households, especially in rural areas, the LPG connections are
issued in their names. The target for this scheme was raised from 50 million
households to 80 million households. The target of providing 80 million LPG
connections under the scheme has already been achieved as on 7 September 2019
i.e. 7 months ahead of the scheduled target (March 2020). Till December 2020, a total
of 287.4 million households have LPG connections (including PMUY beneficiaries)
(PPAC, 2020).
An energy efficient domestic cook stove burner has been designed for use with piped
natural gas (PNG) by CSIR-IIP, Dehradun in collaboration with PCRA, New Delhi.
These burners have up to 30% improved thermal efficiency (PPAC, 2020a).

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3.4.11.2 Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY)

A scheme of Government of India for rural areas, the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram
Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) was launched by MoP on 3 December 2014. Under the
DDUGJY, electrification of inhabited un-electrified census villages taken up in 2018-
19 in 1,515 villages (MoP, 2019). Under the scheme, during the XIth five year plan,
570 projects of INR 2,88,690 million were sanctioned and a grant of INR 2,28,542
million had been released against these projects as on 31 December 2019. During the
XII Plan, 560 projects of INR 2,37,356 million had been sanctioned and a Grant of INR
1,59,502 million had been released against these projects as on 31 December 2019
(MoP, 2020).
3.4.11.3 Saubhagya Scheme
Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (SAUBHAGYA) was launched in
September 2017 with the objective of universal household electrification by providing
last mile connectivity and electricity connections to all remaining un-electrified
households in rural and urban areas by 31 March 2019. Electricity connections to
26.284 million households (99.93 per cent) have been provided from 11 October 2017
to November 2020 (REC, 2020).

3.5 Building sector

In this section, the initiatives aimed at reducing the emissions from the building sector
have been highlighted. India has been improving the energy efficiency of buildings
through mandatory building energy codes and voluntary rating schemes, as well as
through policies and programmes to improve the efficiency of appliances and
equipment. India has developed its building-energy rating system GRIHA (Green
Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment), based on 34 criteria such as site planning,
conservation and efficient utilization of resources. As on October 2020, India has 1,825
GRIHA registered projects with approximately 52.5 million sq. meter of ‘green’ built-
up area. India currently has about 7.61 billion sq. ft. green building footprint, 6,055
registered projects, and 780 certified projects [Indian Green Building Council (IGBC)
only] as on 15 October 2020.
3.5.1 National Building Code of India (NBC), 2016
This comprehensive building code is a national instrument providing guidelines for
regulating construction activities across the country. It serves as a model code for
adoption by all agencies involved in building construction works. An addendum to the
NBC has incorporated the ECBC, through a new chapter named ‘Approach to
Sustainability’ which gave ECBC a broader coverage.

3.5.2 Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC)

The updated version of ECBC provides current as well as futuristic advancements in
building technology to reduce building energy consumption further and promote low-
carbon growth. So far, 17 States and UTs have notified the ECBC. Around 335

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demonstration buildings have been supported with technical assistance for ECBC
compliance in the States/UTs, out of which 50 buildings are constructed, with a
cumulative built-up area of 0.16 billion sq. m ensuring an approximate energy saving
of 0.17 billion units. GHG emission reduction of 0.14 MtCO2 is estimated annually
which will scale up to 3.4 MtCO2 in the 25 years’ lifespan of the buildings (BEE, 2020).
As per a study conducted by USAID, if ECBC is implemented rigorously throughout
India it has the approximate potential of saving 300 billion units of energy and over 15
GW of peak demand reduction which would result in a saving of around INR 350
billion. Subsequently, GHG emission reduction of over 250 MtCO2 is estimated.
An MRV Framework for ECBC for Large Commercial Buildings under the Initiative of
Climate Action Transparency (ICAT) is in place. As per 2018 data, 15 States and 2
UTs (Rajasthan, Odisha, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Assam, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Himachal Pradesh, Puducherry and NCT of Delhi) have notified and adopted the code
(UNEP DTU, 2020).

3.5.3 Building Energy Efficiency Programme (BEEP); retrofitting project

EESL is implementing the Buildings Energy Efficiency Programme to retrofit
commercial buildings in India into energy efficient complexes. Through these future
ready solutions, EESL is creating a market for clean energy in India. GoI has issued
an instruction to all its Departments and Ministries in August 2017 to ensure that all
the buildings become energy efficient. Till date, EESL has completed building energy
efficiency projects in 10,344 buildings including Railway stations and Airports (EESL,
2020a). Energy Audits show energy saving potential up to 30-50 per cent in these
buildings. The major interventions in these buildings are in the area of lighting and air-
conditioning systems (MoP, 2020a). This has resulted in estimated energy savings of
224 million kWh per year with avoided peak demand of 75.64 MW, GHG emission
reduction of 0.18 MtCO2 per year and estimated annual monetary savings of INR 1,940
million in electricity bills.
3.5.4 Star rating system for existing commercial buildings
In order to promote a market pool for energy efficient buildings, Bureau of Energy
Efficiency developed a voluntary Star Rating Program for buildings which is based on
the energy usage in the building over its area expressed in kWh/m2/year. This program
rates buildings on 1-5 scale, with 5 star labelled buildings being most efficient. Star
Labels for day use office buildings, BPOs, Hospitals and Shopping Malls have been
developed. A total of 264 buildings have been star rated under different categories of
commercial buildings till August 2020 (BEE, 2020).

3.5.5 Eco Niwas Samhita for residential buildings

Rapid rise in residential building stock, coupled with increase in electricity use for
space conditioning, is resulting in increase in electricity consumption in residential
buildings. Projection done by NITI Aayog indicates that the electricity consumption for

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the residential sector is expected to increase 6-13 times by 2047 (NITI Aayog, 2015).
Another important aspect is thermal comfort, which is of utmost importance in all kinds
of housing, but more so in case of affordable housing, so as to ensure health and well-
being of the occupants. BEE envisaged a phased approach for the development of
the residential building energy conservation code. Making houses energy efficient is
certainly a way of avoiding long-term futile electricity consumption liability in residential
buildings.
The Eco Niwas Samhita (ENS), Part-I Building Envelope (ECBC for residential sector)
was developed and launched in 2018. It has been developed to set minimum building
envelope performance standards to limit heat gains (for cooling dominated climates)
and to limit heat loss (for heating dominated climate) as well as for ensuring adequate
natural ventilation and day lighting. The code is applicable to all residential use building
projects built on plot area greater than 500 sq. m. The code has been developed with
special consideration for its adoption by the ULBs into building bye-laws (BEE, 2020).
Eco Niwas Samhita (ENS), Part-2 of the code, aims to provide energy efficiency
standards for electro-mechanical systems of residential buildings. ENS Compliance
tool has also been developed by BEE to ensure ease of compliance and adoption by
ULB’s, home owners and developers. In addition to this, ENS cells were established
in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Karnataka and Maharashtra for implementation of the
residential Code. Many stakeholder workshops and trainings have also been
conducted across India to appraise participants of the code and its benefits.
3.6 Transport sector
The transport sector is rapidly growing in India, contributing significantly to the GDP of
the country. However, the sector is largely oil-dependent and accounts for 12.1 per
cent (without LULUCF) of the country’s CO2 emissions. In 2019-20, 3.43 million
passenger vehicles1, 0.75 million commercial vehicles and 21.03 million two-wheelers
were produced (IBEF, 2020). The transport sector in India accounted for 24 per cent
of the commercial energy demand in 2016 and it was the second-largest energy
consumer after the industry sector (TERI, 2018). IR is among the largest rail networks
globally. In 2018-19, the IR transported 8,400 million passengers and 1,200 million
tonne of freight. Despite its extensive network, the railways are faced with issues of
capacity constraints and limitations of infrastructure. While India is operating in the
same global context as other countries who have adopted an EV policy, its unique
mobility pattern necessitates an EV policy that is tailor-made to India’s particular
needs. India is a member country of the Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI), a multi-
government policy forum dedicated to accelerating the introduction and adoption of
electric vehicles worldwide. As a member, the focus is on aggressive upgradation of
standards to target global benchmarks in safety, emissions, and efficiency. In this

1Passenger cars are motor vehicles with at least four wheels, used for the transport of passengers,
and comprising no more than eight seats in addition to the driver's seat.

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direction, one of the major regulatory announcements recently was the leapfrogging
over Bharat Stage (BS)-V automobile emission norms and the advanced introduction
of BS-VI from 1 April 2020.

3.6.1 Emission Standards and Auto Fuel Policy 2003

The Auto Fuel Policy, 2003 aims at addressing issues of vehicular emissions and
vehicular technologies by cost-effectively applying fuel quality standards, ensuring
efficient fuel supply measures. The Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989 was amended
in 2018 ensuring new motor vehicles conforming to emission standard BS-IV (10 ppm
Sulphur), manufactured before the 1 April 2020. (MoRTH, 2016).
BS-VI standards have come into effect for all vehicles manufactured on or after 1 April
2020. The standards specify mass emission standard, type approval requirements,
on-board diagnostic (OBD) system, and in-service and durability levels for each
vehicle category and sub-classes therein. BS-VI standards are far-reaching in scope
with significant changes from the BS III and IV emission standards. These include
particularly, the tightening of particulate matter (PM) mass emission limits, the
introduction of particle number (PN) limits and reduction in nitrogen oxide content for
light- and heavy-duty vehicles (LDV, HDV) fitted with gasoline direct injection (GDI)
and compression ignition (CI), or diesel engines (ICCT, 2016).

India has a vast network of more than 0.25 million km of National Highways and State
Highways contributing to environmental and carbon footprint during construction,
maintenance and operation. The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) is in the process of
developing guidelines for green rating of highways as an attempt to reduce the
environmental footprint of roads and highway projects, taking into account the
environment friendly, innovative techniques such as recycling of materials, use of local
soil stabilizers, inlay instead of overlays on existing roads, groundwater recharge and
use of renewable resources. The use of energy efficient locally available materials and
additives, and efficient road designing can reduce the GHG emissions from roads both
in the construction as well as the operation period. To determine whether a particular
construction methodology or a design is emission efficient, it is necessary to estimate
GHG emissions before and after the adoption of the construction methodology/design
on a project-to-project basis (CRRI, 2020).

3.6.2 Fuel efficiency standard

India's dependence on imported fossil fuels is rising continuously due to limited
domestic petroleum resources. India is ranked as the fourth-largest petroleum
consumer in the world following China, USA, and Russia. The country's energy
demand continues to climb as a result of its dynamic economic growth and
modernization. Keeping in view the growing demand for fossil fuel and rapidly growing
motor vehicle fleet in India, GoI set a target of 10 per cent reduction on import by 2022.
BEE is working on the Development of fuel efficiency norms for Vehicles that could
moderate the rising demand for fuel (MoP, 2020a).

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Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Norms for Passenger Cars: This is
applicable to all motor vehicle types approved in India for petrol, diesel, liquefied
petroleum gas or compressed natural gas and electric, for passenger vehicles with
Gross Vehicle Weight (GCW) not exceeding 3,500 kilograms.
The CAFE norms came into force from the fiscal year 2017-18, effective to 2021-22,
while the second phase would be effective from the fiscal year 2022-23. The standards
relate the Corporate Average Fuel Consumption (in litres/100 km) to the Corporate
Average Curb Weight of all the cars sold by a manufacturer in a fiscal year.
According to the first phase, the average weight used for calculation 1,037 kg in
2017-18, and the average fuel consumption standard would have to be less than 5.49
litres/100 km for this average weight. The second phase assumes average weight of
1,145 kg in 2022 and requires the average fuel consumption to be less than 4.77
litres/100 km. It may be noted that the standards apply to the corporate average fuel
consumption i.e. the average of the standard fuel consumption of all vehicles sold by
the manufacturers in the fiscal year, and not to the fuel consumption of an individual
model. The fuel consumption is measured under standard conditions by the test
agencies notified under Rule 126 of CMVR,1989 over the national driving cycle. CAFE
Norms were established for Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDV) in 2017 and for light
commercial vehicles in 2019. This initiative has led to an emission reduction of 2.650
MtCO2 in 2018-19 (BEE, 2019).
Fuel Economy Norms for Heavy-Duty Vehicles: In August 2017 the GoI finalized
fuel efficiency norms for commercial vehicles (CVs) with a GVW of 12 tonne or greater.
Manufacturers must demonstrate compliance with the rule by evaluating vehicles over
the Constant Speed Fuel Consumption (CSFC) test procedure. In the CSFC protocol,
trucks and buses are driven at a constant speed on a test track at 40 and 60 km per
hour (km/h). Meanwhile, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has revised the
safe axle weight limits, and subsequently, the norms for HDVs were put under review
to meet the revised GVW range. A steering committee meeting was constituted to
discuss the amendments in the notification of HDV Norms in the light of the revision
of the GVW range and finally it was decided that Phase-1 norms as notified dated 17
August 2017 by BEE will be implemented after applying the correction factor for
BS-VI and revision of axle loads.
Fuel Economy Norms for Light & Commercial Vehicles: In addition to norms for
CVs greater than 12 tonne, the development of fuel efficiency standards for CVs
between 3.5 and 12 tonne has been completed. The norms for this lighter segment of
CVs are centred around CSFC testing. The norms have been finalised and notified by
the Ministry of Power on 16 July 2019 in the Gazette of India (MoP, 2020a).
The technical committee which has been directed to develop correction factor for
HDVs has also been advised to develop correction factor for L&MCVs compliant with
BS-VI emission norms. The developed correction factor will then be applied on line
equations of BS-IV FE norms.

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Standard and Labelling (S&L) Program for Agricultural Tractors: A steering
committee formed under the chairmanship of JS (R), MoPNG was constituted in March
2018 for developing & monitoring fuel economy norms for light and medium
commercial vehicles to monitor the development of fuel economy norms for tractors.
The committee has finalised the labelling bandwidth and draft schedule to implement
the voluntary phase of the program.
S&L Program for Tyres: BEE has constituted a technical committee under
chairmanship of ED, Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) for the
development of S&L program for tyres in India. The scope of work of technical
committee was to study the tyre market in India, national and global test standards,
international practices in terms of fuel efficiency standards and accordingly develop
labelling standards for all vehicular tyres manufactured or imported in India. The
committee has finalised the labelling bandwidth and the draft schedule to implement
the voluntary phase of the program to be released by BEE.

3.6.3 Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme (EBP)

GoI has notified the National Policy on Biofuels-2018, which inter-alia aims to develop
alternate fuels and reduce import dependency on petroleum. Under the EBP
programme, ethanol blending in petrol is being undertaken by the Oil Marketing
Companies (OMCs) in the whole country except island UTs of Andaman & Nicobar
and Lakshadweep. Further, Government has directed Indian Oil Corporation Limited
to blend 15 per cent methanol in petrol (M15) for retail sale in Assam and North-
eastern States on a pilot basis (MoPNG, 2019). Increased ethanol blending in petrol
has many benefits including reduction in import dependency, support to agricultural
sector, more environmentally friendly fuel, lesser pollution and additional income to
farmers. Ten million litres of E10 (E10 is indicative of 10 per cent ethanol blending)
can save around 20,000 tonne of CO2 emissions. These efforts will be carefully
evaluated for potential increase in ozone gas emission and only with adequate
safeguards in place will much of the vehicle fleet migrate to E10.
During the Ethanol Supply Year (ESY) 2019-20 about 1,703 million litres of ethanol
was supplied by sugar mills and grain-based distilleries to oil marketing companies,
thereby achieving 5 per cent blending target. Government notified the National Policy
on Biofuels (NPB) in June 2018 which inter alia envisages 20 per cent blending of
ethanol in petrol and 5 per cent blending of biodiesel in diesel by 2030.

However, to increase indigenous production of ethanol the Government since 2014

took multiple interventions like re-introduction of administered price mechanism;
differential ethanol price based on raw material utilized for ethanol production; opening
of alternate route for ethanol production; amendment to Industries (Development &
Regulation) Act, 1951 which legislates exclusive control of denatured ethanol by the
Central Government for smooth movement of ethanol across the country; reduction in
Goods & Service Tax (GST) on ethanol meant for EBP programme from 18 per cent
to 5 per cent; extension of EBP programme to whole of India except islands of

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Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep w.e.f from 1 April 2019; interest subvention
scheme for enhancement and augmentation of the ethanol production capacity by
Department of Food and Public Distribution (DFPD); and long term policy on ethanol
procurement.

Green Initiatives by MoRTH during FY 2018-19:

The year 2018-19 was declared by the Ministry of Road Transport & Highways
(MoRTH) as the year of construction. This was a year for consolidating the gains that
have accrued from major policy decisions taken in the previous four years, a time for
monitoring of ongoing projects, tackling roadblocks and adding to the already
impressive pace of work achieved in the previous year (MoRTH, 2018).

 Electric, ethanol and methanol vehicles have been exempted from permits.
Keeping in view the need for promoting electric mobility and alternate fuels,
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, vide notification S.O 5333 (E) dated 18
October 2018, has exempted Battery Operated Vehicles, as well as vehicles
driven on methanol fuel or ethanol fuel, from the requirement of permit for
carrying passengers or goods.
 A system has been developed and tested by this Ministry for linking of Pollution
Under Control (PUC) data with the VAHAN database. An advisory dated 01
October 2018 has been issued to all the States by the Ministry wherein all the
PUC vendors have been directed to comply with the guidelines and facilitate
electronic uploading of emissions test data to VAHAN database.
 To give a distinct identity to the electric vehicles, it has been decided that the
registration mark will be exhibited on a number plate with green background. A
notification to this effect was issued on 7 August 2018 vide G.S.R 749(E).
 The Ministry issued a notification regarding the blending of Gasoline with
methanol in order to reduce vehicle exhaust emissions and also to reduce the
import burden on account of crude petroleum from which gasoline is produced.
The Hon’ble PM had announced an ambitious target of reducing 10 per cent
import dependence of oil and gas by 2022. Methanol can be used as an
alternative transportation fuel thereby reducing import dependence to some
extent.
 Requirement of PUC certificate for vehicle insurance/ renewal of insurance:
MoRTH has requested IRDA and the MDs/Chairpersons of all general
insurance companies to ensure that no third-party insurance policy is issued or
renewed without ascertaining the availability of a valid PUC. This has been
done following orders of the Supreme Court of India.
 The Ministry has notified emission standards for Construction Equipment
Vehicles and Tractors vide G.S.R 598 (E) dated 30 September 2020. These
standards would be implemented w.e.f. 1 April 2021 and 1 October 2021 (CEV
Stage -IV / TREM Stage IV) respectively and from 1 April, 2024 [BS

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 (CEV/Trem)-V]. This would help in ensuring environment friendly construction
and mining activities.
 The Ministry notified the insertion of the item ‘Quadricycle’ as a ‘non-transport’
vehicle under the Motor Vehicles Act 1988. A quadricycle is a vehicle of the
size of a 3-wheeler but with 4 wheels and fully covered with maximum speed of
70 km/h. This makes it a cheap and safe mode of transport for last mile
connectivity.

3.6.4 Harit Path Mobile Application by NHAI

The Harit Path (Green Way) Mobile app has been made operational from 21 August
2020. Till 13 November 2020 geotagging process has been started in over 300
Projects and more than 0.3 million plants have been geo-tagged. Regular training is
given to all concerned officers and professionals for swift implementation of
geotagging of plants using Harit Path app (MoRTH, 2020a). It would aid in regular
monitoring and maintenance of plantations across National Highways (NHs) to ensure
sustainability of green corridor along the highways. NHAI planted over 2.5 million
plants in 25 days along the stretches of the national highways between 21 July and
15 August 2020. The drive takes the total cumulative number of plantations done
during the current year to 3.52 million. Maximum number of over 0.5 million plants
have been planted in Uttar Pradesh, followed by over 0.3 million in Rajasthan and 0.2
million in Madhya Pradesh along the national highways. Moreover, to ensure 100 per
cent survival of the plants, avenue plantation of minimum height of 1.5 meter has been
emphasized along the national highway. The highway contractors will be responsible
for proper upkeep and maintenance of the plantation and liable to replace the
missing/dead plants. Payments of the contractors are also linked with performance
and growth of the plants (PIB, 2020d).

3.6.5 Green National Highways Corridor Project

This project has been approved by the World Bank and will help to build safe, green
and resilient national highway corridors in the Indian States of Rajasthan, Himachal
Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. The project got approved with total cost of US$1227
million with maturity of 14.5 years and grace period of 5 years. Four themes have been
selected under this project, namely economic policy, human development and gender,
urban and rural development, environment and natural resource management. Natural
resource efficiency gains in construction of project highways, reduction of fatalities on
project highways, safety and green highway technologies applied on 2,500 km of non-
project highways, Green National Highways Policy and guidelines developed and
implemented, National Highways Climate Adaptation Policy (NHCAP) and guidelines
developed and implemented, reduced carbon emissions in construction of project
highways and reduced vehicle operating costs on project highways will be the
indicators of this project (World Bank, 2020).

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3.6.6 National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP)
As mentioned in the second BUR, NEMMP aims to deploy 4,00,000 passenger battery
electric cars (BEVs) by 2020. If these BEV adoption rates continue beyond 2020, India
could save 4.8 billion barrels of oil and 270 million tonne of CO2 emissions by 2030.
As a part of NEMMP, the Government had also launched a scheme for Faster
Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid and) Electric Vehicles in India (FAME), aimed
at incentivizing all vehicle segments, i.e., 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers auto, passenger 4-
wheelers vehicles, light commercial vehicles, and buses.

Presently, Phase-II of FAME India Scheme is being implemented for a period of 3

years from April 2019 with a total budgetary support of INR 1,00,000 million. In the first
phase of the Scheme about 0.28 million hybrid and electric vehicles are supported by
way of demand incentive amounting to about INR 3,590 million (PIB, 2020j).

Phase-I of the Scheme was implemented through four focus areas namely demand
creation, technology platform, pilot project and charging infrastructure. Under demand
creation focus area of the scheme, about 0.28 million electric/ hybrid vehicles (xEVs)
were supported with a total demand incentive of (approx.) INR 3,590 million for
purchase of xEVs under this scheme. Also, 425 buses were sanctioned to various
cities and States under this Scheme. In addition to the above, several projects were
approved/sanctioned under technology platform, pilot project and charging
infrastructure focus areas of the scheme. In the Phase-I of the Scheme demand
incentive support resulted in saving of about 50 million liters of fuel and reduction of
about 124 million kg of CO2 (PIB, 2019a).

Based on the outcomes and the experience gained during Phase-I of FAME India
scheme, Phase-II of FAME India scheme was begun in March 2019, for a period of
three years with a total budgetary support of INR 1,00,000 million. Under Phase-II of
FAME India Scheme, about 10,000 EVs are supported by the way of demand incentive
amounting to about INR 250 million. So far, 16 OEMs for e-2W, e-3W & e-4W have
registered themselves in the Phase-II of FAME India scheme. In addition, there are
about 6 OEMs manufacturing electric buses in the country (DEA, 2020).

Phase-II will mainly focus on supporting electrification of public and shared

transportation and aims to support, through subsidies, 7,000 e-Buses, 0.5 million e-3
-wheelers, 55,000 e-4-wheeler Passenger Cars and 1 million e-2-wheelers. In
addition, creation of charging infrastructure will be supported in select cities and along
major highways to address range anxiety among users of electric vehicles. This phase
of FAME Scheme envisages support for setting up of adequate public charging
infrastructure to instill confidence among EV users, through active participation and
involvement of various stakeholders including government agencies, industries and
PSEs. A budget provision of INR 10,000 million for a period of 3 years (2019-20 to
2021-22) has been earmarked for establishment of charging infrastructure under this
Phase of FAME Scheme. EESL has commissioned 488 captive chargers (308 AC &

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180 DC chargers) across India. This has resulted in estimated annual fuel saving of
2,519 kilo liters and reduction in GHG emission of about 0.00675 MtCO2 per year
(EESL, 2020b).
The projected share of EVs in 2030 has been estimated to reach 37 per cent in Japan,
over 30 per cent in Canada and USA, 29 per cent in India, and 22 per cent in aggregate
of all other countries. With the projected size of the global EV market, the expansion
of battery manufacturing capacity will largely be driven by electrification in the car
market.
The sale of electric two-wheelers in India rose from 54,800 units in 2018 to 1,26,000
units in 2019 (TERI, 2019). Under the first phase of the Faster Adoption and
Manufacturing of Hybrid & Electric Vehicles (FAME I) scheme, 88 models of electric
two-wheelers were eligible for a subsidy. Until September 2018, around 90 per cent of
the beneficiaries under FAME I were lead-acid powered electric scooters. From
October 2018, subsidies for lead-acid battery vehicles were discontinued, but
incentives for lithium-ion battery vehicles remained. As from April 2019, the second
phase of the FAME scheme encompasses strict speed, range and energy efficiency
requirements that would exclude 90 per cent of the remaining advanced batteries-
driven models from the FAME subsidy scheme (IEA, 2020). States of Karnataka,
Telangana, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi
and a few more have rolled out their EV/Draft EV policies. These States are proposing
several fiscal incentives to car and battery manufacturers, charging infrastructure
companies and consumers. A dedicated National Mission on Transformative Mobility
and Battery Storage has been approved in 2019 (PIB, 2019b).

3.6.7 Rail transport

About 90 per cent of global passenger movements on conventional rail takes place in
the following countries and regions, with India leading at 39 per cent, followed by the
People’s Republic of China (China) (27 per cent), Japan (11 per cent) and the
European Union (9 per cent). Construction of non-urban rail infrastructure in India is
particularly notable as it supports large volumes of passengers. With increasing
dependence on railways, the electrification of IR is an important step towards not only
enhancing the efficiency of the system but also mitigating GHGs from its operations
due to efficiency gains. Today, the conventional rail system in India comprises a total
route length of over 67,415 km, with a total of over 8,439 million passengers in 2018-
19 (Indian Railways, 2019).
Some of the key initiatives and targets set by the Indian Railways are as follows:
 Enhance the share of railways in the overall land based freight transport from
the present around 35 per cent to 45 per cent by the year 2030
 Swachh Rail, Swachh Bharat Campaign to promote cleanliness across the
entire railway.

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  Mission Electrification: Currently, 40,886 route km (RKM) (64 per cent) of broad
gauge (BG) routes has been electrified. Balance 22,745 RKM are planned to
be electrified in next 3 - 4 years.
 To utilize at least 10 per cent of its energy requirement from renewable sources,
thus contributing to India’s solar and wind energy missions.
 No single use plastic material utilized from 150th Gandhi Jayanti on 2 October
2019.
 Policy for the use of Biodiesel with a target of 5 per cent biodiesel blending in
high speed diesel (HSD).
 As an initiative to reduce, recycle and dispose plastic waste generated in
stations in an eco-friendly manner, comprehensive policy guidelines have been
brought out for installation of Plastic Bottle Crushing Machines (PBCMs) by
Zonal Railways. At present, around 500 PBCMs have been installed at 370
stations including several district headquarters railway stations over IR.
 All passenger carrying BG coaches, from April 2020 onwards, are fitted with
bio-toilets and direct discharge of human waste from trains has thus been
eliminated.
 Committed to improve water use efficiency by 20 per cent by 2030.
 Adoption of good practices for green buildings, industrial units and other
establishments for the management of resources and infrastructure to achieve
environmental sustainability in the growth of IR.
Mass-transit and urban transport projects have also been initiated under the National
Urban Renewal Mission. Today rail passengers in India travel 1.2 trillion km, more
than the distance travelled by cars; and about one-third of total surface freight volumes
are transported by rail, a very high share by global standards. By far, coal is the
predominant commodity carried on freight trains today in India (IEA, 2019a).
The track length in terms of the total passenger kilometre has increased by 130 per
cent since 1945, and freight activity in terms of tonne kilometre has increased by 150
per cent (IEA, 2019b). Track lengths have been growing slower than rail activity
growth. However, there has been an upgrade of the track quality to permit higher
speeds and heavier axle load operation. With an increasing dependence on railways,
electrification of Indian Railways (IR) is an important step towards not only enhancing
the efficiency of the system but also mitigating GHGs from operations. Mission
Electrification indicates that the energy consumption of IR is going to increase
substantially in the coming years. Along with the transition to electric locomotives, the
railways have also taken initiatives such as the production of all Electric Multi-Unit
(EMU) trains with three-phase technology having regeneration capability.
Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC)
The burgeoning demand for additional capacity of rail freight transportation led to the
conception of dedicated freight corridors along the Eastern and Western Routes.
This led to the establishment of "Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India
Limited (DFCCIL)", to undertake planning & development, mobilization of financial

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resources and construction, maintenance and operation of the dedicated freight
corridors. DFCC was incorporated as a company under the Companies Act 1956 on
30 October 2006 (MoR, 2020).
Key highlights of the initiatives in 2018-19 are:
 Successful trial run of goods train in Bhadan to Khurja section (194 kms) of
EDFC-1 was conducted on in November 2018.
 Trial run of freight train in Madar-Kishangarh Balawas section (306 km) of WDFC
was conducted in December 2018.
 Track linking with mechanized track laying machine is in progress at 7 locations.
 Track linking of 774 km has been done in the year taking the cumulative linking
to 1,898 km.

Metro Rail

Currently there is 700 km of metro rail track in operation in 18 cities while 900 km
Metro/RRTS is under construction in 27 cities. Standards have been issued for Light
Urban Rail Transit System named ‘Metrolite’ as well as for 'Metro Neo' - rubber tyer
electric coaches powered by overhead traction system. These systems are expected
to cater to the need for mass rapid transit system of the cities with lower projection of
ridership and also to serve as feeder system in cities which have high capacity metro
system (MoHUA, 2020a).

3.6.8 Civil Aviation

In the 37th Session of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) General
Assembly held in 2010, it was resolved to keep the global net CO2 emissions from
international aviation from 2020 onwards at the same level, i.e. “Carbon Neutral
Growth from 2020”. Despite the lack of consensus, the matter was pursued by the
ICAO Assembly at its 38th Session, held in 2013, when it was decided through
Resolution A38-18 to develop a Global Market Based Measure (GMBM) for
international aviation. As a follow up on this decision, the ICAO Council undertook a
project to develop the GMBM through the Committee on Aviation Environmental
Protection (CAEP) and Environment Advisory Group (EAG). The final product was
called “Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA)”
and was presented to the 39th Assembly held in October, 2016 and the same was
adopted by the Assembly through Resolution A39-3 (MoCA, 2020).
The CORSIA scheme established by the ICAO is based on ICAO’s aspirational goal
of carbon neutral growth in international aviation beyond 2020 which has not found
support from a number of developing countries. The scheme provides for a global
carbon offsetting mechanism and aeroplane operators will be required to purchase
and cancel “emissions units” to offset the increase in CO2 emissions covered by the
scheme. CORSIA aims to address any increase in total CO2 emissions from
international civil aviation using the average annual emissions between 2019 and

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2020 as reference and lays down a formula for calculating the offsetting requirement
of individual aeroplane operators in the subsequent years. As a result of the COVID –
19 impact on the aviation sector, ICAO suggested that 2019 emissions be used for the
determination of CORSIA’s baseline emissions instead of using the average of 2019
and 2020 (MoCA, 2020).

India and CORSIA

Though India has always supported global emission control initiatives. It has, however,
from the very beginning been concerned about the implications of the CORSIA
scheme on the developing countries. This is because the civil aviation market in these
countries is rapidly developing from a low base as compared to the aviation market in
the developed countries which has reached its maturity level and has a much slower
growth rate. Therefore, considering 2019 as the baseline year for offsetting
requirement will not be fair to developing countries as it will impose very heavy carbon
offsetting costs on the airlines of these countries in the subsequent years and
adversely impact the growth of the entire aviation sector in the developing world.
Furthermore, the Paris Agreement clearly recognizes that the developing countries
have not yet reached their peak emissions and therefore it does not mandate carbon
neutral growth specific to any particular sector. The CORSIA scheme also does not
conform to the CBDR-RC principle of UNFCCC. Further, CORSIA estimates and
implements the offsetting requirements airline-wise (MoCA, 2020).

Member countries are responsible for monitoring and enforcing the obligations under
the scheme. It would therefore be appropriate if offsetting obligations are estimated at
country level. This is also consistent with the UNFCCC principles wherein each
country is responsible for its share of production of greenhouse gases. Accordingly,
the responsibility for its mitigation also lies with the country concerned.

Accordingly, India has filed reservations at the 40th ICAO Assembly and proposed the
following (MoCA, 2020):
 CORSIA baseline should be fixed closer to when India and a number of other
like-minded countries join the CORSIA scheme in 2027.
 CORSIA Emissions unit eligibility criteria developed by ICAO should be
consistent with the principles developed by UNFCCC.
 Member State driven principle of stabilising aviation emissions and attribution
of responsibility of emission reduction to Member States instead of airline
operators.

3.6.9 Shipping
India has 13 major ports, and 200 notified non-major (minor/intermediate) ports along
the coastline and sea-islands. Recognizing their fuel efficiency, environmental
friendliness, and cost-effectiveness, the Government is promoting the growth of
Coastal Shipping and Inland Water Transport. The Ministry of Shipping (MoS) has

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initiated the Green Port project to make ports across India cleaner and greener. This
includes monitoring environmental pollution, setting up wastewater treatment plants,
garbage disposal plant, and energy generation from renewable sources (MoS, 2020).

3.6.9.1 Coastal Shipping

Coastal shipping is a fuel efficient, cleaner mode of transportation that can ease traffic
congestion. Despite having an extensive network of inland waterways in the form of
rivers, canals, backwater, and creeks, freight transportation by waterways is highly
under-utilised in India. Waterways currently contribute around 6.4 per cent of India’s
transportation modal mix, which is significantly lower than in developed economies.
Investment in dedicated waterway infrastructure will go a long way in promoting
coastal shipping as a mode of freight transportation. Port, railway networks, and
waterway infrastructure need to be developed in conjunction to facilitate a seamless,
efficient freight transport system. Some of the measures to ensure this include the
development of coastal berths, bunkering, and storage at ports, and supportive
infrastructure for transportation in the hinterland for ensuring last-mile connectivity
(MoS, 2020).
India has seen a steady growth of 11.3 per cent of cargo movement on coastal routes
from 2015-16 to 2018-19. In 2018-19, approximately 120 million tonne per annum
(MTPA) of coastal cargo was transported as compared to the earlier tonnage of 94.5
MTPA in 2016-17. This is expected to increase to 250 MTPA by 2025. The accelerated
adoption of coastal shipping has been beneficial to the environment as it is relatively
less polluting with certain initiatives such as the Gogha-Dahej Ro-Ro ferry services
projected to save up to 15,202 kilolitre (kl) per year, translating to annual avoided
emissions of approximately 48,800 MtCO2 (MoS, 2020).
To boost and upgrade port facilities to meet global benchmarks and to make coastal
shipping a viable alternative for freight transportation, the Ministry of Shipping (MoS)
has taken numerous initiatives towards ease of doing business. Some of the initiatives
are listed below (MoS, 2020):
 Licensing relaxation for coastal shipping trade (Cabotage) with MoS introducing
licensing relaxations to foreign flag vessels for carrying trans-shipment
containers, empty containers, fertilizers and agricultural, fisheries, animal
husbandry and horticultural commodities on coastal routes for special vehicles
like Ro-Ro, hybrid Ro-Ro, Ro pure car and truck carriers, LNG vessels and over-
dimensional or project cargo, the licensing relaxations have been extended till
2020.
 Coastal Berth Scheme (CBS), where financial assistance of up to 50 per cent of
total project cost or maximum funding limit has been provided to the
implementing agency for the creation of infrastructure to promote movement of
cargo/passengers by sea/National waterways. The scheme was extended up to
March 2020 and the scope was extended to cover the cost of dredging at major
ports. A total of 39 projects and INR 15,690 million has been sanctioned under

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 the CBS or total financial assistance of INR 6,367.6 million and INR 3,508.4
million has been released to major ports/state maritime boards and State
Governments.

3.6.9.2 Sagarmala: Port-led Prosperity

Approximately 95 per cent of India’s merchandise trade (by volume) passes through
sea ports. Many ports such as JNPT, Mundra port, Sikka port and Hazira port in India
are evolving into specialized centres of economic activities and services and are vital
to sustain future economic growth of the country. Indian ports still have to address
infrastructural and operational challenges before they graduate to the next level. For
example, operational efficiency of Indian ports has improved over the years but still
lags behind the global average. Turnaround time (TAT) at major ports was
approximately 2.5 days in 2018-19, whereas global average benchmark is 1-2 days.
Some of the private sector ports in India like Mundra and Gangavaram, have been
able to achieve a turnaround time of around 2 days. Secondly, last mile connectivity
to the ports is one of the major constraints in smooth movement of cargo to/from the
hinterland. Around 87 per cent of Indian freight uses either road or rail for
transportation of goods (MoS, 2019).

The vision of the Sagarmala Programme is to reduce logistics cost for exports and
imports and domestic trade with minimal infrastructure investment. This includes:
 Reducing cost of transporting domestic cargo through optimizing modal mix.
 Lowering logistics cost of bulk commodities by locating future industrial
capacities near the coast.
 Improving export competitiveness by developing port proximate discrete
manufacturing clusters.
 Optimizing time/cost of EXIM container movement.

3.6.9.3 Green Port Project

The MoS has been developing green ports and the status of implementation and
progress so far is given below:

Table 3.19: Status of implementation and progress of green ports

No. Activity Status

Preparation of Environment
1 Management and Monitoring Plan 50 per cent of ports have developed their plans
(EMMP) or Green Plan
Acquiring equipment required for
2 100 per cent target achieved
monitoring environmental pollution
Setting up sewage/ waste-water Some of the services have been outsourced and ports
3 treatment plants/ garbage disposal have planned to provide sewage/waste treatment
plants plans which are under implementation
Large plantation activities have been carried out
4 Plantation
around port areas

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 No. Activity Status
Setting up projects for energy
Most of the ports have conducted feasibility studies for
5 generation from renewable energy
renewable energy
sources
Regulation of the discharges and effluents in the
6 Improve the quality of harbor water harbor water and minimization through Swachh Bharat
initiatives
Implementation of sustainable
10 per cent of the ports have initiated sustainable
7 practices in terminal design,
practices in terminal operation
development, and operation
Source: MoS, 2020.

3.6.9.4 Renewable power activities in major ports

Some of the green initiatives carried out in shipping sector are listed below (MoS,
2020):
 DPT (Kandla) has installed a 20.7 MW wind farm.
 VO Chidambaranar port trust – 500 kW solar plant, 150 kW solar rooftop in the
pipeline, 5 kW ground solar PV in 2020.
 New Mangalore port trust (NMPT) – 5.19 MW solar power plant.
 Paradip port trust proposed to install 100 MW solar power plant.
 Mormugao port trust has installed 240 kW solar power plant.
 Mumbai port trust has installed 401 kW solar power, 1030 kW rooftop solar in
the project pipeline.
 Vishakhapatnam port trust has an installed capacity of 10.77 MW solar power.
 Chennai port trust has installed a 500 kW solar power plant.
 Jawaharlal Nehru port trust has an installed capacity of 822 kW rooftop solar
panels and 2 MW floating solar plant.
 Kamarajar port has installed 250 kW solar power with a project pipeline of 20
MW wind power along the coast.

3.7 Agriculture sector

As per the guidelines, for the BUR, only the sectors covered in voluntary declarations
have to be reported here. India’s voluntary declaration does not mention the activities
in the agriculture sector. However, India has undertaken several climate-friendly
initiatives to proactively promote sustainable development of the sector. These
initiatives are discussed in the following sections.

The agriculture sector in India plays a crucial role in ensuring food and nutritional
security and engages almost two-third of the workforce in gainful employment.
Several industries such as sugar, textiles, jute, food, and milk processing depend on
agricultural production for the requirement of raw materials. The sector contributes to
14.45 per cent of the total GHG emissions in India. The threat of climate change poses
a challenge for sustainable agricultural growth and hence this sector must become
resilient to increasing climatic variability and change. GoI has taken several initiatives
to make the sector resilient to climate change and variability, given the importance of

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the sector for meeting the growing requirements of the population in the country.
Agriculture and allied sectors including livestock, fishery, and forestry contribute to
about 16 per cent in the 2018-19 GVA (2011-12 series) (MoAFW, 2018).

3.7.1 National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)

As described in the second BUR, the NMSA is the effort by the Government to
transform the agricultural sector into an ecologically sustainable, climate resilient
production system through various adaptation and mitigation measures. Several
interventions have been proposed and these have been described earlier. However,
an update on each of the mitigation initiatives is described below. Adaptation initiatives
have been described in Section 1.9.2 of Chapter 1.
3.7.1.1 Sub-Mission on Agroforestry (SMAF)
SMAF under NMSA is implemented since 2016-17 as part of the recommendation of
the National Agroforestry Policy, 2014. The National Agroforestry Policy aims to
encourage and expand tree plantation in association with crops and livestock to
improve productivity, employment, income and livelihoods of rural households,
especially the small and marginal farmers; to protect and stabilize ecosystems and
promote resilient cropping and farming systems to minimize the risk during extreme
climatic conditions and to increase tree cover to promote ecological stability, especially
in the vulnerable regions. Emission reduction of 0.1318 MtCO2 was achieved in years
2017-18 and 2018-19 (CRIDA, 2020).
3.7.1.2 National Bamboo Mission (NBM)
The restructured NBM was launched in 2018-19. The mission focuses on the
development of complete value chain of the bamboo sector to link growers with
consumers starting from planting material, plantation, creation of facilities for
collection, aggregation, processing, marketing, micro, small & medium enterprises,
skill development and brand building initiative in a cluster approach mode. The
objectives of the NBM include increasing the area under bamboo plantation in non-
forest Government and private lands to supplement farm income as well as fulfil quality
raw material requirement of industries. The mission would also help in increasing the
green cover and enhance the carbon sequestration potential (CRIDA, 2020).
Table 3.20: Area planted under NBM

Year Plantation Achieved (ha)

2018-19 7,366
2019-20 (till 31.12.2019) 6,870
Source: DAC&FW, 2020.

3.7.2 Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)

The scheme has been operational from 2015-16 across the country. Efforts are made
to replace flood methods of irrigation with micro-irrigation systems which reduce
electricity consumption required for pumping of water. The micro-irrigation system is
energy and water-efficient technology that delivers the water directly to the root zone.

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The adoption of water-efficient irrigation technologies helps save water and has the
potential to improve the quality and quantity of agriculture produce. Area covered
under micro-irrigation under PMKSY-PDMC between 2017-18 and 2019-20 is 3.38
million ha.
Table 3.21: Area covered under micro-irrigation.

Year Drip (in ha) Sprinkler (in ha) Total (in ha)
2017-18 5,41,156 5,07,778 10,48,934
2018-19 5,75,504 5,83,015 11,58,519
2019-20 6,22,768 5,49,799 11,72,567
Total 17,39,428 16,40,592 33,80,020
Source: DACF&W, 2020.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana- Per Drop More Crop (PMKSY- PDMC)

The Department of Agriculture, Co-operation & Farmers Welfare is implementing

PDMC component of PMKSY which is operational from 1 July 2015 in the country.
PMKSY- PDMC mainly focuses on enhancing water use efficiency at farm level
through precision/micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler Irrigation). Besides, promoting
precision irrigation and better on-farm water management practices to optimize the
use of available water resources, this component also supports micro level water
storage or water conservation/management activities as other interventions to
supplement source creation (DAC&FW, 2020).

3.7.3 Solarisation of Agriculture

A major recent initiative, the PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam
Utthan Mahabhiyan) scheme, has been launched for de-dieselisation of farm sector
and enhancing farmers’ income by providing energy and water security and also to
decarbonize the farm sector.

The scheme aims at achieving 30.8 GW solar capacity through installation of small
solar power plants of capacity up to 2 MW on barren/fallow/pasture/marshy land of
farmers, replacement of 2 million diesel pumps by standalone solar pumps and
solarisation of 1.5 million grid connected agriculture pumps by 2022. Under the
scheme feeder level solarisation is also possible by installing single solar plant for
feeding power to single or multiple agriculture feeders for providing day time reliable
power to all farmers connected to the grid. The scheme will also provide the benefits
of reliable day time power and reducing electricity subsidy burden of State/DISCOMs.
Further, in order to strengthen domestic solar manufacturing, use of domestically
manufactured solar cells and modules for standalone solar pumps and solarisation of
grid connected pumps is mandatory under the scheme (MNRE, 2020).

This scheme will result in savings of 27 MtCO2 emissions per annum across the
country (PIB, 2019). Further, it will also result in reduction in consumption of coal by
9.34 million tonne per annum. As a result of the replacement of diesel pumps with
solar pumps, there will be estimated savings of 1.2 billion tonne of diesel (PIB, 2019).

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Convergence of PMKSY and PM-KUSUM demo by Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) and
National Commission on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH).

The scheme gives preference to farmers looking to install standalone solar agriculture
pumps and those who are using micro-irrigation systems covered under micro-
irrigation schemes or those who opt for micro-irrigation system in order to minimize
the water usage for irrigation purpose. Accordingly, while releasing central assistance
under the scheme of PMKSY-PDMC, States are advised to converge with PM-KUSUM
scheme for promotion of micro-irrigation systems. Solar pumps are also to be
combined with micro-irrigation following the guidelines of the scheme and in
coordination with respective implementing agencies.
Three solar integrated micro-irrigation projects at Precision Farming Development
Centres (PFDCs) namely Ludhiana, Bhopal and Leh are being implemented by
NCPAH under the PMKSY-PDMC. A project for the establishment of demonstration
units on micro-irrigation systems across 190 KVKs has been approved by the
extension division of ICAR under PMKSY-PDMC (DAC&FW, 2020).

3.7.4 Crop diversification programme

Given the high water requirement of paddy crop and consequent decline in
groundwater and high energy requirement in the traditional green revolution states
such as Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, diversification from paddy to other crops
was envisaged. The main objectives of the programme are to demonstrate and
promote the improved production technologies of alternate crops and to restore soil
fertility through the cultivation of leguminous crops. Due to the stagnancy in crop
yields, the decline in soil quality, the incidence of pests and diseases due to continuous
paddy cultivation in the three States, Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, diversion
of paddy cultivation to other crops has become essential. This enables the reduction
of the CH4 emissions associated with paddy production. The budgetary allocation for
this programme during 2018-19 was INR 1.328 million. A total area of 81,816 ha has
been diversified from paddy to other crops in 2017-18 and 2018-19 (DAC&FW, 2020).
3.7.5 System of Rice Intensification (SRI)
SRI is a promising and resource-saving method of rice cultivation. Studies have shown
a significant increase in rice yield, with substantial savings of seeds (80-90 per cent),
water (25-50 per cent), and cost (10-20 per cent) compared to conventional methods
(Uphoff, 2011), and reduction in CH4 emissions. As part of the National Food Security
Mission (NFSM), SRI is being implemented in 193 districts of 24 States.

Similarly, under National Food Security Mission (NFSM) - Bringing Green Revolution
to Eastern India (BGREI) – rice cultivation is being implemented in 120 districts of 7
eastern Indian States. The main objectives of the National Food Security Mission
(NFSM) - Rice are to increase the productivity of rice by area expansion and
productivity enhancement in a sustainable manner in identified districts of the country,
restoring soil fertility and productivity at the individual farm level, enhancing the farm

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income and enhancing post-harvest value addition at farm gate for better price
realisation to farmers through efficient market linkage. The extent of coverage of the
SRI system under NFSM & BGREI is shown in Table 3.22 (DAC&FW, 2020).

Table 3.22: Area covered (ha) with SRI system of cultivation

Year Target envisaged for coverage of Target achieved for coverage of SRI system
SRI system of cultivation (ha) of cultivation (ha)
2017-18 61,658 52,377
2018-19 37,499 33,487
Source: DAC&FW, 2020.

3.7.6 Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) cultivation

DSR is one of the methods of rice cultivation with the objective of doing away with the
raising nurseries, puddling, and transplanting. Unlike transplanted paddy cultivation,
standing water is not maintained in the DSR system and the field is maintained at
saturation and a higher cultivable area can be attained under limited water conditions.
Due to alternate wetting and drying cycles, the methane emissions can be reduced
significantly. The quantum of water application gets reduced significantly and
increases saving in energy due to reduced quantum of water application. As part of
the NFSM and BGREI, DSR method of cultivation is being promoted in districts that
have been selected for paddy interventions in NFSM and BGREI. The extent of
coverage of the area with DSR is given in Table 3.23 (DAC&FW, 2020).
Table 3.23: Area covered under DSR cultivation

Target envisaged for coverage of Target achieved for coverage of DSR

Year DSR system of cultivation (ha) system of cultivation (ha) under NSFM and
under NSFM and BGREI BGREI
2017-18 53,085 58,438

2018-19 44,376 41,526

Source: DAC&FW, 2020.

3.7.7 Avoiding crop residue burning

Burning of paddy crop residues in Punjab and Haryana for the timely sowing of wheat
is a prevalent practice. Delay in wheat sowing may result in reduced wheat yields due
to the growing temperatures at the time of wheat harvest in March-April. Farm
equipment that enables timely sowing in the standing paddy residues was made
available to the farmers directly and also through Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs) and
Farm Machinery Banks (FMBs) to enable sowing of the wheat crop without burning of
paddy residues. Crop residue burning poses a more serious problem for local air
pollution than for climate change and increase in global warming (PIB, 2020a).
In order to support the efforts of the governments of Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh
and the NCT of Delhi to address air pollution and subsidize machinery required for in-
situ management of crop residue, a Central Sector Scheme (100 per cent funded by
the Central Government) on ‘Promotion of Agricultural Mechanization for In-Situ

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Management of Crop Residue’ in the States of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and
NCT of Delhi has been implemented during 2018-19 and 2019-20 (DAC&FW, 2020).

The objectives are as follows:

 Prevent air pollution and loss of nutrients and soil micro-organisms caused by
burning of crop residue.
 Promote in-situ management of crop residue by retention and incorporation into
the soil through the use of appropriate mechanization inputs.
 Create awareness among stakeholders through demonstration, capacity
building activities.
 Differentiated Information, Education and Communication (IEC) strategies for
effective utilization and management of crop residues.

Accordingly, total funds of INR 5,843.3 million and INR 5,941.4 million have been
released during 2018-19 & 2019-20 under this scheme to State governments of
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and NCT of Delhi & Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), to provide subsidy at 50 per cent to individual farmers and 80 per
cent for CHCs of in-situ crop residue management machines and equipment.

A total of 55,764 and 56,398 crop residue management machines were provided to
individual farmers and CHCs during 2018-19 and 2019-20, respectively. As per the
analysis of paddy residue burning in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh in 2019,
using satellite remote sensing carried out by Consortium for Research on
Agroecosystem Monitoring and Modelling from Space (CREAMS) Laboratory, 18.8
per cent and 31 per cent reduction in number of burning events were observed in the
year 2019 as compared to that in 2018 and 2017, respectively. The scheme is being
continued during the year 2020-21. In 2018-19, INR 5,483.30 million has been
released to the concerned State governments (DAC&FW, 2020).

For sustainable use of crop residue, after successfully demonstrating biomass co-
firing at NTPC Dadri, NTPC Limited has started commercial-scale biomass co-firing
at Dadri. NTPC Limited has already fired over 7,000 tonne of biomass pellets and
awarded 280 Tonne Per Day (TPD) purchase orders for four years (approximately 0.4
million tonne). Further, in line with the advisory of CEA, NTPC Limited has invited
tenders for about 20 MMTPA of biomass pellets/ torrefied pellets to be delivered to its
17 power plants in the next 4 years. (MoP, 2020a).

3.7.8 Neem-coated urea produced

As a matter of policy, all urea, both imported and indigenously produced, available in
the country is neem coated since 2016. Total mitigation of 7.529 MtCO2 was achieved
in 2017-18 and 2018-19, with a total production of 47.99 million tonne (DAC&FW,
2020). Neem-coated urea has higher use efficiency and lower loss of nitrogen due to
inhibition of nitrification process in soil compared to prilled urea. For the year 2019-20,

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the season-wise assessed requirement and production of Neem-coated urea is shown
in Table 3.24.
Table 3.24: Production of neem-coated urea

Assessed requirement Production of urea

Year
(in million tonne) (in million tonne)
Kharif 2019 16.407 11.813
Rabi 2019-20 18.204 12.642
Total 34.611 24.455
Source: DAC&FW, 2020. *Kharif = Summer or monsoon crops; Rabi = Winter crops.

3.7.9 Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)

The horticulture sector consists of a wide range of crops such as fruits, vegetables,
flowers, spices, and nuts of which the fruit crops produce relatively higher biomass
and are retained in the field for a relatively long period. This helps in sequestering
carbon both above and below the ground. The area brought under the mission from
2016-17 to 2018-19 has been reported in Table 3.25. The quantum of carbon
sequestered is estimated to be 108.96 MtCO2 from 2017-18 to 2018-19.

Table 3.25: Area brought under Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (million ha)

2016-17 2017-18 2018-19

Area brought under
MIDH Target Achievement Target Achievement Target Achievement
1.42 1.28 1.46 1.43 2.18 1.54
Source: DAC&FW, 2020.

3.7.10 Balanced ration for livestock

The main objective of the Ration Balancing Programme (RBP) is to educate milk
producers on feeding balanced ration to their animals so that the nutrients required by
their milch animals are fulfilled in an optimum manner, thereby improving milk
production efficiency and the economic return. The achievement under the scheme in
2018-19 has been reported in Table 3.26. The emission reduction as a result of the
RBP initiatives was 0.061 MtCO2 from 2017-18 to 2018-19.
Table 3.26: Animals covered with Ration Balancing Programme (RBP)

Year Target envisaged (million no.) Target achieved (million no.)

2017-18 2.54 3.05
2018-19 2.0 1.87
Source: DoAH&D, 2020.

3.7.11 Bypass Proteins for animals

In India, crop residues that form the bulk of feed resources are of inferior quality with
more degradable protein which results in lower production and higher GHG emissions.
High yielding milch animals like crossbreds and graded buffaloes specially require
more undegradable protein in the form of bypass protein for enhancing milk production
potential of the animal. As such protein supplements are more expensive and

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optimizing the use of protein supplements within the ruminant system can improve
milk productivity, income to the farmers, and lower greenhouse gas emissions.
Commercial bypass protein technology was available with different seed meals and
these bypass proteins reduce the degradability in the rumen. The main purpose of
the establishment of the bypass protein units is to improve the availability of the protein
and essential amino acids from feed to cattle.
3.7.12 Mitigation reduction due to various activities
The mitigation envisaged due to various initiatives of the GoI as well as the private
initiatives are presented below in Table 3.27.
Table 3.27: Emission reduction and carbon sequestration (MtCO 2 equivalents) due to various
mitigation actions of agriculture sector

Nature of mitigation intervention 2017-18 2018-19 Total

Expansion of area under horticulture systems 61.724 47.245 108.96
SRI Cultivation as alternative to transplanted paddy 0.0150 0.009 0.0248
DSR Cultivation 0.058 0.041 0.099
Crop diversification from paddy to other crops 0.026 0.012 0.0388
Micro-irrigation (Drip and Sprinkler) 5.551 6.428 11.979
Balanced ration for livestock 0.038 0.023 0.0615
Bypass protein 0.039 0.039 0.0779
Avoidance of crop residue burning 0.062 0.263 0.3255
Neem-coated Urea 3.764 3.764 7.5291
Solar pumps distribution under National Solar Mission 0.644 0.891 1.5348
Agriculture Demand Side Management 0.163 0.163 0.3258
National Sub-mission on Agro-forestry (SMAF) 0.043 0.088 0.1318
National Bamboo Mission (NBM) - 0.1873 0.1873
Source: CRIDA, 2020a.

3.8 Forestry sector

As per India State of Forest Report 2019, forest and tree cover have reached 80.73
million ha which is 24.56 per cent of the geographical area of the country. The annual
increase in carbon stock is estimated at 21.3 million tonne which is 78.1 MtCO2eq.
The percentage of quantification was found largest in soil organic carbon which is
56.20 per cent followed by aboveground biomass (31.67 per cent), belowground
biomass (9.84 per cent), litter (1.80 per cent), and deadwood (0.50 per cent). In the
India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2019, the total carbon stock in forest was
estimated as 7,124.6 million tonne, showing an increase of 42.6 million tonne as
compared to the last assessment in 2017 (PIB, 2020c). The total forest carbon stocks
in Indian forests showed an increment of 502.6 million tonne from the year 2005
(ICFRE, 2020).
According to the Economic Survey 2019-20, India as a responsible nation, with the
introduction of various schemes, has been continuously moving towards economic
growth, keeping in mind the imperatives of sustainable development. India is among
a few countries in the world where, despite ongoing developmental efforts, forest and

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tree cover are increasing considerably. The report further highlighted that the
States/UTs showing gain in forest cover are Karnataka (1,025 km2), Kerala (823 km2),
Andhra Pradesh (990 km2) and Jammu & Kashmir (371 km2) whereas those showing
loss in forest cover include Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Meghalaya.
3.8.1 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 laid the foundation for protection and conservation of
the country’s natural forests. Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 governs diversion or
use of forest land for non-forestry purposes such as industrial or developmental
projects. The Act of 1980 maintains and protects forest cover by ensuring that any
forest land being diverted to non-forestry purposes, should be afforested with the
forest equal to the size of the original forest. Afforested land cannot become a forest
overnight and the newly afforested land will take around 50 years to start delivering
the comparable ecosystem goods and services that the diverted land gave just before
diversion.
To compensate for the losses suffered in the interim, the Net Present Value (NPV) of
the diverted forest and the value recovered from the “user agency” are computed. The
NPV for every patch of forest is computed by an expert committee. At present, the
NPV value varies depending upon the quality of forests. It ranges from INR 0.43 million
per ha for low-quality to INR 1.04 million per ha for very dense forests. An expert
committee has recommended increasing the NPV value of INR 0.98 million for poor
quality forests and INR 5.55 million for very dense forests (Verma et al., 2014).
The Act has strictly regulated and restricted the diversion of forest land for non-forestry
purposes. Between 1951 and 1980, 0.14 million ha per annum of forest land was
diverted for non-forest purposes, whereas between 1980 and 2019, this figure
declined to 0.024 million ha per annum on an average (MoSPI, 2020).
As of 31 March 2019, 1,283 cases have been registered for diversion, and the area
approved is 20,693 ha in 30 states and UTs. The total number of registered plantation
works is 3,36,468 and total projects registered on the e-green watch web-portal is
27,173.
Table 3.28: Diversion of forest land before and after the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

S. No. Years million ha per annum

1. 1951-1980 0.14
2. 1980-2019 0.024
Source: ICFRE, 2020.

3.8.2 Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority

(CAMPA)
CAMPA acts as a National Advisory Council under the chairmanship of the Union
Minister of the MoEFCC for monitoring, providing technical assistance and evaluation
of compensatory afforestation activities. MoEFCC has prepared the guidelines for
utilization of CAMPA funds by the States through constitution of State-CAMPA. The

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assigned task of CAMPA is to work towards regenerating natural forests, conservation
and protection of forests, monitoring & evaluation, wildlife conservation, protection and
other related activities. To monitor the progress of works made under CAMPA funds,
the e-green watch web portal is being developed. It is an integrated and online system
that is completely reliable, transparent, and accountable. The real-time data is
accessible to the stakeholders and the public at large. This allows online monitoring,
evaluation of social and ecological audits by the researchers, and access to the public
about the Annual Plan of Operations of State CAMPA. This will allow optimal leverage
of funds to respective agencies for plantation and assisted natural regeneration, forest
management and protection. Funds allocated for plantation work under CAMPA for
the years 2015-16 to 2018-19 are given in Table 3.29 (ICFRE, 2020).

Table 3.29: Summary of funds allocated for plantation work (CA, non-CA) and area planted (ha)
across different states of India

Area for Plantation works (ha) Amount allocated (INR in million)*

No. Year Fresh Committed Total Fresh Committed Total

Plantation Plantation Plantation Plantation Plantation Plantation
works works works works works works
1. 2015-16 449,375 9,33,188 1,382,564 1,734 1,580 3,314
2. 2016-17 916,605 6,79,457 1,596,062 1,030 1,136 2,166
3. 2017-18 71,311 4,86,465 557,776 1,045 800 1,845
4. 2018-19 3,461 3,16,731 320,192 117 288 406
*Calculations are based on sum of all registered estimates. Source: ICFRE, 2020.
3.8.3 Progress made under plantation programmes
3.8.3.1 Twenty Point Programme
As mentioned in BUR-2, this programme is meant to give a thrust to schemes relating
to poverty alleviation, employment generation in rural areas, housing, education,
health & family welfare, protection of the environment, and many other schemes
having a bearing on the quality of life, especially in the rural areas. Under Twenty Point
Programme, National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB) is the nodal
agency to coordinate and monitor the afforestation programmes. The following four
points are considered by nodal agency for monitoring:
 Tree plantation
 Survival rate
 Wasteland reclaimed
 Hill, desert, coastal vegetation
The survival percentage is accounted during monitoring of targets and achievements.

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Table 3.30: Area covered under plantation and planted seedlings in public and forest lands
during period 2016-18 under twenty-point programme

Per cent
Environment protection and
Year Targets Achievements Achievements
afforestation (Point 15)
w.r.t the targets
Area covered under plantation (public
2016-17 1.08 1.99 183
and forest lands) (million ha)
Seedlings planted (public and forest
- 708.21 1404.28 198
lands) (million numbers)
Area covered under plantation (Public
2017-18 1.47 1.68 115
and Forest Lands) (million ha)
Seedlings planted (public and forest
- 957.13 1073.10 112
lands) (million numbers)
Area covered under plantation (public
2018-19** 1.64 1.315 80
and forest lands) (million ha)
Seedlings planted (public and forest
- 1067.17 1166.48 109
lands) (million numbers)
Source: ICFRE, 2020. **Source: MoSPI, 2020.

3.8.4 National Mission on Clean Ganga

The Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun has drawn out an action plan for
’Forestry Interventions in Ganga’, which envisages afforestation in 1,34,106 ha of the
Ganga riverbank at an estimated cost of INR 22,937.3 million. Following are the details
of the area planted from 2016 to 2019 under National Mission for Clean Ganga.

Table 3.31: Area planted under National Mission for Clean Ganga

States 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19

Area Area Area Area Area Area
proposed under proposed under proposed under
in DPR plantation in DPR plantation in DPR plantation
(ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)
Uttarakhand 32,633 1,596 8,736 4,097 13,487 6,093
Uttar Pradesh 9,197 1,573 2,579 620 2,436 -
Bihar 6,352 160 8,408 305 12,907 2,202
Jharkhand 1,305 228 274 56 360 168
West Bengal 15,425 527 10,121 508 5,886 1,205
Source: ICFRE, 2020.

3.8.5 National Green Highways Mission

India’s road network of 5.90 million km is the densest and the second largest in the
world, catering to 65 per cent of freight traffic and 85 per cent of passenger traffic. It
comprises the primary network of 1,16,000 km of National Highways (NH) the
secondary network of 1,60,000 km of State Highways (SH) and Major and Other
District Roads (MDR & ODR), and a tertiary network of Rural Roads. Considering the
importance of road network in economic growth, employment generation and poverty

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reduction on one hand and the need to facilitate Green Highways (Plantation,
Transplantations, Beautification and Maintenance) Policy implementation, NHAI has
strengthened green highways division with engagement of one retired experienced
professional and one young professional in each Regional office covering all the
states. In addition, about 700 young horticulture experts have been sanctioned, one
in each project, to supervise plantation activities. NHAI earmarked INR 3,000 million
in 2019-20 for the program and has made provision of INR 5,000 million for 2020-21.
(MoRTH, 2020).
The status of the plants raised under National Green Highways Mission for the year
2016-19 is given in Table 3.32.
Table 3.32: Status of the plants raised under National Green Highways Mission

Year Trees planted (in million)

2016-17 3.800
2017-18 3.826
2018-19 3.126
2019-20 3.620
2020-21 (November 2020)* 5.000
Total 19.372
Source: NHAI, 2020, *MoRTH, 2020

The GoI is implementing the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) to provide
connectivity to unconnected habitations. The PMGSY also employs green
technologies like the use of waste plastic, fly ash, copper and iron slag, geotextile,
cold mix, paneled concrete and cell filled concrete.
In 2017, GoI launched the Bharatmala Pariyojana covering a length of 26,000 km of
economic corridors, 8,000 km of Inter Corridors and 7,500 km of feeder routers.
Besides these, 28 cities have been identified for ring roads; 125 check points and 66
congestion points have been identified for their improvement. Further, in order to
reduce congestion on proposed corridors, enhance logistic efficiency and reduce
logistic costs of freight movements, 35 locations have been identified for development
of multi-modal logistics parks (MoRTH, 2019).
The green corridors, relevant from both climate mitigation and adaptation perspective,
are part of India’s efforts to address climate change. The project objective is to develop
green and safe project NH corridors and enhancing the institutional capacity of MoRTH
in mainstreaming green technologies. The proposed project will systematically
institutionalize the development of green and safe NHs by implementing pilots,
broadening the knowledge base and creating the capability to design, implement and
maintain green and safe highways. Based on the foregoing, and in line with the
objective, this operation will have the following three components (MoRTH, 2019):
 Component A: Green highway corridor improvement and maintenance (Total
Cost: USD 1,001 million, including IBRD USD 423.95 million).
 Component B: Institutional capacity enhancement (Total Cost: USD 34.5 million,
including IBRD USD 27.6 million).

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  Component C: Road safety (Total Cost: USD 59 million, including IBRD USD
47.2 million).

3.8.5.1 Green Highways (Plantation, Transplantations, Beautification and

Maintenance) Policy, 2015
As mentioned in the Second BUR, the policy was launched to promote the greening
of NH corridors across the country with participation of the community, farmers, NGOs,
private sector, institutions, government agencies, and the State Forest Departments.
3.8.6 Green India Mission
GIM is one of the eight missions outlined under the NAPCC. It aims at protecting,
enhancing, and restoring India’s forest cover. The mission acknowledges the influence
of forests on environmental amelioration through climate change mitigation, water
security, food security, biodiversity conservation, and livelihood security of forest-
dependent communities. It hinges on a decentralized participatory approach by
involving grass root level communities and organizations in decision making, planning,
implementation, and monitoring.

Table 3.33: Financial year-wise physical and financial details for 2015-16 to 2019-20 under GIM

Financial Year Physical (ha) Financial (INR million)

Target Achievement Target Achievement
2015-16 47,629 30,864 701 346
2016-17 20,198 27,264 413 511
2017-18 7,340 6,274 463 504
2018-19 29,958 32,335 794 712
2019-20 37,560 15,686 1,060 662
Total 1,42,684 1,12,422 3,431 2,735
Source: MoEFCC, 2020.

Progress/achievements; the State wise details for the year 2019-20 are given below:
Table 3.34: Progress/achievements; the Sate-wise details for the year 2019-20

Physical target (ha) Amount

S.
States Advance Maintenance released
No Creation work
work work (INR million)
1 Chhattisgarh - - 19,128 50.36
2 Manipur - - 8,798 41.67
3 Karnataka - 600 760 22.10
4 Odisha - 6,965 2,094 141.89
5 Madhya Pradesh 11,445 11,800 - 306.53
6 Sikkim - 1,509.2 - 31.24
7 Kerala - 2,281.64 347.64 163.18
8 Mizoram - - 17,084 177.09
9 Punjab - - 3,004 31.86
Total 11,445 23,155.84 51,215.64 956.92
Source: MoEFCC, 2020a.

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Funds amounting to INR 956.92 million have been released so far under first and
second instalments to seven States namely Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka, Sikkim,
Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Punjab, and Kerala in the year 2019-20.
The Directorate of GIM is implementing a World Bank-GEF funded “Ecosystem
Services Improvement Project” (ESIP), in the States of Chattisgarh and Madhya
Pradesh with financial implication of USD 24.64 million.
The main objectives are:
 Strengthening capacity of government institutions in forestry and land
management programs in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh;
 Investments for improving forest quality in selected landscapes;
 Scaling up of sustainable land and ecosystem management in selected
landscapes.

So far, INR 454.20 million has been utilized for the implementation of ESIP activities.
The forest sector can significantly contribute to reducing GHG emissions in India in
the coming years.

Table 3.35: Incremental annual mitigation potential (MtCO 2) of different sub-missions

estimated using COMAP model

Incremental annual
million
Sub-mission area mitigation potential
ha
2020 (MtCO2)
Moderately dense forest cover, but showing degradation (MDF) 1.5 6.7

Eco- Restoration of degraded open forests (D/O) 3 27.0

Restoration of Scrublands + Grasslands (S/G) 1.2 5.4

Restoration of Mangroves +Wetland catchment (M/W) 0.2 1.6

Avenue, City forests, Municipal parks/ gardens, Households,
Institutional lands+ Agro-forestry on fallows, Shelter belts, 3.2 8.3
Roads, canals, tank bunds and schools (AF_SF_UF)
Others (Rehabilitation of Shifting Cultivation areas, Restoring
/planting Seabuckthorn, Ravine Reclamation and Restoration of 0.9 6.0
abandoned mining areas)

Total 10 55.0
Source: MoEF. n.d.

3.8.6.1 National Afforestation Programme (NAP)

Launched in the year 2002, the NAP is a major afforestation scheme under the
National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board, MoEFCC, GoI. About 50,000 ha
new area has been afforested along with creation and maintenance of previous years’
plantations and an allocation of INR 1 billion in 2018-19. However, the NAP stands
merged with GIM, vide order dated 30 January 2018 (MoEFCC, 2019a).

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Currently, this programme is being implemented through a three-tier system with the
State Forest Development Agency (SFDA) operating at the state level, Forest
Development Agency (FDAs) at the district/forest division level and Joint Forest
Management Committees (JFMCs) at the village level.
Under care and share concepts, community assets are developed, and plantations are
taken up in 7 different models. In total, 29 SFDA projects are currently operating in the
country.
During 2018-19, INR 1.59 billion allocated under GIM-NAP for utilization towards the
following activities (MoEFCC, 2019a):
 Increased forest/tree cover on 6,163.8 hectare of forest/non-forest lands.
 Improved quality of forest/tree cover of forest/non-forest lands on 6,126.4 hectare
of forest/non- forest lands.
 Afforestation under National Afforestation Programme 50,000 ha.
A total expenditure of INR 38.20 billion has been released to treat an area of 2.19
million ha since the inception of the NAP Scheme till 2018-19. The earmarked INR
1.59 billion in 2018-19 for the Green India Mission (National Afforestation Programme)
was a 48.8 per cent increase in allocation over the previous years.
Table 3.36: Year-wise progress in terms of area covered and the amount released of
National Afforestation Programme
No. of new FDA No. of new JFMCs Project area Release (INR in
Year
projects approved involved approved (ha)* million)**
2000-02 47 1843 71,068 475
2002-03 237 8197 4,04,799 1513
2003-04 231 7902 2,82,536 2080
2004-05 105 3404 1,06,743 2330
2005-06 94 2362 54,432 2481
2006-07 15 494 0 2928
2007-08 53 3979 4,93,061 3930
2008-09 13 6598 1,73,435 3456
2009-10 5 7756 1,03,556 3182
2010-11 26 - 57,126 3100
2011-12 26 - 1,41,448 3030
2012-13 27 - 55,529 1934
2013-14 26 - 80,583 2576
2014-15 25 - 74,435 2125
2015-16 - - 35,986 942
2016-17 - - 2,359 594
2017-18 - - 39,847 760
2018-19 - - 16,636 769
Total 21,93,579 38,202
Source: OGD Platform India, 2020.

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*Area approved for advance soil work/preparatory plantations during the year for all ongoing FDA
projects.
** Total (financial assistance provided during the year for planting, advance soil work and maintenance)
for all ongoing FDA projects.

3.8.7 Other Initiatives

3.8.7.1 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA),
2005
MGNREGA, enacted in 2005, is the foundation for MGNREGS which serves as the
means to implement the Act. MGNREGS is one of the world’s largest social security
programmes with an investment of INR 480 billion during 2017-18. The bulk of the
MGNREGS activities are focused on natural resources such as land, water and trees.
Thus, it provides an opportunity for carbon sequestration, as a co-benefit. A study by
the Indian Institute of Science estimated the carbon sequestration achieved by
MGNREGS programme in 2017-18. The total mean carbon (biomass and soil organic
carbon) sequestered at the national level, considering all the Agro-Ecological Regions
(AER) and Natural Resource Management (NRM) activities, for the year 2017-18 (for
cumulative number of works implemented) is estimated to be 62 MtCO 2. Among the
NRM works, ‘Drought Proofing’ provides about 40% of the total carbon sequestration,
considering all NRM works at the national level (IISc, 2020).

3.8.7.2 Nagar Van Scheme

On the occasion of the World Environment Day (5 June 2020) the government had
announced implementation of the Nagar Van Scheme or Urban Forests Scheme to
develop 200 Urban Forests across the country in next five years with a renewed focus
on people’s participation and collaboration between Forest Department, Municipal
bodies, NGOs, corporates and local citizens. CAMPA has been allocated for financing
Nagar Van or Urban Forests scheme. Following are the objectives under this scheme:

 To create 200 city forests in the country across cities with Municipal Councils.
 To create awareness on plants and biodiversity.
 Conservation education on important flora and fauna of the region including
threat perception.
 Ecological rejuvenation of the cities- forests the green lungs will contribute to
Environmental improvement of cities by reduction of pollution levels, cleaner air,
noise reduction, water harvesting and reduction of heat islands effect.
 In-situ biodiversity conservation.
 Health benefits to citizens.
 Making cities climate resilient.

The Government will provide a one-time fund allocation supporting development and
nonrecurring expenditure to the concerned agency in the selected cities for creation
of a city forest. Cities' authorities will be encouraged to have a City Forest comprising

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area up to 100 ha in forest areas within their jurisdiction for deriving maximum
ecological and environmental benefits. The minimum area should not be less than 20
ha. The outcome of the scheme will be carefully monitored to characterize and quantify
GHG and air pollution reduction benefits in various air sheds.

3.8.7.3 Pradhan Mantri Van Dhan Yojana

Pradhan Mantri Van Dhan Yojana is an initiative targeting livelihood generation for
tribals by harnessing the wealth of forest. The programme aims to tap into traditional
knowledge & skill sets of tribals by adding technology & IT to upgrade it at each stage
and to convert the tribal wisdom into a viable economic activity through value added
products. This initiative was taken up by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA) and Tribal
Cooperative Marketing Development Federation (TRIFED), and the scheme was
launched on 14 April 2018 (PIB, 2020h). The initiative aims to provide enhanced
livelihood to 4.5 million tribal gatherers in one year. A Market Linked Tribal
Entrepreneurship Development Program for forming clusters of tribal SHGs and
strengthening them into Tribal Producer Companies (TPC) has been launched with
participation from 27 States. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has approved the Van Dhan
Scheme Guidelines on 26 February 2019, while the scheme is to be implemented by
TRIFED. Nearly INR 1,000 million have been sanctioned in 2019 for setting up 676
Van Dhan Vikas Kendras (VDVKs) in 18 States covering 2,00,740 beneficiaries for
livelihood generation. The VDVKs will provide capacity building training and skill
upgradation and value addition facility and setting up of primary processing. The
VDVKs will be a significant milestone in financial development of tribals involved in the
collection of Minor Forest Produce (MFPs) by helping them in the best use of natural
resources and provide sustainable MFP-based living in MFP-rich districts. Under this
scheme, TRIFED has conducted two national level advocacy workshops and 5 state
level advocacy workshops. TRIFED is also developing robust web-based IT platform
and mobile application for data collection, tracking, and monitoring of all the activities
(MoTA, 2019).
3.8.7.4 Telangana Ku Haritha Haram
This is a flagship programme of the Telangana Government that envisages increase
of the present 24 per cent tree cover to 33 per cent of the total geographical area of
the State. This programme was launched in 2015-16. The target was to plant 2,300
million saplings in three years. Total area under block plantation achieved is 36,657.93
ha. The number of plants planted from 2016-2019 is 1127.97 million (GoT, 2019).
3.8.7.5 Maharashtra Harit Sena/ Green Army
Maharashtra State Forest Department has initiated the ‘Maharashtra Harit Sena’/
‘Green Army’ which is a body of dedicated volunteers to participate in the plantation,
protection, and other activities in forest, wildlife, and related sectors round the year.
State Forest Department had set the target of planting 40 million, 130 million and 330
million saplings in the three consecutive years viz. 2017, 2018 and 2019. Under this

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mission, 500 million saplings planting target had been fixed for the period 2017-2019.
For the year 2018, against the target of 130 million saplings, 158.87 million saplings
were planted. For 2019 target of 330 million saplings, 167.67 million saplings have
been planted by February 2020 (GoM, 2020a; GoM, 2020b).
3.8.7.6 Tripura Forest Environmental Improvement and Poverty Alleviation Project
(TFIPAP)
This is an externally funded project from Japan International Co-operation Agency
(JICA) with cost of 7,725 million Japanese Yen (JPY). The objective of the project is
to restore degraded forests and improve the livelihood aspects of villagers, including
tribal families engaged in traditional shifting cultivation, and promoting sustainable
forest management through JFM, thereby improving the environment and alleviating
poverty. Around 61,754 ha have been afforested and 8,533 ha have been brought
under agroforestry. Over 2,504 check-dams of different configurations have been also
laid for soil and water conservation. Plantation of broom grass, black cardamom and
gandhaki has been undertaken for forest-based Income Generating Activities (IGA).
3.8.7.7 Bonn Challenge and India

A 2010 study undertaken by IUCN and World Resources Institute (WRI) produced a
World of Opportunity Map, which found that globally there was more than two billion
ha of degraded land offering opportunities for restoration. In September 2011, at a
high-level event co-hosted by the German Ministry of the Environment and IUCN, the
2020 Bonn Challenge target was launched by leaders from around the world. The
Bonn Challenge is a global effort to bring 150 million ha of deforested and degraded
land into restoration by 2020 and 350 million ha by 2030 at the New York Declaration
on Forests of the 2014 UN Climate Summit. Government of India made a Bonn
Challenge pledge in 2015 at Bonn, Germany to bring under restoration 13 million ha
of degraded land by 2020 and an additional 8 million ha by 2030 (ICFRE, 2020).

Government schemes are often implemented with a bottom-up joint forest

management approach, with local communities playing a key role in Bonn Challenge.
Private companies and non-governmental organisations may operate at smaller
scales yet have the expertise at their disposal that can influence the success of these
restoration efforts (IUCN, 2018).

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In total 9.81 million ha of area was brought under restoration across India (from 2011
to 2016-17). Out of the total restoration efforts carried out across the country, 94.4 per
cent (92,64,976 ha) was by government agencies, 3.6 per cent (3,52,667.9 ha) by
NGOs and 2 per cent (1,93,290.3 ha) by private companies. Afforestation and
reforestation activities/programmes carried out under Twenty Point Programme, NAP
and GIM, were covered under restoration efforts made by government agencies.
Some other relevant schemes and programmes which include National Agroforestry
Policy, NBM, National Green Highways Mission, National Mission for a Clean Ganga,
Nagar Van Yojana. are all included under the umbrella of the Twenty Point Programme
to achieve the restoration targets of Bonn Challenge.

Figure 3.9: Restoration efforts by three leading agencies

Moreover, as part of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), 11 private companies

have taken up restoration efforts in degraded areas. Out of the total restored area,
97.4 per cent is covered under mono plantation model (cash crops) and the remaining
under mixed plantation model (exotic species). NGOs play a small but active role in
restoration of degraded lands, including unique and threatened ecosystems such as
grasslands and mangroves. Out of total restored area by NGOs, 91.5 per cent
(3,22,610.9 ha) was restored by mixed plantation model, and a total of 30,067 ha (8.5
per cent) was restored using mono plantation model. Underlying the Bonn Challenge
is the Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) approach, which aims to restore ecological
integrity at the same time as improving human well-being through multifunctional
landscapes. Moreover, it is a practical means of realising many existing international
commitments which includes CBD Aichi Target 15, the UNFCCC REDD+ goal, and
the Rio+20 land degradation neutrality goal (IUCN, 2018). FLR has the potential to
generate significant biodiversity benefits including restoration to re-establish
connections between habitats apart from increasing habitat extent and quality. It has
major potential as a climate mitigation mechanism through carbon storage. Economics
of Land Degradation Initiative (ELDI) estimated that sustainable land management
globally could create an additional 2.3 billion tonne of crop production per year worth

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approximately USD 1.4 trillion, thus addressing the prevalent food crisis (ELDI, 2020).
This will create approximately USD 84 billion per year in net benefits that could bring
direct additional income opportunities for rural communities (ICFRE, 2020).
Initiatives by PSUs and Private Sector

With the advent of social forestry, a promotional drive was launched for tree planting
in wastelands, institutional lands and non-forest public and private lands. Many tree
farming and agroforestry enterprises have sprung up all over the country and they are
performing an important role as suppliers of forest raw material as well as market
products (fuelwood, poles, small timber and bamboo). Currently various
schemes/programmes have encouraged private agencies to participate in mitigation
activities of the forestry sector of India. There is a growing realization now a days of
the private sector to play a greater role in forestry sector.

The GIM mission document promoted a massive program for forestry on non-forest
lands with participation of the community, farmers, NGOs, private sector, institutions,
government agencies and the Forest Department. It also supported a dedicated
program for nurseries aimed at raising “quality seedlings” to meet the demands of
farmers which also facilitates transportation to villages to ensure available supply in
an energy efficient manner. Quality Seedling Production (QSP) and transportation
could be taken up by the private sector/farmers/women’s SHGs on a competitive
basis, with backup support from the Forest Department, research institutions and
private sector agencies currently engaged in this field.

Coal/lignite PSUs have not only enhanced their production level over the years to meet
the rising energy demand, but have also shown their sensitivity and care towards
native environment by adopting various mitigation measures including reclamation of
mined out areas and extensive plantation in and around coal bearing areas.
Coal/lignite PSUs have brought 54,500 ha land under green cover by plantation of
about 132 million trees thus creating carbon sink of about 0.27 MtCO2 equivalent per
year. PSUs have envisaged to bring about 20,000 ha of additional area (in and around
coalfields) under plantation by 2030 involving plantation of about 50 million trees
(MoC, 2020). Since inception, Coal India Limited (CIL) has planted around 99.6 million
trees in an area of 39,842 ha till March 2020. In the present fiscal, around 800 ha of
affected area is planned to be brought under green cover. These efforts not only lead
to improved environment and enriched biodiversity but also create an effective carbon
sink. In addition to this, CIL has developed 23 ecoparks/mine ecotourism projects till
2019-20 and has also planned to develop 10 new mine ecotourism projects, along with
another 5 expansion mine ecotourism projects in the current fiscal.

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3.9 Waste sector

The waste sector contributed 2.65 per cent to India’s GHG emissions (without
LULUCF) in 2016. Waste sector emissions mainly cover waste management activities
such as solid waste disposal and wastewater treatment and discharge. In order to
manage waste efficiently, government has significantly invested in solid waste
management (SWM) programmes.
The current focus of the GoI is on the rapid expansion and modernization of sanitation
facilities and waste management infrastructure in general. These are indispensable
for future mitigation in the waste sector. India recognizes the dual benefits that can
arise from efficient waste disposal leading to enhanced environmental benefits along
with initiatives promoting conversion of waste to energy.

3.9.1 Waste management regulatory landscape

For efficient waste management, specific laws for different types of wastes have been
enacted and amended from time to time to accommodate the changing environmental
conditions. These are:
 Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989.
 Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling & Transboundary Movement)
Rules, 2016 (This supersedes 2008 version).
 Fly Ash Notification 1999, amended in 2016.
 E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 (This supersedes 2015 version).
 Bio-medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2016 (This supersedes
1998 version).
 Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016.
 Municipal Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016 (This supersedes 2000
notification).
 Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2018 (This
supersedes 2011 and 2016 versions).
Recently, the MoEFCC released the Draft Battery Waste Management Rules, 2020.
The Draft Rules seek to replace the Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules,
2001, which provide details for handling and management of batteries under the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

3.9.2 Plastic Waste Management (PWM)

Approximately 3.3 million metric tonne of plastic waste is generated every year (CSE,
2020). Average plastic waste generation is approximately 6.92 per cent of Municipal
Solid Waste (CPCB, 2018). MoEFCC notified the PWM Rules in 2016 which detail the
improved waste management system, a part of the framework of “Extended Producer
Responsibility” (EPR). EPR framework focusses on minimization of plastic waste by
segregating plastic waste at source and involving informal sectors such as waste

264
pickers, recyclers and waste processors. Responsibility of the waste
generators/producers/brand owner for efficient management of plastic waste was
detailed. A Guideline Document: Uniform Framework for EPR under PWM Rules,
2016 was released by the Ministry in June 2020. The Amendment to the Plastic Waste
Management (PWM) Rules 2018, inter alia provided details on registration of
Producers/Brand Owners and defined the term alternate use under PWM Rules.
3.9.3 Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
 In AMRUT Mission for 500 Class-I cities approved by GoI, one of the eligible
components is sewerage and sewage treatment plants, including recycling and
re-use of wastewater (MoJS, 2016).
 The Mission focuses on a healthy and green environment for citizens and
promoting use of non-motorized urban transport with the expected outcome of
increased amenity values of cities by developing greenery and well-maintained
open spaces which are child and elderly friendly, featured in all Mission cities.
Efficient public transport or constructing facilities for non-motorized transport.
 Against the total planned size of INR 7,76,400 million of all the SAAPs, INR
14,360 million (2 per cent) was for non-motorized urban transport
 Construction of the components of non-motorized transport such as sidewalks,
foot over bridges, multilevel parking.

3.9.4 Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)

One of the implementation components of this flagship programme is SWM which
includes setting up of wet waste processing facilities (municipal waste to compost,
waste to biogas), and dry waste recycle and recovery facilities including for plastic
waste, with Central support of 35 per cent of project cost (MoHUA, 2020a). The
estimated potential to generate power from MSW is about 500 MW which would be
increased to 1,075 MW by 2031, as urbanisation grows (UNCRD, 2018).
Indian Railways (IR) had earlier set a target to fit bio-toilets in the entire fleet of
coaches by the year 2021-22. This target was achieved earlier than planned. All
passenger carrying BG coaches, from April 2020 onwards, are fitted with bio-toilets
and direct discharge of human waste from trains has thus been eliminated in line with
Swachh Bharat Mission. More than 2,45,400 bio-toilets have been installed in about
68,800 passenger coaches by IR until June 2020.

3.9.5 Programme on Energy from Urban, Industrial and Agricultural

Wastes/Residues
NTPC Limited has commissioned 24 TPD thermal gasification based demonstration
scale Waste to Energy (WtE) plants at Varanasi to support technology development
in India. The MSW is first converted to producer gas, which is then used to generate
approximately 200 kW of electric power. Further, NTPC Limited has also signed in
principle MoU with Surat and East Delhi Municipal Corporations, Varanasi Municipal
Corporation (VMC) and Indore Municipal Corporation (IMC) for setting up state-of-the-

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art WtE plants. The plants at Varanasi and Indore shall be based on conversion of
MSW to torrified charcoal, which has high GCV and can be used in power plants along
with coal (MoP, 2020a).
A total of 216 WtE plants with aggregate capacity of 370.45 MWeq. have been set up
in the country to generate power or biogas/biomethane or Bio-CNG from agricultural,
urban, industrial and municipal solid wastes (MNRE, 2020a). The 'SATAT'
(Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation) scheme for Compressed
Bio Gas (CBG) in transportation and other usage was launched on 1 October 2018,
which envisages production of 15 MMT of CBG from 5,000 plants by 2023 (PIB,
2020k).

Table 3.37: State/UT-wise number and installed capacity WtE plants set up in the country, as
on 31 August 2020

Installed total WtE production capacity Number of WtE plants

States
(MWeq)
Andhra Pradesh 51.4 25
Bihar 1.0 1
Chhattisgarh 0.4 2
Delhi 52.0 3
Goa 0.3 1
Gujarat 21.6 21
Haryana 6.1 6
Himachal Pradesh 1.0 1
Karnataka 14.6 11
Kerala 0.2 1
Madhya Pradesh 20.3 11
Maharashtra 44.8 30
Punjab 18.2 13
Rajashtan 3.8 3
Tamil Nadu 24.1 35
Telangana 49.9 11
Uttar Pradesh 50.2 29
Uttarakhand 9.2 10
West Bengal 1.2 2
Grand Total 370.45 216
Source: MNRE, 2020a.

3.10 Relevant international comparisons

As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, it is necessary to provide a global
comparative context to India’s contribution to climate change mitigation as warming of
anthropogenic origin is indeed a global collective action problem. Hence, no individual
national contribution can be adequately described without taking stock of its
commitment and responsibilities under the Convention, and other Protocols and
Agreements under it, flowing from Article 3.1 of the Convention. Further, in this regard,
the following may be noted.

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India’s cumulative CO2 emissions are much lower, compared to other countries in
proportion to its population, and India has used a much lower share of the global
carbon budget with respect to its population. The total global non-LULUCF emissions
(of all GHGs) between 1850 and 1989 are estimated to be about 1,288 GtCO2eq
(Gütschow et al., 2019b). Between 1990 and 2017 the world emitted another 1,053
GtCO2 eq. According to IPCC Special Report on 1.5oC Global Warming, for a 50 per
cent probability of limiting temperature rise to below 1.5oC, the world has a remaining
carbon budget from 2018 (referring to the allowed cumulative emissions of all GHGs,
both non-LULUCF and LULUCF, from 2018 to the year of net zero GHG emissions)
of about 480 GtCO2eq. For a 50 per cent probability of limiting temperature rise to
below 2oC, the world has a remaining carbon budget of about 1,400 GtCO2eq (Rogelj
et al., 2019). Table 3.38 shows the per capita fair shares based on equal per capita
division of the global carbon budget (with reference to populations in 2018), and actual
emissions of select countries between 1850 and 2017. The difference between actual
emissions and the fair shares of the global carbon budget of the major economies,
shows quite clearly that only India has emitted less than its fair share in both time
periods, 1850 to 1990 (before the adoption of the UNFCCC) and 1990 to 2017 (after
the adoption of the UNFCCC).
Table 3.38: Per capita fair shares based on equal per capita division of the global carbon
budget
Fair share of Actual Fair share of Actual
global carbon emissions global carbon emissions
budget between between 1850 budget between between 1990
1850 and 1989 and 1989 1990 and 2017 and 2017
[GtCO2eq] [GtCO2eq] [GtCO2eq] [GtCO2eq]
USA 56 380 46 192
Germany 14 82 12 29
Japan 22 36 18 38
Russian Federation 25 91 20 59
China 238 77 194 211
Brazil 36 16 29 23
India 230 45 188 51
World 1288 1288 1053 1053
Source: Data extracted from Gütschow et al., 2019a, 2019b.

Despite its far lower historical responsibility and the significant challenges it faces in
terms of meeting its developmental requirements, India is already contributing
significantly to climate change mitigation as detailed in this chapter.

To adequately assess India’s effort, we note that the reduction in annual GHG
emissions of the non-EIT Annex-I Parties from 1990 to 2018 is only 1.5 per cent
without LULUCF emissions and 3.1 per cent with LULUCF emissions according to the
report of the Subsidiary Body on Implementation (SBI) on “Compilation and synthesis
of Fourth Biennial Reports of Parties included in Annex I to the Convention” (SBI,
2020). According to the same report, GHG emissions of Annex-I parties as a whole

267
decreased by 12.5 per cent, excluding LULUCF and by 16.6 per cent including
LULUCF between 1990 and 2018. The report also says that the emissions in 2020 of
the non-EIT Parties are likely to actually rise 0.4 per cent over 1990 levels. The
reduction in emissions of Annex-I parties therefore is highly inadequate compared to
the recommended levels of emissions reductions in the Fourth Assessment Report
(AR4) of the IPCC which stated that they were required to reduce emissions by 25-40
per cent by 2020 with respect to 1990 levels (Gupta et. al., 2007).
India’s per capita consumption of fossil fuels is also one of the lowest among the major
economies.
Table 3.39: Per capita fossil fuel consumption
Per capita fossil fuel Coal consumption Natural gas consumption Oil consumption
Consumption (2018) (tonne per capita) (cu.m. per capita) (tonne per capita)
USA 1.91 0.59 2.37
Germany 2.62 1.12 1.14
Australia 4.52 1.84 1.96
UK 0.20 1.20 0.89
China 2.70 0.20 0.42
India 0.73 0.04 0.16
Source: IEA, 2018.

With respect to its NDCs under the Paris Agreement, India is acknowledged to be one
of the few countries on track to fulfilling its commitment according to several
independent tracking initiatives (CAT, 2020). Despite the large developmental
challenges before the country and relatively lower per capita income, India is still doing
much more than its fair share to mitigate climate change.
While India is committed to contributing its fair share to the mitigation of climate
change, it must be emphasized that India will need to depend on coal into the future
for some time. The timeline for this phase will be aligned to India’s requirements of fair
access to the global carbon budget. India is a large country, home to more than 17
per cent of the world's population. To build infrastructure and ensure employment and
development for all, India would need to augment industrial capacity and further
mechanize agricultural production. This requires energy and India's energy
consumption is therefore likely to increase substantially in the future.
While the GoI is doing its utmost to maximise use of renewable energy technologies,
as discussed in detail in this chapter, this transition is not easy. This is on account of
both technical and financial constraints. Supporting industrial production using
renewable energy requires dependence on energy storage technologies. It also
renders grid management more difficult given the diversity of energy sources in the
country, their spatial distribution and the widely varying requirements of different
states. Unlike many other nations, especially those whose energy requirements are
similar to or higher than India’s, we do not have domestic reserves of oil and natural
gas which can substitute for coal in the short or medium term. The transition to
renewable energy therefore is more challenging in the Indian context, necessitating

268
coal use for the foreseeable future even as the country explores a way for transition
to a clean energy system in a just and equitable manner2.
India’s performance on the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI)

The CCPI evaluates and compares the climate protection performance of 57 countries
and of the European Union (EU), which are together responsible for more than 90 per
cent of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In 2020, India, for the first time was
among the top ten in the year’s CCPI with a rank of 9. The current levels of per capita
emissions and energy use are still comparatively low and, along with ambitious 2030
targets, result in high ratings for the GHG Emissions and Energy. While India received
an overall medium rating in the Renewable Energy category, India’s 2030 renewable
energy target is rated very high for its well below 2°C compatibility.
The Climate Action Tracker (CAT) rates India’s existing target under the Paris
Agreement “2°C compatible”, as it is within the range of what is considered to be a
“2°C compatible” fair share of global effort, even while it allows the country’s total
emissions to increase.
3.11 Emission reduction during COVID-19
A study published in Nature Climate Change in July 2020 estimated that “daily global
CO2 emission decreased by –17 per cent (–11 to –25 per cent for ±1σ) by early April
2020 compared with the mean 2019 levels”. It also stated that at their peak, emissions
in individual countries decreased by –26 per cent on average (Le Quéré et al., 2020).
This decline is attributed to the response of Governments for the containment of
COVID-19 across the world. In India, a nation-wide lockdown was declared on 25
March 2020, but a few economic activities, especially in the transport sector, were
curtailed on 23 March 2020 in some regions of the country even before the nation-
wide lockdown came into effect. Another study by Carbon Brief estimated that India’s
CO2 emissions declined by 15 per cent year-on-year during March and are likely to
have declined by 30 per cent in the month of April (Myllyvirta and Dahiya, 2020).
The nation-wide lockdown lasted till the end of May 2020 with progressive relaxations
since then. The economic impact of India’s response to COVID-19 has been severe
as it has been in many other countries. In the first quarter of 2020-21, India’s GDP
contracted by over 23 per cent according to the estimates published by India’s National
Statistics Office. This has had a direct impact on India’s energy sector. In 2019-20
itself the growth in India’s energy supply dropped to less than 1 per cent. The sudden
drop in energy demand in the month of March in 2020, the last month of the fiscal year
2019-20, due to COVID-19, is responsible for this significant reduction in the growth
rate which was over 5 per cent in the previous year.

2 Refer to Tongia R. (2020) and Parikh (2014) for the assessment.

269
Throughout this period however, India has continued to implement its policies to
facilitate the supply of renewable energy. The renewable energy purchase obligations
for the distribution companies continue to remain in place despite the severe economic
situation in the sector. Other policies such as the “must run” status accorded to
renewable energy plants, which ensures that all the energy generated by these plants
is purchased by distribution utilities, continue to be implemented. This has resulted in
very low load factors for India’s thermal plants. On an average, only 48.5 per cent of
India’s total thermal capacity was utilised in the year 2020-21 (up to September 2020)
(CEA, 2020e). The decision to utilise more renewable energy and back down thermal
capacity even during the economic slowdown shows India’s commitment to
addressing climate change. This commitment is also substantial in monetary terms if
the high opportunity costs of renewable power due to the foregoing of thermal options
is taken into account. However, a full accounting of this extra cost incurred by India
during the pandemic cannot be immediately estimated and will require further
research. Furthermore, emission reductions observed in 2020 are likely to be
temporary and do not reflect structural changes in the economic, transport or energy
systems (Le Quéré et al., 2020).
3.12 Mitigation actions: nature, coverage, objectives,
methodologies, steps taken, results and emission reductions
achieved
In accordance with AWGCLA/2011/INF.13, information on Description of the mitigation
action, methodologies and assumptions, objectives of the action and steps taken or
envisaged, and Progress of implementation is provided in a set of Tables in the
following section:
 Energy (Table 3.40)
 Agriculture (Table 3.41)
 Forestry (Table 3.42)
 Transport (Table 3.43)

Tables that follow provide the annual estimates of GHG mitigated from some of the
major policies and programmes for the years 2015 and 2016. These tables are
indicative and non-exhaustive. Some other national level policies and programmes
that would have indirect mitigation benefits are mentioned in Chapter 6 (additional
information). Their mitigation contributions could not be estimated.

3
Framework Convention on Climate Change, Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under
the Convention, 18 March 2011

270
 Table 3.40: Energy Sector

Name of Coverage Coverage Objectives of the Quantitative Goal/ Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Results Relevant National
Description Nature
Mitigation Action (sector) (gases) Action Progress indicator Assumption achieved Mission/

The CO2 emission factor

(CO2EF) numbers are • As on September 30
the average carbon 2020, a total of 36.05 GW
content of the national Grid connected Solar
It emphasises on To create an power grid and have Power Projects have been
reducing the cost of enabling policy been obtained from commissioned.
To install 100 GW (60
solar generation by framework to make CEA. The total CO2 • Total cumulative
GW Solar PV and 40 National Action
National Solar extensive R&D, Renewable India a global leader saved during 2011- emission reductions from
Regulatory CO2 GW Solar Roof top) of Plan on Climate
Mission scaling up the energy in solar energy. 2016 has been grid connected solar power
solar capacity in India Change
project development To assist solar in estimated using the from 2014-15 till July 2018
by 2022.
and enabling policy attaining Grid parity following formula: is 60 MtCO2e. The solar
environment by 2022. target of 100 GW is
Total CO2 saved = expected to abate over
Electricity generation 170 MtCO2 over its life
from solar × baseline cycle.
CO2 emission factor
During 2019-20, only 4
States, namely Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka,
Ministry of Power Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu
notified RPO have achieved RPOs in The Electricity Act
A certain minimum
trajectory for solar and Many states have been full. Seven States, namely 2003, National
percentage of power
non-solar till 2021-22. setting their respective Gujarat, Mizoram, Tariff Policy 2016,
needs to be Economic, Renewable To promote
Renewable Both RPO till 2021-22 state yearly RPO target Nagaland, Madhya National Action
purchased, by the fiscal, sector at the renewables and
Purchase to reach 10.5 per cent in line with the national Pradesh, Telangana, Plan on Climate
utilities and some Obligatory country CO2 energy security
Obligation (RPO) each totalling to 21 agenda. Dadar & Nagar Haveli, and Change (NAPCC)
large power action level;
per cent (MNRE, Maharashtra have 2008
consumers, from the
2020). achieved more than 55 per
renewable sources.
cent RPO compliance.
Remaining States/UTs
have achieved less than
55 per cent RPO
compliance.

271
 Name of Coverage Coverage Objectives of the Quantitative Goal/ Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Results Relevant National
Description Nature
Mitigation Action (sector) (gases) Action Progress indicator Assumption achieved Mission/

The CO2EF has been

obtained from CEA. The
total CO2 saved during As on 30 September 2020
Deployment of 60 GW 2011-2016 has been installed capacity of wind
To catalyse
by 2022 and estimated using the energy was 38.12 GW. National Action
Target of 60 GW Renewable commercialization of
Wind Energy Regulatory CO2 cumulative 450 GW following formula: Wind power source has led Plan on Climate
wind power by 2022. energy grid interactive wind
renewable energy by to an emission reduction of Change
power.
2030. Total CO2 saved = 188.08 MtCO2 during
Electricity generation 2014-15 to July 2018.
from wind × baseline
CO2 emission factor
MNRE has been
vested with the The CO2 EF has been
The present installed
responsibility of obtained from CEA. The
capacity of power projects
developing Small total CO2 saved during
based on Biomass
Hydro Power (SHP) Deployment of 15 GW 2011-2016 has been
Other Renewables Small Hydro Power, combustion is 10.31 GW
projects up to 25 by 2022 and estimated using the National Action
(Biomass, Renewable Bagasse and as on September 2020
MW station Regulatory CO2, CH4 cumulative 450 GW following formula: Total Plan on Climate
Bagasse and energy Biomass based
capacities. The renewable energy by CO2 saved = cumulative Change
Other) power This has led to an
estimated potential 2030. generation from
emission reduction of 92.5
for power generation biomass, bagasse and
MtCO2 from 2014-15 to
in the country from other × baseline CO2
July 2018.
such plants is about emission factor
20,000 MW.
It has led to an emission
By the end of 2013, The CO2 emission factor
reduction of 889 MtCO2e
each of the country's has been obtained from
during 2008-2017. The
five regional grids Under Ujwal Discom CEA. The total CO2
average percentage of
was interconnected Assurance Yojana saved during 2011-2016
inter-state transmission
to operate at a (UDAY) scheme, it is has been estimated
Reduction in losses occurred during
T&D Losses synchronous Power targeted to reduce using the following Central Electricity
Economic CO2 transmission and January 2016 to December
reduction frequency in an sector Aggregate Technical formula: Total CO2 Authority
distribution losses 2018 is in the range of
effort to transfer & Commercial saved = Total electricity
2.02 per cent to 4.16 per
power from (AT&C) losses to 15 generation × T&D loss
cent. Emission reductions
generation sources per cent by 2018-19. reduction for current
of 7.99 MtCO2 for 2015
to load centres more year from previous year
and 6.07 MtCO2 for 2016
efficiently. × Grid emission factor
achieved.

272
 Name of Coverage Coverage Objectives of the Quantitative Goal/ Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Results Relevant National
Description Nature
Mitigation Action (sector) (gases) Action Progress indicator Assumption achieved Mission/

Enhancement of Total CO2 saved = Total

energy efficiency electricity generation It is estimated that
through Supercritical To reduce the from supercritical power approximately 53.708 National Mission
To improve thermal
Supercritical technology. Only 1 Energy emission for each plants X (emission factor MtCO2 has been avoided for Enhanced
Economic CO2 efficiency and reduce
Power Generation per cent rise in efficiency kWh of electricity of subcritical power plant by September 2020 due to Energy Efficiency
CO2 emissions
efficiency reduces generated – emission factor of commissioning of super- (NMEEE)
CO2 emission by 2-3 supercritical power critical coal power plants
per cent. plant)

A total of 366.85 million

The CO2 emission
LEDs distributed till
To promote efficient Replacement of reduction value per unit
Unnat Jyoti by November 2020. It has led National Mission
Energy lighting, reducing conventional domestic has been taken from
UJALA Affordable LEDs for Mitigation CO2 to a cumulative emission on Enhanced
efficiency energy consumption lights with LED lights UJALA dashboard of
All reduction of 178.36 MtCO2 Energy Efficiency
and energy savings. across India Ministry of Power,
from 2014-15 to November
Government of India.
2020.
Savings from
Programme covers the different appliances
26 appliances of are evaluated by
which 10 appliances multiplying the sales Overall energy savings of
are under the volumes of the 301 billion units from 2007
mandatory regime. respective star rating to 2018, the equivalent
Ensuring worst Labelling for variable with the energy saving avoided generation is
performing products capacity air potential i.e. Sales approximately 74 GW
are removed from conditioners and Replacement of Volume x (Baseline during this period.
the market, while LED bulbs was made conventional energy consumption of National Mission
Standards and Energy
labels encourage CO2 mandatory appliances and the appliance – energy on Enhanced
Labelling (S&L) efficiency The energy saving
consumers to in January 2018. A corresponding energy consumption of the star Energy Efficiency
purchase recent inclusion to savings rated appliance sold). achieved under the
increasingly more the list of appliances Energy saving was scheme in the year 2018-
efficient products. was the Deep freezer calculated considering 19 amounts to 55.7 billion
and Light the sales of the units translating to an
Commercial Air appliance on quarterly abatement of 45.67
Conditioner (LCAC) basis using standard MtCO2e emissions.
under voluntary annual operating hours
scheme. defined by BEE.
Emission reductions

273
 Name of Coverage Coverage Objectives of the Quantitative Goal/ Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Results Relevant National
Description Nature
Mitigation Action (sector) (gases) Action Progress indicator Assumption achieved Mission/

were estimated using

the following formula:

Energy saved (MWh) X

grid emission factor
(tCO2/MWh)

Till September 2020 over

Deployment of LED
more than 11.25 million
street-lights that are The CO2 emission LED streetlights have been
approximately 50 reduction value per unit
To promote efficient Replacement of installed. The programme
per cent more has been taken from National Mission
Energy lighting, reducing conventional street has led to a cumulative
SLNP energy efficient than Mitigation CO2 SLNP dashboard of on Enhanced
efficiency energy consumption lights in India with energy savings of 18,071
incandescent bulbs Ministry of Power, Energy Efficiency
and energy savings Smart LED variants MU and emission
and High-Pressure Government of India. reduction of 14.82 MtCO2
Sodium (HPS)
generated from 2015-16 to
lighting.
2019-20.

A market-based
In order to calculate the
mechanism to
reduction in the total
facilitate energy
CO2 emission, Fuel-mix
efficiency An energy savings Total energy savings of
To reduce specific for each PAT sector is
improvements in target of 11.20 Mtoe 13.28 Mtoe achieved in National Mission
Energy energy consumption considered. Post that
PAT scheme large energy- Mitigation CO2 was given during the PAT cycle –II and total on Enhanced
efficiency in energy- intensive following assumptions
intensive industries second PAT cycle emission reduction of Energy Efficiency
industries. (2016-2019) were taken for calorific
and facilities, by about 61.34 MtCO2.
values, density of
issuing energy
respective fuels and CO2
saving certificates
conversion factors
that can be traded.
Building energy efficiency
Large scale To reduce cost and The value of CO2 projects completed in
transformation to energy consumption, Retrofitting of EE emissions saved has 10,344 buildings including National Mission
Energy Efficient
retrofit commercial Energy and significantly appliances in large been taken from BEEP Railway stations and for Enhanced
Buildings Mitigation CO2
buildings in India efficiency contribute to government/ private Dashboard, Ministry of Airports till May 2020. It Energy Efficiency
Programme
into energy efficient management of peak buildings Power, Government of has led to a cumulative (NMEEE)
complexes demand. India emission reduction of 0.36
MtCO2.

274
 Name of Coverage Coverage Objectives of the Quantitative Goal/ Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Results Relevant National
Description Nature
Mitigation Action (sector) (gases) Action Progress indicator Assumption achieved Mission/

Ministry of Power,
GoI launched Ujwal The CO2EF has been
1. Financial The average percentage of
DISCOM Assurance obtained from CEA. The
Turnaround inter-state transmission
Yojana (UDAY) total CO2 saved during
2. Operational losses occurred during
which was approved Target at the end of 2011-2016 has been
improvement January 2016 to December
by Union Cabinet on UDAY period estimated using the National Mission
3. Reduction in cost 2018 is in the range of
Ujwal DISCOM 5 November, 2015. Power AT&C loss target - 15 following formula: Total for Enhanced
Economic CO2 of generation of 2.02 per cent to 4.16 per
Assurance Yojana It envisages sector per cent CO2 saved = Total Energy Efficiency
power cent.
Financial & ACS - ARR gap target electricity generation × (NMEEE)
4. Development of The reduction in losses
Operational - zero T&D loss reduction for
Renewable Energy have led to an emission
Turnaround of current year from
5. Energy efficiency reduction of 889 MtCO2
Power Distribution previous year × Grid
& conservation during 2008-2017.
Utilities (DISCOMs) emission factor
of the country.
Under Saubhagya Providing Solar
Providing last mile
free electricity Photovoltaic (SPV)
connectivity and
connections to all based standalone
electricity
Pradhan Mantri households (both system for un-electrified From October 2017 till National Mission
connections to all un-
Sahaj Bijli Har APL and poor Power households located in November 2019, over for Enhanced
Mitigation CO2 electrified Households electrified
Ghar Yojana – families) in rural Sector remote and inaccessible 99.93 per cent households Energy Efficiency
households in rural
Saubhagya areas and poor villages / habitations, electrified (NMEEE)
areas.
families in urban where grid extension is
areas will be not feasible or cost
provided. effective.
A total of 2.34 million EE
EESL provides BEE The CO2 emission
To promote efficient fans have been distributed
5 Star rated ceiling reduction value has
National Energy use of energy by Replacement of till November 2020, National Mission
fans which are 30 been taken from
Efficient Fan Energy increasing the use of conventional Ceiling leading to cumulative for Enhanced
per cent more Mitigation CO2 National PAVAN
Programme efficiency energy efficient Fans with Energy emissions reduction Energy
energy efficient as dashboard of Ministry of
(NEEFP) appliances at the Efficient fans between 2016-17 to Efficiency(NMEEE)
compared to Power, Government of
residential level. November 2020 of 0.686
conventional fans. India.
MtCO2.
EESL provides BEE To promote efficient A total of 7.2 million LED
The CO2 emission
5 Star rated tube use of energy by Replacement of tube lights have been National Mission
reduction value has
lights which are 50 Energy increasing the use of Regular tube lights distributed till November for Enhanced
LED Tube light Mitigation CO2 been taken from
per cent more efficiency energy efficient with BEE 5 Star rated 2020, leading to a Energy Efficiency
National Tube light
energy efficient as appliances at the tube lights cumulative emission (NMEEE)
dashboard of Ministry of
compared to residential level. reduction of 1.035 MtCO2

275
 Name of Coverage Coverage Objectives of the Quantitative Goal/ Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Results Relevant National
Description Nature
Mitigation Action (sector) (gases) Action Progress indicator Assumption achieved Mission/

conventional 40 W Power, Government of between 2016-17 and

tube lights. India. November 2020.

With the adoption of

ECBC 2017 for new
commercial building
construction throughout
The new code
the country, it is
reflects current and
estimated to achieve a
futuristic
50 per cent reduction in
advancements in Futuristic
energy use by 2030.
building technology, advancements in
This will translate to
Energy market changes, building technology 0.290 MtCO2 emission National Mission
It will achieve energy energy savings of about
Conservation and energy demand Energy to further reduce reduced till August 2020. for Enhanced
Mitigation CO2 savings of about 300 300 billion Units by 2030
Building Code scenario of the efficiency building energy (National Building Energy Efficiency
billion Units by 2030 and peak demand
2017 country, setting the consumption and Dashboard) (NMEEE)
reduction of over 15 GW
benchmark for promote low-carbon
in a year. This will be
Indian buildings to growth
equivalent to
be amongst some of
expenditure savings of
the most efficient
INR 350,000 million and
globally
250 MtCO2 reduction.
In 2018-19, this led to an
emission reduction of
0.033 MtCO2
Ag DSM promises To promote the usage Energy Savings: This is
EESL has installed 74,136
immense of energy efficient calculated by
To realize energy pumps. This has resulted
opportunity in agricultural pumpsets: considering the number
efficiency through in estimated energy
reducing the overall Haryana, Punjab, of pumps installed and
reduction in overall savings of 191 million kWh
power consumption, Kerala, Odisha, considering an overall
Agriculture power consumption, per year with avoided peak National Mission
improving Karnataka, efficiency factor of 30%
Demand Side Energy improving demand of 35 MW, GHG for Enhanced
efficiencies of Mitigation - Maharashtra, to calculate the energy
management efficiency efficiencies of emission reduction of 0.14 Energy Efficiency
groundwater Puducherry(UT), savings per pump. The
(AgDSM) groundwater MtCO2 per year and (NMEEE)
extraction and Uttarakhand, number of hours the
extraction, reducing estimated annual monetary
reducing the subsidy Himachal Pradesh pump is used per day
subsidy burden on savings of INR 960 million
burden of the states and Tamil Nadu and number of days the
state utilities. in consumer electricity
without sacrificing (above 3 star rated) pump is operational in a
bills.
the service made mandatory use year is assumed to be 6

276
 Name of Coverage Coverage Objectives of the Quantitative Goal/ Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Results Relevant National
Description Nature
Mitigation Action (sector) (gases) Action Progress indicator Assumption achieved Mission/

obligation to this of star labeled energy hours and 270 days

sector. efficient pumps sets respectively based on
(EEPS) for new ground surveys carried
agriculture out for AgDSM
connections. programme
implementation in
Andhra Pradesh.
Conducted nearly 210
CO2 emission savings:
number of training
In order to calculate the
and awareness
reduction in total CO2
programmes in 72
emission, conversion
Krishi Vigyan Kendras
factor of CO2 for
(KVKs) resulting in
electricity is considered
training and capacity
(1 MWh = 0.826 tCO2)
building of around
8,000 farmers

Overall Goals-
Energy Savings
Ministry of MSME-
Avoided CO2 Technology Centre
System Program
To improve energy emissions
Energy Use and
Government of India efficiency of SME Technology and
Technology Analysis
has been employing sector in India Monetary Savings Quality
several measures through accelerating Upgradation
Energy Efficiency Capacity building and
aimed at fostering a adoption of energy Intermediate Goals Support to Micro
in Small and Outreach awareness Total energy saving of
regime that could Energy Carbon efficient No. of clusters/sectors and Small
Medium Mitigation 0.022 Mtoe and emission
remove barriers for Efficiency in dioxide technologies, covered Enterprises
Enterprises Implementation of EE reduction of 0.124 MtCO2
accelerated MSMEs (CO2) knowledge sharing, Scheme (TEQUP)
(SMEs) sector measures in 2018-19.
technology up- capacity building and No. of and Credit Linked
grades focusing on development of technologies/pilot Capital Subsidy
Development of
energy efficiency financial of implementations Scheme (CLCSS)
Innovative Financing
and innovation innovative financial schemes of
Mechanisms
mechanisms. No. of people trained Ministry of Micro
Small and Medium
No. of knowledge Enterprises
materials developed

277
 Name of Coverage Coverage Objectives of the Quantitative Goal/ Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Results Relevant National
Description Nature
Mitigation Action (sector) (gases) Action Progress indicator Assumption achieved Mission/

No. of Energy Audits

carried out.

Investment made in
INR

Note: Data in the table above is mainly drawn from various dashboards maintained by respective ministries, departments and agencies. These dashboards are in various stages
of development thus may have potential uncertainties. Reducing these requires further research and capacity building in various sectors of the economy.

278
 Table 3.41: Agriculture Sector

Name of
Coverage Coverage Quantitative Goal/ Steps taken/ and Relevant
Mitigation Description Nature Objectives of the Action Methodology/ Assumption
(sector) (gases) Progress indicator Results achieved National Mission/
Action
1. The SRI method of
cultivation is being
promoted in 313
This activity is a
districts in India. National Food
part of National Methane emission reductions Area covered under SRI
Adaptation 2. The SRI technique Security Mission
Food Security Water conservation, due to SRI method of in 2017-18 and 2018-19
System of with has potential to (NFSM) and
Mission (NFSM) reduction in production cultivation were estimated as is 85,863 ha.
Rice mitigation Agriculture CH4 enhance rice yield Bringing Green
and Bringing Green costs, reduction in reported by Jain et al. (2013). It has led to reduction of
Intensification co- ranging from 36-49 Revolution to
Revolution to emissions The N2O emissions were not 0.0248 MtCO2e in 2017-
benefits per cent with about Eastern India
Eastern India considered. 18 and 2018-19.
22-35 per cent less (BGREI)
(BGREI)
water than
conventional
transplanted rice.
DSR system reduces methane
This activity is a
emissions and moderately National Food
part of National Area covered under DSR
Adaptation Water conservation, do enhances the nitrous oxide Security Mission
Food Security in 2017-18 and 2018-19
Direct with away with rising of emissions. We considered both (NFSM) and
Mission (NFSM) Area covered under is 99,964 ha.
Seeded Rice mitigation Agriculture CH4 nurseries, puddling and while calculating the emission Bringing Green
and Bringing Green DSR It has led to reduction of
(DSR) co- transplanting, reduction in reductions and the values as Revolution to
Revolution to 0.099 MtCO2e in 2017-
benefits emissions reported by Pathak et al. (2012) Eastern India
Eastern India 18 and 2018-19.
were used for emission (BGREI)
(BGREI)
reductions.
1. To divert the area of
water guzzling paddy to
alternate crops like pulses,
oilseeds, maize, cotton and
It has led to an emission
agroforestry with the The avoided methane
The programme is reduction of 0.0388
Adaptation objective of tackling the emissions due to diversion of
being implemented paddy to other crops were MtCO2e during 2017-18.
Crop with problem of declining soil The extent of area
in the states of quantified. Reduction in Total 81,816 ha of area Rashtriya Krishi
Diversification mitigation Agriculture CH4 fertility and depleting water diversified from paddy
Punjab, Haryana methane emissions as reported shifted from paddy to Vikas Yojana
Programme co- table. to alternate crops by Jain et al. (2013) were used
and Uttar Pradesh other crops in 2017-18
benefits 2. To demonstrate and for quantification of emission
since 2013-14. and 2018-19.
promote improved reductions.
production technologies of
alternate crops for
diversion of paddy
cultivation.

279
Name of
Coverage Coverage Quantitative Goal/ Steps taken/ and Relevant
Mitigation Description Nature Objectives of the Action Methodology/ Assumption
(sector) (gases) Progress indicator Results achieved National Mission/
Action
3. To restore soil fertility
through cultivation of
leguminous crops that
generate heavy biomass
and consume lesser
nutrients.
Methodological guidance for
calculation of emissions and
removals of CO2 by changes in
above-ground and below-
ground biomass on Land
Enhancing the production Converted to Forest Land of
of fruit 2019 IPCC Guidelines for
Centrally and vegetables in the National Greenhouse Gas
sponsored scheme country, strengthening inventories. The average
to promote holistic Adaptation nutritional security in the annual rate of carbon
Mission for It has led to an emission
growth of the with country, providing The area brought sequestration from literature.
Integrated removal of 108.96 MtCO2 Ministry of
horticulture sector mitigation Agriculture CO2 technology support for high under MIDH The quantity of carbon
Development in 2017-18. Agriculture
through an area co- value fruits and sequestered: multiplying the
of Horticulture
based regionally benefits vegetables, enhancing area with the annual rates of
differentiated water use efficiency and carbon sequestration. The
strategies. doubling the farm income below ground carbon pool was
by growing high value fruits estimated using the IPCC
and vegetables. default factor. Carbon content
of the above ground and below
ground biomass, same and the
soil carbon and the dead wood
and litter pools were not
considered
The quantum of methane
emission reduction due to
Improving animal
balanced ration is to the extent
Adaptation productivity as well in of 13.3 per cent (Garg et al.,
Optimum feeding of Ministry of
Balanced with reducing both, the cost of Animals covered 2012) (Garg et al., 2013). The It has led to an emission
animals through Fisheries, Animal
Ration for mitigation Livestock CH4 production and the under the Ration global warming potential of reduction of 0.0615
Ration Balancing Husbandry and
Livestock co- emission of greenhouse Balancing Programme methane was taken as 21 MtCO2e during 2017-18.
Programme (RBP) (SNC, 2012). Methane Dairying
benefits gases per unit of animal
product. emissions remains same
irrespective of the location and
the season.

280
Name of
Coverage Coverage Quantitative Goal/ Steps taken/ and Relevant
Mitigation Description Nature Objectives of the Action Methodology/ Assumption
(sector) (gases) Progress indicator Results achieved National Mission/
Action
The quantum in methane
reduction was estimated due to
Optimizing the use Adaptation feeding bypass proteins. The
Enhancing the income to
Feeding of protein with global warming potential of It has led to an emission
the farmers Bypass units Ministry of
bypass supplement within mitigation Livestock CH4 methane was taken as 21 reduction of 0.078
through increased established Agriculture
proteins the ruminant co- (SNC, 2012). Assumed as MtCO2e during 2017-18.
production methane emission reduction is
system benefits
same in all the animals due to
feeding bypass protein.
Farm equipment for timely
sowing during standing paddy
residues were made available
to the farmers. Farm machinery
Farm equipment for banks were also established to
During 2018-19 and
timely sowing during support crop sowing in standing
2019-20, 55,764 and
standing paddy residues and baling of paddy
56,398 crop residue
residues were made residues. Sub-Mission on
Adaptation management machines,
available to the Agricultural Mechanization Sub-Mission on
Avoiding crop Avoiding burning of with including tractor, power
Reduction in emissions farmers. Farm (SMAM) and central sector Agriculture
residue paddy residues in mitigation Agriculture CH4, N2O tiller was provided to the
and air pollution machinery banks were scheme on promotion of Mechanization
burning the field co-benefit individual farmers. (SMAM)
also established to agricultural mechanization for
s It has led to an emission
support crop sowing in in-situ management of crops
reduction of 0.32559
standing residues and residue was launched to
MtCO2e during 2017-18.
baling of paddy increase the reach of farm
residues. mechanization to small and
marginal farmers and
promoting ‘Custom Hiring
Centres’ to offset the high cost
of individual ownership.
1. To encourage and Estimation of carbon
Nursery Development
expand tree plantation in sequestration in agroforestry
for quality planting Under SMAF 23 million Sub-Mission on
Sub-Mission on complementary and system is based on
material (NDQPM), trees have been planted Agroforestry
Agroforestry Adaptation integrated manner with methodological guidance for
Peripheral and since inception till (SMAF)
(SMAF): It is a with crops and livestock to calculation of emissions and
Boundary Plantation 2018-19, covering an under National
Agroforestry scheme under mitigation Agriculture CO2 improve productivity, removals of CO2 by changes in
(PBP), Low Density area of 52,003 ha. Mission for
National Mission co- employment opportunities, above-ground and below-
Plantation on Farm It has led to emission Sustainable
for Sustainable benefits income generation and ground biomass on Land
Lands(LDPFL) and removal of 0.1318 MtCO2 Agriculture
Agriculture (NMSA) livelihoods of rural Converted to Forest Land of
High Density Block in the period 2017-18 (NMSA)
households, especially the 2019. Refinement to the 2006
Plantation (HDBP) are and 2018-19.
small farmers. IPCC Guidelines for National

281
Name of
Coverage Coverage Quantitative Goal/ Steps taken/ and Relevant
Mitigation Description Nature Objectives of the Action Methodology/ Assumption
(sector) (gases) Progress indicator Results achieved National Mission/
Action
2. To ensure availability of part of the mission Greenhouse Gas Inventories.
quality planting material interventions. The average annual rate of
like seeds, seedlings, The implementation of carbon sequestration for
clones, hybrids and the scheme will result various agroforestry systems
improved varieties. in providing additional under different plant densities
3. To popularise various income opportunities were obtained from the
Agroforestry for farmers, increase literature and the quantity of
practices/models suitable in tree cover will lead carbon sequestered from these
to different agro-ecological to higher carbon systems was estimated by
regions and land use sequestration and multiplying the area with the
conditions. compliment the annual rates of carbon
4. To create database, national initiatives on sequestration.
information and knowledge climate change
support in the area of adaptation and
agroforestry. mitigation and trees
grown on farm land
will help in enriching
soil organic matter.
1. To increase the area
under bamboo plantation in Nursery Development
non-forest Government of Quality Planting
and private lands to Material, During 2018-19, an area
supplement farm income Promotion of Bamboo of 7,366 ha was covered
and contribute towards Plantation for ensuring under bamboo plantation
resilience to climate adequate stocks of along with creation of 42
change as well as selected genetically Bamboo Treatment
National Bamboo National Bamboo
Plantation Adaptation availability of quality raw superior quality The bamboo plantations will Units, 184 Product
Mission (NBM): It is Mission (NBM)
and value with material requirement of planting material, increase the green cover area, Development /
a scheme under under National
chain mitigation Agriculture CO2 industries. The bamboo Promotion of Bamboo leading to increased carbon Processing Units, 46
National Mission Mission for
development co- plantations will be Treatment & Preserva sequestration Infrastructure Projects for
for Sustainable Sustainable
of bamboo benefits promoted predominantly in tion units and Promotion
Agriculture (NMSA) Agriculture(NMSA)
farmers’ fields, development of value and Development of
homesteads, community chain in bamboo, Bamboo Market.
lands, arable wastelands, Promotion of Product It has led to emission
and along irrigation canals Development / proces removal of 0.1873
and water bodies. sing units, MtCO2.
2. To improve post-harvest Promotion of Market
management through Development
establishment of innovative

282
Name of
Coverage Coverage Quantitative Goal/ Steps taken/ and Relevant
Mitigation Description Nature Objectives of the Action Methodology/ Assumption
(sector) (gases) Progress indicator Results achieved National Mission/
Action
primary processing units
near the source of
production, primary
treatment and seasoning
plants, preservation
technologies and market
infrastructure.
3. To promote product
development keeping in
view market demand, by
assisting R&D,
entrepreneurship &
business models at micro,
small and medium levels
and feed bigger industry.
4. To rejuvenate the under
developed bamboo
industry in India.
5. To promote skill
development, capacity
building, awareness
generation for
development of bamboo
sector from production to
market demand.
6. To realign efforts so as
to reduce dependency on
import of bamboo and
bamboo products by way
of improved productivity
and suitability of domestic
raw material for industry,
so as to enhance income
of the primary producers.
Pradhan Mantri Adaptation The scheme is meant to The quantum in savings in Pradhan Mantri
It has led to an emission
Krishi Sinchayee with expand cultivable area Area covered under energy was estimated. The Krishi Sinchayee
Micro- reduction of 11.979
Yojana: It provides mitigation Agriculture CO2 under assured irrigation, drip and sprinkler magnitude of reduction of CO2 Yojana-Per Drop
irrigation MtCO2 in 2017-18 and
end-to-end co- improve water use irrigation emissions was estimated More Crop
2018-19.
solutions in benefits efficiency, enhance based on the savings in (PMKSY-PDMC)

283
Name of
Coverage Coverage Quantitative Goal/ Steps taken/ and Relevant
Mitigation Description Nature Objectives of the Action Methodology/ Assumption
(sector) (gases) Progress indicator Results achieved National Mission/
Action
irrigation supply adoption of precision- electricity consumption. The life During 2015-16 to 2019-
chain and aims to irrigation, enhance of the micro-irrigation system is 20, INR 1,19,858.5
use micro-irrigation recharge of aquifers and about 10 years. million released under
technologies introduce sustainable PMKSY-PDMC.
extensively to save water conservation Area covered under drip
water, increase practices. and sprinkler irrigation fr
production and om 2015-16 to 2018-19
productivity of is 3,620,374 ha under th
crops in a e Per Drop More Crop co
sustainable manner mponent of PMKSY(PM
and help in KSY- PDMC).
achieving food
security.

Table 3.42: Forestry Sector

Name of Quantitative
Coverage Coverage Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Relevant National
Mitigation Description Nature Objectives of the Action Goal/ Progress
(sector) (gases) Assumption Results achieved Mission/
Action indicator
Review and assess the existing situation
of Ganga River Basin, past river
management and implications and
94,52,412 seedlings
lessons learned.
planted during 2016-17
• Identify and involve stakeholders and
to 2018-19. Sink of
build consensus for design and
annual emission
development of strategies.
Afforestation Conservative removal of 0.076
• Assess ongoing forestry activities of the
and assessment MtCO2 created.
Namami Gange Mitigation states engaged in the Ganga rejuvenation Plantation on Co-benefits of
reforestation on subject to full Since the launch of
(forestry and Forestry CO2 program. 8,394,600 ha Ganga rejuvenation
identified implementation of Namami Gange
intervention) Adaptation • Identify and prioritize critical areas/ field area programme
diverse forest proposed forestry Programme an area of
sites in the catchment for regeneration
area intervention 30,761 ha has been
and improvement.
planted or is being
• Assess the condition of riparian forests
planted during the
and potential of biological filters.
period 2016-20.
Examine the possibilities of allied and
other alternate income generation
activities
• Assess the potential of cultivation of

284
 Name of Quantitative
Coverage Coverage Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Relevant National
Mitigation Description Nature Objectives of the Action Goal/ Progress
(sector) (gases) Assumption Results achieved Mission/
Action indicator
medicinal plants and restoration of ‘Bhoj’
(Betula utilis) forests and identify
appropriate species
• Identify research and monitoring needs
and develop strategy for future research
• Develop a systematic framework for
integrated green corridor development
• Build resilient ecosystem in form of
green corridors along national highway.
• Make green highway mission self- To develop 19.37 million seedlings
sustainable 1,40,000 km long 1915.53 km length were planted from
Avenue Mitigation • Develop green corridors with aesthetic ‘tree line’ with national highway 2016-20 (till November).
National Green National Green
plantation on and Forestry CO2 appeal plantation along awarded for
Highways Mission Highways Mission
highways Adaptation • Reduce impact of dust, air and noise both sides of the avenue Sink of annual emission
pollution. national highway plantation removal of 0.156 MtCO2
• Provide shade on glaring hot roads. in five years created.
• Reduce soil erosion at embankment
slopes
• Reduce effect of wind and incoming UV
rays

10 million ha in
10 years
 Increased forest/tree cover on 5 m
(Annual targets),
ha of forest/non-forest lands and
People’s
improved quality of forest cover on
participation,
another 5 m ha (a total of 10 m ha)
Afforestation Convergence
 Ecosystem services including Incremental
and with existing From 2015-18, 0.12
biodiversity, hydrological services annual
reforestation in Mitigation programs and million ha was planted.
Green Indian CO2 and carbon sequestration as a result mitigation potential National Action Plan
degraded and Forestry other missions, Sink of annual emission
Mission of treatment of 10 m ha. 2020 is 55 MtCO2 on Climate Change
forests and Adaptation REDD plus removals of
 Increased forest-based livelihood Participatory
non-forests benefits, 1.07 MtCO2 created.
income for 3 million forest dependent approach
area New
households
stakeholders,
 Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration
Forest
of 50-60 million tonne by the year
development
2020
agency

285
 Name of Quantitative
Coverage Coverage Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Relevant National
Mitigation Description Nature Objectives of the Action Goal/ Progress
(sector) (gases) Assumption Results achieved Mission/
Action indicator
Involvement of
MoEFCC and State
Forest Departments
Yearly targets are
Afforestation on Yearly targets 4.985 million ha
Twenty-point Protection of environment and fixed by MoEFCC
public and Mitigation Forestry CO2 are monitored afforested from 2016 to
Programme afforestation designated as
forest lands monthly 2019, resulting in sink of
Nodal Ministry
annual emission
removals of 44.42
MtCO2 created.
By the State
Government of
To plant 500 million trees by the end of Maharashtra.
Afforestation to Participatory
Haritsena 2019 To plant 500 469.76 million seedlings
increase forest approach
Maharashtra Mitigation Forestry CO2 In view of National forest policy, million trees by have been planted up to
cover in Yearly targets are
Mission emphasizing on maintaining 33 per cent the end of 2019 2018 resulting in sink of
Maharashtra mentioned
forest cover annual emission
removals of 3.77 MtCO2
being created.
1127.97 million saplings
To increase green
have been planted up to
cover of the State
Afforestation to 2019 resulting in sink of
In view of National forest policy, To plant and from the present
Telangana Ku increase forest annual emission
Mitigation Forestry CO2 emphasizing on maintaining 33 per cent rejuvenate 2,300 25.16 to 33 per
Haritha Haram cover in removals of
forest cover million saplings. cent of the total
Telangana 9.06 MtCO2 being
geographical area
created by October
2019
By State government
Environmental
and Japan International
amelioration
Cooperation Agency
through To restore degraded forests and improve
(JICA).
Tripura Forest afforestation, the livelihood aspects of villagers, Plantations;
61,754 ha have been
Environmental soil and water including tribal families engaged in 4,700 ha farm
Mitigation afforested and 8,533
Improvement and conservation, traditional shifting cultivation, and forestry and Participatory
and Forestry CO2 planted under
Poverty biodiversity promoting sustainable forest 5,300 ha approach
adaptation agroforestry, resulting in
Alleviation Project conservation, management through JFM, thereby agroforestry
sink of annual emission
(TFIPAP) and poverty improving environment and alleviating 8 Years
removals of 0.55 MtCO2
alleviation and poverty
and 0.076 MtCO2,
economic
respectively being
development of
created.

286
 Name of Quantitative
Coverage Coverage Methodology/ Steps taken/ and Relevant National
Mitigation Description Nature Objectives of the Action Goal/ Progress
(sector) (gases) Assumption Results achieved Mission/
Action indicator
the forest
dwellers

Increase in 0.31 million

ha from 2015 to 2019
Mitigation Protection of resulting in sink of
Protected Areas Conservation of Continued
and Forestry CO2 Conservation of nature 16.50 million ha annual emission
(PAs) nature protection of PAs
adaptation forest removal of
0.99 MtCO2 being
created.
MoEFCC, GoI approved
scheme for
afforestation.

Since inception a total

of INR 38740.2 million
Includes
has been released till
afforestation
Area afforested, 2018-19 to various
and Sustainable development and Carbon National
National biomass growth States and is being
reforestation of management of forest resources sequestration Afforestation and
Afforestation Mitigation Forestry CO2 rate, timber and utilized for
degraded Increase and /or improve forest and tree through forest and Eco- Development
Programme cover fuelwood tree cover treatment/afforestation
forests and Board
production over 2.1 million ha
non-forest
sanctioned area.
areas.
Seedlings planted in
0.24 million ha from
2013 to 2019 resulting
in sink of annual
emission removals of
2.14 MtCO2 created.
Note: Given the highly significant diversity of landscapes and ecosystems across India (as in other regions across the world), and the corresponding diversity of vegetation types
and species, lowering the uncertainties of the above estimates is the subject of ongoing knowledge generation and research and the corresponding development of capabilities
which require support. These factors need to be accounted for in deriving the import of the quantification provided above. Advances in this respect will be incorporated in future.

287
 Table 3.43: Transport Sector

Name of Quantitative Relevant

Coverage Coverage Objectives of the Steps taken/ envisaged and
Mitigation Description Nature Goal/ Progress Methodology/ Assumption National
(sector) (gases) Action Results achieved
Action indicator Mission/
1. During the ethanol supply
year 2019-20, 1,703 million
litres of ethanol was blended in
petrol which resulted in foreign
exchange impact of about INR
37,350 million and carbon
emission reduced to the extent
Oil Marketing
of 3.39 MtCO2.
Companies sell
ethanol blended
The data for gasoline 2. During current ethanol
petrol with To push biofuels
consumption and ethanol blending supply year 2020-2021;
percentage of into the
in India have been taken from contracts for supply of about
Ethanol ethanol up to 10 per mainstream to
MoPNG and subsequent reports 2,332 million litres of ethanol
Blended cent. Also, the supplement
Quantity of of the Government. The net have so far been finalized. Ministry of
Petrol Government has gasoline and
Regulatory Transport CO2 ethanol blended calorific value (NCV) and CO2 Petroleum &
Programme allowed procurement diesel in
in petrol. emission factor (CO2EF) numbers 3. The supply of BS-VI auto Natural Gas
of ethanol produced transportation, as
are taken from IPCC. fuels has started throughout
from other non-food well as in
The total emissions saved have the country w.e.f. 1 April 2020.
feedstocks, like stationary
been estimated using the quantity The BS-VI regulation has
cellulosic and ligno- applications
of ethanol blended. reduced diesel Sulphur content
cellulosic materials
to a maximum of 10 ppm,
and including the
enabling the introduction of
petrochemical route.
advanced emission control
technologies, including diesel
particulate filters (DPF) to
reduce PM in diesel vehicles
and selective catalyst
reduction (SCR) systems for
reduction in NOx emissions.
Making India’s
EESL procured An e-car runs 80 kms a day for 26 1. It is estimated that replacing
passenger
10,000 EVs to be days in a month. these 5,00,000 cars with EVs
mobility shared, National
National E- deployed in Transport sector The E-cars are compared with over the 3-4 year period will
electric, and Electric
Mobility Government Economic Transport CO2 GHG emission diesel vehicles, that have an lead to fuel savings of about
connected can Mobility
Programme Ministries and reduction average of 15 km/litre. 832 million litres per year and
cut the nation’s Mission Plan
Departments, Setup Emission reduction is tail pipe 2.23 MtCO2 reduction.
energy demand
charging emission reduction.
by 64 per cent,

288
Name of Quantitative Relevant
Coverage Coverage Objectives of the Steps taken/ envisaged and
Mitigation Description Nature Goal/ Progress Methodology/ Assumption National
(sector) (gases) Action Results achieved
Action indicator Mission/
infrastructure to and carbon
sustain EV transition emissions by 37 2. 1514 e-cars deployed/under
per cent in 2030. deployment by EESL.
EESL has installed 488 captive
chargers (308 AC & 180 DC
chargers) across India. This
has resulted in estimated
annual fuel saving of 2,519 kilo
liters and reduction in GHG
emission of about 6,754 tonne
of CO2 per year.

3. 91 Public Charging stations

commissioned by EESL across
India.

Table 3.44: Year wise Mitigation quantification for some major policies and programmes for 2015 and 2016

Start Emission
Sector
Status of Year of Implementing Mitigated
s Objective and or Instrume
Policy GHG Impleme Brief Description Implem Entity of (MtCO2e)
Affecte Activity Affected nt
ntation entatio Entities
d 2015 2016
n
The Mission has adopted a three-phase
approach. The first phase (2010-2013) was
designed to focus on capturing the low-
To establish India as a
hanging options in solar thermal; promoting
global leader in solar
off-grid systems to serve populations
National Solar Renew CO2, energy, by creating National Action
Regulato without access to commercial energy and
Mission - 100 GW able CH4, the policy conditions Adopted 2010 Plan on Climate 5.41 9.48
ry modest capacity addition in grid-based
by 2022 Energy N2O for its diffusion across Change, MNRE
systems. In the second (2013-2017) and
the country as quickly
third (2017-2022) phases, capacity will be
as possible.
aggressively ramped up to create
conditions for scaled-up and competitive
solar energy penetration in the country.

289
 Start Emission
Sector
Status of Year of Implementing Mitigated
s Objective and or Instrume
Policy GHG Impleme Brief Description Implem Entity of (MtCO2e)
Affecte Activity Affected nt
ntation entatio Entities
d 2015 2016
n
National Wind To catalyze
Renew CO2, National Action
Energy commercialization of Regulato The Twelfth Five Year Plan proposed a
able CH4, Adopted 2010 Plan on Climate 26.98 35.63
Programme - 60 grid interactive wind ry National Wind Energy Mission.
Energy N2O Change, MNRE
GW by 2022 power.
MNRE has been vested with the
responsibility of developing Small Hydro
Renew CO2, National Action
Other Renewables Small Hydro and Regulato Power (SHP) projects up to 25 MW station
able CH4, Adopted 2010 Plan on Climate 21.02 19.41
- 15 GW by 2022 Biomass based power ry capacities. The estimated potential for
Energy N2O Change, MNRE
power generation in the country from such
plants is about 25 GW.
By the end of 2013, each of the country's
CO2, five regional grids was interconnected to
T&D Losses Power Loss reduction in Economi Impleme Ministry of
CH4, operate at a synchronous frequency in an 2009 8.03 6.07
reduction Sector national grid c nted Power, CEA
N2O effort to more efficiently transfer power from
generation sources to load centers.
Super Critical Technology is the most
economical way to enhance efficiency, have
Energy CO2, To reduce the Under used methodology and emission factors
Supercritical Economi Ministry of
Efficien CH4, emission for each kWh impleme from 2012 1.57 1.22
Power Generation c Power
cy N2O of electricity generated ntation http://cea.nic.in/reports/others/thermal/tpec
e/cdm_co2/user_guide_ver10.pdf based on
ACM0013
UJALA scheme: Overall target of number of National Mission
UJALA LED LED lights to be replaced in 3 years - 770 for
To promote efficient
replacements Energy CO2, Under million, Expected annual energy savings - Enhanced
lighting, reducing Economi
Scheme: 750 Efficien CH4, impleme 105 bn kWh, Expected reduction of peak 2015 Energy 6.80 19.35
energy consumption c
million units by cy N2O ntation load - 20,000 MW, Annual estimated Efficiency,
and energy savings.
2020 greenhouse gas emission reductions - 79 Ministry of
million tonne of CO2 Power

290
 Start Emission
Sector
Status of Year of Implementing Mitigated
s Objective and or Instrume
Policy GHG Impleme Brief Description Implem Entity of (MtCO2e)
Affecte Activity Affected nt
ntation entatio Entities
d 2015 2016
n
Reducing Energy National Mission
consumption in for
Street Lighting National Programme
Street Lighting Energy CO2, lighting by replacing Under Enhanced
Economi (SLNP) aims to replace India’s 14 million
National Efficien CH4, conventional street impleme 2015 Energy 0.28 0.85
c conventional street lights in India with Smart
Programme cy N2O lights with LEDs, ntation Efficiency,
LED variants by 2019.
helping DISCOMs to Ministry of
manage peak demand Power
A market-based mechanism to facilitate National Mission
To reduce specific
Energy CO2, Under energy efficiency improvements in large for
energy consumption in Economi
PAT scheme Efficien CH4, impleme energy intensive industries and facilities, by 2012 Enhanced 7.77 15.33
energy intensive c
cy N2O ntation issuing energy saving certificates that can Energy
industries.
be traded. Efficiency
CO2, Under
Agricult National Water Regulato The CO2 saved from the Drip irrigation Ministry of
Micro-irrigation CH4, impleme 0.0002 0.0003
ure Mission under NAPCC ry system all over India. Agriculture
N2O ntation
To push biofuels into Oil Marketing Companies sell ethanol
the mainstream to blended petrol with percentage of ethanol
supplement gasoline Under up to 10 per cent. Also, the Government has National Policy
Ethanol Blended Transp Regulato
CO2 and diesel in impleme allowed procurement of ethanol produced 2008 on Biofuels, 3.24 3.63
Petrol Programme ort ry
transportation, as well ntation from other non-food feedstocks, like MNRE
as in stationary cellulosic and ligno cellulosic materials
applications including petrochemical route.
Minimum level of
biofuels become Ministry of
Under To help achieve a proposed biodiesel blend
Transp readily available in the Regulato Petroleum and
Biodiesel policy CO2 impleme of 20 per cent with conventional diesel by 11.57 12.22
ort market to meet the ry Natural Gas,
ntation 2017.
demand at any given MNRE
time

291
 Start Emission
Sector
Status of Year of Implementing Mitigated
s Objective and or Instrume
Policy GHG Impleme Brief Description Implem Entity of (MtCO2e)
Affecte Activity Affected nt
ntation entatio Entities
d 2015 2016
n
Metro Railway System and Services
operational in 18 Cities in India. These
Ministry of
include Kolkata, Delhi, Bengaluru,
CO2, Under Railways,
Transp Provide Metro railway Economi Gurugram, Mumbai, Chennai, Jaipur,
Metro CH4, impleme 2002 MoUD, 0.78 0.86
ort system in Indian cities c Kochi, Hyderabad, Lucknow, Noida,
N2O ntation respective state
Greater Noida, Ahmedabad, Nagpur,
governments
Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Ballabhgarh and
Bahadurgarh.

CO2, Under BRT is a bus-based public transport system

Transp Provide BRTS is some Economi MOUD and state
BRT CH4, impleme designed to improve capacity and reliability 2006 0.039 0.035
ort Indian cities c government
N2O ntation relative to a conventional bus system

CO2, Under Fuel consumption and Gross tonne km in

Efficiency gains in Transp Fuel consumption Economi Ministry of
CH4, impleme passenger and goods trains have been -0.14 0.43
Railways ort reduction c Railways
N2O ntation measured
To provide the
consumer an informed The star rating plan is different for products
choice about the manufactured/imported or assembled in
Star rated Energy CO2, Under
energy saving and Economi different years. Manufacturers are required Ministry of
appliances (AC Efficien CH4, impleme 2006 10.10 11.15
thereby the cost c to place a label showing how much Power, BEE
and Refrigerator) cy N2O ntation
saving potential of the electricity the appliance will consumer
marketed household under certain conditions.
and other equipment.

292
Endnote: Reference dates and corresponding figures of mitigation achieved, in this
chapter, may vary for different situations and schemes, especially as India's mitigation
efforts are rapidly put into action. This is especially true for renewable energy
deployment, where progress is particularly rapid.

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India, Dehradun. Retrieved from
http://forestsclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/public_display/circulars/01_IIFM_NPV_07N
OV.pdf
World Bank. (2020). Green National Highway Corridors Project. The World Bank and
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India. Retrieved from
https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P167350

*****

304
w

15% of our total Carbon

GOA Sikkim dioxide emissions were
Delhi removed from the
atmosphere by our forest
and tree cover in 2016

Increase in forest and tree cover

between 2015 and 2019 is greater
than the combined area of these states

Implementation of
India’s National Biodiversity Action Plan
An Overview 2019 40% increase in carbon
sequestration between
Figure 7.1 Progress in number of PAs under WP Act

2000 and 2016

426

Forests are not dustbins of

carbon!

7. Area Based Conservation through Other

India’s forests provide all the four
Measures proposed by BMCs and local communities for
declaration as BHSs. 12 BHSs covering 941.44
types of under
(i) BHSs ecosystem
BD Act, 2002 services: km 2

shows the details of two of such BHSs.

provisioning, regulating,
Areas important from supporting
the point of biodiversity

and cultural.
Breathing roots of Keora trees, Sunderbans

India’s forests- teeming with wildlife.

Populations of Asiatic lion, elephant,

rhino and tiger increased many fold.

Nearly 75% of the global wild tiger

population found in India.

Page 73
Spratt, A. (2018). Ranthambore National Park, Rajasthan.
 Key Points

Chapter 4 Domestic Measurement, Reporting and Verification

 The operational design of measurement, reporting and verification in India is

implemented in a decentralized manner, with efforts distributed at multiple levels
of governance.
 The governance framework in the country mainly adopts a 3-tier system for
administering and monitoring policy schemes and actions as the flow of information
involves a bottom-up approach with several tiers of standard reporting.
 Enhancing transparency and accountability by making information accessible
through online web-portals/ digital dashboards has led to effective tracking of
schemes’ performances, on a single platform. Government of India (GoI) has
developed numerous dashboards in relevant sectors such as power, transport,
agriculture, and forestry.
 India is evolving a robust and dynamic framework for MRV that can deliver, as is
evident from the progressive character of its reporting to the UNFCCC, and as
indeed the entire world needs to do to keep track of all efforts to meet the challenge
of global warming.
 Further intensification of MRV under the Paris Agreement can potentially draw
attention away from actual climate action efforts unless there is finance, technology
transfer and capacity building support for the preparation of Biennial Transparency
Reports by developing countries.
 MRV as a tool to promote good practices, learning, and increasing effort and
ambition in mitigation will function only if developed countries go beyond their
rhetorical insistence on MRV to its effective use for the stated purposes. Their pre-
2020 mitigation performance indicates that as much learning on MRV awaits
developed countries as it does the developing nations.

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 Chapter 4
Domestic Measurement Reporting and Verification

4.1 Introduction

The basic role of measurement, reporting, and verification (MRV) in climate change
is to track national GHG emissions, monitor support, and understand the nature and
impact of climate actions, in the context of national circumstances (UNFCCC, 2014).
A well-designed MRV system must help in identifying good practices and put in place
a learning process. It should recognise and create visibility of mitigation actions,
thereby encouraging all countries to raise their ambition, in keeping with the UNFCCC
principles of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities and respective
capabilities.

MRV processes are beneficial however only in the context of the substantive content
of the climate action being undertaken and the extent of their ambition. If the overall
outcomes as revealed by the inventory process are not significant, the achievement of
individual actions' previously set goals are not by themselves of value. The visibility of
these actions may also lead to a misplaced emphasis on noting the number of such
efforts rather than their quality. MRV processes are also, as in the case of the
inventory, financially onerous, require considerable expenditure of human, technical
and financial resources and a high degree of technical capacity. Moreover, as in the
case of the inventory, the informal sector poses a particular challenge with its
dispersed and complex variations, even for a particular class of activity.

The operational design of MRV in India is implemented in a decentralised manner,

with efforts distributed at multiple levels of governance. The country's governance
framework adopts a 3-tier system for administering and monitoring policy schemes
and actions, with the flow of information based on a bottom-up approach from local to
sub-national to national of standard reporting; while maintaining archives. The core
elements of India’s MRV framework consist of efforts aimed at tracking the
effectiveness of domestic sustainable development programmes and schemes, and
are extended to monitor energy efficiency and emissions related indicators, as well as
other climate co-benefits.

India has made significant efforts in strengthening its existing MRV arrangements.
There has also been extensive work on updating and creating technical data
repositories and dashboards and improving their access to the public. This chapter on
MRV captures and updates India’s actions in enhancing transparency and builds upon
developments that have been reported in the previous BUR (I and II) submissions.

The quality and performance of India's MRV arrangements are highlighted by the fact
that the information provided through them is regularly used by independent third-party
assessments of India's climate performance that rate India's climate actions highly.

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Last, but not least, the very submission of this detailed Third Biennial Report, brought
to its final form in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, speaks to the commitment
and quality that is integral to India's MRV process in the interests of transparency and
adherence to the multilateral processes of the UNFCCC.

4.2 Dashboards and portals

Enhancing transparency and accountability by making information accessible through

online web-portals/digital dashboards has led to effective tracking of schemes’
performance across all States on a single platform. The GoI has developed numerous
dashboards, especially in energy-related sectors (power, renewables, industry,
transport) that impact mitigation. Creating these web portals reiterates GoI’s intention
of moving towards a Digital India and simultaneously showcases good examples of
transitioning towards transparency in governance (MeitY, 2019).

Energy sectors (Renewables/ Power/ Energy Efficiency/ Transport): Within the energy
sectors, there has been a tremendous thrust on renewables (non-fossil energy) for
meeting the country’s target of 175 GW of renewable energy by 2022. The National
Power Portal developed by the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) provides information
on installed renewable capacity and its generation. It is also the major source of
information for other power sector data such as daily power demand, category wise
installed capacity, urban and rural distribution, and other related aspects. This portal
also provides information on support disbursed for certain schemes such as the
Integrated Power Development Scheme (IPDS), Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti
Yojana (DDUGJY) and links directly to other power sector dashboards like
Transmission App for Real-time monitoring and Growth (TARANG), Payment
Ratification and Analysis in Power Procurement for bringing Transparency in Invoicing
of Generators (PRAAPTI), Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana (UDAY), Urban Jyoti
Abhiyaan (URJA), SAUBHAGYA or Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana (CEA,
2019a). In addition to this, the national portal for Renewable Purchase Obligation
(RPO) of MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy) monitors RPO compliance
of States. It consists of a user interface where entities are obliged to provide data on
RPO compliance (MNRE, 2019a).

Energy Efficiency Services Limited (EESL) has been anchoring many energy
efficiency initiatives across the country. To showcase its progress, EESL has
developed scheme-specific dashboards. The National Building dashboard (EESL,
2019a) provides information on a real-time basis on energy savings as well as a
reduction in CO2 emissions from retrofitted buildings by tracking energy demand as a
proxy of consumption and the related emissions, contributing to MRV of energy
efficiency efforts (EESL, 2019b). UJALA dashboard indicates the total LED distributed
across the country and related energy savings and CO2 emission reduction (EESL,
2019c). The Municipal Energy Efficiency Programme (MEEP) dashboard monitors the
energy efficiency initiatives in water pumping in municipal areas. The SNLP dashboard
showcases annual energy savings and emission reductions achieved from SLNP

309
(Street Lighting National Programme) across the country (EESL, 2019d); (EESL,
2019e).

Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has developed the online PATNet portal for all
Designated Consumers (DCs) under the Performance, Achieve and Trade (PAT)
scheme. DCs can upload their forms (mandatory submissions under PAT scheme) on
PATNet and Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts) can be electronically issued/entitled
to purchase. Similarly, BEE has also developed an online portal for Standards and
Labelling (S&L) programme. This portal facilitates manufacturers' submission of
applications for star labelling of appliances/equipment online. Users can also search
and compare various appliances/equipment through the online portal. Information on
energy-saving tips is also made available to the consumers/manufacturers through the
online portal.

BEE, in association with CLASP, has launched the National Energy End-use
Monitoring (NEEM) dashboard. It is a comprehensive platform for collecting and
analyzing data on energy end-use and appliance energy consumption at the
household level.

In the transport sector, the Department of Heavy Industry is implementing Faster

Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and EV (FAME) India Scheme (phase I in 2015
and phase II in 2019) (NAB, 2019). This scheme is monitored by the FAME dashboard
where the key outcomes and associated indicators, such as the total number of
vehicles sold, accrued fuel savings, and CO2 reductions per day, are displayed (NAB,
2019).

Agriculture, forestry, and waste sectors: Forestry and agriculture, together with the
waste sector, pose huge challenges and opportunities for the country in climate action,
especially in adaptation with important mitigation co-benefits. In these sectors, the GoI
has consistently worked on enhancing transparency through digitisation and
maintaining coherence across departments or jurisdictions for evaluation. Within the
agriculture sector, the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers’ Welfare
(DAC&FW) has developed a Farmers Portal. This portal contains data for estimating
baseline emissions, such as livestock census, data on fertilizer use, crop varieties
grown, total area, yield, and other necessary information (DAC&FW, 2018). An
important initiative under the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
consists of Soil Health Management through the Soil Health Card scheme since 2015
(DAC&FW, 2016). This scheme enables farmers to assess their soil health on several
parameters, through the nutrient status of their soil based on 12 parameters namely
primary nutrients (N, P and K); secondary nutrient (S); micronutrients (B, Zn, Mn, Fe,
and Cu); and others (pH, EC and OC). It also provides recommendations on
appropriate dosage of nutrients to be applied for improving soil health and its fertility
for major crops of the area. This, in turn, helps in optimal utilisation of fertilisers. This
scheme aims to optimise fertilizer usage and boosts productivity while reducing related
emissions (MoAFW, 2019a). The scheme’s dashboard monitors nitrogen, phosphorus,

310
and potassium in soils across states. It maintains a record of soil health across
locations over time to understand changes and other patterns (MoAFW, 2019b).

In the forestry sector, remote sensing data is widely used for activities such as
mapping of forest cover, identification, and mapping of wetlands, and determination of
forest biomass. The Bhuvan Geospatial portal includes images and other data
relevant to the Green India Mission (GIM). Changes in land use and land cover are
captured with the help of ISRO satellites (ISRO, 2019a). Another notable development
in the forestry sector has been the Large Forest Fire Monitoring Programme (LFFMP)
launched in 2019 (FSI, 2019). Using satellite data acquired through remote sensing
technology, the Forest Survey of India (FSI) periodically maps forest cover and
regularly monitors forest fires using real-time satellite data. This helps provide alerts
to State/UT Forest Departments and other registered mobile users whenever forest
fires are detected (ISRO, 2019b).

In the waste sector, the Swachh Bharat Urban, as well as Gramin dashboards, track
progress towards achieving their programme targets such as the number of open
defecation free villages; construction of community public toilets and other related
aspects (MoHUA, 2019a; DDWS, 2019). Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) is expected
to deliver co-benefits such as emission reductions by waste management, and
enabling conversion of waste into compost or other usable forms, such as energy.

NITI Aayog has launched the SDG India Index, which monitors the progress of all the
States and UTs on the outcomes of Government interventions and schemes. It intends
to provide a holistic view of the social, economic, and environmental parameters and
identify priority areas in which investments are needed (NITI Aayog, 2020). The India
SDG Dashboard of Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) is a
unified data repository on SDG Indicators as per the National Indicator Framework.
The India SDG Dashboard aims to bring data to the fingertips of decision-makers at
the national and sub-national levels, helping to accurately identify the gaps that need
to be addressed and measure the success of the existing development programs
(MoSPI, 2020a).

Table 4.1 showcases a list of the dashboards across various sectors and responsible
agencies and highlights the availability of relevant information.

Table 4.1: Sector-wise dashboards and web-based portals in India

Agencies/
Sectors Name Relevant indicators
Institutions
Category wise installed capacity
Power National Power Portal CEA, MoP (conventional/non-conventional energy
installed).
Renewable Purchase
MNRE RPO compliance data.
Renewables Obligation

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 Real-time deemed energy savings,
National building reduction in CO2 emissions from
Building EESL
dashboard retrofitted buildings by tracking energy
demand and emissions.
Total LED distributed across the country
Energy National UJALA
EESL along with energy savings and CO2
efficiency dashboard
emission reduction.
Energy Municipal Energy Energy savings, cost savings, CO2
EESL
efficiency Efficiency Programme reduction.

Energy Streetlight National Annual energy savings and GHG

EESL
efficiency Programme emission reductions.
Faster Adoption and
Manufacturing of Total number of vehicles sold, fuel
Department of
Transport (Hybrid &) Electric savings per day, and CO2 reduction per
Heavy Industry
Vehicles in India day.
(FAME India)

Livestock census, amount of fertilisers

Agriculture Farmers Portal DAC&FW
and crops varieties.

Monitors 12 parameters (nitrogen,

Soil Health Card phosphorus and potassium, micro
Agriculture DAC&FW
scheme nutrient status, pH) in the soil across the
States.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi
Year-wise area under micro-irrigation
Agriculture Sinchayee Yojana DAC&FW
systems.
(PMKSY)

Agriculture Demand- Energy savings per year,

Agriculture side Management MoP CO2 reduction per year, and cost
(AgDSM) savings per year.
National
Bhuvan Geospatial Remote
Forestry Land use and land cover changes.
Portal Sensing Centre
(ISRO)
Large Forest Fire
Number of forest fires, area, the severity
Forestry Monitoring FSI
of a burn, canopy cover loss.
Programme
Ministry of
Total waste generated and processed,
Swachh Bharat Housing and
Waste open defecation free village, community
Urban/Gramin Urban Affairs
public and toilets construction.
(MoHUA)
Monitors the progress of State and
Union Territories across 100 indicators.
Indicators related to climate change are
Cross-
SDG India Index NITI Aayog renewable share installed generating
cutting
capacity, CO2 saved from LED bulbs,
and loss of life due to extreme weather
events.

312
 A National Indicator Framework (NIF)
for tracking SDG NIF indicators'
progress presently consists of 302
Cross-
India SDG Dashboard MoSPI indicators, which inter alia includes
cutting
indicators related to clean energy,
climate action and life below water and
life on earth.

4.3 Mobile Applications

Several mobile applications have been launched to widen the reach of government
initiatives and monitor their implementation. Applications (Apps) facilitate real-time
updates and transparent information dissemination to keep stakeholders and the
public better informed. It empowers the public (stakeholders) to address any violations,
verify compliance, and provide feedback on the initiatives. Table 4.2 showcases a list
of mobile applications and responsible agencies and highlights their purpose.

Table 4.2: Mobile applications related to relevant government initiatives

Agencies/
App Name Purpose
Institutions
National UJALA Real-time updates on the LED distribution across the
EESL
Dashboard country.
Enable consumers to verify the accuracy of the Star
BEE star Label BEE
Labels on products.
Facilitate renewable integration and promote the use of
MERIT MoP
green and clean power more transparently.
Grameen
Rural Electrification
Vidyutikaran Monitoring village and household electrification.
Corporation Limited
(GARV)
Power availability in the country on a real-time basis -
Vidyut pravah MoP
shortage including peak hour and total energy shortage.
Monitoring of plantations and provides geo-tagging of
mHariyali MoHUA
plants.

Harit Path NHAI Monitor plantation along national highways.

Posting civic-related issues relating to garbage (dumping

Swachhata MoHUA
and collection) and public toilets.

Monitor crop loss due to hailstorm, hailstorm

Bhuvan Hailstorm DAC&FW
occurrences, and their geographical locations

Provide updates on extreme weather, soil health cards,

Kisan Suvidha MoAFW
and market prices of commodities.

Share high-resolution weather forecast based agro

Meghdoot IMD, ICAR
advisories to farmers

Provide information on observed weather, forecasts,

Mausam IMD radar images, and warning towards impending weather
events.

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4.4 Data repositories

Building a robust national data repository system is essential for developing baselines
and estimating accurate GHG emission inventories (identifying emission sources,
baseline projections, and forecasting trends). In India, there are a number of data
repositories at various levels (sub-national and national) maintained by respective
departments/ministries. These repositories store data in raw formats or publish them
periodically in the form of reports. Most of the data repository institutions follow a
standard approach of maintaining a level of uniformity in data collection, reporting, and
archiving.

Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India - https://data.gov.in/ - is a platform for

supporting the open data initiative of the GoI. It helps to quickly access the data from
various government sectors and use government data to provide appropriate
perspectives.

There are several existing data repository systems within the industry sector. The
Annual Survey of Industries (ASI) conducted by the National Sample Survey Office
(NSSO) collects data on several economic parameters including industrial energy use.
ASI follows the Collection of Statistics Rules, 2011 under the Collection of Statistics
Act, 2008 for collecting data, in which a Statistics Officer collates and verifies
information from industrial/commercial units. Under a similar Act, units are penalised
in case of false declarations or untimely submissions (NSSO, 2018). This information
forms the crucial baseline data for estimating industrial emissions (NSSO, 2012). The
Coal Directory of India, and Provisional Coal Statistics both provide baseline data for
estimating emissions from industrial coal consumption (MoC, 2019). The Coal
Controller’s Organisation is the authority that collects monthly coal consumption data
based on annual coal and lignite surveys under the Collection of Statistics Act, 2008
(CCO, 2019).

The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) maintains an extensive web-based reporting

system for electricity generation from all sources (including coal and renewables) on
a daily, monthly, quarterly and annual basis, along with reporting archives. (CEA,
2019b). While the mandate of the CEA pertains to the electricity sector, MoSPI
provides comprehensive coverage of the energy sector in the form of an annual
publication “Energy Statistics”, which is an integrated and updated database of
reserves, installed capacity, production, consumption, import, export and wholesale
prices of different sources viz. coal, crude oil, natural gas and electricity including
electricity from new and renewable energy sources. The data for Energy Statistics are
sourced from different Ministries of the GoI. Energy Statistics also provides energy
indicators with respect to economic dimensions and energy balance statistics with
Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) and Total Final Consumption (TFC) data. These
provide the basis for strategic changes and policymaking. Data updated till 2018-19(P)
can be found in the latest publication Energy Statistics 2020 (MoSPI, 2020b).

314
In the case of the transport sector, the Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC)
maintains a databank for effective monitoring of trends and analysis in the
hydrocarbons (petroleum and natural gas) sector in the country (PPAC, 2019). Indian
Railways in their annual report regularly provides updates on the electrification status
of railway routes across the country (IR, 2016).

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed a centralised

KRISHI repository which is an extensive database and knowledge management bank
which includes several information systems – geoportals, crop-specific knowledge
resources, crop pest surveillance, and advisory, livestock traceability, institutional
publications and data inventory, and technologies (ICAR, 2015). Additionally,
DAC&FW reports on various indicators of crop production for major crops including
rice, wheat, maize, pulses, sugarcane, as well as basic data on the entire range of
crops that are cultivated in the country (DAC&FW, 2019). Reporting of livestock
needed for calculation of GHG emissions is prepared by the Department of Animal
Husbandry and Dairying (DAHD, 2019). The District Agro Meteorological Units
(DAMUs) are also being established in the Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs) under the
ICAR network to address micro-level variation in weather and climate, benefitting more
farmers. Under the forestry sector, the FSI conducts a survey on forestry and forest
resources and maintains the National Forest Inventory. It publishes its biennial report
India State of Forest Report (ISFR) that contains information including forest cover,
tree cover, mangroves, and carbon stock (FSI, 2018).

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards
(SPCBs) monitor and evaluate the waste sector's performance in the country. All types
of waste – municipal solid waste (MSW), plastic waste, hazardous and e-waste, and
biomedical waste -- are under the purview of the CPCB monitoring framework (CPCB,
2017). It released a Consolidated Annual Report on the Status of Implementation of
MSW Rules 2016, collected from various SPCBc or pollution control committees.
Several indicators such as the quantity of solid waste generated, monitoring of
landfill/waste processing sites, waste to energy plants set up, and monitoring activities
carried out at waste processing/landfills sites are reported. A multi-tiered approach is
adopted for reporting on these aspects in which municipalities prepare detailed project
reports (DPRs) which are submitted to state pollution control boards or pollution control
committees and are then reported to the CPCB (CPCB, 2018a). Table 4.3 lists
repositories across various sectors, their reporting frequencies, and the information
that they provide.

Table 4.3 Sector-wise data repositories in India

Sectors Agency – Repository Frequency Relevant information

Monthly,
Central Electricity quarterly, Daily electricity generation from various fuel
Energy
Authority Database and annual sources.
reporting

315
 Energy sources database on installed
Energy Statistics -
Energy Annual capacity, production, consumption, import,
MOSPI
export, and energy indicators.
Petroleum Planning
Monitoring of trends and analysis
and Analysis Cell
Energy Monthly (consumption, production, import) for
(PPAC) - Reports and
petroleum and natural gas.
studies
Electrification Status of Broad Gauge (BG)
Railway Lines. Significant progress has
Transport IR - Annual Report Annual already been made in this regard and IR is
likely to electrify all BG rail lines by 2024
leading to mitigation.
Coal Directory of India,
Provisional Coal
Baseline data for estimating emissions from
Industry Statistics - Coal Annual
industrial coal consumption.
Controller's
Organization
Annual Survey of Data on industrial energy use forms important
Industry Industries - National Annual baseline data for estimating industrial
Sample Survey Office emissions.
Department of Animal
Reporting of livestock population needed for
Agriculture Husbandry and Annual
calculation of GHG emissions.
Dairying
All India crop situation database that reports
on various indicators of crop production for
Agriculture DAC&FW Annual
major crops like rice, wheat, maize, pulses,
and sugarcane.
Geoportals, crop-specific knowledge resource,
Varies but crop pest surveillance and advisory, livestock
KRISHI repository -
Agriculture mostly on an traceability, institutional publications and data
ICAR
annual basis inventory, technologies, form baseline data for
estimating emissions.
Field inventory data from both forest and
Trees Outside Forests (TOF) for more than
30,000 sample plots spread over the entire
country is collected under the National Forest
Inventory Programme of FSI. Every year field
National Forest
data on about 15,000 sample plots is being
Forestry Inventory by Forest Biennial
collected by FSI. The data is used for
Survey of India
estimation of growing stock in forest and TOF,
and the estimation of carbon stock in the
country. Country-specific emission factors are
also derived from the NFI data for different
carbon pools.
FSI has been carrying out satellite-based
mapping of forest cover since 1987. FSI
assesses forest cover of the country using
Forest Cover mapping
Forestry Biennial indigenous remote sensing satellite
by FSI
(ResourceSat-2) data having a spatial
resolution of 23.5 meters. The repository of
explicit satellite data is used as activity data for

316
 the estimation of carbon stock in the country’s
forest.
The forest fire alert system has been started
by FSI in 2004. The system has undergone
significant improvements in recent years to
make it more user friendly and robust. Fire
alerts are generated by FSI during the fire
session and sent to the registered users of
Forest Fire monitoring State Forest Departments (SFDs) through
Forestry Annual
by FSI SMS on mobile and also through e-mails daily
for taking timely action. In addition, pre-fire
warning alerts are also generated by FSI and
sent to the SFDs. In 2019, FSI has launched
Forest Fire Alerts (version 3.0) which also
includes monitoring of large forest fires based
on satellite data.
Consolidated Annual
Quantity of solid waste generated, monitoring
Report on Status of
of landfill/waste processing sites, waste to
Implementation of
energy plants set up, monitoring activities
Waste MSW rules 2016 by Annual
carried out at waste processing/landfill sites
CPCB (Central
are reported which are important baseline
Pollution Control
estimation parameters
Board) and SPCBs

4.5 Scheme specific MRVs

MRV is essential for any programme/scheme as it enables the assessment of the

performance and effectiveness of the programmes being implemented. At the scheme
level, the relevant legislation outlines key actors and their responsibilities, including
authorities in charge (nodal agencies and implementing bodies), monitoring and
evaluation mechanisms, and finance and additional support (technology,
infrastructure, capacity building) required. In some cases, dedicated institutions are
established to ensure compliance with schemes and standards.

Given below are some of the key scheme-specific MRVs:

 Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme: In the case of the Perform, Achieve
and Trade (PAT) mechanism introduced under the National Mission for Enhanced
Energy Efficiency (NMEEE), the compliance and market design is clearly outlined
with which designated consumers (DCs) are required to comply. Accredited Energy
Auditors (AEAs) verify information submitted on energy consumption and
production by the designated consumer, following stringent reporting procedures
and guidelines, demonstrating a reliable MRV framework (BEE, 2012). PAT is a
mechanism designed to achieve emissions reduction in energy-intensive industries
based on the concept of reduction in Specific Energy Consumption (SEC). It refers
to the calculation of SEC in the baseline year, and projected SEC in the target year,
covering different forms of net energy going into the boundary of the designated
consumers' plant, and the products leaving it over a particular cycle. SEC is

317
 calculated on a Gate-to-Gate basis. A robust monitoring and verification system
has been developed by BEE for the PAT scheme to assess the savings achieved
by the industries. The assessment is done only for the final year of the three-year
cycle to establish whether the DC has achieved its target or not. This assessment
is done by an accredited energy auditor firm empanelled by the Bureau. The PAT
scheme also involves the concept of normalisation which is a process of
rationalization of energy and production data of a DC to take into account the
impact of quantifiable external variables that are beyond the control of a DC. One
limitation faced by the monitoring and verification process is the non-availability of
data on energy and production from the DCs in relatively less organized sectors
such as pulp and paper and textiles. However, BEE in the future envisages the
adoption of energy management systems and the adoption of ISO 50001:2011
(energy management systems) by the DCs for effective monitoring and verification
to take place.

 Standards & Labelling Programme: BEE or its designated agency (IAME or SDA
or any other agency), shall suo moto carry out check-testing of products as per the
production schedule or regulation to ensure that production models meet the
performance claims. The check-testing of labelled products shall be conducted in
third party NABL accredited laboratories empaneled with BEE. BEE had envisaged
conducting check-testing of around 3,000 labelled products by 2021 and also
empanelment of labs to conduct the same. For the programme, the Bureau of
Indian Standards along with the National Accreditation Board supports BEE in
formulating national standards as well as in undertaking product and quality system
certifications (BEE, 2011).

 The CPCB has been developing national standards for emission and discharge of
environmental pollutants from industry. Schedule – I of the Environment
(Protection) Rules, 1986 lists approximately 95 emission/ discharge standards for
various industries’ operations and processes (CPCB, 2020), to protect and improve
the quality of the environment by preventing and abating environmental pollution.
In order to track pollutant discharge, the CPCB has also directed highly polluting
industries to install online continuous emissions monitoring systems (OCEMS) and
report in real-time (CPCB, 2018b).

 Pro-Active Responsive facilitation by Interactive and Virtuous Environmental

Single-window Hub (PARIVESH) is a web-based, role-based workflow application
which has been developed for online submission and monitoring of the proposals
submitted by project proponents seeking Environment, Forest, Wildlife, and CRZ
Clearances from Central, State and district level authorities. It provides
transparency and efficiency in the working environment, minimizes processing
delay, helps in timely disposal of important issues, and enables one to work from
anywhere, anytime, leading to paperless working, together with ease and flexibility
in retrieving various reports.

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 Under the Smart Cities Mission, a Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework
has been developed by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) for
ranking cities on climatic parameters, including energy and green building, urban
planning and green cover, biodiversity, mobility, and air quality. Extensive data
aggregation efforts across cities and States were facilitated through online portals
verified by the expert committee (MoHUA, 2019b).

 Green Energy Corridor, which ensures grid connectivity to renewable sources, is

being implemented by respective State Transmission Utilities. MNRE, along with a
member from CEA and Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd (PGCIL), monitors the
project implementation every month (MNRE, 2019b).

 For Renewable Energy Certficates (RECs) an IT infrastructure “REC registry” has

been set up by the central agency for accreditation, registration, issuance, and
trading of RECs. This registry brings together different stakeholders such as RE
generators, state agencies, State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs),
and the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) to perform their
respective mandates and monitor compliance with regard to the purchase of RECs
(POSOCO, 2018).

 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), is a bilateral offset credit mechanism

instrument under the Kyoto Protocol. The National CDM Authority is entrusted with
the responsibility for receiving and evaluating projects for host country approval
(MoEFCC, 2004). Project design documents, including different types of data
along with calculations are available at the web portal allowing public scrutiny and
transparency (UNFCCC, 2019).

 In 2018, India prepared its National Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation (REDD+) Strategy to address deforestation and forest
degradation and develop a roadmap for enhancing forest carbon stocks through
the REDD+ initiative. A governance framework consisting of a National Governing
Council (NGC-REDD+) for coordinating, implementing, and measuring the
performance of REDD+ activities is formulated. Other key elements of REDD+ are
the National Forest Reference Level, which serves as a benchmark for assessing
the performance of REDD+ implementation, and National Forest Monitoring
System to periodically communicate relevant and valid information (MoEFCC,
2018).

 The Twenty Point Programme (TPP), which promotes environmental protection

and afforestation, is monitored by MoSPI. Scheme monitoring is carried out at
multiple levels (Centre, State, District, and Block levels) and performance reports
are submitted by State Governments and Central Nodal Ministries on a quarterly
basis (MoSPI, 2018).

319
 Several initiatives are being taken up as part of the National Mission for Sustainable
Agriculture, such as Rainfed Area Development, and sub-Mission on agroforestry
including the National Bamboo Mission, in which several activities are being taken
up which are contributing to mitigation. The progress of the scheme is monitored
continuously and the extent of mitigation achieved is assessed.

4.6 Initiatives by non-governmental stakeholders

Non-governmental stakeholders are also playing an important role in strengthening

the MRV process. They are supplementing India’s efforts towards developing
guidelines and reporting formats, collecting climate-related data sets, estimating
national inventories, and engaging in the technical assessment of the programmes
and policies. Some of the major initiates of the non-governmental stakeholders are as
below:

 The GHG Platform India, a civil society initiative provides an independent

estimation and analysis of India’s GHG emissions across energy, industry,
agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU), and waste. This platform is a joint
effort of several institutions including Vasudha Foundation, Council on Energy,
Environment, and Water (CEEW), Centre for Study of Science, Technology &
Policy (C-STEP), ICLEI – Local Government for Sustainability, and World
Resources Institute (WRI) India (GHG Platform, 2016).

 The Renewable Energy Data Portal by Prayas (Energy Group) is an effort to collate
and make renewable energy information available on a web portal (Prayas, 2015a).
Prayas also manages the Electricity Supply Monitoring Initiative, a web portal that
provides real-time, reliable data on electricity supply quality (Prayas, 2015b).

 The Centre for Energy Finance (CEF) is an initiative by CEEW to track the installed
renewable capacity of States and rates these according to the CEF State Rating
Tool. This rating system measures and compares the attractiveness of States for
investment in utility-scale renewable energy projects on a scale of 0 to 5 (CEEW,
2019).

 The India GHG Program led by WRI India, Confederation of Indian Industry (CII),
and The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) aims to build institutional
capabilities of Indian businesses and has developed a standardised approach to
GHG accounting (India GHG Program, 2018).

 Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP), a not-for-profit organisation, has built an

environmental disclosure system which is a collection of self-reported
environmental (climate change) data from industries (CDP, 2017).

 CII-Climate Action Programme – CAP 2.0 aims to build the capability and capacity
of Indian industry on climate action by recognising best practices. The programme
collects data and information from large and small industry alike on various aspects

320
 of climate change mitigation and adaptation, which includes long-, middle- and
short-term strategies and targets. The programme is a repository of verified
information on various works being undertaken by Indian industry on climate
change mitigation and adaptation along with critical data on energy, GHG, water
(as risk), which are critical to a transparent and robust MRV system.

4.7 Transitioning to enhanced transparency

One of the key outcomes of COP24, the adoption of the Enhanced Transparency
Framework (ETF), requires that all Parties adhere to common reporting formats, as
well as disclosure of more detailed, additional, and authenticated data (UNFCCC,
2018). For its preparation, under the capacity building initiative for transparency, the
Global Environment Facility (GEF) has approved India’s project proposal – ‘Capacity-
building for establishing an Integrated and Enhanced Transparency Framework for
Climate Actions and Support Measures.’ This project aims to create an enabling
environment for domestic planners to follow the enhanced transparency framework
guidelines through a coordinated mechanism. One of the important project outcomes
would be to create a web-based National Institutional Coordination System (NICS) to
coordinate stakeholders for climate reporting (CBIT, 2019).

Strengthening transparency in the form of dashboards, data repositories, and scheme-

specific monitoring provisions has acted as a catalyst in planning and coordinating
mitigation activities effectively. While these are essential steps, support is needed to
enhance the institutions' capacity to report accurate data in a timely manner. Further,
there is a risk of repetition and data overlap across MRV processes/activities. To
prevent this, the future MRV framework needs to adopt standardised methodologies
and templates across institutions. The MRV process must also have a provision to
track the information and other contributions received from various international
sources and monitor their impact as well as their contribution towards meeting the
regional domestic and climate goals.

An accomplished MRV system enables the achievement of maximum mitigation

through end-to-end information management of a given system. An integrated MRV
system requires streamlined data management systems, improved technical skills,
analytical capabilities, and most importantly, coordination amongst stakeholders. The
development of a robust MRV system requires additional finance along with capacity
building.

In terms of technical aspects, establishing robust energy management systems that

can help develop strong reporting and verification systems is essential. The
establishment of such energy management systems would require financial resources
to achieve the necessary scale and speed. Further, to implement such activities, the
need for an educated and skilled workforce is also necessary so that capacity building
of professionals related to energy such as AEAS, technicians, retailers and others, can
take place more effectively.

321
Thus, to meet future commitments and develop an integrated MRV system, India
requires new and additional finance, technology, and capacity-building support.

4.7.1 The aims and ends of MRV and the ETF

While India adheres to all UNFCCC decisions on MRV and related issues of
transparency and accountability, the international context leaves much room for
concern. As noted earlier, the impact of MRV is an increasing burden for developing
countries and is now at a stage when the ETF will require that scarce resources be
diverted towards fulfilling reporting obligations. Accuracy, as demanded in the ETF,
will constitute an expensive effort as diffused emissions from widely distributed
sources, often located in traditional or informal sectors, are much harder to monitor or
track (for instance gas stoves with piped or cylinder gas supply vs wood-burning
cookstoves). The same problem arises with the varied landscapes with significant
biodiversity, whose inventory of sinks and sources would necessitate considerable
effort. Emissions from such diffuse or informal sectors also arise from the activity of
the most vulnerable sections of the population. It is arguable whether equity
considerations require such intense monitoring of these sectors, instead of focusing
on eradicating their development deficits. This is particularly applicable to a number of
developing countries, including India.

On the other hand, if MRV is to perform the function of promoting good practices,
learning in mitigation, and increasing effort and ambition in mitigation, then decades
of MRV advocacy by the Annex-I Parties must be deemed to have produced scant
results by their own standards. More than 25 years after the Convention was signed,
the emissions reduction in annual emissions of the non-EIT-Annex-I Parties is of the
order of 1.5 per cent between 1990 and 2018, while for 1990-2020 these are likely to
post an increase of 0.4 per cent (SBI, 2020). BRs and NATCOMs are not submitted
generally on time, even by the most financially endowed nations. In the matter of
finance, reaching agreement on MRV has proven increasingly fraught with divisions,
and reporting standards sought by Parties are widely varying. In technology transfer,
the global IPR regime provides little real information on the extent of innovation and
technology development and its adequacy in the context of facing up to the global
challenge.

MRV and ETF alone cannot produce climate action, nor does political science provide
us the confidence that identifying individual country’s lapses will promote greater
compliance. While necessary MRV mechanisms must be in place, it would be
erroneous to mistake MRV for real climate action that makes a difference.

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*****

327
Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT)
Dedicated scheme for energy efficiency in industries and
other energy-intensive sectors under National Mission on
Enhanced Energy Efficiency, one of the eight missions
under the National Action Plan on Climate Change

Legislative measure under Energy Conservation Act, 2001

PAT Cycle II
(2016-17 to 2018-19)

PAT Cycle I
(2012-13 to 2014-15)

Reduction achieved Reduction achieved

31 MtCO2 61.34 MtCO2

381 of 558
Spratt, A. (2018). Ranthambore National Park, Rajasthan.

Vikram (2019). Worli Sealink, Mumbai, Maharashtra.

 Key Points

Chapter 5 Finance, Technology and Capacity Building Needs

and Support Received

 This chapter provides information on financial resources, technology transfer, and

capacity-building needs for activities relating to climate change.
 India is a developing country with limited financial resources. Climate-induced
events and disasters are growing, putting an enormous, additional burden on the
country’s developmental efforts. At the same time, India’s financial needs to fulfil
its obligations under the Convention and the Paris Agreement are growing
significantly and require new, additional, and climate-specific financial resources.
 On the financial needs of India’s NDCs, estimates have already indicated that India
would need at least USD 206 billion (at 2014-15 prices) between 2015 and 2030
for implementing adaptation actions in key areas. Mitigation requirements for even
moderate low-carbon development have been projected to be in the range of USD
834 billion until 2030 at 2011 prices.
 Green Climate Fund finance to India is inadequate and is likely to fall drastically
short of meeting India’s finance requirements.
 The funds for GEF-7 replenishment (2018-2022) are lower than GEF-6 and the
funds under climate change focal area have also reduced. India’s STAR allocation
for climate change has declined by almost 50 per cent from GEF-6 (USD 87.88
million) to GEF-7 (USD 47.24 million). Despite being a developing country with a
development deficit and limited financial resources, India has consistently
contributed and continues to do so annually to the GEF Trust Fund as a resource
providing party member.
 Despite the commitments and responsibilities of Annex-I Parties, their contribution
to climate finance suffers on account of scale, scope and speed. They are largely
not new and additional, highly inadequate in scale, misplaced in scope without
balance favoring mitigation strongly over adaptation, and dominated by loans
rather than grants. Annex-I Parties are tardy in implementation of the goal of
providing USD 100 billion annually, the target year having been pushed back from
2020 to 2025.
 India’s climate actions are largely financed from domestic sources, using both
budgetary sources as well as a mix of market mechanisms, combined with fiscal
instruments and policy interventions. The national initiatives include the Climate
Change Action Programme (CCAP), and the National Adaptation Fund on Climate
Change (NAFCC).

330
 India’s efforts at domestic mobilization of finance include the promotion of a green
bond market that is the second largest emerging market for the period 2012-2019.
A number of government agencies have contributed to the issuance of such green
bonds including the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) and
the Indian Railway Finance Corporation (IRFC).
 Support to enhance capacity building is of much importance to India. All
Government programs have a component on capacity building, or training or
awareness creation or combinations thereof. Weather and climate forecasting and
other services, and the establishment of robust energy management systems, are
among key areas where capacity building is needed.
 Adequate financing is required for the adoption of viable cutting-edge technologies
in India. The Government of India considers international cooperation essential
and was instrumental in shaping Mission Innovation (MI) which is a global
intergovernmental initiative of 25 countries on 5 continents working to accelerate
clean energy innovations.
 Some of India’s identified major technology needs are in the areas of solar
photovoltaic, offshore wind, advanced ultra-supercritical coal technology, biofuels,
and cost-effective energy storage in order to pursue import substitution, cut high
costs and dependence on international supply chains and to pursue early
development and deployment of future technologies and practices.
 Since 2009-2011, patenting across a wide range of climate change mitigation
technologies, from all developed countries, has fallen sharply. This raises
concerns of the slowing down of climate related technology development, instead
of taking the lead in such innovation, in the developed countries, in the absence of
legally binding commitments to emissions reduction on their part.
 India has been contributing increasingly to South-South co-operation in climate
change, especially with small island developing states and other countries in
India's neighborhood. Since 2005-06, India's development partnerships have led
to more than 307 Lines of Credit, aggregating to the value of USD 31.61 billion,
being extended to 64 countries in various sectors.

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 Chapter 5
Finance, Technology and Capacity-building Needs and
Support Received
5.1 Introduction

As required by Section V of Annex III to Decision 2/CP.17, this chapter provides

updated information on financial resources, technology transfer, capacity-building, and
technical support received by India from the Global Environment Facility (GEF),
Parties included in Annex II to UNFCCC, the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and
multilateral institutions, and other developed country Parties for activities relating to
climate change, including the preparation of the current BUR. For the development
and transfer of technology, the chapter provides information on nationally determined
technology needs and support received.

The present chapter covers information on the finance, technology, capacity-building

needs, gaps, and support received.

As India is a vast, diverse country battling several socio-economic and environmental

challenges, the information in the chapter should be considered provisional, partial,
and non-exhaustive.

India has been consistently reporting on constraints and gaps and related financial,
technical and capacity-building needs periodically since 2004 with the submission of
Initial National Communication to UNFCCC and thereafter, the Second National
Communication in 2012, the First BUR in 2016, and the Second BUR in 2018. The
country's identified constraints and gaps were reiterated further in the International
Consultation and Analysis (ICA) conducted by UNFCCC for BUR-1 in 2017 and BUR-
2 in 2019 and were documented in the respective Summary Reports prepared by the
Team of Technical Experts (TTE). However, these clearly expressed, documented,
and publicly available financial, technical, and capacity-building needs and
requirements remain largely unmet. Therefore, this chapter should be read in
conjunction with the information furnished by the GoI to UNFCCC since 2004.

5.1.1 Context

The reporting context of this BUR is significant both from the global and India’s
perspective. Globally, the year 2019 witnessed, on the one hand, an unprecedented
increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases, particularly CO2, heatwaves, and
weather-related damages across the world. On the other hand, there is a growing
volume of robust scientific evidence urging climate action. For India, the year 2019
was the seventh warmest year on the record (since nation-wide records commenced
in 1901), while annual rainfall over the country was 109 per cent of its Long Period
Average (LPA) value for the period 1961-2010 (IMD, 2020). Globally, India is the 2nd
most affected country by floods, which have accounted for 44 per cent of all disaster

332
events from 2000 and 2019. India experienced an average 17 flood events per year,
affecting approximately 345 million people. According to the latest report published by
the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), India ranks third in
the highest number of disaster events recorded over the last 20 years, almost 321
(UNDRR, 2020). According to Global Climate Risk Index 2020, India was one of the
topmost affected countries due to climate change in 2018, incurring losses of USD 37
billion and 2081 deaths, both highest globally in absolute terms (Germanwatch, 2020).
The economic loss was nearly twice that India lost between 1998 and 2017 USD 79.5
billion (UNISDR, 2018).

The super cyclonic storm Amphan with wind speeds of 190 kmph caused widespread
damage in coastal areas of West Bengal and Odisha in May 2020. The GoI has
announced an immediate interim relief and recovery package of INR 15 billion for both
the States (PIB, 2020a, 2020b). The economic cost of loss and damage caused by
weather-related events is huge for a developing country like India. Floods in the city
of Mumbai and Chennai have caused loss of assets, livelihoods and access to basic
services, which had short to medium term financial implications on households'
attempt to rebuild lives and restore assets to pre-flood levels (Patankar, 2019).
Moreover, small businesses, because of their limited technical and financial capacity
for effective business continuity plans, are more vulnerable than large businesses
during natural disasters such as floods. These findings make it important to assess
the long-term economic impacts of extreme events on the poor and the need for a
protective social safety net to prevent them from falling further into poverty and debt.

India is one of the worst-hit countries by the COVID-19 pandemic. The measures
undertaken to control the pandemic have placed a severe strain on India’s economy
and resources. The COVID-19 pandemic and the consequent lockdowns have had
their impact on both demand and supply-side elements of the economy (TIFAC, 2020).
It has adversely impacted the manufacturing and services sector, taken a toll on urban
and rural employment and negatively impacted household income and consumption,
especially of daily wage earners and those belonging to the unorganized sector. Close
on the heels of the pandemic, India also had to grapple with several weather-related
extreme events.

India is a developing country with limited financial resources that are being over-
stretched to provide relief and rebuild disaster-hit populations, livelihoods and local
and regional economies. Climate-induced events and disasters are growing, putting
an enormous, additional, and unjustified burden on the country’s developmental
challenges. This underlines the importance of strengthening scientific research,
applying technology, and proactive planning to ensure the health and security of the
people and sustainable development in the face of natural disasters and climate-
induced extreme events. However, meaningful progress in this direction can only be
made by India when the commitments by developed countries of providing new,

333
additional, climate-specific finance, technology transfer and support to developing
countries are fulfilled in a time-bound manner.

5.2 Financial needs and support received

Three cardinal points need to be recognized concerning the question of climate

finance.

First, India has always emphasized the responsibility of the developed countries as
enshrined in the Convention, and thus their commitment as signatories, that climate
finance has to be new and additional to development finance. However, this
commitment has neither been adhered to in practice, nor is it even possible to
determine exactly the extent of non-compliance due to the plethora of issues that afflict
international climate finance accounting. India has repeatedly drawn the international
community's attention to this issue over several years (MoF, 2015).

Second, climate change mitigation and climate action are increasingly becoming a
fashionable conditionality on all aid to developing countries, in the name of sustainable
development. This tantamount to asking the victims of global warming to partake in
solving the problem, while little is being done by those overwhelmingly responsible for
the problem to curb their resource-intensive production systems and profligate
lifestyles and the consequent emissions.

Third, India’s need in climate finance stems from both mitigation and adaptation.
However, as the developed countries continually delay climate action to reduce GHG
emissions rapidly and effectively, having reduced annual non-LULUCF emissions from
1990 to 2018 by a mere 12.5 per cent (with non-EIT (Economies In Transition) Parties
contributing a mere 1.5 per cent) (SBI, 2020), they are constantly contributing to
increasing the impact of global warming and thus the need for adaptation. This, in turn
is constantly adding to India’s adaptation burden that is already considerable.

5.2.1 The International context in climate finance

The flow of climate finance needs to be contextualized in the light of the ongoing
discussions and negotiations under the UNFCCC. This section deals with the
immediate issues relating to the short-term commitments made by Annex-I Parties and
the global performance in relation to these commitments. These issues have been
succinctly summarized in the discussion paper of the Department of Economic Affairs,
Ministry of Finance, GoI (DEA, 2018). The discussion paper points out serious
shortcomings in the scope, scale, and speed of the climate finance made available to
developing countries by Annex I countries, by multilateral development banks, and
multilateral climate funds, including UNFCCC funds. Further, it notes various
shortcomings in defining, tracking, and reporting climate finance.

334
The Report of the "Sub-Committee for the Assessment of the financial requirements
for implementing India’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)", of the
Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Government of India (DEA,
2020) notes that the scale of the climate finance made available to developing
countries is currently inadequate to meet their mitigation goals and adaptation needs.
At COP 15 at Copenhagen in 2009, the developed countries had collectively
committed to jointly mobilizing 100 billion USD annually by 2020 to provide support to
developing countries to mitigate and adapt to climate change. However, this goal is
acknowledged to be inadequate in relation to developing countries' needs, including
India’s. The Adaptation Finance Gap Report 2016 of the UNEP estimated that the
annual costs of adaptation alone could range from USD 140 billion to USD 300 billion
by 2030 (UNEP, 2016). The report also noted that the currently available adaptation
finance is significantly lower than the needs expressed in the NDCs, which have been
estimated at over USD 50 billion per year for fifty non-Annex I countries for the period
2020 to 2030, and much lower than the estimated costs of adaptation.

On the question of speed, the Annex II countries have made remarkably slow progress
in achieving even the annual 100 billion USD climate finance target (DEA, 2020). The
Conference of Parties (COPs) 21 in Paris in 2015 addressed this by extending the
target year for the USD 100 billion mobilization goal to 2025. The sources and
governance of climate finance have been discussed at length and is an intensely
debated issue at COP meetings. Even after 25 years of climate change negotiations,
international and independent scholarly literature notes that there is still no adequate
system for defining, categorizing, tracking, reporting, and ensuring transparency in
international climate change finance (DEA, 2018; Khan et al., 2020; Weikmans and
Roberts, 2019). Further, poorly harmonized accounting and reporting practices pose
a challenge for tracking potential sectoral or geographical gaps in the financial means
that are needed for mitigation and adaptation in developing countries (Weikmans and
Roberts, 2019; DEA, 2018).

While acknowledging such gaps, the UNFCCC’s Standing Committee on Finance

(SCF) 2018 Biennial Assessment of climate finance flows reported that the climate-
specific finance provided by Annex II countries to developing countries, as reported in
their Biennial Reports, amounted to only 26.61 billion USD in 2014 and 32.98 billion
USD in 2015, falling short of the 100 billion USD annual target (SCF, 2018).
Concessional loans formed 52 per cent surpassing grants (47 per cent) as the
dominant mode of provision of bilateral finance.

The total amounts channeled through UNFCCC funds and multilateral climate funds
in 2015 and 2016 were only USD 1.4 billion and USD 2.4 billion, respectively. On the
whole, this represents a decrease in UNFCCC and multilateral climate funds by 13 per
cent over the previous 2013-2014 biennium. Of these flows, 51 per cent were in the
form of grants and 44 per cent in concessional loans. Multilateral development banks’
climate finance flow to OECD-Development Assistance (DAC) countries, minus

335
Republic of Korea, came to USD 1.7 billion in 2015 and USD 19.7 billion in 2016.
However, most of this assistance is in the form of concessional loans (74 per cent)
rather than grants, which comprised only 9 per cent of the assistance.

Regarding the scope of climate finance, despite the repeated calls for maintaining a
balance between adaptation and mitigation finance, and such a provision being
enshrined in the Paris Agreement (Article 9.4), climate finance has remained skewed
towards mitigation. The SCF’s Biennial Assessment Report 2018 finds that in 2015
and 2016, out of the annual average of 31.7 billion USD of bilateral climate finance,
50 per cent went to mitigation and 29 per cent to adaptation. In the same period, 53
per cent of multilateral climate funds (of the annual average of 1.9 billion USD) and 79
per cent of multilateral development banks (MDBs) climate finance (of annual average
of 24.4 billion USD) went towards supporting mitigation. Support for adaptation
constituted 25 per cent for multilateral climate funds and 21 per cent for MDBs climate
finance (SCF, 2018).

Even the Adaptation Fund has pledged less than USD 1 billion (as of September
2019). The Adaptation Fund managed to mobilize only USD 90 million in New Pledges
for 2019 at COP 25 from 11 different national and regional governments (Adaptation
Fund, 2019).

Moreover, many developing countries lack the capacity and resources to effectively
track climate finance and need support in the form of technical assistance and capacity
building to develop such capabilities.

5.2.2 Financial needs

India’s financial needs to fulfill its obligations under the Convention and the Paris
Agreement are enormous and multiplying rapidly in the present-day context. This
increases India’s financial needs to pursue both a low-carbon development pathway,
dealing with all development deficits, while simultaneously dealing with the growing
impacts of extreme events and other consequences of global warming. Such a
transition to a low carbon economy while continuously weathering climate-induced
events and disasters is a costly affair that requires new, additional, and climate-
specific financial resources.

India’s submission of its INDCs had noted, in section 5.1, the following financial needs
for its implementation. (i) Preliminary estimates indicated that India would need around
USD 206 billion (at 2014-15 prices) between 2015 and 2030 for implementing
adaptation actions in agriculture, forestry, fisheries infrastructure, water resources and
ecosystems. (ii) Apart from this there will be additional investments needed for
strengthening resilience and disaster management. (iii) An Asian Development Bank
Study on assessing the costs of climate change adaptation in South Asia indicated
that approximate adaptation costs for India in the energy sector alone would be
roughly USD 7.7 billion in 2030s. The report also projected the economic damage and

336
losses in India from climate change would be around 1.8 per cent of its GDP annually
by 2050. (iv) Mitigation requirements were even more onerous. Estimates by NITI
Aayog indicated that the mitigation activities for moderate low carbon development
would cost around USD 834 billion till 2030 at 2011 prices.

India’s INDC submission also noted that a substantial scaling up of the climate action
plans would require greater resources and that a detailed and full scale assessment
of international climate finance needs would be finalized at a later stage. It would
depend on the gap between the actual cost of implementing India’s plans and what
could be made available from domestic sources. Overall, the INDC submission
provided a preliminary estimate, suggesting that at least USD 2.5 trillion (at 2014-15
prices) would be required for meeting India's climate change actions between 2015
and 2030.

5.2.3 Support received

The Tables below provide information on climate finance committed to India through
various channels: a) UNFCCC funds (GEF, Green Climate Fund (GCF), Adaptation
Fund) and other multilateral climate funds (Clean Technology Fund (CTF)); b)
climate-specific finance through bilateral and regional channels; c) Multilateral
development banks (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
and International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank group, Asian
Development Bank (ADB) and New Development Bank. Improving the reporting in
India’s previous BURs, these Tables seek to provide more complete and
disaggregated information on climate finance. However, the figures here are drawn
only from the websites and other open sources of the entities involved. The claims of
specificity to climate finance, either wholly or in part, are by the entities. These may
not meet the criteria provided in the Convention and articulated by India to the global
community.

The climate finance information from multilateral funds and multilateral development
is prejudiced by many issues, raising serious questions of transparency as India
noted some years ago (MoF, 2015), and the situation has not substantially changed
since. For instance, in cross-cutting projects, the methodology followed for attributing
the percentage of finance to mitigation and adaptation is not explicit, raising questions
of transparency and comparability. In the case of non-energy infrastructure projects,
it was not even clear how the contribution of climate finance was calculated; for
example, in rural roads projects.

Data collection on bilateral channels was more difficult because of the lack of proper
reporting by various overseas development agencies and the difficulties faced by
government ministries in India. The Table on bilateral channels therefore is fairly
indicative but not exhaustive.

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For all the channels, only projects that have been approved for implementation and
the approved amount (notwithstanding the actual disbursal) were included.
Consequently, approved concept notes under GEF-7, for example, are not included
in the Table.

As noted in the earlier section on international context for climate finance, the Tables
clearly show that internationally available climate finance to India remains skewed
towards mitigation rather than adaptation, and towards concessional loans instead of
grants. More importantly, much of the finance made available by these sources,
whether grants or loans, have perforce to be accompanied by co-financing that India
has to generate internally, often from public funding. In many projects, the external
funding is overshadowed by the domestic funding that is mobilized. These projects
also, right from the inception stage to implementation and evaluation, generate
valuable economic and market information for agencies and actors from developed
countries that provide them, gratis, with perspectives on the Indian economy for future
investment and participation in future projects.

In fact, as Table 5.1 clearly shows, the domestic mobilization fully overshadows the
sum total of GCF and GEF funding. While GEF and GCF have provided grants to a
total of 165.25 million USD, the corresponding domestic mobilization amounts to 1.374
billion USD. Thus, domestic mobilization amounts to 8.3 times the grants provided by
GCF and GEF. In the one loan provided by GCF, the amount is matched by an equal
amount of domestic private mobilization and 50 million USD of other private equity. In
the case of CTF loans, since the implementing agencies are MDBs these have co-
financing as a rule. Other finance, made available through MDBs, are largely
packaged into other projects which as a rule require co-financing by GoI and State
governments.

The GCF finance to India based on the latest available information, amounts to only
USD 177 million (since inception), out of which only USD 77.8 million is grant-based
finance. For the developing countries, the estimated costs for implementing NDCs
would be much more than USD 4 trillion. GCF’s first replenishment (2020-2023)
process saw 28 countries pledging an amount of USD 9.7 billion, which is even
quantitatively lower than the Initial Resource Mobilization (in 2014). If the current trend
prevails, these funds will drastically fall short of meeting the requirements.

During the reporting period, besides the Small Industries Development Bank of India
(SIDBI) and NABARD, three agencies from India have attained the status of GCF’s
direct access accredited entities. These are IDFC Bank Limited (IDFC Bank), IL&FS
Environmental Infrastructure and Services Limited (IEISL) and Yes Bank Limited (Yes
Bank).

GEF, the interim operating entity of the financial mechanism of UNFCCC, financed
about USD 5.6 billion in the last 27 years for mitigation. The funds for GEF-7
replenishment (2018-2022) are lower than GEF-6 and the funds under climate change

338
focal area have also reduced. Consequently, India’s STAR allocation declined by
almost 50 per cent from GEF-6 (USD 87.88 million) (GEF, 2014) to GEF-7 (USD 47.24
million) (GEF, 2018). India has about 8.45 per cent of total GEF-7 STAR indicative
allocation under climate change.

During the reporting period, India has also accessed climate change-related projects
through the World Bank (WB), Asian Development Bank (ADB), New Development
Bank (NDB), Climate Investment Fund (CIF), Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC)
and GiZ. A large number of these projects also involve co-financing by government of
India, the state governments or other domestic sources of funding.

Finance accessed through Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) from 2016 is listed
in Table 5.2. A non-exhaustive and indicative list of finance accessed through bilateral
arrangements is listed in Table 5.3. In both these Tables, as in Table 5.1, the claims
to the funds being climate-specific, wholly or in part, are due to the entities and not, as
India has pointed out, as specified in the Convention. In particular i) they are neither
new nor additional as they are clearly bundled into ODA funding, ii) they are
overwhelmingly dominated by loans and not grants, and iii) they are dominated by
mitigation and not balanced adequately by adaptation as well.

339
Table 5.1: Climate finance received through multilateral climate funds

Funding amount

Date of approval
Co-Financing by
(in million USD)
Cross cutting)
Project name

Support area
Finance type

Adaptation,
(Mitigation,
institution
Funding
(Grant/

Sector
S. No.

Loan)

India#
Forestry and land use,
Enhancing Climate Resilience of India’s Coastal Cross- 20 October
1 Grant GCF* ecosystem and 43.42 86.85
Communities Cutting 2018
ecosystem services,
Line of credit for solar rooftop segment for
Energy access and
2 Loan GCF commercial, industrial and residential housing Mitigation 100.00 01 March 2018
power generation
sectors
Groundwater recharge and solar micro-irrigation Health and well-being,
3 Grant GCF to ensure food security and enhance resilience in Adaptation and food and water 34.36 124.88 06 April 2017
vulnerable tribal areas of Odisha security
AVACLIM : Agro-ecology, Ensuring Food Security
Agriculture, natural
and Sustainable Livelihoods while Mitigating Cross 06 September
4 Grant GEF** resources, land 0.03 ---
Climate Change and Restoring Land in Dryland Cutting 2019
degradation
Regions
Cities-IAP: Sustainable Cities, Integrated Cross Sustainable cities, 20 February
5 Grant GEF 12.11 93.48
Approach Pilot in India Cutting Infrastructure 2017
Creating and Sustaining Markets for Energy
6 Grant GEF Mitigation Energy efficiency 18.86 201.96 31 May 2017
Efficiency
20 September
7 Grant GEF Grid-Connected Rooftop Solar Program Mitigation Solar energy 22.94 2.00
2016
Green-Ag: Transforming Indian Agriculture for
Agriculture,
Global Environmental Benefits and the Cross
8 Grant GEF biodiversity, land 33.56 864.89 17 May 2018
Conservation of Critical Biodiversity and Forest Cutting
degradation
Landscapes
Development Policy Loan to Promote Inclusive
9 Loan CTF*** Green Growth and Sustainable Development in Mitigation Renewable energy 100.00 2019
Himachal Pradesh
10 Loan CTF Partial Risk Sharing Facility for Energy Efficiency Mitigation Energy efficiency 25.00 2019

340
 Funding amount

Date of approval
Co-Financing by
(in million USD)
Cross cutting)
Project name

Support area
Finance type

Adaptation,
(Mitigation,
institution
Funding
(Grant/

Sector
S. No.

Loan)

India#
Rajasthan Renewable Energy Transmission
11 Loan CTF Investment Program (Multi-tranche Financing Mitigation Renewable energy 200.00 2019
Facility / MFF)
12 Loan CTF Shared Infrastructure for Solar Parks Mitigation Renewable energy 50.00 2019
13 Loan CTF Grid-Connected Rooftop Solar Program Mitigation Renewable energy 125.00 2019
Innovations in Solar Power and Hybrid
14 Loan CTF Mitigation Renewable energy 50.00 2019
Technologies
Solar Rooftop Investment Program Guaranteed by
15 Loan CTF Mitigation Renewable energy 175.00 2019
India
Proposed Loan Power Grid Corporation of India
16 Loan CTF Limited Solar Power Transmission Sector Project Mitigation Renewable energy 50.00 2019
Guaranteed by India
Building Adaptive Capacities of Communities,
Adaptation
17 Grant Livelihoods and Ecological Security in the Kanha- Adaptation Forestry 2.56 10 July 2016
Fund****
Pench Corridor of Madhya Pradesh
Building Adaptive Capacities of Small Inland
Adaptation 04 October
18 Grant Fishermen Community for Climate Resilience and Adaptation Food security 1.79
Fund 2015
Livelihood Security, Madhya Pradesh, India
Climate smart actions and strategies in north
Adaptation western Himalayan region for sustainable 10 September
19 Grant Adaptation Agriculture 0.97
Fund livelihoods of agriculture-dependent hill 2015
communities
Climate Proofing of Watershed Development
Adaptation 10 September
20 Grant Projects in the States of Tamil Nadu and Adaptation Water management 1.34
Fund 2015
Rajasthan

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 Funding amount

Date of approval
Co-Financing by
(in million USD)
Cross cutting)
Project name

Support area
Finance type

Adaptation,
(Mitigation,
institution
Funding
(Grant/

Sector
S. No.

Loan)

India#
Enhancing Adaptive Capacity and Increasing
Adaptation 10 October
21 Grant Resilience of Small and Marginal Farmers in Adaptation Agriculture 2.51
Fund 2014
Purulia and Bankura Districts of West Bengal
Conservation and Management of Coastal
Adaptation 10 October
22 Grant Resources as a Potential Adaptation Strategy for Adaptation Coastal management 0.69
Fund 2014
Sea Level Rise
*GCF data for India is for all commitments till date.
#As extracted from available sources. Absence of co-financing figures for some projects only indicates non availability of data and does not necessarily imply

that no co-financing was provided.

**Only projects approved for implementation from GEF-6 onwards are included.
***The reporting date for all CTF finance is 2019. The project may have been approved earlier.
****Adaptation Fund finance received from the year 2014 onwards
Note: i) The information in the table is taken from the entity provided material on their website or other open sources. These are not from any database of the
Government of India or a database verified by GoI.
ii) The classification of Support Area and Sector for each project is as designated and claimed by the agency and may not reflect accurately the nature of the
project on the ground or the relative weight of different sectors in the project.
iii) Some CTF projects may also be listed in Table 5.2. This is not double counting but reflects co-financing by MDBs along with CTF.
iv) Several projects are classified and claimed as fully or partially climate-specific by the entities. These may not meet the criteria for climate finance as
provided by the Convention and articulated by India to the global community for consideration as part of climate support and climate finance.

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Table 5.2: Multilateral development banks climate finance for India from year 2016 onwards

claimed by the
finance (%) as

Climate focus
Project name

(million USD)

(million USD)
(million USD)
Finance type
(Grant/Loan)

commitment

approval of
Adaptation
concerned
institution

Mitigation
Funding

Climate

finance

finance

Date of

project
Sector
S. No.

entity
Total
IBRD Uttar Pradesh Core Road Network Cross 29 March
1 Loan Transport 400 30.85% 88.3 35.11
* Development Project cutting 2019
Rajasthan State Highways Cross 29 March
2 Loan IBRD Transport 250 30.50% 54 22.5
Development Program II cutting 2019
Second Programmatic Electricity Energy and
3 Loan IBRD 250 50% Mitigation 0 125 07 May 2018
Distribution Reform DPL for Rajasthan extractives
Innovation in Solar Power and Hybrid Energy and 29 March
4 Loan IBRD 150 100% Mitigation 0 150
Technologies extractives 2019
AP Integrated Irrigation & Agriculture Cross 23 October
5 Loan IBRD Agriculture and food 172.2 90.66% 148.82 7.3
Transformation Project cutting 2018
12
Jharkhand Municipal Development Cross
6 Loan IBRD 147 31.15% 40.23 5.56 December
Project cutting
2018
Jharkhand Power System Energy and 10 January
7 Loan IBRD 310 29.30% Mitigation 0 90.84
Improvement Project extractives 2018
Uttarakhand Disaster Recovery Project Social, urban, rural 21 February
8 Loan IBRD 96 64.70% Adaptation 62.11 0
Additional Financing and resilience 2019
Tamil Nadu Health System Reform Health nutrition and 19 March
9 Loan IBRD 287 3.71% Adaptation 10.64 0
Program population 2019
Uttarakhand Public Financial Cross
10 Loan IBRD Governance 31.58 1.39% 0.22 0.22 03 July 2019
Management Strengthening Project cutting
Dam Rehabilitation & Improvement
28 February
11 Loan IBRD Project - Restructuring and Additional Water 137 100% Adaptation 137 0
2019
Financing
Shimla Water Supply and Sewerage
Cross 16 January
12 Loan IBRD Service Delivery Reform Programmatic Water 40 29.98% 2.14 9.85
cutting 2019
Development Policy Loan 1
The First Resilient Kerala Program Social, urban, rural Cross 27 June
13 Loan IDA 250 90.63% 210.95 15.62
Development Policy Operation and resilience cutting 2019

343
 claimed by the
finance (%) as

Climate focus
Project name

(million USD)

(million USD)
(million USD)
Finance type
(Grant/Loan)

commitment

approval of
Adaptation
concerned
institution

Mitigation
Funding

Climate

finance

finance

Date of

project
Sector
S. No.

entity
Total
Madhya Pradesh Rural Connectivity 14 March
14 Loan IBRD Transport 210 89.30% Adaptation 187.54 0
project 2018
National Agricultural Higher Education Cross 3 August
15 Loan IBRD Agriculture 82.5 4.82% 1.99 1.99
Project cutting 2017
Tamil Nadu Irrigated Agriculture Cross 1 December
16 Loan IBRD Agriculture 318 95.84% 280.83 23.94
Modernization Project cutting 2017
Maharashtra Project on Climate Cross 27 February
17 Loan IBRD Agriculture 420 94.21% 372.58 23.1
Resilient Agriculture cutting 2018
Uttarakhand Water Supply Program for Cross 4 January
18 Loan IBRD Water 120 47.72% 14.96 42.3
Peri Urban Areas cutting 2018
National Rural Economic
Transformation Project (Additional Cross
19 Loan IBRD Agriculture 250 23.53% 26.75 32.07 26 April 2018
Financing to National Rural cutting
Livelihoods Project)
Uttarakhand Workforce Development Cross 19 June
20 Loan IBRD Education 74 6.77% 2.48 2.53
Project cutting 2018
Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY)-National
Cross
21 Loan IBRD Groundwater Management Water 450 83.28% 150.12 224.65 5 June 2018
cutting
Improvement
Meghalaya Community-led Environment and Cross 13 March
22 Loan IBRD 48 100% 14.48 33.52
Landscapes Management Project natural resources cutting 2018
National Nutrition Mission (also known
as ICDS Systems Strengthening and 30 March
23 Loan IBRD Health 200 36.38% Adaptation 72.75 0
Nutrition Improvement Project: 2018
Additional Financing)
India Energy Efficiency Scale-up
24 Loan IBRD 220 100% Mitigation 0 220 17 May 2018
Program
Additional Financing for PMGSY Rural Cross
25 Loan IBRD Transport 500 40.87% 185.41 18.93 25 May 2018
Roads Project cutting
India Energy Efficiency Scale-Up
26 Loan IBRD 80 100% Mitigation 0 80 17 May 2018
Program Guarantee

344
 claimed by the
finance (%) as

Climate focus
Project name

(million USD)

(million USD)
(million USD)
Finance type
(Grant/Loan)

commitment

approval of
Adaptation
concerned
institution

Mitigation
Funding

Climate

finance

finance

Date of

project
Sector
S. No.

entity
Total
Tamil Nadu Rural Transformation 1 December
27 Loan IBRD Agriculture 100 2.35% Mitigation 0 2.35
Project (TNRTP) 2017
Assam Agribusiness and Rural Cross 31 August
28 Loan IBRD Agriculture 200 26.89% 36.71 17.06
Transformation Project cutting 2017
Energy transmission
29 Loan IBRD Andhra Pradesh 24X7 Power for All 240 20% Mitigation 0 48 26 May 2017
and distribution
Jharkhand Opportunities for Other Agriculture; Cross
30 Loan IBRD 100 32% 20 12 26 May 2017
Harnessing Rural Growth Project Fishing and Forestry cutting
Madhya Pradesh Urban Development Cross
31 Loan IBRD Sanitation 116.2 35% 37.184 3.486 12 April 2017
Project cutting
Capacity Augmentation of the National
32 Loan IBRD Waterway- 1 (JAL MARG VIKAS) Ports/ waterways 375 100% Mitigation 0 375 12 April 2017
Project
Shared Infrastructure for Solar Parks Energy transmission 30 March
33 Loan IBRD 75 100% Mitigation 0 75
Project and distribution 2017
Other water supply;
15 March
34 Loan IBRD National Hydrology Project sanitation and waste 175 100% Mitigation 0 175
2017
management
21
Rural and inter-urban
35 Loan IDA Bihar Rural Roads Project 235 45% Adaptation 105.75 0 December
roads
2016
Grid-Connected Rooftop Solar Renewable energy
36 Loan IBRD 500 100% Mitigation 0 500 13 May 2016
Program solar
First Programmatic Electricity
Energy Transmission 25 March
37 Loan IBRD Distribution Reform Development 250 29% Mitigation 0 72.5
and Distribution 2016
Policy Loan for Rajasthan
30
Demand Side Energy Efficiency Sector
38 Loan ADB Energy 200 100% Mitigation 0 200 September
Project
2016
Solar Rooftop Investment Program - 7 October
39 Loan ADB Finance 100 100% Mitigation 0 100
Tranche 1 2016

345
 claimed by the
finance (%) as

Climate focus
Project name

(million USD)

(million USD)
(million USD)
Finance type
(Grant/Loan)

commitment

approval of
Adaptation
concerned
institution

Mitigation
Funding

Climate

finance

finance

Date of

project
Sector
S. No.

entity
Total
Agriculture, natural
Climate Adaptation in Vennar Sub-
40 Loan ADB resources, and rural 100 50% Adaptation 50 0 7 June 2016
Basin in Cauvery Delta
development
Water and other
Kolkata Environmental Improvement 16 August
41 Loan ADB urban infrastructure 200 28% Adaptation 56.47 0
Investment Program - Tranche 2 2016
and services
Water and other 26
Visakhapatnam-Chennai Industrial
42 Loan ADB urban infrastructure 245 8% Adaptation 20 0 September
Corridor - Project 1
and services 2016
Water and other 26
Gran Visakhapatnam-Chennai Industrial
43 ADB urban infrastructure 5 100% Adaptation 5 0 September
t Corridor - Project 1
and services 2016
44 Loan ADB Uttar Pradesh Major District Roads Transport 300 4% Adaptation 12.5 0 14 April 2016
24 June
45 Loan ADB Bihar New Ganga Bridge Project Transport 500 40% Adaptation 200 0
2016
30
Madhya Pradesh District Roads II
46 Loan ADB Transport 350 3% Adaptation 9.8 0 September
Sector Project
2016
Rajasthan Renewable Energy Dual 5 December
47 Loan ADB Energy 238 100% 2 236
Transmission Program - Tranche 2 benefit 2016
Rajasthan Renewable Energy Dual 5 December
48 Loan ADB Energy 110 100% 110
Transmission Program - Tranche 2 benefit 2016
Sustainable Coastal Protection and Agriculture, natural
49 Loan ADB Management Investment Program - resources, and rural 65.5 76% Adaptation 50 0 27 July 2017
Tranche 2 development
29 March
50 Loan ADB Solar Transmission Sector Project Energy 175 100% Mitigation 175
2017
29 March
51 Loan ADB Solar Transmission Sector Project Energy 50 100% Mitigation 50
2017
Karnataka State Highways 8 December
52 Loan ADB Transport 346 3% Adaptation 10.5 0
Improvement III Project 2017

346
 claimed by the
finance (%) as

Climate focus
Project name

(million USD)

(million USD)
(million USD)
Finance type
(Grant/Loan)

commitment

approval of
Adaptation
concerned
institution

Mitigation
Funding

Climate

finance

finance

Date of

project
Sector
S. No.

entity
Total
Karnataka State Highways 8 December
53 Loan ADB Transport 107 3% Adaptation 3.5 0
Improvement III Project 2017
13
Railway Sector Investment Program -
54 Loan ADB Transport 120 100% Mitigation 120 December
Tranche 3
2017
Rajasthan State Highway Investment
55 Loan ADB Transport 220 1% Adaptation 2.1 0 30 May 2017
Program - Tranche 1
Second Rural Connectivity Investment 4 December
56 Loan ADB Transport 250 6% Adaptation 14.35 0
Program - Tranche 1 2017
Water and other 13
Assam Urban Infrastructure
57 Loan ADB urban infrastructure 149 39% Adaptation 58 0 December
Investment Program - Tranche 2
and services 2017
Water and other
Bihar Urban Development Investment 4 December
58 Loan ADB urban infrastructure 84 10% Adaptation 8
Program - Tranche 2 2017
and services
Water and other
Madhya Pradesh Urban Services
59 Loan ADB urban infrastructure 275 27% Adaptation 75 18 May 2017
Improvement Project
and services
Himachal Pradesh Clean Energy
Dual 6 November
60 Loan ADB Transmission Investment Program - Energy 105 100% 4.37 100.63
benefit 2018
Tranche 3
Agriculture, natural
Madhya Pradesh Irrigation Efficiency
61 Loan ADB resources, and rural 375 11% Adaptation 42.5 31 May 2018
Improvement Project
development
Assam Integrated Flood and Agriculture, natural
7 December
62 Loan ADB Riverbank Erosion Risk Management resources, and rural 60.16 4% Adaptation 2.7
2018
Investment Program - Project 2 development
Assam Integrated Flood and Agriculture, natural 07
63 Loan ADB Riverbank Erosion Risk Management resources, and rural NA Adaptation 0.5 December
Investment Program - Project 2 development 2018

347
 claimed by the
finance (%) as

Climate focus
Project name

(million USD)

(million USD)
(million USD)
Finance type
(Grant/Loan)

commitment

approval of
Adaptation
concerned
institution

Mitigation
Funding

Climate

finance

finance

Date of

project
Sector
S. No.

entity
Total
Accelerating Infrastructure Investment 23 October
64 Loan ADB Finance 300 20% Mitigation 60
Facility in India - Tranche 3 2018
12
Second Rural Connectivity Investment
65 Loan ADB Transport 110 6% Adaptation 6.16 September
Program - Tranche 2
2018
South Asia Subregional Economic
13 August
66 Loan ADB Cooperation Road Connectivity Transport 150 29% Adaptation 44.2
2018
Investment Program- Tranche 2
15
67 Loan ADB Bihar State Highways III Project Transport 200 8% Adaptation 15.35 November
2018
Agriculture, natural
West Bengal Drinking Water Sector 29 August
68 Loan ADB resources, and rural 240 25% Adaptation 60
Improvement Project 2018
development
Agriculture, natural
Gran West Bengal Drinking Water Sector 29 August
69 ADB resources, and rural 3 0% Adaptation
t Improvement Project 2018
development
Water and other 28
Infrastructure Development Investment
70 Loan ADB urban infrastructure 31 2% Mitigation 0.49 September
Program for Tourism - Tranche 4
and services 2018
Karnataka Integrated Urban Water Water and other
17 October
71 Loan ADB Management Investment Program- urban infrastructure 75 14% Adaptation 10.338
2018
Tranche 2 and services
Water and other
Kolkata Environmental Improvement Dual 13 August
72 Loan ADB urban infrastructure 100 55% 40 15
Investment Program-Tranche 3 benefit 2018
and services
Water and other 28
Tamil Nadu Urban Flagship Dual
73 Loan ADB urban infrastructure 169 77% 31.82 98.57 September
Investment Program - Tranche 1 benefit
and services 2018

348
 claimed by the
finance (%) as

Climate focus
Project name

(million USD)

(million USD)
(million USD)
Finance type
(Grant/Loan)

commitment

approval of
Adaptation
concerned
institution

Mitigation
Funding

Climate

finance

finance

Date of

project
Sector
S. No.

entity
Total
Water and other 28
Gran Tamil Nadu Urban Flagship Dual
74 ADB urban infrastructure 2 100% 2 September
t Investment Program - Tranche 1 benefit
and services 2018
12
Gran Demand-Side Energy Efficiency Sector
75 ADB Energy 13 100% Mitigation 13 September
t Project – Additional Financing
2018
Chennai-Kanyakumari Industrial
4 November
76 Loan ADB Corridor: Power Sector Investment Energy 451 35% Dual-use 24.5 131.9
2019
Project
27
Scaling Up Demand-Side Energy
77 Loan ADB Energy 250 43% Mitigation 108.3 November
Efficiency Sector Project
2019
27
Scaling Up Demand-Side Energy
78 Loan ADB Energy 46 100% Mitigation 46 November
Efficiency Sector Project
2019
Karnataka Integrated and Sustainable Agriculture, natural
4 October
79 Loan ADB Water Resources Management resources and rural 91 15% Adaptation 13.8
2019
Investment Program - Tranche 2 development
Agriculture, natural
Maharashtra Rural Connectivity 7 August
80 Loan ADB resources and rural 200 17% Dual-use 22.117 11.112
Improvement Project 2019
development
26 February
81 Loan ADB Mumbai Metro Rail Systems Project Transport 926 100% Mitigation 926
2019
13
Rajasthan State Highway Investment
82 Loan ADB Transport 190 7% Adaptation 14.1 September
Program - Tranche 2
2019
Chhattisgarh Road Connectivity
83 Loan ADB Transport 350 9% Adaptation 30.311 31 May 2019
Project
04
Public-Private Partnership in Madhya
84 Loan ADB Transport 490 17% Adaptation 82.2 November
Pradesh Road Sector Project
2019

349
 claimed by the
finance (%) as

Climate focus
Project name

(million USD)

(million USD)
(million USD)
Finance type
(Grant/Loan)

commitment

approval of
Adaptation
concerned
institution

Mitigation
Funding

Climate

finance

finance

Date of

project
Sector
S. No.

entity
Total
Water and other 26
Tamil Nadu Urban Flagship
85 Loan ADB urban infrastructure 206 47% Dual-use 25.03 71.72 November
Investment Program- Tranche 2
and services 2019
Canara Renewable Energy Financing
86 Loan NDB Renewable energy 250 100% Mitigation 250 13 April 2016
Scheme

REC Renewable Energy Sector 14 October

87 Loan NDB Renewable energy 300 100% Mitigation 300
Development Project 2019

*IBRD has approved some projects for India in late 2019 and 2020. However, they are not included in the table because the websites for the project have not yet updated the
percentage of climate finance in the approved projects.
Note: (i) The information in the table is taken from the entity provided material on their website or other open sources. These are not from any database of the Government of
India or a database verified by GoI.
(ii) In the projects above, the climate finance component is as designated and claimed by the agencies.
(iii) Several projects are classified and claimed as fully or partially climate-specific by the entities. These may not meet the criteria for climate finance as provided in the
Convention and articulated by India to the global community for consideration as part of climate support and climate finance.
(iv) It is evident from the table that, as India has repeatedly noted, the majority of flows reported are not new and additional, are overwhelmingly loans and not grants and that
too dominated by mitigation rather than adaptation.
(v)The classification of climate focus and Sector for each project is as designated and claimed by the agencies, and may not reflect accurately the nature of the project on the
ground or the relative weight of different sectors in the project.

Table 5.3: Climate finance received by India from bilateral sources from the year 2014 onwards

Date of project
Cross cutting)
Finance flows

Project name

million USD )
Support area
(Grant/Loan)

Adaptation,
(Mitigation,

amount (in
institution

approval
Funding

Funding
Country

Sector
S. No.

type

KfW/B Indo-German Solar Energy Partnership EUR 550 million

1 Loan Germany Mitigation Energy 2017
MZ (IGSP) pledged so far*

350
 Date of project
Cross cutting)
Finance flows

Project name

million USD )
Support area
(Grant/Loan)

Adaptation,
(Mitigation,

amount (in
institution

approval
Funding

Funding
Country

Sector
S. No.

type

Indo-German Energy Programme – Green

2 Grant BMZ Germany Mitigation Energy 19 21 April 2015
Energy Corridors (IGEN-GEC)
Indo-German Solar Partnership – PV Roof 29 September
3 Grant BMZ Germany Mitigation Energy 10
Top 2017
25 September
4 Grant BMZ Germany Promotion of Solar Water Pumps Mitigation Energy 6
2017
IGEN - Energy transition with power 8 November
5 Grant BMZ Germany Mitigation Energy 10
authorities 2019
6 Grant BMZ Germany Sustainable industrial development Mitigation Industry 5 1 March 2019
Climate Adaptation and Financing in Rural 18 November
7 Grant BMZ Germany Adaptation 5
India (CAFRI) 2019
Integration of Renewable Energies into the 18 November
8 Grant BMZ Germany Mitigation Energy 2
Indian Electricity System 2014
Support to Institutionalising Capacity Building
on Climate Change in Indie (I-CCC)
16 January
9 Grant BMZ Germany Support to the National Institute for Cross cutting 4
2016
Climate Change Studies and Actions
(NICCSA)
Urban/Infrast
10 Grant BMZ Germany Climate Smart Cities Cross cutting 5 15 June 2018
ructure
Wetlands Management for Biodiversity and
11 Grant BMZ Germany Cross cutting Environment 4 3 August 2018
Climate Protection
Energy Efficiency in Industry and Data
12 Grant BMZ Germany Mitigation Energy 4 27 May 2020
(IGEN-EE)
Introduction of Climate-friendly Cooling and
13 Grant BMZ Germany Mitigation Energy 3 13 June 2019
Storage Technologies
Protection of Aquatic Ecosystems in India's 20 December
14 Grant BMZ Germany Adaptation Environment 5
Northeastern Himalaya Region 2019
15 Grant BMZ Germany InsuResilience - Climate Risk Insurance Adaptation 3 13 March 2020

351
 Date of project
Cross cutting)
Finance flows

Project name

million USD )
Support area
(Grant/Loan)

Adaptation,
(Mitigation,

amount (in
institution

approval
Funding

Funding
Country

Sector
S. No.

type

Transport/Inf
13 December
16 Grant EU EU Resource Efficiency Initiative (REI) Mitigation rastructure/E 3
2016
nergy/Waste
DKTI – Integrated and Sustainable Urban 22 December
17 Grant BMC Germany Mitigation Infrastructure 10
Transport Systems for Smart Cities in India 2016
18 Grant BMC Germany Environment, Climate and Water Security Adaptation Water 7 1 April 2019
20 December
19 Grant BMU Germany Green Freight Mitigation Transport 4
2018
Advice on and support of bilateral energy
2 December
20 Grant BMWi Germany partnerships with developing and emerging Mitigation Energy Multi-Country Project**
2015
countries
Urban/Infrast
21 BMZ Germany Cities Finance Facility (CFF) Cross cutting Multi-Country Project** 17 August 2018
ructure
22 BMU Germany SDG Implementation Cross cutting Multi-Country Project** 10 August 2017
Soil Protection, Combating Desertification,
Land
23 BMZ Germany Sustainable Land Management Cross cutting Multi-Country Project** 1 June 2020
management
SV BoDeN
Sustainability and Value Addition in 13 December
24 BMZ Germany Agriculture Multi-Country Project**
Agricultural Supply Chains 2018
Concepts for sustainable solid waste
25 BMZ Germany Mitigation Waste Multi-Country Project** 1 July 2016
management and circular economy
Soil protection and rehabilitation for food 21 November
26 BMZ Germany Adaptation Agriculture Multi-Country Project**
security 2014
27 BMZ Germany Sustainable Agriculture Adaptation Agriculture Multi-Country Project** 1 January 2019
Green Innovation Centres in the agriculture
28 BMZ Germany Cross cutting Agriculture Multi-Country Project** 29 August 2014
and food sector (GIC)
29 BMZ Germany Sustainable Mobility 2.0 Mitigation Transport Multi-Country Project** 1 June 2019
30 BMU Germany Global Carbon Markets Mitigation 1 1 July 2018
USD 84.3 million as loan
Indo-German Environment Programme in
31 BMZ Germany Adaptation Cross cutting and USD 5.7 million as 2015
Rural Areas (IGEP-RA)
grant was disbursed

352
 Date of project
Cross cutting)
Finance flows

Project name

million USD )
Support area
(Grant/Loan)

Adaptation,
(Mitigation,

amount (in
institution

approval
Funding

Funding
Country

Sector
S. No.

type

under one of the three

project components
called UPNRM. Full
funding details of the
project is not available.
Project for Community-Based Forest
32 Loan JICA Japan Management and Livelihoods Improvement Cross cutting Forestry 91.9 27 March 2020
in Meghalaya
33 Loan JICA Japan Project for Ecosystem Restoration in Gujarat Mitigation Forestry 121.6 27 March 2020
Program for Japan-India Cooperative Actions
18 January
34 Loan JICA Japan towards Sustainable Development Goals in Cross cutting Cross cutting 132.6
2019
India
Project for Renovation and Modernization of
29 October
35 Loan JICA Japan Umiam-Umtru Stage-III Hydroelectric Power Mitigation Energy 48.6
2018
Station
Project for Sustainable Catchment Forest 29 October
36 Loan JICA Japan Cross cutting Forestry 108.6
Management in Tripura 2018
Project for Improvement of Himachal
37 Loan JICA Japan Pradesh Forest Ecosystems Management Cross cutting Forestry 98.4 29 March 2018
and Livelihoods
38 Loan JICA Japan Nagaland Forest Management Project Cross cutting Forestry 55.0 31 March 2017
Odisha Forestry Sector Development Project
39 Loan JICA Japan Cross cutting Forestry 128.3 31 March 2017
(Phase 2)
Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Energy 1 September
40 Loan JICA Japan Mitigation Industry 265.2
Saving Project (Phase 3) 2014
New and Renewable Energy Development 1 September
41 Loan JICA Japan Mitigation Energy 265.2
Project (Phase 2) 2014
Uttarakhand Forest Resource Management
42 Loan JICA Japan Mitigation Forestry 100.7 11 April 2014
Project
Uptake of climate change adaptation
43 Grant IRDC Canada Adaptation Health Multi-Country Project**
research results in South Asia

353
 Date of project
Cross cutting)
Finance flows

Project name

million USD )
Support area
(Grant/Loan)

Adaptation,
(Mitigation,

amount (in
institution

approval
Funding

Funding
Country

Sector
S. No.

type

Climate adaptive action plans to manage

44 Grant IRDC Canada Adaptation Cross cutting 0.7
heat stress in Indian cities
South Asian Water (SAWA) Leadership
45 Grant IRDC Canada Adaptation Cross cutting Multi-Country Project**
Program on Climate Change
Integrated Rural-Urban Water Management
15 January
46 Grant IRDC Canada for Climate Based Adaptation in Indian Cities Adaptation Water 0.7
2017
(iAdapt)
Climate Adaptive Water Management Plans
47 Grant IRDC Canada Adaptation Water Multi-Country Project**
for Cities in South Asia
Deltas, Vulnerability, and Climate Change:
48 Grant IRDC Canada Adaptation Cross cutting Multi-Country Project** 2016
Migration as an Adaptation
49 Grant IRDC Canada Himalayan Adaptation, Water, and Resilience Adaptation Cross cutting Multi-Country Project** 12 April 2014
50 Grant Danida Denmark India-Denmark Energy Partnership Mitigation Energy 7.9 1 January 2019
Infrastructure for Climate Resilient Growth in
51 Grant UKaid UK Cross cutting Cross cutting 32.5 8 January 2016
India
Supporting Structural Reform in the Indian 26 February
52 Grant UKaid UK Mitigation Energy 18.6
Power Sector 2016
Technical Assistance for Smart Cities
53 Grant UKaid UK Cross cutting Cross cutting 6.5 8 January 2016
(TASC)
UK -
UK-INDIA Partnership on National
Invest Prospe 26 September
54 UK Investment and Infrastructure Fund - Green Mitigation Cross cutting 155.8
ment rity 2018
Growth Equity Fund
Fund
Project covers India and
Sub-Saharan Africa.
Total project funding is
55 Loan UK UK UK Climate Investments (UKCI) Mitigation Cross cutting 1 June 2015
USD 112.6 million.
Contribution to India
could not be accessed.

354
 Date of project
Cross cutting)
Finance flows

Project name

million USD )
Support area
(Grant/Loan)

Adaptation,
(Mitigation,

amount (in
institution

approval
Funding

Funding
Country

Sector
S. No.

type

Switzerla Indian Himalayas Climate Adaptation

56 Grant SDC Adaptation Cross cutting 3.1 1 January 2016
nd Programme
Switzerla
57 Grant SDC Clean Energy Policy (CEP) Mitigation Energy 0.7 1 June 2018
nd
Switzerla 1 November
58 Grant SDC Clean Air Project in India (CAP India) Mitigation Cross cutting 2.7
nd 2019

Capacity Building for Low Carbon and

Switzerla
59 Loan SDC Climate Resilient City Development in India Mitigation Cross cutting 4.8 16 July 2019
nd
(CapaCITIES)

Horizo
60 Loan EU India-EU Water Partnership Adaptation Water 21.3 2019
n 20

All amounts have been converted to USD using annual average exchange rates for the year 2016 as published by IRS
(https://www.irs.gov/individuals/international-taxpayers/yearly-average-currency-exchange-rates)
*Indo German Solar Energy Partnership: Germany has expressed willingness to provide concessional loans of 1 billion euros in 5 years. Loans worth 550
million euros have already been pledged. KfW has signed an agreement with SBI for a loan of 150 million euros in 2017.
**Project implementation in multiple countries including India. Specific financial flows to India could not be accessed.
Note: i) The information in the table is taken from the entity provided material on their website or other open sources. These are not from any database of the
Government of India or a database verified by GoI.
ii) The classification of Support Area and Sector for each project is as designated and claimed by the agencies, and may not reflect accurately the nature of the
project on the ground or the relative weight of different sectors in the project.
iii) Several projects are classified and claimed as fully or partially climate-specific by the entities. These may not meet the criteria for climate finance as provided
by the Convention and articulated by India to the global community for consideration as part of climate support and climate finance.
iv) It is evident from the table that, as India has repeatedly noted, the majority of flows are not new and additional, are overwhelmingly loans and not grants and
that too dominated by mitigation rather than adaptation.

355
CDM India project portfolio: GoI had set up a National CDM Authority (NCDMA) in
December 2003 which has since then accorded Host Country Approval to 3,060
projects. Of these, 1,672 have been registered by the CDM Executive Board. Till 20 th
May 2020, Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) issued to Indian projects amount to
252 million (or 12.49 per cent of the total CERs issued) (UNFCCC, 2020). These
projects are in the sectors of energy efficiency, fuel switching, industrial processes,
municipal solid waste, renewable energy, and forestry which are spread across the
country. The sector-wise details are presented in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Host country approval of the CDM Projects by the National CDM Authority
(as in March 2020)
Sector Number of projects
Energy industries (renewable-/ non-renewable sources) 2,425
Energy distribution 9
Energy demand 228
Manufacturing industries 243
Chemical industries 18
Construction 0
Transport 13
Mining/mineral production 4
Metal production 5
Fugitive emissions from fuels (solid, oil and gas) 4
Fugitive emissions from (production and consumption of halocarbons and
6
sulphur hexafluoride
Solvent use 0
Waste handling and disposal 73
Afforestation and reforestation 28
Agriculture 4
Total 3,060

In the context of the implementation of the Paris Agreement, it is important that the
CERs allocated so far are duly honoured by the multilateral climate regime. Any failure
to do so would severely undermine trust and faith in the multilateral climate regime in
the years to come and would be a serious setback to global climate action and global
cooperation.

The developing world, including India have also been aware that carbon offsets are
part of the means through which the developed countries have sought to lessen their
mitigation burden by seeking to reduce emissions in the former’s national territories in
exchange for CER credits. However, India, in the spirit of international co-operation,
is participating in international carbon offsets under the Kyoto Protocol. It may be
reiterated though, that rapid and deep decarbonization of developed country
economies cannot be held up on account of uncertainties with regard to carbon offset
schemes under the Paris Agreement, nor can such uncertainties be presented as the
rationale for delay in rapid mitigation action.

356
5.2.4 National Initiatives

India’s climate actions are largely financed from domestic sources, including
government budgetary support as well as a mix of market mechanisms and fiscal
instruments and policy interventions. The eight missions under the National Action
Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC), namely solar power, energy efficiency, habitat,
water, agriculture, forestry, Himalayan ecosystem, and knowledge management have
specific budgetary allocations combined with other sources of funding.

Climate Change Action Programme (CCAP) is a GoI scheme that was approved
in January 2014 at a total cost of INR 2,900 million for five years (MoF, 2020). The
allocation of funds for the FY 2017-18 to 2020-21 is INR 1,724 million. Its objective is
to create and strengthen the scientific and analytical capacity to assess climate
change in the country, putting in place an appropriate institutional framework for
scientific and policy initiatives and implementation of climate change-related
actions. Demonstration projects have been approved to support the implementation of
State Action Plans on Climate Change under Climate Change Action Programme
(CCAP) of MoEFCC. These projects are Enhancing Adaptive Capacity to Climate
Change through Conservation of Traditional Water Supply Sources (wells
and bawadis) of Indore city, in Madhya Pradesh; Coastal habitat rehabilitation for
climate change adaptation in Gulf of Mannar, South-eastern India; Improving
ecosystem services and fisheries livelihood in Tamil Nadu; Technological adaptation
for gainful utilization of paddy straw in Punjab; Enhancing Adaptive Capacity to
Climate Change through Conservation of Traditional Water Supply Sources of
Burhanpur city, in Madhya Pradesh.

National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change (NAFCC) is another scheme which

was launched in 2015 with an initial outlay of INR 3,500 million to fund adaptation
actions that are not otherwise covered under the ongoing schemes/ programs. The
allocation of funds till 31 March 2020 is INR 4,706.80 million. Thirty projects worth INR
8,474.70 million have been approved by NAFCC and these projects are at different
stages of implementation. These projects are being implemented in 26 Indian States
in agriculture, water, forestry and coastal sectors to enhance the adaptive capacity at
the national and state level, in terms of availability of improved water and food security,
livelihoods, and ecosystem services. A list of these projects is presented in Table 5.5.

Table 5.5: List of approved projects under NAFCC (NABARD, 2020) (as in March 2020)
Project
S. Outlay
States/ UTs Project title Executing Entity
No. (INR in
million)
Climate Resilient Interventions in Department of Animal
Andhra
1 Dairy Sector in Coastal and Arid Husbandry, Government 198.3
Pradesh
Areas in Andhra Pradesh of Andhra Pradesh

357
 Project
S. Outlay
States/ UTs Project title Executing Entity
No. (INR in
million)
Addressing Climate Change
Environment and climate
Arunachal Vulnerability of Papum-Poma
2 change centre, State 239.2
Pradesh River for Conservation and
Climate change cell
Recharging of its Spring,
Management of Eco-system of Kaziranga National Park
Kaziranga National Park by (KNP) under Department
3 Assam Creating Climate Resilient of Environment & Forests 245.7
Livelihood for Vulnerable (DoEF), Government of
Communities Assam
Scaling up Climate Smart
Department of
Agriculture (CSA) through
4 Bihar Agriculture, Government 230.6
Mainstreaming Climate-Smart
of Bihar
Villages (CSVs) in Bihar
Climate Adaptation Strategies in State Centre for Climate
Wetlands along with Mahanadi Change, Dept. of Forest,
5 Chhattisgarh 214.7
River Catchment areas in Govt. of Chhattisgarh
Chhattisgarh
Climate change adaptation for
natural resources dependent
Gujarat Ecological
communities in Kachchh, Gujarat:
6 Gujarat Education and Research 213.6
strengthening resilience through
(GEER) Foundation
water and livelihood security and
ecosystem restoration
Scaling up climate-smart Department of
7 Haryana agriculture through mainstreaming Agriculture, Government 221.0
climate-smart villages in Haryana of Haryana
Sustainable Livelihoods of Department of
Agriculture-Dependent Rural Environment, Science
Himachal
8 Communities in Drought Prone and Technology, 200.0
Pradesh
District of Himachal Pradesh Government of Himachal
Through Climate Smart Solutions Pradesh
Climate Resilient Sustainable
Agriculture Production
Jammu and Agriculture in Rain-Fed Farming
9 Department, Government 225.2
Kashmir (Kandi) Areas of Jammu and
of Jammu and Kashmir
Kashmir
Enhancing Climate Resilience of
Department of Forest,
Forests and its dependent
10 Jharkhand Government of 249.9
Communities in two landscapes of
Jharkhand
Jharkhand
Department of Animal
Conservation and Management of
Husbandry and
Indigenous Varieties of Livestock
11 Karnataka Veterinary Services, 242.2
(Cattle and Sheep) in the wake of
Government of
Climate Change in Karnataka
Karnataka
Promotion of Integrated Farming
12 Kerala System of Kaipad and Pokkali in Government of Kerala 250.0
Coastal Wetlands of Kerala

358
 Project
S. Outlay
States/ UTs Project title Executing Entity
No. (INR in
million)
Enhancing Adaptive Capacity to
Department of
Climate Change through
Madhya Environment,
13 Development of Climate-Smart 248.8
Pradesh Government of Madhya
Villages in Selected Vulnerable
Pradesh
Districts of Madhya Pradesh
Department of Water
Efficient Water Management and
Conservation,
Agriculture Technology Adoption
Government of
for Climate Adaptive and Resilient
14 Maharashtra Maharashtra through 229.5
Farming System in 51 villages of
Vasundhara Watershed
Nandurbar and Buldhana Districts
Development Agency
of Maharashtra State
(VWDA)
Directorate of
Model Carbon Positive Eco-
15 Manipur Environment, 100.0
Village in Phayeng of Manipur
Government of Manipur
Rejuvenation and climate proofing Directorate of Soil and
of Spring - sheds for Livelihood, Water conservation,
16 Meghalaya 229.2
water and Food Security in Government of
Meghalaya Meghalaya
Department of
Sustainable Agriculture
Agriculture (Crop
17 Mizoram Development through Expansion, 103.8
Husbandry), Government
Enhancement, and Modelling.
of Mizoram
Gene pool Conservation of
Indigenous Rice Varieties under
Traditional Integrated Rotational
Department of
Farming System (Jhum
18 Nagaland Agriculture, Government 248.0
optimisation) for Promoting
of Nagaland
Livelihood and Food Security as
Climate Change Adaptation
Strategy in Nagaland
Conserve water through the
management of run-off in the river
Department of Water
basin to improve groundwater
19 Odisha Resources, 200.0
recharge to reduce vulnerability
Government of Odisha
and enhance resilience for
traditional livelihood in Nuapada
Integrated Surface Water
Management through rejuvenation Department of Science
20 Puducherry of 20 tanks and 32 village ponds and Technology, Govt. of 167.6
for Climate Change adaptation in Puducherry
Puducherry
Towards Climate Resilient Punjab State Council for
21 Punjab Livestock Production System in Science and Technology, 174.0
Punjab Government of Punjab
Regional Climate Resilience Building
Department of
22 Project (in the among Farmers through Crop 1000
Agriculture of the
states of Residue Management

359
 Project
S. Outlay
States/ UTs Project title Executing Entity
No. (INR in
million)
Punjab, Respective State
Haryana, UP Government
and
Rajasthan)
Mukhya Mantri Jal Swavlamban Department of
Abhiyan for Climate Change Watershed Development
Adaptation and Water Harvesting & Soil Conservation,
23 Rajasthan 249.7
in Arthuna, Anandpuri and Government of
Sajjangarh Blocks of District Rajasthan
Banswara in Rajasthan
Addressing Climate Change Rural Management and
Vulnerability of Water Sector at Development
24 Sikkim 246.7
Gram Panchayat Level in Drought Department, Government
Prone Areas of Sikkim of Sikkim
Management and Rehabilitation of
Tamil Nadu Watershed
Coastal Habitats and Biodiversity
Development Agency,
25 Tamil Nadu for Climate Change Adaptation 247.4
Government of Tamil
and Sustainable Livelihood in Gulf
Nadu
of Mannar, Tamil Nadu
Climate Proofing of Rainfed Tamil Nadu Watershed
Watersheds in Salem & Development Agency,
26 Tamil Nadu 238.0
Virudhunagar Districts of Tamil Government of Tamil
Nadu Nadu
Environment Protection
Resilient Agricultural Households Training and Research
27 Telangana through Adaptation to Climate Institute (EPTRI), 240.0
Change in Telangana Government of
Telangana
Regional
Restoration of degraded
project (in the
landscapes to the natural state of
states of Department of Forest of
the ecosystem for climate
28 Telangana, the Respective State 1261.0
resilience and livelihood
Rajasthan, Government
improvement of vulnerable
and
communities
Maharashtra)
Ecosystem services-based
Forest and Wildlife
adaptation to climate change in
29 Uttar Pradesh Department, Government 200.2
the Bundelkhand region of Uttar
of Uttar Pradesh
Pradesh
Rainwater Harvesting and Municipal Engineering
Sustainable Water Supply to the Directorate, Department
30 West Bengal Hilly Areas in Darjeeling as an of Municipal Affairs, 231.2
Adaptive Measure to Potential Government of West
Change Impacts Bengal

Total amount 8345.5

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Aligning the financial system with sustainability: Cleaner forms of production also
require a sound financial system geared to provide support. India has focused on this
system since December 2007 as the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) sensitized banks to
various international initiatives and advised them to dovetail their lending strategies in
line with the developments in the field of sustainability. Green bonds are debt
securities issued by financial, non-financial, or public entities where the proceeds are
used to finance 100 per cent green projects and assets. India has the second-largest
emerging green bond market after China for the period 2012-2019. Many government
agencies have contributed to the issuance of such green bonds, including the Indian
Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) and the Indian Railway Finance
Corporation (IRFC). In 2018, the State Bank of India (SBI) entered the market with a
USD 650 million Certified Climate Bond (Climate Bonds Initiative, 2018).

India has a leadership role in developing post 2020 climate finance processes and
market mechanisms to ensure they are effective from developing countries'
perspectives. To scale up environmentally sustainable investments, India joined the
International Platform on Sustainable Finance (IPSF) in October 2019. The Platform
acknowledges the global nature of financial markets, which can potentially help
finance the transition to a green, low carbon, and climate-resilient economy by linking
financing needs to global sources of funding. The main objectives are to exchange
and disseminate information to promote best practices in environmentally sustainable
finance, compare the different initiatives, and identify barriers and opportunities to
scale up environmentally sustainable finance internationally while respecting national
and regional contexts.

To conclude, for a diverse and complex developing country like India, finance is a
critical enabler for climate action. India's national and state-level climate actions
hitherto have been financed mainly from domestic resources. A further substantial
scaling up of India's climate action plans would require new, additional, and climate-
specific financial resources and support.

5.3 Technology needs and support received

Connecting science, technology and innovation with societal outcomes is key to

driving sustainable economic and social progress. This is also the guiding principle of
the Government of India’s perspective on science and technology. Science and
technology help provide a level playing field in making opportunities accessible to all
citizens of India, such as the use of ICT. The ease of doing science is as vital as the
ease of doing business. In this context, GoI is in the process of finalizing the "Scientific
Social Responsibility Policy”, along the lines of “Corporate Social Responsibility” to
strengthen the linkages between science and society organically by building synergy
among all the stakeholders to usher in a cultural change in the conduct of science.

Transfer and grounding of the appropriate technologies and know-how is key to

enhancing adaptation and mitigation measures. Adequate financing is required for the

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adoption of viable cutting-edge technologies. India cannot deploy climate technologies
at a significant scale unless a facilitative global technology transfer regime is in place,
and incremental and associated costs of these technologies are met from multilateral
climate change funds. A collaborative mechanism needs to ensure that barriers such
as intellectual property rights are removed to facilitate technology transfer from
developed to developing countries. The availability of relevant technologies at
concessional rates is a prerequisite to integrate technological advances seamlessly
on a real-time basis while supporting industries to take technological risks by providing
adequate finance and skill enhancement. India has not received technology transfer
in line with the current provisions under the UNFCCC. In the following we will be
discussing some aspects of technological innovation and investment in new
technology deployment through collaborative efforts internationally and domestic
efforts. However, such efforts imply the deployment of India's own resources, which
have been diverted from other essential needs, when the assistance committed to by
the developed countries is not forthcoming.

5.3.1 Mission Innovation

Innovation and technology are vital for combating climate change and ensuring climate
justice. Energy security, reduced pollution, access to electricity and reduced emissions
are goals deemed necessary for reducing and reversing the adverse impacts of
climate change. Mission Innovation (MI) is a global initiative of 24 countries and the
European Commission working to reinvigorate and accelerate global clean energy
innovation with the objective to make clean energy widely affordable. MI was
announced at COP 21 of UNFCCC on 30 November 2015. Department of
Biotechnology (DBT) is the nodal agency for the MI initiative, and all the Innovation
Challenges are being supported and funded by DBT and DST. DBT is also responsible
for coordinating with other line ministries including MoPNG, MNRE, MoP, MoEFCC,
MoES and Public Sector Undertakings. India is an active member of the eight MI
Innovation Challenges (ICs), global calls to action aimed at accelerating Research,
Development, and Demonstration (RD&D) for Clean Energy Development.

 IC1: Smart Grids - Enable future grids powered by affordable, reliable,

decentralised renewable electricity systems.
 IC2: Off-Grid Access to Electricity - Develop systems that enable off-grid
households and communities to access affordable, reliable renewable
electricity.
 IC3: Carbon Capture - Enable near-zero CO2 emissions from power plants and
carbon-intensive industries.
 IC4: Sustainable Biofuels - Develop ways to produce at-scale widely affordable,
advanced biofuels for transportation and industrial applications.
 IC5: Converting Sunlight - Discover affordable ways to convert sunlight into
storable solar fuels.

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  IC6: Clean Energy Materials - Accelerate the exploration, discovery and use of
new high-performance, low-cost clean energy materials.
 IC7: Affordable Heating and Cooling of Buildings - Make low-carbon heating
and cooling affordable for everyone.
 IC8: Renewable and Clean Hydrogen - Accelerate the development of a global
hydrogen market by identifying and overcoming key technology barriers to the
production, distribution, storage, and use of hydrogen at gigawatt scale.

By pooling financial resources and technical expertise from members, ICs are helping
to build capacity, reduce duplication of effort, and drive RD&D in their respective areas.
India is a co-lead in three challenges (Smart Grids, Off-Grid access to Electricity and
Sustainable Biofuels). India as a member participates in the Mission Innovation
Steering Committee, Business and Investor Engagement Sub-Group and Co-leads
the Analysis and Joint Research Sub-Group of Mission Innovation.

Under the ambit of Mission Innovation, Clean Energy International Incubation Centre
(CEIIC) has been set up by DBT and its Public Sector Undertaking BIRAC, in
collaboration with Tata Trusts. CEIIC has provided end-to-end support to 25 start-ups
so far, ranging from infrastructure, technology, angel funding, access to venture
capitalists, mentorship, exposure to national and international organisations and
experts. CEIIC in partnership with the Net-Zero Compatible Innovations Initiative
(NCI), an extension of the Avoided Emissions Framework (AEF), Sweden, conducted
process assessment on eight clean energy technology start-ups being incubated at
CEIIC and showed that these alone have the potential to avoid more than 90 million
tonne of GHG emissions per year by 2030.

National initiatives

Industry and buildings: Following the launch of MI, DST announced a new Initiative
to Promote Habitat Energy Efficiency (I-PHEE), focusing on promoting R&D activities
to improve the energy efficiency of buildings and cities. The initiative will also enhance
knowledge and practice to save energy in the design, construction, and operation of
human habitats. The program supports specific outcome-based research in energy-
efficient building envelope technologies, low energy cooling systems, day-lighting and
electric lighting, building automation, and controls for energy savings.

Transport: India has an ambitious programme to enhance transport fuel quality to

reduce emissions by using better fuels and modern technology in vehicles. India
earlier supplied fuels of BS-IV (Euro-IV) quality, which required an investment of INR
6,00,000 million (USD 9.1 billion). The direct jump to BS-VI (Euro VI) fuel quality with
an additional investment of INR 2,80,000 million (USD 4.4 billion) in upgrading
refineries. Vehicles have also been upgraded, with most vehicles having catalytic
convertors and meeting at least BS-IV emission norms. The government has
introduced bioethanol and biodiesel in transport fuels and CNG in diesel vehicles for
reducing emissions. It has also announced the National Mission for Electric Mobility

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(NMEM), which envisages an R&D programme labelled the Technology Platform on
Electric Mobility (TPEM). DST has initiated steps to keep a close watch on innovations
in the field of Electric Mobility to support vehicle manufacturers under the Faster
Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme of the
Department of Heavy Industry (DHI).

Bio-based fuels and energy: The National Policy on Biofuels mandates a blending
of biofuels of approximately 20 per cent in transport fuels. This is an ambitious target
and several steps have been undertaken to broaden the feedstock base for biofuel
production while R&D of new technology and feedstock is being supported to achieve
this. Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has established five Bioenergy Centres in
the country that integrate basic and translational science capabilities for biofuel
development and scale-up. The major focus has been on fermentation technology and
enzymes for cellulosic ethanol, algal biofuel, and waste to energy. Based on
encouraging results of these Centres, demo scale technologies for cellulosic ethanol
have been set up. Novel clean technologies have been developed to convert sewage
into clean water and municipal solid waste into compressed biogas (CBG).

Capacity building in bioenergy: India and the USA have joined hands to support a
fellowship that will allow a group of fellows and interns to pursue cutting edge research
in various areas of bioenergy in US institutes of repute. This will help build capacity in
clean and environmentally safe energy technologies. Ten post-doctoral fellows under
the DBT- Energy Biosciences Overseas Fellowships are now placed in some of the
centres of excellence on bioenergy. The DBT has established a network of more than
100 scientists working to realize the National Biofuel Policy's goals with high-quality
research publications and patents for knowledge generation and technology
development. The Bioenergy Program also includes establishing a network of
programs on algal biofuels research. There are three repositories with more than 2,000
cultures that are available for the algal biofuel program. This has been identified as an
area for both bilateral and multilateral cooperation.

Cleaner fossil energy: With MI, the Department of Science and Technology has
developed plans to set up demand-oriented mission programs on clean coal
technologies and has launched a national mission with plans to set up material
research centres on advanced ultra-supercritical technologies. The national
programme on upgrading the quality of transport fuels, as detailed above, has
significantly helped in reducing vehicular emissions. Several institutes have taken up
biomass pyrolysis combined with coal, pet coke and subsequent hydro treating of the
oil to produce clean sulphur-free drop-in fuels.

A consortium has been formed by NTPC Limited, BHEL, and IGCAR –Kalpakkam for
the indigenous development of Advanced Ultra Super Critical technology for high-
efficiency thermal power plants in India.

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CO2 utilization: India does not have much experience or large projects on carbon
dioxide capture, utilization, and storage. Some of the priority areas are:

 CO2 to organic products with organo-catalysis

 Hydrogenation and reduction of CO2 with molecular catalysts
 Reforming of CO2 to Syngas
 Production of polycarbonates
 Catalytic hydrogenation of CO2 to Methanol / Dimethyl Ether (DME)
 CO2 to alkyl carbamates as fuel components

Electricity grid: DST is setting up a clean energy centre to integrate intermittent

renewables with suitable energy storage in on-grid or off-grid situations. Research
priorities for off-grid electricity systems are:

 Off-grid electricity systems utilising polygeneration and solar, wind, micro-hydel,

biogas, and various other forms individually or hybridised for heating/cooling/
thermal applications.
 Augmenting the existing fossil fuels with renewable sources, including rooftop
solar as an off-grid solution.
 Frequency and voltage stability of off-grid systems and developing a robust
control algorithm.
 Development and demonstration of affordable and sustainable
solutions/devices for a broad application spectrum.
 Village Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) grids.
 Hybrid distribution systems (AC and DC grids).
 Development of efficient DC appliances and smart centralized distribution
control to ensure disciplined and efficient end-use of energy.

Energy storage: Ministry of Power is working on flow batteries, which have greater
energy storage potential and are more efficient. A programme focused on developing
materials for hydrogen storage has also been initiated by the DST and MNRE.

The world’s first Clean Energy International Incubation Centre (CEIIC) was launched
by GoI in partnership with the Tata Trusts in Delhi in September 2019 as part of MI. It
provides USD 5 million to support start-ups/innovators from across MI members to test
their technologies in the local market.

The Surya Jyoti Micro solar dome is one of the solutions developed by MI that can
provide up to 17 hours of 60 W equivalent light, with a lifespan of up to 20 years
ensuring access to lighting for communities located in remote areas. About 4,000
domes have been installed in the impoverished parts of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and
Bengaluru, with 54 technicians from 14 States trained in the manufacturing process.

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Other National initiatives

As the PAT scheme is being implemented on a rolling cycle basis, new Designated
Customers (DCs) will be notified every year. Some of the best practices and
technology upgrades that are commercially available in India and are implemented by
industries under the PAT scheme are shown in Table 5.6.

Table 5.6: Technologies implemented under PAT

Sector
Technologies
under PAT
 Calciner main burner nozzle replacement.
 Use of cold sealing paste for pot relining.
 Corro-coat coating of pump to increase its efficiency.
Aluminum  Solar heating system for hot mill emulsion.
 Inert Anode Technology
 Wetted Cathode Technology
 Multipolar Cell Technology
 Alternative Fuels & Raw Materials (AFR) utilization technologies.
 Waste heat recovery from pre-heater outlet.
Cement  Installation of Kiln Shell radiation recovery system in Kiln for CPP makes up
water heating.
 Calcium looping as Carbon Capture technology
 Zero-gap technology.
 Micro-turbine.
 Feeding of 48 per cent hot Caustic Soda Lye direct to flaker plant.
 Change-over of fuel from Furnace Oil (FO) to Hydrogen in process heating/steam
Chlor Alkali requirement.
 Utilizing Hydrogen in Captive Power Plant
 PEM Fuel Cell Technology using Hydrogen
 Hydrogen Compressed Natural Gas (HCNG) (Hydrogen blending with CNG)
 Hydrogen Co-firing in Industrial Gas Turbines
 Installation of VAM for chilling of gas at suction of Ammonia Synthesis gas
compressor, process air compressor, CO2 compressor & air compressor for Gas
turbine.
Fertilizer  Gas-based turbo-generator and associated HRSG.
 CO2 as feed for urea production
 Changeover of feedstock from FO to NG, Naphtha to NG, Coal to NG
 CO2 Recovery units
 Installation of Top Recovery Turbine and Pulverized Coal Injection in Blast
Furnace.
Iron & Steel  Commissioning of LD Gas recovery plant in Steel melting shop.
 Direct Rolling in mini steel plants
 Hot charging of DRI in EAF
 Commissioning of heat integrated, energy efficient crude distillation unit (CDU).
 Implementation of Advance process control (APC) in CCR.
Petroleum
 Replacement of third stage ejector system by Liquid ring vacuum pump (LRVP)
Refinery
in vacuum distillation unit (VDU).
 Furnace efficiency improvement of CDU heater.

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  “indeDiesel Technology” - DHDT Hydro treatment for Euro-IV & V diesel (S<50 &
10 ppm, CN > 51)
 “indeHex Technology”- Food Grade Hexane Hydro treatment of hexane for
benzene removal (< 100 ppm)
 “indJet Technology” - ATF Hydro treating - Selective Removal of Mercaptan
Sulfur in ATF / desulphurisation of kerosene
 NDMAX Technologies- A novel technology to produce high yield of light olefins /
LPG and high-octane gasoline from various petroleum fractions
 indSelectG Technology- Selective desulphurization of full range FCC & other
cracked gasoline streams to meet BS-VI S spec with minimum loss of RON (~3
units)
 One Divided wall column in place of 2 columns in FCC Naphtha splitter.
 LP steam superheating with MP steam in shell and tube exchanger in place of
direct mixing
 Energy real-time optimizer (ERTO software).
 Substituting N2 blanketing in place Fuel gas in Naphtha splitter receiver.
 Super Batch Cooking.
 Two Stage Oxygen Delignification – OxyTrac.
 BCTMP Process (bleached chemi-thermomechanical pulp).
 Super Batch Cooking.
 Ultra-Low Intensity Refining.
 Opti Batch Process.
Pulp and
 Bio gas firing in rotary lime kiln (Replacement of Furnace Oil)
Paper
 Boiler Conversion: Fluidised bubbling to Spouted bed
 Solar Energy Utilization for Process Heating at Low and Intermediate
temperature (Replacement of LP Steam) i.e. 50°C to 250°C
 Oxyfuel burning in lime kiln and black liquor boilers
 Installation of Extended Delignification System for cooking of wood (to reduce
steam consumption)
 Energy efficient 3 Phase Electric Locomotives
 Regenerative Braking System in Electric Locomotive
 Installation of APU (Auxiliary Power Units) in Diesel Locomotives
Indian
 Head on Generation (HOG)
Railways
 Switching off Diesel and Electric Locomotive in siding if standing idle for more
than 30 minutes
 Conversion of Diesel locomotive to Electric Locomotive
 Pulser dyeing technique
 Waste heat recovery in centrifugal comp
 Wind recovery turbine from humidification exhaust
 Microbial fuel cell technology to generate electricity from Textile wastewater
Textile treatment
 Solar paint for the textile industries
 Energy Recovery from H-Plant exhaust air by providing a special turbine which
generates grid-connected electricity for lighting.
 Power generation from sewage treatment of municipal bodies and industries
 Auxiliary Power Consumption (APC) optimization using efficient motors, Variable
frequency drives (VFDs) and stage reduction in pumps
Thermal
 Utilization of low-temperature waste heat from flue gas for generating chilled
Power Plant
water, desalinating water
 Micro Oil ignition system (MOIS)

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  Super Critical technologies

 System improvement & automation technologies

Distribution
 Integrated Power Development Scheme (IPDS)
Companies
 Re-conducting (Under BRGF Scheme)
(DISCOMs)
 Improvement in power factor of 33 KV feeders

5.3.2 Technology needs and requirements

Notwithstanding its efforts, financial resources, and trained workforce, India needs to
adopt technologies developed elsewhere to suit its own needs to avoid reinventing the
wheel, learn from innovators' collective wisdom, complement its national effort, and
fast-track the development of environmentally friendly technologies appropriate to its
conditions. India also needs technical know-how in several key areas.

India’s first and second BUR to UNFCCC presents a detailed list of climate
technologies for mitigation. However, under the current climate change regime, none
of the required technologies were either transferred, facilitated, or were made available
to India. Some of India’s key technology needs identified are presented in Table 5.7.

Table 5.7: List of additional technology needs

S. Area of
Technology/Remarks
No. Implementation
 Currently, crystalline Silicon (c-Si) technology contributes 95 per
cent of global solar PV installations, and thin films contribute to the
remained. Thus, c-Si is likely to contribute 400 GW by 2050 and is
essential for India’s future clean energy trajectory.
 India lacks technology and manufacturing for the upstream
segment of the supply chain, i.e., polysilicon/ingot/wafer. Indian cell
manufacturers import wafers, and similarly, cells are imported for
module manufacturing.
 c-Si technology has made vast advancements, and the Indian
manufacturers have not been able to keep pace with technology
Solar changes.
1
Photovoltaics  Existing module manufacturing plants lack economies of scale,
which prevents cost reduction
 India lacks the crucial technologies needed to process/manufacture
the raw materials for cell and module manufacturing.
 Equipment (assembly line) used for cell, module, and BoM
component manufacturing is not available in India and is imported.
 India needs next-generation PV technologies, including
Perovskites, Multi-Junction Solar Cells, Dye induction photovoltaics
and organic/inorganic composites.
 China, UK, USA are some of the key countries of the alliance for
technology sourcing.
 Technology limitation exists in the survey space (oceanographic
2 Offshore Wind and geotechnical)
 Heavily dependent on imports for rare earth metals

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S. Area of
Technology/Remarks
No. Implementation
 Potential to increase the capacity factor of domestic manufacturing
units
 Need for modelling and simulation tools, including HPC to improve
generation forecasting and performance analysis.
 Denmark, the UK, and Germany are the major technology
providers
Advanced Ultra  Materials having characteristics of high creep rupture strength and
Supercritical corrosion resistance at elevated temperature and pressures are not
3 Coal available
Technology  Japan and South Korea are potential collaborators for technology
(AUSC) transfer (welding technologies)
Light Emitting
4  LED chip (Wafer Fabrication) is imported
Diode bulb
 Rotary compressors - a key component in RAC are largely
imported
 Companies import ACs through ASEAN free trade agreement to
avoid customs duty on compressors
Room Air
5  Cost of the imported compressor is cheaper than those
Conditioners
manufactured indigenously, owing to customs duty on high-grade
steel (key raw material)
 The local availability of propane and isobutane based refrigerants
that have low Global Warming Potential footprints, is a constraint
Current technology mix dominated by the BF-BOF route, which uses
coke, coal, and oxygen to produce steel. Through adoption of the
following Energy efficiency measures and low carbon processes,
an integrated steel plant can save emissions substantially.
 Coke Dry Quenching (CDQ)
 Waste Heat recovery generation from low TPD Sponge Iron Plants
 Regenerative/ recuperative Burner for Reheating Furnace
 Sinter Plant Heat Recovery (Steam Recovery from Sinter Cooler
Waste Heat)
 Sinter Plant Heat Recovery (Power generation from sinter cooler
waste heat)
 Coal Moisture Control (CMC) system (Top Charged)
Iron & Steel  Top Pressure Recovery Turbine (TRT)
6
Manufacturing  Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI) system
 Hot stove waste heat recovery
 Converter gas recovery device
 Ecological and economical arc furnace
 Waste heat recovery from electric arc furnace
 Regenerative Burner Total System for Reheating Furnace
 Energy monitoring and management system
 Cogeneration with Gas Turbine Combined Cycle (GTCC)
 Low Grade Heat Recovery Using Organic Rankine Cycle
 Hot Blast Superheating with Plasma technology
 Advanced automation L-3 model online simulation of Blast Furnace
 Gas Oxygen refining technology
 Converter Gas Sensible Heat Recovery

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 S. Area of
Technology/Remarks
No. Implementation
Further, the following technologies can be adopted as and when these
technologies are available for adoption on commercial scale.
 H2 based iron & steel making technologies
 CCS/CCUS (Carbon Capture Storage/Carbon Capture, Utilisation
and Storage) technologies,
 HISARNA Technology which is being developed under ULCOS
Programme.
 Large scale enzyme production and scaling up issues exist
7 Biofuels  Feedstock sourcing has been a perennial problem
 Commercial production of Bio-methanol is cost-prohibitive
 Technologies for type III and type IV cylinders, as well as hydride
and carbon materials for hydrogen storage
 Catalysts, membranes, and fuel cell manufacturing assemblies
8 Hydrogen
 Hydrogen supply chain infrastructure and dispensing stations
 Green hydrogen utilization in the industry, including ammonia for
fertilizers and iron and steel production.

Lithium-Ion
 Raw materials and technology are barriers to large scale
9 Battery (LiB) &
manufacturing of Lithium-Ion Batteries in India
Flow Battery

Table 5.8: Technologies which need investment

 Proliferation of technology for waste heat recovery from preheater

exhaust and cooler vent for co-generation of power
1 Cement
 Wider adoption of grate cooler technology
 Wider adoption of low-NOx multi-channel burners for combustion
 Injection of plastic waste in the blast furnace
2 Iron & Steel
In addition to above, technologies listed in Table 5.7 (Iron & Steel) also
stand included.
 Focus on data-driven agriculture practices through Precision
Technologies, Satellite Imageries, Sensor-based technologies
(optimization of Nutrients/ Restoration of degraded soils)
 Smart Diagnostic Kits to prevent epidemics
 Smart storage bags for harvests
 Irradiation of perishable foods for preservation
3 Agriculture
 Optimization of nutrient-use efficiency with novel sensor-based
technologies.
 Promotion of precision agriculture technologies coupled with hyper-
spectral imaging.
 Use of satellite imagery to identify pests, disease, and crop
management through computer analysis using big data analytics.

To conclude, it is difficult to project future technology requirements in the rapidly and

ever-evolving technology development realm. Access to relevant, affordable, and
scalable technologies, along with technical skills, can prove to be a game-changer,
provided adequate financial support is received.

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The study of energy and industry transitions for the future can help indicate which low
carbon technologies may dominate globally. Coupled with a roadmap for R&D and
investment to scale, such technologies can be developed to scale and commercialised
provided adequate additional financial support is available. A large section of the
population is vulnerable to climate change impacts, and thus, adaptation is as relevant
to India as mitigation. Most technologies for climate adaptation in sectors like
agriculture, forestry, water and health are available in India on a very limited scale.
These technologies need to be locally adapted and scaled up to ensure climate
resilience according to the country’s ecosystems and local population, an effort which
also requires substantial financial support. The issue of technology, finance, and
capacity-building needs to be addressed simultaneously and holistically following a
comprehensive integrative approach.

5.3.3 Supply-side issues in technology transfer

Issues of innovation and technology transfer must be framed within the context of the
principles of CBDR-RC. The principle as expressed in the UNFCCC (Article 4;
Paragraphs 1, 5 and 7) explicitly notes the central role of the transfer of financial
resources and technology from developed to developing nations for the latter’s climate
action. The Convention also acknowledges that “economic and social development
and poverty eradication are the first and overriding priorities of the developing country
Parties.” The importance of technology transfer has also been noted and echoed by
all the subsequent protocols, agreements, and decisions under the Convention, most
notably the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement (Article 10), and the establishment of
the Technology Mechanism consisting of the Technology Executive Committee (TEC)
and the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN).

One of the critical and contentious areas in the discussions on technology transfer is
that of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) regimes. While a section of commentators
from the developed countries has argued for the sanctity of IPR enforcement in
fostering innovation, others from developed as well as developing countries have
questioned the efficacy of patent protection in clean energy innovation, diffusion and
their role as barriers to technology transfer (Rimmer, 2018). Azad & Azad (2016) in
their study, argue for moving away from a focus on domestic funding schemes to
international ones and make the case for a climate-just future where developed
countries fund developing countries’ energy and environmental security “in a manner
that protects developing countries’ sovereignty and flexibility while still addressing their
unique needs.”

In the context of the UNFCCC, it is relevant to note that the responsibility to provide
technology to developing countries also denotes the responsibility to develop
technologies to accelerate innovation towards the gradual elimination of GHG
emissions. No mitigation commitment will indeed be capable of being fulfilled in the
manner that climate science requires if not accompanied by technology development.

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However, despite IPR protection having been provided to developed countries in the
UNFCCC, data and studies point to the inadequacy of investments in R&D and overall
innovative activity in low-carbon technology by developed countries. IEA's recent
report points to a plateauing of low-carbon energy R&D investment in IEA member
countries (which include much of the developed countries) since 2012 (IEA, 2020a).
The report also notes that energy-related R&D investments, including low-carbon
technologies, are not growing in their share of GDP. They account for a declining share
of total government R&D spending in IEA member nations and currently it is only about
4 per cent of all public R&D by these countries. A sector-wise analysis shows that
energy has accounted for a shrinking share of public R&D spending in IEA member
nations since 1985 (IEA, 2020b). Data from 1999-2018 on the public R&D budget of
the major developed countries and IEA member countries show that public investment
in renewable energy technologies has witnessed a marked decline since 2009-10 from
USD 4.6 billion to 3.1 billion. These trends are shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Trends in public R&D budgets related to renewable energy technologies 1999-2018.
(Data from IEA, 2020b).
Source: Patil et al., 2020.

A clearer picture of the extent and focus of innovation can be obtained from patenting
trends derived from global patent databases. Similar to public R&D spending, a
declining trend can be observed in the volume of patenting activity in the key sectors
of environment-related technologies such as energy, transportation, and buildings
since 2011-12. This is based on the analysis of patent data from the OECD for major
developed countries - USA, Japan, South Korea, and the European Union (Arohi Patil,
Goutham, R. and Jayaraman, T., 2020, based on data extracted from OECD Stat and

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PATSTAT Online). Furthermore, the percentage share of environment-related
technologies in total annual patents filed has reduced from 11.4 per cent in 2011 to
7.2 per cent in 2016. Trends of priority patent applications in Solar PV and Energy
Storage (battery) related technologies in the major developed countries during the
period 1999-2016 are shown in Figure 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4. One can clearly see a marked
decline in the number of patents in these three areas from developed countries since
2009-2010. While developing countries have been persistently lectured about the
importance of storage development for solar power and the likely progress in this field,
the consistent decline in patenting activity in energy storage technologies does not
bode well for the availability of such technologies and their cost. Without such price
reduction in these technologies, large-scale solar power deployment would be difficult
in both developed and developing countries.

Figure 5.2: Solar thermal, count of priority patent applications, 1999 - 2016, based on priority
date and inventor country. (Data extracted from OECD STAT and PATSTAT Online by the
authors)
Source: Patil et al., 2020.

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Figure 5.3: Solar PV, count of priority patent applications, 1999 - 2016, based on priority date
and inventor country. (Data extracted from OECD STAT and PATSTAT Online by the authors)
Source: Patil et al., 2020.

Figure 5.4: Energy storage technologies, count of priority patent applications, 1999 - 2016, based
on priority date and inventor country. (Data extracted from OECD STAT and PATSTAT Online
by the authors)
Source: Patil et al., 2020.

It is pertinent to note that the decline in patenting outputs and public spending on R&D
begins around 2009, the year of the Copenhagen Accord. In this context, it may be
noted that the Accord effectively signalled a withdrawal from legally binding emission
reduction commitments by Annex-I Parties. A clear and significant slowdown in

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patenting from the developed world in green technology innovation is witnessed since
then. It can be observed that major developed countries that bear much of the
historical responsibility for cumulative global emissions and possessing the most
capabilities have not been meeting their obligations of investing and driving
innovations for low carbon technologies. While Annex I countries have consistently
called for deep emission cuts by all countries, they appear to be not meeting their fair
share in technology development and transfer. Calls for carbon neutrality that are not
based on holding developed countries accountable for taking the lead in low carbon
innovation and technology transfer is counterproductive to the principles of equity and
CBDR-RC. This calls for developing countries, including India, to find a way to
foreground the issue based on the principles of technology transfer laid down in the
UNFCCC.

Another challenge concerning technology transfer is the lack of data on the low-carbon
technology patents that have been commercialised for deployment. This is important
because technological innovation can aid in climate change mitigation or adaptation
only if it has been made available commercially for uptake and diffusion. Hence there
is a need for establishing a database that tracks patents related to low-carbon
technologies and their commercialisation status, disaggregated by countries.

India is the only country that regularly releases data on patents that are being worked,
including the number of licenses granted, based on the requirements of Indian patent
legislation. The mandated requirement of a working statement for every patent granted
in India has been defined in section 146(2) of the Patents Act, 1970. The working
statement requirement can be fulfilled by submitting the prescribed information at the
Patent Office, each year within three months from the end of the calendar year, i.e.,
by 31 March of the subsequent year. This working statement is a declaration required
from the patentee or the licensee, stating whether the patent has been commercially
exploited/implemented/worked in India to meet the reasonable requirements of the
public at a reasonable cost in the last calendar year, along with other details and
reasons, as applicable. Non-compliance in providing the working statement may
increase the risk of compulsory license and revocation of the patent in India. Other
penalties are also attached to non-compliance.

Regrettably, developed countries’ domestic patent legislation does not mandate such
provisions, nor can these countries provide data on the working of relevant patents.
Availability of information on patents and their working would provide a valuable guide
to developing countries to focus on viable technologies at scale for decoupling their
growth from emissions.

5.4 GHG inventory reporting: Constraints, gaps, and improvements

By and large, India uses the 2006 IPCC Guidelines to report GHG inventory for source
and sink categories across five sectors, including the energy sector, IPPU, agriculture,
LULUCF, and waste. A significant proportion of emissions from key sectors are

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estimated by applying a higher-tier method or using country- or plant-specific emission
factors (EFs) and other parameters. Programs and studies for developing new EFs
and improving inventory coverage and accuracy are ongoing; for example, a study to
develop country- and sector-specific EFs and other fuel combustion parameters.
Upgrading the emission inventory system is a dynamic process, and sustained efforts
are being made to ensure that India’s GHG emission inventory is of high quality,
transparent, and consistent with the requirements of IPCC inventory guidelines. GoI
plans to ride the tier ladder using key category analysis and uncertainty assessment,
that will require new and additional financial, technical, and capacity support.

The capacity-building needs identified by India’s BUR-2 and analysed during the
technical analysis process by the TTE and published in the TA Summary Report
remain unfulfilled. Constraints and gaps presented in the following sections are in
addition to what has already been reported by India to the UNFCCC.

5.4.1 Energy sector

As the national reporting requirements become increasingly exhaustive, there is a

need to use 2006 IPCC guidelines for estimating GHG emissions throughout the sub-
sectors under the energy category. Such a requirement calls for the need to advance
current methodologies, more granularity in the data to estimate GHG emissions and
increase in sectoral coverage and data collection in all the fuel-consuming industries.
This poses a severe financial constraint for India, especially in estimating fugitive
emissions from the oil and natural gas sector, requiring upgrading the technologies
used for inventory estimation. Estimation of new categories and new gases poses a
critical capacity-building and financial challenge for India.

Presently, emission estimation is done from the activity data sourced from different
government and sectoral reports. It is necessary to develop a mechanism for the
streamlined collection of activity data from various sub-sectors and obtain information
on fuel consumption to get a more disaggregated picture of the total GHG emissions.

Further, source-wise quality parameters of imported coal and data on grade-wise

deliveries of entire coal supply to different sectors would be more conducive to
emissions calculations. The country-specific NCV and CEF values need to be
developed for gaseous and liquid fuels used in the energy and manufacturing
industries.

The uncertainty is particularly high in residential energy, agricultural energy, cement,

iron and steel, and food and beverage, posing yet another challenge. There is a need
to continuously improve the accuracy of activity data generation, for which both
financial and technical support is essential.

It is also required to develop EFs for different fuels, vehicle types, and traffic patterns
for the transport sector, which will help in national GHG reporting with reduced levels

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of uncertainty and provide information on source apportionment for policy interventions
in the future.

5.4.2 Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU) sector

India has developed and used plant and country-specific CO2 and N2O EFs for the
sector's dominant categories like minerals, chemical, and metal industries. However,
the information on activity data was not reported in BUR-2 due to the enormity of data
sets in this sector. This poses a significant challenge for reporting under India's IPPU
sector because most industrial units are small, unorganized, and scattered. There is
a need to create an incentive mechanism for industrial units to provide data, but this
will require financial support.

Substantial new and additional financial resources and capacity building is required
for the emission estimation from gasification and pyrolysis; refrigeration and air-
conditioning equipment for obtaining and rationalizing facility-level fuel statistics of
energy and manufacturing sector industries; and, plant-wise estimations especially in
the iron & steel sector.

Companies in the cement and iron & steel sector report their GHG emissions based
on industry-specific corporate protocols, which are not entirely aligned with IPCC
requirements for national inventory. Therefore, harmonizing corporate and national
inventory reporting guidelines to lessen industry and government burden in reporting
is needed. Capacity building of industry on corporate reporting and national inventory
is a must for receiving transparent emissions data.

5.4.3 Agriculture sector

In the agriculture sector, CH4 emission coefficients are estimated by calculating GHG
emissions from manure systems, rice cultivation under different water regimes and
organic amendments, burning of crop residue, N2O emission from soils supporting
rice-wheat systems, and application of nitrogenous fertilizers.

Some of the major constraints faced by this sector include: a) limited availability of
crop production data for the latest inventory years. b) State-wise fertilizer consumption
data for different crops is not available in the public domain; c) there are only a few
N2O measurements in major agricultural regions of the country, leading to relatively
higher uncertainty in EFs; d) data on lime application in agriculture is not available, nor
are the EFs for lime application in the sector available; e) urea application to soil
methodology needs to be re-evaluated.

There is a need for more intensive measurements across the different agro-ecological
zones in the country's major cropping systems to reduce the uncertainty levels.
Bridging these technical and capacity gap will require substantial financial resources.
Constraints and gaps related to the agricultural sector's mitigation actions can be
broadly divided into two categories:

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a) Constraints and gaps related to the availability of data on the coverage of
mitigation actions

Some of the crucial constraints here are as follows:

1) Department of Agriculture, Co-operation and Farmers Welfare (DAC&FW) is

implementing programs that aim at productivity enhancement and resource use
efficiency, which have significant mitigation co-benefits but do not have the
necessary information to quantify their extent. For example, several initiatives
are being taken for promoting organic agriculture in the country, and significant
areas have been brought under organic cultivation. However, the information
about the quantity of fertilisers avoided or reduced is not available, and thus the
extent of mitigation co-benefits could not be quantified. There is a need to focus
efforts on obtaining information about the coverage of these management
practices for future reporting.
2) Information about the extent of adoption of proven adaptation practices which
have mitigation co-benefits is not available. The central and state governments
are taking up demonstrations of proven adaptation practices as part of several
ongoing programs that are simple and easy to adopt and have significant yield
and economic benefits. Sections of farmers also adopt these practices due to
the benefits they obtain independently without the government's support, which
are not reported. The extent of adoption of these practices is significant; for
example, the adoption of horticulture systems, and drip irrigation systems,
3) Similarly, some state governments have emphasized tree planting in private
holdings, roads and community lands in programs like MGNREGS in a
significant way. In the case of Andhra Pradesh, teak (Tectona grandis) planting
is being taken up on a massive scale (about 50 million saplings per year) since
2012, and yet information about this programme is not available in a single
platform for reporting purposes.
4) Lack of data about the extent of the area covered in some of the area-based
development programs as in the case of watershed development.
5) Data on the afforestation activities taken up by industries as in the case of paper
and plywood are not available in the public domain. A significant number of
paper and plywood companies in India depend on wood produced in farmers’
fields and contribute to their plantations by direct or indirect support.

b) Constraints related to the quantification of mitigation actions

1) Developing country-specific emission factors and sequestration rates is an

important activity since it makes the quantification of mitigation actions more
representative of the circumstances under which these actions were
implemented and the estimates become scientifically more robust. Information
about the rates of carbon sequestration in fruit tree systems is limited for Indian

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 conditions. Little information is available on allometric equations and biomass
expansion factors for fruit tree species. Data is not available on the quantum of
below-ground carbon or carbon sequestered by root systems, the annual
increase in the rates of carbon accumulation in the above and below ground
systems, the carbon content of plant parts, and the soil carbon. The quantum
of carbon sequestered by tree systems is directly proportional to the biomass
production by trees, which is largely driven by the area's rainfall and soil
conditions. Representative values for different agro-ecological regions are
needed as fruit tree systems are distributed throughout the country. In the
absence of robust data, we have used the few currently available Indian data
and utilized data from similar climatic conditions from other parts of the world.
Filling these gaps will require substantial financial, technical and human
resources.

2) In micro-irrigation systems, the quantum of emission reductions depends on

energy savings, which in turn depend on the amount of irrigation applied as
crops differ significantly in their water requirements. In the absence of crop-
specific emission reductions data of the micro-irrigation systems, we have
adopted a generic approach for estimating the reductions. In recent years,
localized modifications to SRI have been made which consists of variable
management practices like soil preparation, water management and
transplantation method which determine methane emissions. There is a need
to have system-specific emission coefficients under Indian conditions for
accurate quantification of methane reduction.

5.4.4 Land Use, Land-use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF) sector

One of the significant challenges in the LULUCF sector is the limited data available for
the rate of change of biomass and soil organic carbon (SOC) in different land use
categories except for forestland. For forests, precise and periodic information on the
area, emission factors and SOC are available from the Forest Survey of India (FSI).

Capacity building is required to capture the data requirements for estimating carbon
stock using the gain and loss approach. Additional financial support is required to build
capacity to adopt suitable carbon measurement models and generate EFs (such as
stocks and fluxes of five carbon pools) in different land categories.

5.4.5 Waste sector

In the waste sector, data availability is one of the major challenges as data collation
has not been regular or undertaken with reasonable scientific rigour. Although Swachh
Bharat Mission-Urban (SBM-Urban) has a well-developed MIS portal where Urban
Local Bodies (ULBs) provide field-level data on MSW generation as part of the Swachh
Survekshan and Garbage Free certification exercises. However, this is not adequate.

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More field studies and plant-level surveys are required to get industrial waste
generation data.

The following measures are required to reduce the levels of uncertainty in methane
emissions from the waste sector:
 The municipal corporation should keep up to date records of sources and
characteristics of MSW reaching landfill sites;
 Weighing of MSW reaching landfill sites should be carried out regularly;
 Source segregation of waste should be facilitated;
 Physical analysis and chemical analysis should be carried out periodically to
assess the various ingredients and chemical constituents present in MSW at
landfill sites;
 Landfill sites should be adequately planned, constructed, and operated following
MSW Rules;
 Cell-wise placement of waste should be facilitated at the landfill and type of waste
disposed of in a particular cell should be recorded;
 Methane collection and recovery system should be provided at the landfill; and,
 Regular in-situ monitoring of methane emissions should be carried out.

These measures require substantial support in capacity-building, technical expertise,

and financial resources. In other words, ridding the tier ladder in the waste sector
would depend upon building cities' technological capabilities on better MRV and
record-keeping of the waste generated in their respective jurisdiction.

To conclude, national GHG inventory preparation in its present form places a

considerable burden on India in terms of time, effort, and the need for greater
capacities and financial expenditure while distracting attention from the real effort
required for climate action in the context of development deficits. This burden will
compound significantly with the adoption of the ETF. Without adequate additional
support from developed countries for climate action, it will become an unviable
proposition for India to take up this burden.

Overall, the following table shows the existing gaps in reporting GHG inventory across
various sectors.

Table 5.9: Constraint, gaps and requirements for GHG inventory

GHG inventory: Constraint, gaps and requirements

Mechanism for streamlined collection of activity data from various sub-sectors

Energy
sector Country-specific values of NCV and CEF need to be developed for gaseous
and liquid fuels

IPPU Increase activity data resolution, strengthen fuel testing capacities

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 Additional financial and capacity building required for the emission estimation
from gasification and pyrolysis

Harmonize the corporate reporting and national inventory reporting

requirements

Agriculture More intensive measurements across the different agro-ecological zones,

sector limitations on quantification of mitigation actions

Capacity building is required to capture the data requirements for calculation of

the carbon stock using gain and loss approach data
LULUCF
Additional financial support to build capacity for the adoption of suitable carbon
measurement models and for generating EFs

Waste More field studies and more plant-level surveys to get industrial waste
sector generation data.

5.5 Capacity building needs and support received

Capacity building is one of the primary requirements for achieving the objectives of the
Convention. It enables individuals, organizations, and societies to mitigate and adapt
to climate change in the most cost-efficient and sustainable manner.

5.5.1 Needs related to minimising loss and damage due to weather-related

disasters and other requirements

The capacity-building needs expressed by India through the national reporting process
to the Convention since 2004 are still relevant but remain mostly unmet and continue
to multiply. Thus, this section should be read in conjunction with the capacity building
needs thus far identified by India and the ICA process of its BUR-1 and BUR-2, as well
as with the preceding sections of this chapter. Additionally, some further capacity-
building gaps especially related to minimizing loss and damage caused by weather-
related extreme events and disasters, are as follows:

Weather and Climate Forecasting: While the extant weather and climate forecasting
system in India is reasonably robust, some gaps remain with regard to meeting the
growing demand for more accurate user-specific forecasts in different temporal and
spatial scales. Further improvement of current services requires effective conversion
of R&D results to fully operational products, services, and effective means to develop
linkages with decision-makers and users. For cost-effective meteorological services
to society, an indigenous system for the maintenance and calibration of installed AWS
(automatic weather stations), ARG (automatic rain gauges), and DWR (Doppler
weather radar) infrastructure needs to be in place. To ensure that no severe weather
event goes undetected, a high-resolution observational system is required.
Establishing, operating, and maintaining a robust network of observing systems
through augmentation of an observational network at 25x25 km grid and upper air

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observations at 100x100 km complimented by multi-platform satellites, air-craft based
profiler observations, doppler radars, and wind profilers are also needed.

Recent studies indicate an increasing trend in the socio-economic impact of extreme

weather events such as floods, droughts, cyclones, hailstorms, thunderstorms, and
heat and cold waves. Forecasting urban weather is becoming increasingly important
to managing disasters, decision making in the public sector, and urban planning.

Accurate forecasts of the intensity of tropical cyclones (TCs) remains a gap area that
sets the basis for improving model physics (cloud, convection, radiation). Forecast
improvements are particularly needed for re-curving cyclones. There is considerable
scope to improve the prediction skill in landfall of tropical cyclones and associated
rainfall, storm surge, and winds.

Research suggests an increase in extreme weather events over India, which could be
caused by global warming. It is required to improve capabilities in predicting
anomalous/unprecedented extreme weather episodes by enhancing the forecast
accuracy of these episodes, particularly for flash flood events over urban and complex
topography.

There is still limited skill achieved in forecasting disastrous weather events over the
Himalayan region. A denser observational network over the Himalayan region and
better representation of land-surface and topography data in the high-resolution
numerical models is needed to address these issues.

Weather and Climate Services: Challenges and uncertainties remain concerning the
accuracy of monsoon predictions and precipitation forecasts across different
timescales. Even though the seasonal prediction of district-level rainfall may not be
feasible, attempts can be made to predict seasonal rainfall over a sub-division,
especially over India's central plains. The extended range prediction system provides
beneficial products at a time scale of 15-20 days. More work is needed to model the
complex interactions between ENSO, IOD, and Indian Monsoon. A state-of-the-art
climate data centre with an integrated advanced climate data services portal for
rendering national and regional climate services is being established by the IMD. The
climate data centre will provide a comprehensive set of improved and specialized
climate services for the country by upgrading climate monitoring, climate prediction,
climate data management, and climate application.

Energy Management System: Establishing a robust Energy Management System to

develop a strong reporting and verification system is essential. An accomplished MRV
system enables the achievement of maximum mitigation through end-to-end
information management of a given system. Such an integrated MRV system requires
streamlined data management systems, improved technical skills, analytical
capabilities, and coordination among stakeholders. The development of a robust MRV
system also requires additional finance and capacity building.

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5.5.2 Support received

Individual projects funded by multilateral institutions such as GEF have a component

on capacity building. The GEF-funded project on “Preparation of Third National
Communication to the UNFCCC and Strengthening Institutional and Analytical
Capacities on Climate Change” has supported the preparation of India’s third BUR.
Under the GEF-7 cycle, the projects on "Capacity-building for establishing an
Integrated and Enhanced Transparency Framework for Climate actions and Support
Measures" worth USD 3.8 million, “Preparation of India’s Fourth National
Communication (4NC), Fourth Biennial Update Report (BUR-4) and First Biennial
Transparency Report (BTR1) to the UNFCCC and strengthening institutional and
analytical capacities on climate change" worth USD 4.416 million have been
supported. These projects have limited provision for developing or strengthening the
infrastructural and technical capacities of the national institutions involved with the
preparation of national GHG inventory and awarding studies to assess the impact of
climate change on various mitigation and adaptation sectors.

India accessed the second phase of readiness and preparatory support grant (worth
USD 0.3 million) from GCF with two objectives:
1. Accreditation support and building capacity of DAEs and State governments to
develop fundable proposals based on the priorities identified in the country
programme document with financing models that are innovative and can leverage
various types of funds;
2. Systematically engaging businesses and financial institutions to invest in climate
actions.

Bilaterally, India has entered into MoUs with several countries to exchange and
strengthen expertise on climate change mitigation and adaption matters during this
BUR reporting period. Some of the major MoUs signed are as follows:
 December 2018, between India and France in the field of new and renewable
energy.
 September 2019, between India and Switzerland on technical cooperation in the
field of climate change and environment.
 October 2019, between India and Saudi Arabia to set up a framework for
cooperation between the two counties in the field of renewable energy.
 November 2019, between India and Guinea in the field of renewable energy.
 December 2019, between India and the United Kingdom for enabling energy self-
sufficiency for IR.
 December 2019, between India and Brazil, setting up a framework to cooperate
and promote investment in bioenergy.
 January 2020, between India and Brazil for cooperation in the oil and natural gas
sector (including encouraging collaboration in oil energy and environmental
issues).

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5.5.3 National initiatives

GoI attaches great importance to knowledge management and capacity building for
climate change and sustainable development. The Government programs invariably
have a component on capacity building/ training/ awareness creation. Most of these
programs have started accounting for climate variabilities in their respective sectors to
ensure economic growth and sustainable development. Some of the significant
domestic capacity-building initiatives are enumerated in the following paragraphs.

One of the eight national missions under NAPCC is the National Mission on Strategic
Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC). DST coordinates this mission focusing on
building human and institutional science and technology capacities in climate change
and developing strategic knowledge in the key areas of climate change science,
adaptation, and mitigation.

Some of the significant achievements of NMSKCC includes:

 Establishment of 11 Centres of Excellence (CoEs) to address various aspects of

climate change. These CoEs are located at Divecha Centre for Climate Change,
IISc, Bangalore; IIT Bombay (Phase I & II), ICRISAT, Hyderabad (Phase I & II),
IIT Madras (Phase I & II), IIT Delhi, IIT Kharagpur, BHU, Varanasi and NIMR, New
Delhi;
 Initiated 23 major R&D programmes at key knowledge institutions and universities
in different areas of climate science and adaptation;
 Launched six national network programmes; two each on Climate Modeling and
Climate Change & Human Health and one each on Climate Change and Coastal
Vulnerability, and Climate Change and Aerosols;
 Global Technology Watch Groups (GTWGs) in the areas of; a) Solar energy
including other renewable energy anchored around National Institute of Advanced
Studies (NIAS), Bangalore and participation of other groups at key national
institutions; b) Clean Coal Technologies with IIT Madras taking the lead and
several other institutions as partners; and c) six other areas (Enhanced Energy
Efficiency, Sustainable Agriculture, Sustainable Habitat, Water, Manufacturing
and Green Forestry) by TIFAC, New Delhi and State Climate Change Centres in
13 States – Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Kerala,
Puducherry, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Maharashtra, Odisha, Haryana. Bihar and
Gujarat; and,
 Implementing human capacity building programs in six institutions across the
country.

Some of the new activities undertaken by NMSKCC since April 2018 are as follows:

 CoE at Divecha Centre for Climate Change, IISc Bangalore, has been
strengthened to study climate change impacts on the Himalayan glaciers,

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 anthropogenic aerosols' impact on climate, and climate models for understanding
past and future climate change.
 As part of the network programme on urban climate, five projects have been
initiated to study various aspects of urban climate including, land surface,
atmospheric processes, and hydrology with three pilot sites viz. Bengaluru
(Inland), Bhubaneswar (Coastal), and Dehradun (Sub Himalayan).
 State Climate Change Cells established/strengthened in Bihar and Gujarat to
undertake vulnerability assessment, training programmes, public awareness, and
institutional capacity building.

BEE had launched a programme for capacity building of DISCOMs. During the
financial year 2012-17, BEE had selected 34 DISCOMs for their capacity building and
provided support for the implementation of DSM (demand side management related
activities. During the second phase (FY 2017-20), the remaining 28 DISCOMs have
been included under this programme.

Out of the 112 circle level programs, 42 training programs for the capacity building of
circle level officials of DISCOMs have been completed. About 1500 (out of 4000) circle
level officials have been provided training on DSM & EE. Trained workforce would be
provided to the 28 new and existing 34 DISCOMs to implement this program's
activities during 2017-20. To date, 100 consultants are positioned at various DISCOMs
under this program for carrying out various DSM Activities. DSM regulations have
been notified for 29 States and UTs. The remaining states are pursuing notification of
their DSM regulations for their respective states.

MNRE’s Human Resource Development (HRD) scheme supports training for

manpower at all levels, including promoting higher studies/research courses in
R&D/academic institutions in renewable energy by providing fellowships to
students/scholars. Support is also provided to R&D/academic institutes for upgrading
their libraries and labs for conducting higher degree courses such as M.Sc, M.Tech,
and Ph.D. in the field of new and renewable energy. The Ministry is also implementing
Suryamitra, a skill development programme to create a trained workforce for
installation, commissioning, operation, and maintenance of solar projects. The Ministry
has initiated the "Indian Renewable Energy Idea Exchange (IRIX)," a multi-stakeholder
collaborative platform to exchange and catalyse renewable energy innovation ideas.
This platform aims to bring together industry experts, the renewable energy
community, entrepreneurs, and policymakers to drive innovation in renewable energy
at an exponential pace.

GoI has updated and revised the National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) in 2019
to strengthen disaster preparedness and recovery. Considering the impact of climate
change on the frequency and intensity of disasters, climate change risk management
has been included as a novel and sixth thematic area for disaster risk management in
the responsibility framework of the revised NDMP (NDMA, 2019).

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To conclude, the late President of India, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, said that “building
capacity dissolves differences. It irons out inequalities”. Empowering people and
institutions with knowledge, requisite infrastructure, and resources is fundamental to
the creation of solutions to climate change. India is continuously making efforts to build
and strengthen its human, technical, and infrastructure capacity and capabilities on
energy efficiency, renewable energy, disaster management, and adaptation to meet
its population's basic, developmental and aspirational needs. However, this is not
adequate because, on the one hand, capacity-building needs are multidimensional, at
every level of governance and are not a one-time activity. On the other hand, the
reporting obligations under UNFCCC are increasing, while resources and support from
developed countries for on-ground climate action are declining, and weather-based
events/ disasters are becoming more frequent with significant loss to the economy and
society. India’s efforts towards meeting the NDCs alone will require intensive and
regular upgrading of infrastructure and technical workforce. Enhanced collaboration
and networking with international partners are required to exchange best practices
and knowledge systems on climate change mitigation and adaptation.

5.6 Support provided by India

India’s civilizational values on international cooperation, underpinned by the enduring

conceptual framework of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’ (The whole world is one family),
has guided the country’s development partnerships, particularly in climate action.

Development partnership is a key instrument in India’s foreign policy, particularly

concerning “Neighborhood First” and "Act East” policies. While India’s development
cooperation initiatives have a long and enduring history, the nature and spread of such
development assistance has, in recent years, expanded both geographically and
sectorally. India’s development cooperation aligns with the development priorities of
the partner countries as technically and financially feasible. The main instruments of
India’s development assistance include LoC, grant assistance, small development
projects (SDP), technical consultancy, disaster relief, humanitarian aid and capacity-
building programmes. The focus of development assistance has been India’s
neighbouring countries and Africa. However, India is also expanding its reach to
South-East Asia, the Caribbean, Latin America, Mongolia, Russian Federation, and
the Pacific Island countries. Since 2005-06, 307 LoCs amounting to USD 31.61 billion
have been extended to 64 countries in various sectors (MEA, 2020a).

India has shown time and again that it can be a reliable partner for the world. Despite
being a vast developing country, severely impacted by COVID-19 pandemic and
climate change, India has kept supply chains open during this pandemic and supplied
medicines and medical equipment to more than 150 countries. This has added to
India’s reputation as the pharmacy to the world. As we move towards developing a
COVID-19 vaccine, India, which accounts for 60 per cent of global vaccine production,

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has already committed its vaccine production and delivery capacity to help the world
in fighting this crisis.

Further, in keeping with the commitment made by Hon’ble Prime Minister of India at
CHOGM 2018, India has since opened a ‘Commonwealth Sub Window’ (of USD 50
million) to provide grant-in-aid assistance to Commonwealth members for projects
related to SDG implementation and Climate Action. In the first year of its existence,
the Fund has approved 11 projects in 9 Commonwealth countries. As part of the same,
India is assisting seven Pacific Island countries with developing a climate early
warning system. The project will enhance Pacific Island countries' ability to prepare,
respond to, and recover from climate-related disasters.

India has also been engaging with SIDS more than ever before. Two summits under
the Forum for India Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPC) have been organised since
2014, and in September 2019, India organized the first India-CARICOM leaders’
meeting. India has been and will continue to be committed to tackling the impact of
climate change and supporting SIDS efforts to achieve their developmental goals
through both developmental and technical assistance. India has also more than
doubled its support to the Commonwealth Small States Offices Program in New York
(from USD 100,000 to USD 250,000) and Geneva (from USD 80,000 to USD 150,000)
to support the small states and SIDS engagement with international bodies like the
UN and WTO (MEA, 2020).

Solar projects: The International Solar Alliance is a major initiative of the Prime
Minister in contributing to the implementation of the Paris Agreement through rapid
and massive deployment of solar energy. The founding conference of the International
Solar Alliance took place on 11 March 2018, in New Delhi. During this conference,
India committed to extending nearly USD 1.4 billion worth of LoCs (MEA, 2018). These
include six solar projects amounting to USD 500 million under EBID (ECOWAS Bank
for Investment and Development) and 21 other solar projects amounting to USD 790
million. Under this, LoCs amounting to USD 200.92 million have been extended to
Bangladesh, and USD 100 million have been extended to Sri Lanka for various solar
projects. This year, new LoCs worth USD 140.33 million to the Democratic Republic
of Congo, USD 35.80 million to Suriname, USD 122 million to Rwanda, USD 20.22
million to Guinea, USD 22 million, and USD 60.65 million to Mali were extended. These
solar projects are under various stages of implementation.

Capacity-building support for Renewable Energy: The Indian Technical and Economic
Cooperation (ITEC) programme is a visible symbol of India’s role and contribution to
South-South Cooperation, which constitutes capacity building partnership with a
footprint in 161 partner countries from Asia, Africa, East Europe, Latin America, the
Caribbean as well as Pacific and Small Island countries. During 2019-20, 11,645
civilian training slots were offered under the ITEC programme to 159 partner countries
in 98 premier institutions for various short-term, and medium-term 392 courses in

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institutions spread all over India. The civilian training programme, fully sponsored by
GoI through more than 85 premier institutions, conducts over 370 courses
encompassing a diverse array of skills and disciplines, including climate change and
the environment for working professionals.

As part of ITEC and IAFS-III (India-African Forum Summit-III) programmes, MNRE

facilitates specialized training programmes for African and other developing countries
in the field of solar and wind energy. The training programmes conducted from
September 2018 to February 2020 are listed in Table 5.10.

Table 5.10: List of trainings under ITEC and IAFS-III (MNRE, 2020)

S. No. of No. of
Programme/Course Duration
No. Participants Countries
International Training Programme on Solar
27 August to 14
1 Energy Technologies and Applications 30 16
September 2018
under ITEC
International Training Programme for
10 to 29
2 Master Trainers from ISA member countries 29 9
September 2018
under ITEC
Special International Training Course on
19 September to
3 Wind Resource Assessment and Wind 17 11
12 October 2018
Farm Planning under ITEC
International Training Programme for
24 September to
4 Renewable Energy Capacity Building under 16 8
12 October 2018
IAFS
International Training Programme for
15 October to 3
5 Master Trainers from ISA member countries 24 11
November 2018
under ITEC
Special International Training Course on 14 November to
6 Design, Installation and Maintenance of 14 December 31 14
Small Wind Turbine under ITEC 2018
Special International Training Course on
15 November to
Design, Installation and Maintenance of
7 13 December NA NA
Small Wind Turbine for African countries
2018
under IAFS-III
International Training Programme on Solar 26 November to
8 Energy Technologies and Applications 14 December 32 21
under ITEC 2018
International Training Programme for 26 November to
9 Master Trainers from ISA member countries 15 December 21 10
under ITEC 2018
30 November to
International workshop on Small Wind
10 9 December 120 36
Turbine
2018
International workshop on Small Wind 10 to 12
11 250 36
Turbine December 2018
Renewable Energy Capacity-building 7 January to 25
12 23 NA
Programme for African countries January 2019

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 S. No. of No. of
Programme/Course Duration
No. Participants Countries
ITEC programme in Solar Energy for 21 January to 9
13 24 NA
Master Trainers from ISA member countries February 2019
International Training Course on Wind 31 January to 1
14 28 16
Turbine Technology and Applications March 2019
International Training Programme on Solar 4 to 22 February
15 27 NA
Technologies and Applications 2019
ITEC programme in Solar Energy for 18 February to 9
16 29 NA
Master Trainers from ISA member countries March 2019
Special International Training Course on
28 August to 20
17 Wind Resource Assessment and Wind 19 9
September 2019
Farm Planning
Special International Training Course on
28 August to 24
18 Design, Installation and Maintenance of 26 9
September 2019
Small Wind Turbine
Special International Training Course on 24 October to 21
19 29 16
Wind Turbine Technology and Applications November 2019
International Training Course on Wind 23 October to 19
20 28 18
Turbine Technology and Applications November 2019
Special International Training Course on 27 November to
21 Solar Resource Assessment and 20 December 34 21
Development of Solar Power Plant 2019
International Training Course on Wind 29 January to 25
22 29 18
Turbine Technology and Applications February 2020
ITEC Programme in Solar Energy for
10 to 28
23 Master Trainers from ISA Member 30 15
February 2020
Countries

Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): The Hon’ble Prime Minister of
India launched the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure during the 74th UN
General Assembly at the Climate Action Summit in New York on 23 September 2019.

CDRI will provide technical and capacity support to encourage investments and
partnerships for the development of disaster resilient infrastructure in the participating
countries. The Coalition targets the creation of a mechanism to assist countries to
upgrade their capacities, systems, standards, regulations and practices with regard to
infrastructure development in accordance with their risk context and economic needs.

To conclude, ISA and CDRI are major initiatives by India which harness the country’s
domestic strengths and capacities to mobilize international multilateral efforts to
answer global problems and challenges.

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*****

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 “India is here today to present a practical approach and
roadmap. We believe that an ounce of practice is worth more
than a ton of preaching. In India, we are going to increase the
share of non fossil fuel, and by 2022 we plan to increase our
renewable energy capacity to much beyond 175 GW, and later
till 450 GW.…In order to make our infrastructure resilient in the
face of disasters, India is launching a Coalition for Disaster
Resilient Infrastructure. I invite all member states to join this
Coalition.”

Prime Minister Mr Narendra Modi at

the UN Climate Action Summit 2019 held in
New York City, USA, on September 23, 2019.

India’s leadership in Climate Ambition.

India is hosting, supporting and nurturing the
International Solar Alliance (ISA) and the
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure
(CDRI).

88 countries signed
the framework
agreement

Members:
19 countries
With Sweden, India is leading 04 multilateral
the world on the industry organizations
track to reduce emissions
from energy-intensive and
hard-to-abate sectors,
promoting policy frameworks,
incentives and investment in
low carbon infrastructure.

India’s leadership in Global Cooperation.

Prajapati, D. (2020). Thiksey Monastery, Ladakh.
 Key Points
Chapter 6 Additional Information
 The chapter contains information and success stories especially from renewable
energy, sustainable transportation, international cooperation and initiatives, and
the engagement of the private sector.
 The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) is in the process of
setting up a dedicated “Green Window” to serve the unserved segments of
renewable energy with allocation of approximately USD 20 million. State Rooftop
Solar Attractiveness Index (SARAL) was launched in 2019 to incentivize rooftop
solar by creating healthy competition among the States.
 Solarisation of the Sun temple towns of Konarak and Modhera, installation of the
world's largest solar rooftop at the Brabourne stadium in Mumbai, building the
world's largest solar park at Bhadla, the Rewa Solar Power Project are some of
the prominent recent developments to promote solar energy.
 The world's first fully solar powered airport was developed in Kochi and the model
is being adopted in other airports such as Kolkata and Mangalore.
 The Indian Railways (IR) is making significant efforts to become a “net zero”
carbon emitter by 2030. IR had an installed solar power capacity of 103 MW which
is proposed to be increased to 1,000 MW and wind generation capacity of 104 MW
which is proposed to be increased to 200 MW by 2022.
 In the transport sector, there has been an expansion of urban rail, strengthening
of electric mobility, pilot usage of biojet fuels in aircraft, pilot operations of hydrogen
fueled buses and cars, and the operation of a fully solar-powered commuter ferry
Aditya.
 The development of India’s newest Union Territory of Ladakh as carbon-neutral
Ladakh is an attempt to chart a new sustainable development pathway in an
ecologically sensitive region where Nature dwarfs the human presence.
 The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is the result of an Indian initiative for
collectively addressing key common challenges to scaling up of solar energy. With
the signing and ratification of the ISA Framework Agreement by 15 countries, on
6 December 2017, ISA became the first international intergovernmental
organization to be headquartered in India. The First Assembly of the ISA, held on
3 October 2018, adopted a resolution for an amendment to the Framework
Agreement to expand the scope of membership of the ISA to all countries that are
members of United Nations (UN). As on date, 88 countries have signed the
Framework Agreement of the ISA. Of these, 70 countries have also ratified the
same.

395
 India announced the formation of a global Coalition for Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure (CDRI), at the UN Climate Action Summit 2019, to promote the
resilience of new and existing infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks.
 India participates actively in several bilateral cooperation arrangements on
environment and climate change with other developing countries as well as with
developed nations.
 There has been serious private sector engagement in the country to address the
growing challenge of climate change with various climate-friendly initiatives.
Several major Indian corporates have announced mitigation plans of varying
intensities over different time frames.

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 Chapter 6
Additional Information

Following Decision 2/CP.17, Annex 3, Para 2 (g), the scope of BURs include providing
an update on "Any other information that the non-Annex I Party considers relevant to
the achievement of the objective of the Convention and suitable for inclusion in its
Biennial Update Report (BUR)”. In accordance with this provision, this chapter provides
information additional to that which is provided in the preceding chapters. The chapter
contains information and success stories from the renewable energy sector, sustainable
transportation, international cooperation and initiatives, promotion of digital technology,
and private sector engagement. A section on Gandhian principles of sustainable
development is also included.

6.1 Promotion of clean and renewable energy

6.1.1 Renewable energy

The renewable energy sector in India is making rapid strides. India's substantially higher
commitment to increasing the use of renewables in its total energy mix ensures greater
energy security, improved energy access, and enhanced employment opportunities,
while making the country one of the world's largest green energy producers. India
ranked fifth in the world in renewable energy installed capacity and generation in 2018
according to IRENA (IRENA, 2020).

As part of NDCs to the UNFCCC, India has undertaken to install about 40 per cent of its
total electricity power capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030. As of 30 November
2020, a cumulative renewable energy capacity of over 90.39 GW had been installed in
the country, and 49 GW is under implementation and 30 GW is under different stages
of tendering. As on same date, the country had cumulative installed capacity of 142.87
GW from all non-fossil fuels sources (renewables + hydro + nuclear). This has been
made possible through the concerted efforts of the GoI to promote renewable energy.
Major achievements and policies have been covered in Chapter 3. This section
discusses some interesting additional developments in the renewable sector, which may
pave the way for more achievements in the near future.

6.1.1.1 Green energy finance

Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency Limited (IREDA) is in the process of

setting up a dedicated “Green Window” to serve the unserved segments of renewable
energy. An allocation of approximately USD 20 million is being considered for the Green
Window, with plans of leveraging USD 80 million from both private domestic banks and
international sources. India is one of the top three nations leading global renewable
energy growth and requires USD 330 billion between 2018 and 2030 to meet its
commitments under the Paris Agreement. The proposed green window is expected to

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lower the risk for traditional banks to finance green energy and provide room to tap into
international capital to help India power its cities and villages (PIB, 2020a).

6.1.1.2 State Rooftop Solar Attractiveness Index (SARAL)

SARAL was launched by the GoI in 2019 to incentivise solar energy production from
rooftops by creating healthy competition among the States. The index has been
designed by the Ministry for New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Shakti Sustainable
Energy Foundation, Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India and Ernst
and Young (EY). SARAL captures five key aspects: the robustness of policy framework;
environment for implementation; investment climate; consumer experience; and
business ecosystem. It encourages each State to assess its progress and analyse the
way forward for improving the programme's scope. This will help States to channel
investments that can eventually help the sector grow. In addition, such an exercise is
likely to create a more conducive environment for solar rooftop installations, while
encouraging investment to accelerate the sector's growth. In 2019, the State of
Karnataka ranked first in the Index, followed by Telangana, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh
(PIB, 2019i).

6.1.1.3 Ocean energy is renewable energy

In August 2019, GoI declared that ocean energy (such as tidal, wave, current, ocean
and thermal energy conversion) shall be considered renewable energy and shall be
eligible for meeting the non-solar Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) (PIB, 2019b).

6.1.1.4 Solarisation of Konark

Konark is located in Puri district of the State of Odisha and is home to the 13th century
Sun Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. GoI launched a scheme in May 2020 with
the objective to develop the historical Sun Temple town of Konark in Odisha as “Surya
Nagri", to convey a message of synergy between the modern use of solar energy and
the ancient Sun temple, emphasizing the importance of promoting solar energy. The
scheme envisages setting up of a 10 MW grid-connected solar project and various solar
off-grid applications like solar trees, solar drinking water kiosks, off-grid solar power
plants with battery storage with 100 per cent Central Financial Assistance of
approximately INR 250 million, implemented by Odisha Renewable Energy
Development Agency. It is expected to meet all the energy requirements of Konark town
with solar energy (PIB, 2020b).

6.1.1.5 Solarisation of Modhera

GoI has launched another scheme to take forward the Prime Minister’s vision of
solarisation of the sun-temple town of Modhera in Mehsana district in Gujarat. The
Scheme envisages setting up of the renewable energy installations comprising 6 MW
solar PV power plant, 15 MWh battery storage, rooftop solar PV systems, smart meters,
solar electric vehicle charging stations in Modhera, with an investment of around INR

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650 million, with up to 50 per cent central financial assistance from GoI through MNRE
with the Government of Gujarat contributing the remaining 50 per cent. The scheme is
expected to fulfill the domestic and agricultural electricity needs of all the households of
Modhera with solar energy, thereby setting up a pilot demonstration project for a village/
town running entirely on solar energy (PIB, 2020c).

6.1.1.6 World’s largest solar rooftop: Brabourne Stadium

One of the world’s largest solar rooftops was installed on Brabourne Stadium at the
Cricket Club of India (CCI) in Mumbai in August 2018. It consists of 2,280 solar panels
of 360 watt peak (Wp) rating, each on the roof of the west and north stands of the
stadium. The combined power generation capacity of these panels commissioned by
Tata Power is 820 kW (kilowatt) (Tata Power, 2020). The CCI had already carried out a
pilot project to install solar panels to generate 45 kW and a 6,000 liters per day solar
water heating system in 2016. The rooftop panels are made with the latest technology
of mono-crystalline PERC. The total roof area is 1.621 million sq. ft. of roof sheds with
an estimated energy generation of 1.12 million units per annum displacing 840 tonne of
CO2 annually (The Hindu, 2018a).

Figure 6.1: Solar rooftop of Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai

6.1.1.7 World’s largest Solar Park: Bhadla

Bhadla Solar Park is the world's largest solar park (as on March 2020), located in
Bhadla, in Jodhpur district of Rajasthan. The park is spread over 10,000 acres (40 km2)
and has a capacity of 2,245 MW. The project is a joint effort between the NTPC Limited
and the Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), both of which are public sector
enterprises under the MNRE. Before Bhadla, Solar Park Pavagada, in Karnataka, with
a capacity of 2,050 MW was the largest solar park (Austin R, 2019).

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Figure 6.2: Bhadla Solar Park

6.1.1.8 Development of Ultra-Mega Renewable Energy Power Parks (UMREPPs)

UMREPPs will be developed under the existing Solar Park Scheme. The objective of
the UMREPP is to provide land upfront to the project developer and facilitate
transmission infrastructure for developing Renewable Energy (RE) based Ultra-Mega
Power Projects (UMPPs) with solar/wind/hybrid and with storage system if required.

6.1.1.9 Grid-connected Rooftop Solar (RTS) Programme

Phase II of the grid-connected rooftop solar programme was approved in Februrary

2019, with a target for achieving a cumulative capacity of 40,000 MW from RTS Projects
by 2022. In the Phase-II of the programme, Central Financial Assistance (CFA) for the
residential sector has been restructured, and DISCOMs are incentivised to promote
RTS.

6.1.1.10 Rewa Solar Power Project

The Hon’ble Prime Minister inaugurated the Rewa solar power project in Madhya
Pradesh on 10 July 2020 and dedicated Asia's largest solar power project to the nation.
The new 750 MW solar power plant project will reduce emissions equivalent to
approximately, 1.5 million tonne of CO2 per year. It exemplifies India's commitment to
attaining the target of 175 GW of installed renewable energy capacity by 2022 (PIB,
2020i).

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Figure 6.3: Rewa solar power project

The project comprises of three solar generating units of 250 MW each located on a 5
km2 plot of land situated inside a solar park. The solar park was developed by the Rewa
Ultra Mega Solar Limited (RUMSL), a joint venture company of Madhya Pradesh Urja
Vikas Nigam Limited (MPUVN) and SECI.

The Rewa Solar Project was the first solar project in the country to break the grid parity
barrier. Compared to prevailing solar project tariffs of approximately INR 4.50/unit in
early 2017, the Rewa project achieved historic results: a first year tariff of INR 2.97/unit
with a tariff escalation of INR 0.05/unit over 15 years and a levelized rate of INR 3.30/unit
over the term of 25 years. The project is also the first renewable energy project to supply
to an institutional customer outside the state, the Delhi Metro. The project will supply 24
per cent of energy to the Delhi Metro and the remaining 76 per cent to the State
DISCOMs of Madhya Pradesh.

The Rewa project has been acknowledged in India and abroad for its robust project
structuring and innovations. It has also received the World Bank Group President's
Award for innovation and excellence and was included in the book titled "A Book of
Innovation: New Beginnings" released by the Hon’ble Prime Minister (PIB, 2020h; Nag,
2020).

6.1.1.11 Solar energy in airports

Cochin International Airport Limited (CIAL) became the first airport in the world to be
fully powered by solar energy in August 2015. The installed capacity (output) is 40
Megawatt Peak (MWp). The amount of power generated is 0.16 million units per day on

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an average, while power consumption is 0.15 million units on an average per day. In line
with the GoI's policy to reduce GHG emissions, Airport Authority of India (AAI) has
adopted a similar model at its other airports. For example, AAI has also set up solar
power plants with a capacity of 38.787 MWp, including 15 MWp solar power plant at
Kolkata Airport. Further, AAI has also identified Hubbali, Belgavi and Mangalore airports
for operating on solar power. AAI has initiated airport GHG emission management under
ACI-ACA (Airport Council International - Airport Carbon Accreditation) programme at
Kolkata, Varanasi, Bhubaneswar and Trivandrum airports to measure carbon emission
saved by clean renewable resources (MoCA, 2019).

6.1.1.12 Make in India in the Renewable Energy Sector

The MNRE in an order in 2018 prescribed the minimum percentage of local content
required for all major categories of renewable energy projects like hydropower, wind
power, off-grid/ decentralised solar power, grid-connected solar power, biomass
gasifier, biomass cogeneration, municipal solid waste and waste to energy (biogas /bio-
CNG). It has also stipulated that in such projects, apart from civil construction,
preference shall be provided by Central Ministries/ Department and Central Public
Sector Units to domestically manufactured/ produced goods (MNRE, 2020).

6.1.1.13 Renewable Energy Country Attractiveness Index

Ernst and Young Global Limited in its 53rd edition of the Renewable Energy Country
Attractiveness Index (RECAI) report 2019 ranked 40 countries on attractiveness based
on renewable energy investment and deployment opportunities. India ranked 4th in
RECAI report 2019. The ranking is based on different parameters such as economic
stability, investment climate, security and supply of energy, clean energy gap,
affordability of energy, policy enablement through political stability and support for
renewables, project delivery in terms of energy market access, infrastructure, finance
and technology potential based on natural resource, power off-take attractiveness,
potential support, technology maturity and forecast growth and pipeline. The status of
the country on each of the parameters is rated, to arrive at an overall RECAI ranking
(MNRE, 2019a).

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6.1.1.14 Solar Dryer Cum Space Heating System (SoLDry) for UT of Ladakh

The UT of Ladakh is among the areas that receive the highest solar radiation in the
country. On average, the region gets about 20 per cent more solar energy than other
parts of the country. It is estimated that more than 50 per cent of the fruit and vegetable
produce of Ladakh, including some of the world’s best varieties of apricot, is wasted due
to lack of access to market. The National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE) successfully
deployed 10 solar dryer units (5 in Leh and 5 in Kargil) on a trial basis in July 2018 to
dry apricots and evaluate their performance in actual field conditions. Based on the
system's satisfactory performance, the horticulture department of Jammu and Kashmir
requested NISE to supply and install 670 Unit of solar dryer cum space heating system.
Presently 300 systems are under installation in phase 1 (NISE, 2020).

1 m3 Volume. Can store up to 100 kg of

fruits and vegetables in one batch (can be
fabricated in any size and capacity).

Figure 6.4: Installed solar dryer cum space heating system at Minjee village, Kargil

Household heating requirements:

In addition to heat for fruit drying, there is a potential to supply heat for room heating
through solar energy. This need was assessed in tandem to evaluate the potential for
hybrid systems. For room heating currently, the requirement of 50 kg of wood per day,
costs them at least INR 60,000 to 70,000 per year.

6.1.1.15 Dispute resolution mechanism

MNRE set up a dispute resolution mechanism for wind/solar projects to consider the
unforeseen disputes between solar/wind power developers and SECI/NTPC Limited,
beyond contractual agreement. This mechanism will help in the smooth implementation
of solar/wind energy projects in India, by expeditiously resolving unforeseen disputes
that may arise beyond the scope of contractual agreements.

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6.1.2 Sustainable transportation

6.1.2.1 Green Indian Railways (IR)

Indian Railways is the third largest rail network in the world covering 67,415 route km
(RKM) of which 62,891 RKM is Broad Gauge (BG). IR consists of 16 zones and employs
more than 1.3 million people. GoI considers "IR as the growth engine of nation’s vikas
yatra1” and is continuously striving towards making IR a greener and cleaner sustainable
mass transport system. In 2020-2021, the union budget made provisions for setting up
larger solar power capacity alongside the railway tracks on IR. This is expected to give
a massive power boost to the national transporter while cutting down its annual
electricity bills and contributing to the efforts of IR to become a “net zero” carbon emitter
by 2030 (MoR, 2019). Some of the climate-friendly initiatives of IR are enumerated
below (MoR, 2020a):

 Renewable Energy: Currently, the IR has an installed solar power capacity of 103
MW and wind generation capacity of 104 MW. To boost the usage of solar power,
Indian Railway’s Organisation for Alternate Fuels (IROAF) is installing flexible solar
panels on coaches. With lithium-ion batteries, as many as 450 Diesel Electrical
Multiple Unit (DEMU) trailer coaches are being installed with flexible solar panels.
Also, 50 passenger coaches with existing batteries are being installed with flexible
solar panels. The flexible solar panels can be easily installed on train coaches and
are nearly 80 per cent lighter than conventional solar modules. IR has planned to
source about 1,000 MW solar power and about 200 MW of wind power progressively
by 2021-22 across zonal railways and production units. Details are as follows (PIB,
2020d).

Solar energy:

 500 MW solar plants on the rooftop of railway buildings through developers’

Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with 25 years’ agreements will be used to
meet non-traction loads at railway stations. About 500 MW are also planned from
ground based solar plants system for meeting traction and non-traction
requirements.
 Out of this, 103 MW of solar plants have already been installed.
 LoA for about 245 MW solar plants are issued by Railway Energy Management
Company Limited (REMCL), a company under the Ministry of Railways, which
are under different stages of execution.
 Tenders for two Hybrid plants (solar + wind) of 140 MW (35 MW solar + 105 MW
wind) and 109 MW (27 MW solar + 82 MW wind) capacity have been floated by
REMCL, which will provide a total of 62 MW solar.

1
Vikas yatra = Journey of development
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  400 MW ground based solar power in collaboration with Rewa Ultra Mega Solar
(RUMS), a joint venture of Goverment of Madhya Pradesh & Solar Energy
Corportaion of India (SECI).

Wind energy
 Out of the 200 MW target of IR, 103.4 MW of wind plants have already been
installed.
 Windmill plant of 21 MW capacity (for non traction) in Tamil Nadu, 26 MW
capacity (for traction) in Rajasthan and 6 MW capacity (for non-traction) and
50.4 MW capacity (for traction) in Maharashtra have been installed.
 Further, tenders for 187 MW capacity have been floated by REMCL as part of
hybrid renewable energy plants.
 Electrification of the conventional rail network in India: In the wake of
investments in network electrification over the past decades, India is aiming at
fulfilling the “Mission Electrification” programme. To meet its ambitious
electrification targets, IR set a plan to accelerate the pace of electrification from
2,000 km per year in 2016 to 4,000 km per year in 2017 and increasing to 6,200
km per year in 2019. So far IR have met these targets, with a commensurate
increase in the budget outlay towards traction electrification. (IEA, 2019).
 Electric locomotive: In 2018, IR got its first ever 12,000 HP electric locomotive
as part of “Make in India” deal. This marks a significant milestone in reducing
the carbon footprint. Also, for the first time, a diesel locomotive was converted
to electric by the Diesel Locomotive Works in Varanasi which can deliver 10,000
HP against 2x2,612 HP of two diesel locomotive – in other words, 92 per cent
more than the diesel version. Also, Chittaranjan Locomotive Works rolled out a
5,400 HP electric locomotive with an aerodynamic design to haul premium
superfast passenger trains (MoR, 2020).

Table 6.1: Planned electrification of remaining BG Routes of Indian Railways

Year Target (Route kilometre)

2019-20 6,000
2020-21 6,000
2021-22 6,000
2022-23 6,500
2023-24 (up to 23 December) 4,310
Total 28,810

 Energy efficiency: IR is part of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency’s (BEE) Perform

Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme. Several energy conservation and efficiency
measures are being undertaken. These include, inter alia, LED lights at all
stations and in more than 60 per cent of other buildings; automation of pumps
with GSM based technique; use of energy-efficient pumps; micro-controller
based Automatic Platform Lighting Management System; use of 3 stars and
above labelled electrical products and equipment; solar-based LED lighting

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 system for level crossing gates; use of solar water heater; and provision of
occupancy sensors in offices.
 Energy management: All 8 production units and 44 major workshops have been
certified with ISO:50001– Energy management system showing IR’s
commitment to energy conservation and efficiency.
 Alternate fuels: IR is promoting, inter alia, blending of 5 per cent of biodiesel
with high speed diesel (HSD); Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)-based dual fuel
diesel engine for DEMU trains; solar energy-based electric supply in guard van
on freight trains and; CNG as cutting gas. It is important to note that IR has
undertaken 20 per cent CNG substitution in diesel engines of as many as 25
DEMU trains.
 Head on generation system: In 2019, IR started operating trains on the “Head
on Generation” (HOG) system. The HOG system is environment-friendly,
economical as well as advantageous in operation. The HOG system is likely to
earn additional revenue for the national transporter by replacing the power cars
with passenger coaches. Since there is no use of diesel, there is no air pollution
due to the burning of fossil fuel.
 Green Ratings: IR renewed its MoU with CII on 13 September 2019 for the
facilitation of green initiatives in IR. Green rating and energy efficiency studies
have been carried out on IR production units and major workshops. After
assessment over the last four years, 53 railway industrial units including
workshops and production units have achieved GreenCo certification.
Additionally, about 16 railway stations and 21 more establishments have
achieved green certification.
 Roll-on-Roll-Off (Ro-Ro) initiative: In the Railway Budget for 2016-17, Minister
of Railways announced that an action plan will be developed and implemented
to expand the freight basket through either containerization or new delivery
models. 'Roll-on-Roll-off' is one such new delivery model that can provide a
multimodal transport mix. RORO services were started on Konkan Railway and
then extended to ECR and NFR successfully in 2017. There is a plan to
implement it in the national capital region which can decongest Delhi by loading
commercial vehicles onto railway flat wagons at railway terminals/PFTs outside
Delhi and unload them after carrying them across the city. This transport-mix
plan will reduce air and noise pollution and more importantly reduce the carbon
footprint of transportation (PIB, 2017).
 Implications for GHG and local pollutant emissions; Projection of High Rail
Scenario: The High Rail Scenario is used to explore the potential benefits of
such a transition to an increased reliance on rail in India. Following the
significant increase in transport activity, total well-to-wheel GHG emissions from
India’s transport sector as a whole increased steadily in the High Rail Scenario,
reaching about 1.4 GtCO2eq in 2050, which marks approximately a 270 per cent
increase over 2017. Despite this, GHG emissions are 18 per cent lower (or 315
MtCO2eq) in 2050 than in the base scenario. This is because the additional
emissions from rail are more than offset by the decline in emissions from the

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 other modes. In 2050, the increase in GHG emissions from rail is projected at
34 MtCO2eq. This is more than offset by reductions in light-duty vehicles (130
MtCO2eq) and trucks (180 MtCO2eq) (IEA, 2019).
 Other measures include the planting of more than 12.6 million saplings,
installing rainwater harvesting system at 595 buildings covering an area of more
than 200 m2, more than 70 water recycling plants commissioned, more than 470
waterbodies being conserved and made functional, solid waste collection and
management in 2019-2020.
 Indian Railways had earlier set a target to fit bio-toilets in the entire fleet of
coaches by the year 2021-22. This target was advanced. All passenger carrying
BG coaches, from April 2020 onwards, are fitted with bio-toilets and direct
discharge of human waste from trains has thus been eliminated in line with
Swachh Bharat Mission. IR is using technology jointly developed with the
Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) to process waste
from bio-toilets in an eco-friendly manner.
 Green powered railway stations: 23 railway stations on IR network have already
been declared Green railway stations. These railway stations are meeting
energy needs completely either through solar power or wind power. Some of
these 100 per cent green powered stations are Roha, Apta, Pen in Central
Railway zone, Dhamaraghat in East Central Railway zone, Shimla, Shri Mata
Vaishno Devi in Northern Railway zone, Unhel, Ambli Road, Khanderi, Bajud,
Sadanapura and Sachin in Western Railway Zone.

6.1.2.2 Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC)

DMRC has a well-laid out energy management policy as well as a solar policy. From
June 2019, 60 per cent of daytime energy requirement of Delhi Metro is powered by
solar energy from 1,590 acre ultra-mega solar park in Rewa in Gurh tehsil, Madhya
Pradesh. In other words, more than 300 trains across DMRC operational network of 389
km serving 2.6 million passengers every day are now operating on green solar energy
during the day. This initiative helps DMRC reduce CO2 emissions by 0.0317 million
tonne per annum (World Bank, 2019).

6.1.2.3 Expansion of urban rail

There is currently 700 km of metro rail track in operation in 18 cities, while 900 km
Metro/Regional Rapid Transit Systems (RRTS) is under construction in 27 cities.
Besides, the Metro Rail Policy approved in 2017 promotes the further deployment of
metro systems in other large and densely inhabited cities. This will raise the total
aggregated track length to 3,600 km by 2050, boost urban rail transport, and increase
related passenger-km by a factor of seven by 2050 (8 billion passenger-km in 2017 to
about 55 billion by 2050) (IEA, 2019).

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6.1.2.4 Electric mobility

The Government of India approved the National Mission for Electric Mobility (NMEM) in
2011 and subsequently the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020 (NEMMP 2020)
was unveiled in 2013 by the Hon’ble Prime Minister. As part of the NEMMP 2020, the
Government approved the scheme Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &)
Electric Vehicles (FAME) India in March 2015. Based on the outcome and experience
of the FAME India Scheme, the second Phase of FAME Scheme was finalised and
notified on 8 March 2019 with the approval of the Union Cabinet. The second phase of
the scheme commenced from 1 April 2019 with an outlay of INR 1,00,000 million for a
period of 3 years. This scheme has 3 components, namely

1) Demand incentives
2) Charging infrastructures
3) Administrative expenditure including publicity, IEC activities

The salient features of FAME India Scheme Phase II:

 This phase aims to generate demand by way of supporting 7,090 e-buses, 0.5
million e-3 wheelers, 55,000 e-4 wheeler passenger cars (including Strong Hybrid)
and 1 million e-2 wheelers.
 With a greater emphasis on providing affordable and environment friendly public
transportation options for the masses, the scheme will be applicable mainly to
vehicles used for public transport or those registered for commercial purposes for
all segment of vehicles.
 For e-2W segment, this scheme is also applicable to privately owned registered e-
2W.
 Depending upon offtake of different categories of e-Vehicles, the provision has been
made in the scheme for inter as well as intra segment-wise fungibility.
 The scheme is applicable to only those xEVs, which are fitted with advanced
chemistry battery.
 The scheme is applicable to only those vehicles, which are defined as Motor Vehicle
as per Central Motor Vehicles Rules (CMVR) and eligible to be registered with Road
Transport Authority.
 In this phase, the demand incentive is linked to battery capacity i.e. INR 10,000/kWh
for all eligible Vehicles except e-buses (for which the incentive is INR 20,000/kWh),
subject to capping at certain percentage of cost of eligible vehicles (i.e. 40 per cent
for e-Bus and at 20 per cent for all other categories of eligible vehicles).
 Demand incentive is extended to only those vehicles having ex-factory prices less
than the threshold value.
 Further, keeping in view market and technology trends in batteries, a provision has
been made for revision of demand incentives from time to time under the scheme.
 The incentive applies to vehicles manufactured in India as per phase manufacturing
program issued by the department. Only OEMs that have achieved 40 per cent

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 localization level in case of 4W and Buses and 50 per cent localization in the case
of 2W and 3W are only eligible to get incentives.

The achievements under the FAME India scheme Phase II are (DHI, 2020):

 OEMs and Vehicle Models: So far, as on 16 December 2020, 27 OEMs have

registered their 79 Models (2W-31; 3W-32 and 4W-16) for availing the benefit of
demand incentives under Phase-II of FAME Scheme. So far about 39,000 EVs have
been sold to the eligible user of the electric vehicle.
 Sanction of electric buses: To promote electric mobility in public transport,
proposalswere invited from cities and state transport corporations through an
Expression of Interest for deployment of Electric Buses under Operation Cost
Model Basis. After examining the proposal, 6,265 electric buses were sanctioned
to cities/STUs/state goverments entities for intracity & intercity operations. These
buses will run about 4.5 billion km distance during their contract period and
are expected to save cumulatively about 1.5 billion litres of fuel over the contract
period, which will result in avoidance of 3.4 million tonne of CO2 emission.
 Sanction of Charging Infrastructure: Government of India also sanctioned 2,877
charging stations in 68 cities across 25 States/UTs. After ensuring the
availability of land for charging stations, signing of necessary agreements/MoU
with concerned partner organizations such as city municipal corporation,
discom, oil companies. Letters of award for 1,717 charging stations have been
issued as on 14 December 2020.

Some of the other initiatives undertaken by the GoI to promote Electric Mobility are as
follows.

 GST on EVs is reduced to 5 per cent from 12 per cent.

 The government has extended an additional income tax deduction of INR 0.15
million on interest paid on loans to the buyers of Electric Vehicles.
 MoP has allowed sale of electricity as 'service' for charging of electric vehicles. This
would serve as an incentive to attract investments into the charging infrastructure.
 Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) issued a notification regarding
exemption of permit in case of battery-operated commercial vehicles.
 MoRTH has issued a notification for the green number plate for the use of Electric
Vehicles.
 MoF has revised the custom duty on the EV components to promote local
manufacturing of these components.
 As on February 2019, 3,14,204 electric vehicles are operating in India (MoHI&PE,
2019).

6.1.2.5 Delhi-Dehradun flights using biofuels

On 27 August 2018, India's first demonstration civil flight powered by indigenous biofuel
was operated, marking a new chapter in the fast-growing domestic aviation sector. With
this demonstration flight, India has become one of the few countries and probably the
409
first among developing nations to use biofuel for planes. The biofuel was used in one of
the engine blended with aviation turbine fuel (ATF) in 75:25 ratios (75 per cent ATF and
25 per cent biofuel). The 45-minute flight took off from Dehradun's Jolly Grant airport
and successfully landed at Delhi airport. Dehradun-based Indian Institute of Petroleum
(IIP) - one of the leading laboratories under the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) developed this biofuel using the seeds of the Jatropha plant (MoCA,
2020).

6.1.2.6 Fighter jets on biofuels

On 17 December 2018, for the first time, a transport aircraft flew with blended biojet fuel
produced from Jatropha oil, unlocking the possibility of gradually expanding it to the
entire service at some point. This has the dual benefit of reducing the carbon footprint
as well as fossil fuel usage.

The fleet was formally certified to fly on a blended biojet fuel, which will be 10 per cent
biofuel and 90 per cent conventional aviation fuel (The Hindu, 2018b).

6.1.2.7 Hydrogen Fuel bus and car project for Leh and New Delhi

NTPC Limited, India's largest power producer and a central PSU under the Ministry of
Power (MoP), has invited a global expression of interest (EoI) to provide 10 hydrogen
fuel cell (FC) based electric buses and an equal number of hydrogen fuel cell based
electric cars in Leh and Delhi. The EoI has been issued by NTPC's wholly owned
subsidiary, NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam (NVVN) Limited.

The move to procure hydrogen fuel cell-based vehicles is a first of its kind project in the
country, wherein a complete solution from green energy to the fuel cell vehicle would be
developed.

The initiative, which has been undertaken with the support of the MNRE, will also
harness renewable energy for the generation of hydrogen and develop its storage and
dispensation facilities as part of pilot projects at Leh and Delhi. The move to launch
hydrogen-powered vehicles aims at decarbonizing the transport and mobility segments.

A hydrogen fuel cell bus has been launched by Tata Motors in collaboration with Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL).
Further, Hyundai also seeks to launch its first fuel cell SUV in India by 2021 and plans
on building the required infrastructure for it in and around the Delhi-NCR area.

NTPC Limited has been taking various technology initiatives to provide a complete e-
Mobility solution for public transport including creation of public charging infrastructure
and providing electric buses to State/City transport undertakings. In this regard, 90
public charging stations in various cities and battery charging and swapping station at
Faridabad for E-3-wheelers have already been commissioned. Similarly, e-Bus solution
for Andaman and Nicobar Administration is under implementation (PIB, 2020e).

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6.1.2.8 Fully Solar-Powered Commuter Ferry

The 'Aditya', India’s first solar-powered ferry which commenced operations in 2017 in
Kerala’s Vembanad backwaters, has won the prestigious Gustave Trouvé Award for
Excellence in Electric Boats and Boating. The Aditya, from Navalt Boats, is a sun-
powered commuter ferry of great promise for the future of electric marine propulsion.

It saves 58,000 litres of diesel and ~INR 46,12,000 (USD 65,000) a year. The vessel
was adjudged the world’s best electric boat, capable of seating 75 people (Plugboats,
2020). It has been ferrying commuters on the Vaikom-Thavanakadavu route in Kerala.
The ferry has a low operational cost. It needs just INR 180 per day as energy cost
compared to over INR 8,000 required for a diesel ferry. It has so far transported over
1.1 million passengers over 70,000 km thus saving the State Water Transport
Department (SWTD) over 0.1 million liters of diesel worth approximately INR 7.5 million.
The ferry is considered a game-changer in India’s solar-powered boat sector (The
Hindu, 2020).

6.1.3 Carbon neutrality

UT of Ladakh and Carbon Neutrality

India’s vision of carbon-neutrality is distinctive in approach and intent from that of

developed countries or global civil society. India’s development needs require carbon
space, a strategic national resource. Nevertheless, India is committed to the
preservation and enhancement of its carbon sinks.

The Hon’ble Prime Minister announced on 6 February 2020 in the lower house of
Parliament, the government's resolve to develop Ladakh, the nation’s newest UT, as a
carbon-neutral region. Carbon neutrality for Ladakh is not a mitigation goal, but a
development vision. The biggest challenge is to find a path of sustainability that will
protect and enable this fragile but unique landscape to flourish while ensuring that the
amenities and benefits of modernity reach its population. GoI has announced a Special
Development Package for Ladakh for the year 2019-20 (INR 40,000 million) and 2020-
21 (INR 30,000 million). Infrastructure development is a key thrust area in the initial
years, spending 52 per cent during 2019-20 and 38 per cent during 2020-21.

Sikkim climate inventory and monitoring system

Sikkim, lying in north-eastern India within the sensitive Himalayan region, is highly
vulnerable to climate change. Recognizing the importance of conservation, it has been
conserving its forests through community and state programmes. As a result, it has
maintained almost half of its geographical area under forest cover, making it a carbon-
negative state. Also, initiatives such as the Sikkim Organic Mission has converted
Sikkim into India’s first fully organic state. Sikkim has been conferred with "Future Policy
Gold Award" in 2018 by FAO in recognition of such endeavours (Sikkim Climate
Inventory and Monitoring System, 2019).

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6.2 Mission and activities in water resources: Ministry of Jal Shakti

In May 2019, the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga
Rejuvenation and Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation were merged to form the
Ministry of Jal Shakti, further strengthening India's efforts towards resolving the
mounting challenges faced by this sector. A few recent developments are discussed
below:

Jal Shakti Abhiyan

The Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA) is a time-bound, mission-mode water conservation

campaign. The JSA is envisaged in two Phases: Phase 1 from July to 15 September
2019 for all States and UTs; and Phase 2 from 1 October to 30 November 2019 for
States and UTs receiving the retreating monsoon (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Puducherry and Tamil Nadu). During the campaign, officers, groundwater experts and
scientists from the GoI worked together with state and district officials in India’s most
water-stressed districts for water conservation and water resource management by
focusing on the accelerated implementation of the following five targets:

I. Water conservation and rainwater harvesting

II. Renovation of traditional and other water bodies/tanks
III. Reuse and bore well recharge structures
IV. Watershed development and
V. Intensive afforestation.

Har Ghar Jal (Jal Jeevan Mission)

Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) was launched in 2019 to provide Functional Household Tap
Connection (FHTC) to every rural household by 2024. The programme focuses on
service delivery at the household level, i.e., water supply on a regular basis in adequate
quantity and of prescribed quality. This necessitates the use of modern technology in
planning and implementation of water supply schemes, development of water sources,
treatment and supply of water, empowerment of Gram Panchayat/ local community,
service delivery, partnership with other stakeholders, convergence with other
programmes, systematic monitoring of the programme and capturing service delivery
data automatically for ensuring the quality of services. This will help in achieving the
goal of JJM in its true letter and spirit. According to the Ministry of Jal Shakti, GoI,
households with tap connections as on 1 September 2020 is 5,34,12,235 (28.21 per
cent) out of 18,93,30,879 total households (MoJS, 2019a, 2019b).

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Figure 6.5: Status of household tap connections as on 1 April 2019
Source: (MoJS, 2020)

Atal Bhujal Yojana

This scheme is being implemented since April 2020 to promote community-led

groundwater management to ensure the long-term sustainability of groundwater in
8,353 water-stressed gram panchayats in 78 districts of seven States- Gujarat,
Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
This unique scheme will contribute significantly towards the water and food security of
the country. The scheme has two components: i) institutional strengthening and capacity
building component for strengthening institutional arrangements by providing robust
database, scientific approach and community participation in the states to enable them
to manage groundwater resources sustainably ii) incentive component for incentivizing
the states for convergence amongst various schemes of the central and state
governments and achievement of results as a measure of groundwater management
(MoJS, 2020).

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6.3 Initiatives in weather and climate services - Ministry of Earth
Sciences (IMD, 2020; MoES, 2020)

Upgradation of Forecast System (UFS)

Upgradation and sustenance of the forecast system to an optimum level coupled with
data integration, product generation, and dissemination of weather forecast and warning
information is the primary objective of the UFS program being implemented through
2017-24 with a budgetary provision of INR 1.58 billion up to 2020.

Upgradation of Atmospheric Observation Network

India Meteorological Department (IMD) is implementing the program “Atmospheric

Observations Network” during 2017-24 with a budgetary provision of INR 2.22 billion up
to 2020. The program will improve and upgrade weather and climate services over the
north-eastern region by establishing an additional state of art surface and upper air
observatories for real-time observations. Building multi-processing, computing, and
communication facilities for satellite meteorological applications are also part of this
program.

Weather and Climate Services (WCS)

IMD is all set to acquire global leadership in weather and climate services driven by
research and increasingly sophisticated modelling, information technology and
observational infrastructure. The program WCS, aimed at providing efficient weather
and climate services across the country to various sectors, is being implemented during
2017-24 with budgetary provision of INR 2.41 billion up to 2020. The agriculture and
aviation sector have also benefitted considerably through better accuracy of forecasts .

IMD has started providing climate information for 77 smart cities, normal and climate
extreme indices for 38 stations (initially), state-wise district climate trends for rainfall and
temperature, pan India maps for normal maximum, minimum temperatures, and rainfall
for all the months and seasons.

Gramin Krishi Mausam Seva (GKMS)

IMD is issuing district level weather forecast up to 5 days and the products comprising
of quantitative forecasts for 7 weather parameters-rainfall, maximum temperature,
minimum temperatures, wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity, and cloudiness.
Based on the weather forecast, agromet advisories are prepared by 130 Agro-
meteorological Field Units (AMFUs) twice a week (Tuesday and Friday) and
communicated to the farming community. At present, 658 Agromet Advisory Service
(AAS) district bulletins are being prepared and issued to cater to farmers' needs in the
country (Figure 6.6). More than 42 million farmers are currently receiving crop-specific
agro-meteorological advisories in vernacular languages through experimental block
level agromet advisory bulletins published for 2,212 blocks.

414
Figure 6.6: Agrometeorological Advisory Services (AAS) to Farmers

Centre for Climate Change Research (CCCR)

Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), GoI has established the Centre for Climate Change
Research (CCCR) at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune, in
January 2009 to study the impact of climate change in the country. The centre is
dedicated to research global and regional climate change with a particular focus on the
Indian climate and the monsoons.

CCCR has developed an Earth System Model for future climate projections. For the
first time, an Indian institute will be contributing to the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) Assessment Report (IPCC-AR6). Currently, efforts are ongoing
to generate climate change scenarios. To better understand the regional climate change
issues, CCCR has also undertaken the Coordinated Downscaling Experiment
(CORDEX)-South Asia Program. It generates and collates from various partners,
downscaled (regionalizing at high resolution) and latest climate projections from multiple
models. CCCR has published the report titled “Assessment of Climate Change over the
Indian region” which is available on Springer Open (Raghavan et al., 2020).

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High Performance Computing (HPC) in India for weather forecast

MoES has augmented HPC System at a total cost of INR 4,389 million. The systems
are installed at two sites – Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune and the
National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), Noida . The HPC
system named Pratyush, housed at IITM has capacity of 4.0 petaflops ranks 39th in the
world and Mihir, located at the NCMRWF has a capacity of 2.8 petaflops and ranks 66th
on the list (MoES, 2019).

Very High Resolution Global Ensemble Prediction System of NCMRWF

NCMRWF, MoES, GoI has been providing probabilistic forecasting from its global
ensemble prediction system since the year 2012. To provide accurate probabilistic
forecast of high impact weather systems NCMRWF upgraded its global ensemble
prediction system (NEPS-G) in June 2018 by increasing its horizontal resolution from
33 km to 12 km. Currently, NEPS-G has the highest resolution among all the global
ensemble prediction systems running at different operational centers worldwide.

Figure 6.7: Forecast tropical storm probability for FANI

Various probabilistic forecast products including district-level location-specific forecast,

tropical cyclone strike probability, probabilistic quantitative precipitation forecast, and
extreme weather forecasting index from this forecasting system are helping the
operational forecasters and the forecast users in decision making. Figure 6.7 shows the
strike probability and the ensemble mean and control track of “Fani” predicted by NEPS-
G based on the initial condition of 00UTC of 1 May 2019.

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6.4 Initiatives in Ocean Services

6.4.1 Fishery advisory services for reducing of the consumption of fossil oils

Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) provides Potential
Fishing Zone (PFZ) and Tuna Fishery Advisory services every day on an operational
basis. It advises the fishermen on the most probable fish aggregation areas to directly
navigate these areas reducing time and effort in finding the fish shoals. In addition to
direct benefits to the fishermen, indirect benefits include a reduction in emission of CO2.
Several researchers and institutes have made independent studies towards the
estimation of these environmental benefits. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
(CMFRI), conducted a study in Raigad, Maharashtra during 2013-14. The study found
that with 15 per cent adoption level, fishermen can save up to 9,00,000 litre of fuel (at
30 per cent less consumption), which translates to savings of INR 46.8 million (at
52/litre), diesel subsidy saving of INR 10.764 million and lesser GHG emission of
approximately 2412 tonne. From 69 validation experiments conducted in Kerala, PFZ
advisories' use resulted in diesel savings between 21.47 litres to 1293.53 litres, resulting
in reduction of CO2 emission from 3.45 to 0.06 tonne for every tonne of fish caught. The
total diesel saved due to use of PFZ advisories by all these 69 experiments was found
to be 20,665 litre and the total reduction in CO2 emission is 55.052 tonne.

6.4.2 Ocean State Forecast, Warning and Advisory services (OSF)

INCOIS provides operational ocean information, forecast and advisory services. At

present, under the Ocean State Forecast services, INCOIS provides forecasts of wave
height, direction and period (of both wind waves and swell waves), sea surface currents,
sea surface temperature, mixed layer depth , depth of the 20o C isotherm (a measure of
the depth of the thermocline), astronomical tides, wind speed and direction and oil-spill
trajectory. This prior information on the state of the seas surrounding the Indian
subcontinent is vital for the smooth operational activities of those venturing out into the
sea and those at the seashore. The users can make informed decisions based on the
forecast of sea state conditions saving life and property. The forecast is available
separately for various oceanic basins in the Indian Ocean. These forecasts are
generated operationally on HPC and disseminated in local languages by different
modes- including the latest information and computational technology tools. It is
estimated that about one million users are using these services through direct or indirect
channels.

Warning services such as high wave alerts, rough sea alerts, swell surge alerts, perigian
spring tide alerts and INCOIS-IMD joint bulletins are also in place. User-required
customized products like 'Ocean state forecast along ship routes', ‘Search and Rescue
Aid Tool (SARAT)’, ‘Oil spill trajectory prediction system’, ‘Sea state forecast for port
and harbors, 'OSF-Web map services' and many other services have been developed
and made operational. Water quality nowcasts and forecasts, impact-based forecast
system and climate service - advisories on future sea level, wave surge, and productivity
are being developed and will be operational in the near future. Dissemination of the
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INCOIS services to open ocean is done using satellite communication in collaboration
with ISRO (NAVIC) and AAI (GAGAN).

6.4.3 Climate change advisory services under the Deep Ocean Mission

INCOIS has initiated ocean climate change advisory services under the Deep Ocean
Mission to assess and provide future projections of the impact of climate change on
various coastal oceanographic parameters. This initiative will give quantitative indicators
for the possible changes in sea level, coastal erosion, increasing intensity of cyclone,
wind waves, storm surges and change in the marine water quality parameters at
seasonal to decadal timescale for helping the planning for future marine system driven
economy and offshore/coastal installations/constructions. These advisory services will
be based on a suite of state-of-the-art numerical ocean models and an improved
network of ocean observation. The proposed mission will be implemented during the
financial period 2020-2025.

6.5 National disaster management plan (NDMP)

NDMP provides a framework and direction to the government agencies for all phases of
disaster management cycle. The NDMP is a “dynamic document” in the sense that it will
be periodically improved to keep up with the emerging global best practices and
knowledge base in disaster management. It works in accordance with the provisions of
the Disater Management Act 2005, the guidance given in the National Policy on Disaster
Management (NPDM) 2009, and the established national practices.

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Figure 6.8: Institutional mechanism of National Disaster Management

The overall coordination of disaster management vests with the Ministry of Home Affairs
(MHA). The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) and the National Crisis Management
Committee (NCMC) are the key committees involved in the top-level decision-making
regarding disaster management. The NDMA is the agency responsible for the approval
of the NDMP and facilitating its implementation (NDMP, 2019).

6.5.1 National cyclone risk mitigation project (NCRMP)

GoI has approved Phase-II of NCRMP in July 2015 for six years up to March, 2021
covering States of Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and West Bengal at
an outlay of INR 26,910 million which with the World Bank funding of INR 21,576.30
million. The remaining amount of INR 533.37 million is being contributed by State
Governments as their share. The sub-component of underground cabling has been
included under NCRMP Phase-II (NCRMP, 2019).

6.5.2 Training for disaster response: Aapda Mitra

NDMA has been implementing a scheme for Training of Community Volunteers since
May 2016 which is focused on training of 6,000 community volunteers (200 volunteers
per district) in disaster response with a focus on flood in selected 30 most flood prone
districts of 25 States/UT of India. The scheme is going to end on 31 December 2020.
The scheme aims to provide the community volunteers skills required to respond to their
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community’s immediate needs in the aftermath of a disaster thereby enabling them to
undertake basic relief and rescue tasks during emergency situations such as floods,
flash-floods and urban flooding. So far, 5,386 volunteers have been trained by 24 Project
States (NDMA, 2020).

6.5.3 Vulnerability Atlas of India (VAI)

Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) has prepared the VAI
on flood, earthquake, landslide and cyclone, which was updated in 2019 (BMTPC, 2019)

Figure 6.9: a) Flood hazard map; b) Landslide incidence map 2019

Climate change related landslide risk management: The data on past landslide events
clearly indicates the high frequency as well as intensity of the hydro-meteorological
hazards in the mountain region. These include heavy rainfall, landslides, riverine floods,
cloud burst, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) and droughts. Therefore, local
communities require awareness, specialized training and right information to cope up
with disasters in the mountains, while resources need to be mobilized and suitable
investment made to build modern and adequate infrastructure.

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6.5.4 Preparation of flood hazard atlas of flood prone states

As part of this initiative the NDMA has undertaken the flood risk assessment for all the
flood prone districts in India in consultation with the States, and undertaken the task of
preparing district level flood hazard atlas. The preparation of flood disaster maps and
atlas was entrusted to the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad. NRSC
has prepared the atlas on the basis of data provided by the States, CWC, IMD and by
the use of satellite imageries. The atlas will help in identification of flood hotspot areas
and will be used for flood mitigation and adaptation programs with village level
information.

6.6. Climate change and alien invasive plants in India

Alien invasive plants are rapidly spreading across many forests and grasslands in India.
These include Lantana camara, Mikania micrantha, Chromolaena odorata, Prosopis
juliflora, Senna spectabilis, Parthenium hysterophorus and wattles. Climate change is
expected to facilitate the spread of woody invasive plants. A major increase in the alien
invasive plant, Lantana camara, in forests of southern India beginning around 2003, has
been shown to be related to a combination of a prolonged drought and intense fire during
this period (Ramaswamy and Sukumar, 2013). Alien invasive plant species are also a
major threat to biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in several forests in India. A study
of 11 alien invasive plant species in a Western Himalayan landscape concluded that the
distribution of most species is likely to increase under future climate change scenarios
(Thapa et al., 2018). A recent niche-modeling study on invasive Lantana camara and
Cassia tora suggests that both species could experience a shift in their distributions in
the northern and north-eastern directions in India under climate change (Panda et al.,
2017). A local-scale study on the dynamics of Lantana camara over a two-decade period
suggests that Lantana responses to rainfall fluctuations may be mediated by the
presence of fire, allowing Lantana to spread even during low-rainfall periods
(Ramaswami and Sukumar, 2013).

6.7 Climate change and wildlife-human conflicts

Wildlife-human conflicts are a result of complex interactions between various ecological,

behavioural and social factors. Though such conflicts have been present historically,
they seem to be increasing in recent decades. Studying the role of climate
variability/change and wildlife-human conflicts becomes even more important in
countries like India which harbours four large global biodiversity hotspots, abundant
wildlife numbers, human population and experiences high levels of wildlife-human
conflicts. Most human mortality or attacks by wild mammals are associated with sloth
bears, leopards, Asian elephants and lions. There are also recorded instances of
livestock depredation due to snow leopards, tigers and lions, and damage to crops and
property by Asian elephants, wild pigs and ungulates.

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The Asiatic lion is found only in the Gir protected area (1,400 km2) and the Greater Gir
Landscape of 20,000 km2 in Gujarat, western India. Lions prey mostly on buffaloes and
wild ungulates, with attacks on people being very low (Jhala et al., 2019). The situation
changed following a severe drought 1986-1987 when the number of people injured or
killed by lions increased post-drought (Saberwal et al., 1994). A re-analysis of the data
brought out the relationship between rainfall anomaly and lion attacks, with attacks
increasing during years of lower than average rainfall. Increased attacks during post-
drought years were a combination of change in human-behaviour (change in livestock
grazing areas, and their protection), and reduced availability of natural prey resulting in
lions moving closer to the villages with livestock. Changes in rainfall regimes, including
increased variability in rainfall in western India, could result in the escalation of large
carnivore and human conflicts.

A different pattern in elephant-human conflicts has been seen over a longer time period
in Karnataka which has the largest population of wild Asian elephants in India. The
district of Kodagu, located in the Western Ghats, has an abundant elephant population
and experiences crop-damage from elephants throughout the State. To look at a
possible relationship between crop raids and rainfall in this region, rainfall anomaly and
frequency of raids by elephants were examined. The results surprisingly show that the
correlation between the rainfall and crop-raiding is positive, suggesting that more rain
contributes to higher frequency of crop raids by elephants. Higher rainfall results in
enhanced productivity and yield of crops which might be more attractive to elephants to
obtain greater quantity of forage per unit time and higher nutrition (Sukumar, 2003).

4500
2010
4000
2014 2008
3500 2012
Number of crop raids

2007 2011
3000
2013
2500

2000 2009
1500 2006
2005 1000
2004
500

0
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
Rainfall Anomaly (%)

Figure 6.10: Number of crop raids by elephants and its relationship with Rainfall Anomaly
calculated as a percentage deviation from long-term rainfall average (1871-2016) for the Kodagu
District, Karnataka State, India.

Another study comes from modelling of possible shifts in elephant distribution in South
Asia with future climate change (Kanagaraj et al., 2019). Using a large number of

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environmental variables for the region, MAXENT species distribution models and future
climate projections from three Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project (CMIP5) Global
Circulation Models for two RCPs of 2.6 and 8.5, the study derived elephant distributions
for 2050 and 2070. A major conclusion was that shift in the range of elephants,
especially in the Himalayan region, would happen towards higher elevations in states
such as Arunachal Pradesh along moisture and seasonality gradients. As these regions
of higher elevations are currently under settlements, there would be an escalation of
elephant-human conflicts.

This highlights that climate variability cannot be ignored, and future studies should focus
on understanding the effects of climate variability on human-wildlife conflicts and need
to be cover large spatiotemporal scales. These investigations are essential for planning
biodiversity conservation, especially in the context of a changing climate.

6.8 Mahatma Gandhi and Sustainable Development

6.8.1 Celebrating 150 years of Mahatma Gandhi’s Birth Anniversary

The Government of India and people all over the country and around the globe
celebrated the 150th birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi in 2019. Mahatma Gandhi’s
life and philosophy offers solutions and opportunities to negotiate the challenges of
contemporary society, polity and economy. Mahatma Gandhi’s five pillars of
nonviolence: respect, understanding, acceptance, appreciation and compassion are
basic to our existence. These are simple ideas and if inculcated, could make a
difference to the world. For Mahatma Gandhi, human beings have been interconnected
to all facets of the universe. He said, "the earth, the air, the land and the water are not
an inheritance from our forefathers but on loan from our children. So, we have to
handover to them at least as it was handed over to us”. Another great message of
Mahatma Gandhi was his strong belief on humanity, and he said "you must not lose faith
in humanity. Humanity is an ocean; if a few drops of the ocean are dirty, the ocean does
not become dirty”. In September 2019, during the Climate Action Summit, the United
Nations released a commemorative stamp to mark the 150th birth anniversary of
Mahatma Gandhi.

A simple understanding of Mahatma Gandhi’s cosmocentric approach to human beings

is relevant to the challenge of climate change faced by the world today. Following the
guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, India drafted its NDCs which was submitted to the
UNFCCC in 2015. The first NDC focuses on propagating a healthy and sustainable way
of living based on the traditions and values of conservation and moderation.

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Figure 6.11: Celebrating 150 years of the Mahatma at India Pavillion in COP25

India hosted an ‘India Pavilion’ at COP25 in Madrid, which was a major attraction
amongst the visitors that included delegates from different parts of the world and UN
agencies. The theme of the pavilion was ‘150 years of celebrating the Mahatma’. It was
designed to depict Mahatma Gandhi’s life and messages around sustainable living (PIB,
2019d).

6.8.2 Energy Swaraj

Gandhian principles and ideology remain relevant to the energy context as well. Energy
swaraj or localized energy self-sufficiency is conceptualized, wherein communities
generate and produce their own energy needs while relying on renewable energy
sources. The decentralization of energy is one of the important approaches to
strengthen its access to remote rural communities while addressing the climate
challenge. This initiative was launched by Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Powai,
Mumbai, Maharashtra. As part of Energy Swaraj initiative, IIT-Bombay has launched a
Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) to train the trainers free of cost. Another initiative,
“Solar Angels” is an attempt to make solar energy a people’s movement. Solar Angels
are individuals who have a regional and local presence and could help in conducting the
event anywhere in the world within their vicinity.

IIT-Bombay launched the Student Solar Ambassador Program, the seed concept of the
Gandhi Global Solar Yatra, aimed to sensitize the younger generation by organizing
training workshops for students. On 2 October 2018 more than 5,700 students were
trained in IIT-Powai from 132 schools and more than 0.13 million students from 853
schools trained all over India.

To commemorate the 150th Birth Anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi and to promote the
Gandhian idea of sustainable living, MNRE in association with IIT Bombay, organised
Global Student Solar Assembly where over 6,800 students from the National Capital
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Region created Guinness world record by lighting the largest number of solar lamps
together at Indira Gandhi Stadium Complex, New Delhi. Another Guinness World
Record established during this event was the teaching of sustainability to the largest
number of participants in a single place.

6.9 India as a responsible global partner

In this section, we detail a number of initiatives, partnerships, and collaborations

launched in the arena of global climate action. These initiatives speak to India’s
commitment to global cooperation and the contribution of more than its due share to
meet the global challenge.

6.9.1 Solar energy on the Global agenda

In August 2019, India’s Union Cabinet approved the ratification of the amended
Framework Agreement of ISA to open up the ISA membership to all countries that are
members of the United Nations and make ISA a truly global organization. Thus, India
put solar energy on the global agenda with the universal appeal for developing and
deploying solar energy (PIB, 2019e). Depositary, the Ministry of External Affairs issued
the notification on the universalization of ISA membership on 31 July 2020.

A first milestone was reached at the First World Solar Technology Summit, on 8
September 2020, with the signing of a tripartite MoU between the ISA, GoI, and the
World Bank to implement the OSOWOG (One Sun, One World, One Grid) initiative
(Isolaralliance, 2020).

The Third General Assembly of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) was virtually held
on 14 October 2020. More than 53 member countries attended the meeting from across
the world. Oman, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines have become the newest
members of ISA. During the Third General Assembly, the ISA Member countries
unanimously elected India as the President and France as the Co-president of the ISA
Assembly for another term, i.e. up to 2022.

India’s contribution to ISA

i. India has contributed to the ISA’s efforts by overcoming the global resource asymmetry
in the solar energy sector, facilitating its organizational work, and providing it with
financial and other forms of support. The ISA is now the first intergovernmental
organization to be headquartered in India. GoI is providing financial and material support
to the ISA for the construction of its headquarters.

ii. In addition to the financial contribution for creating the ISA corpus fund, GoI is also
assisting in the capacity building of ISA Member Countries under its ITEC training
programme besides establishing a Project Preparation Facility through EXIM Bank for
developing bankable Solar Energy projects in the ISA member countries.

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iii. In 2018, GoI had announced nearly USD 1.4 billion worth of lines of credit covering
27 solar projects in 15 countries, which are currently in various stages of
implementation.

6.9.2 The 3rd Global RE-INVEST

MNRE organized the 3rd Global RE-INVEST (Renewable Energy Investment

Conference and Exhibition) 2020 on a virtual platform from November 26 to 28, 2020.
The theme for RE-Invest 2020 was ‘Innovations for Sustainable Energy Transition’.The
event was inaugurated by Prime Minister of India. The UK, Denmark, Germany, France,
Australia and Maldives participated as partner countries. The MNRE also partnered for
the event with the States of Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan
and Tamil Nadu.

6.9.3 One Sun One World One Grid

The Hon’able Prime Minister of India recently called for connecting solar energy supply
across borders, with the mantra of 'One Sun One World One Grid' (OSOWOG). The
vision behind the OSOWOG mantra is “The Sun Never Sets” and is a constant at some
geographical location, globally, at any given point of time. With India at the fulcrum, the
solar spectrum can be divided into two broad zones - far East which would include
among others countries like Myanmar, Vietnam, Thailand, Lao, and Cambodia, and far
West which would cover the Middle East and the Africa Region.

MNRE, GoI, has a critical role to play in synergizing over 140 countries, across the far
east and the far west regions, to build consensus, launch energy policy imperatives and
set up a framework for such a global cooperation. India, through the OSOWOG initiative,
plans to take another leap towards building a global ecosystem of interconnected
renewable energy resources that are seamlessly shared for mutual benefits and global
sustainability.

The initiative is planned across three phases. In Phase I - Indian Grid interconnection
with Middle East, South Asia and South East Asian (MESASEA) grids to share solar
and other renewable energy resources; in Phase II - MESASEA grid getting
interconnected with the African power pools to share solar and other renewable energy
power of the countries; Phase III-Global interconnection to achieve the One Sun One
World One Grid vision attracting investments in renewable energy sources (MNRE,
2020a).

6.9.4 Climate Action Summit, UN General Assembly (September 2019)

The Hon’ble Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi has always emphasized that
to overcome a challenge like climate change, a global people’s movement to bring about
behavioural change is one of the essential requirements. Addressing the Climate Action
Summit on the sidelines of UN General Assembly in September 2019, he said: "the
respect for nature, the judicious use of resources, reducing our needs and living within
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our means have all been important aspects of both our traditions and present-day
efforts. Need, not greed has been our guiding principle, and therefore, India today has
come not just to talk about the seriousness of this issue but to present a practical
approach and a roadmap. We believe that an ounce of practice is worth more than a ton
of preaching” (PIB, 2019c). At this summit, India pledged to increase the share of its
non-fossil fuel to 450 GW. Together with other partners, India and Sweden are launching
the Leadership Group within the Industry transition track. This initiative will provide a
platform for governments and the private sector to cooperate in technology innovation
to develop low carbon pathways for the industry. India also launched a global multi-
stakeholder partnership, the CDRI, to promote disaster resilient infrastructure (PIB,
2019a).

6.9.5 Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)

The Hon’ble Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi launched a global multi-stakeholder
partnership, the CDRI, at the UN Climate Action Summit 2019 held in New York City,
USA, on 23 September 2019. CDRI formally came into existence on 20 March 2020,
with the successful organization of its first Governing Council meeting at New Delhi
wherein India and UK were nominated as the first Co-Chairs of the Coalition for a period
of two years.

Under this Coalition, the global partnership of national governments, UN agencies and
programmes, multilateral development banks, financing mechanisms, private sector,
and knowledge institutions will promote the resilience of new and existing infrastructure
systems to climate and disaster risks, thereby ensuring sustainable development. It also
functions as inclusive multi-stakeholder platform led and managed by national
governments, where knowledge is generated and exchanged on different aspects of
disaster resilience of infrastructure and thus, contribute to each other’s economic
growth. At present, CDRI has 23 members, including 19 national governments and 4
multi-lateral organizations. The Government of India has given in-principle approval for
support of approximately USD 70 million to CDRI for a corpus required to fund technical
assistance and research projects on an on-going basis, setting up the Secretariat office
and covering recurring expenditures over a period of 5 years from 2019-20 to 2023-24
(PIB, 2019d).

In setting up the CDRI, India has contributed niche expertise to the global discourse on
building disaster risk resilience in infrastructure financing and project execution. India’s
role in stewarding the CDRI and disaster resilience capacity building has been
appreciated not only by multilateral agencies like the UNDRR and the World Bank but
also by the EU, France, Japan and the UK who are promoting their own national
initiatives in this domain.

Vision of CDRI

 The CDRI seeks to rapidly expand the development and retrofit of resilient
infrastructure to respond to the Sustainable Development Goals imperatives of
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 expanding universal access to basic services, enabling prosperity and decent
work. This will need to be implemented simultaneously with accelerated and
expanded climate action and disaster risk reduction, from the local and national
to regional and global scale.
 The CDRI supports the achievement of goals and targets enshrined in the
Sustainable Development Goals, the Paris Climate Agreement, the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and the UN Agenda 2030 principles of
leaving no one, no place, and no ecosystem behind.

6.9.6 India on Global Climate Forums

In 2019 and 2020, India participated in several multilateral and regional forums to
discuss, promote, and develop a more robust understanding of climate action. Some of
these forums are listed below:
 10th session of Petersberg Climate Dialogue in Berlin, Germany from 13 to 14
May 2019.
 In July 2019, India formally joined the Climate and Clean Air Coalition, becoming
the 65th country to join the partnership.
 28th BASIC Ministerial meeting on Climate Change in Sao Paulo, Brazil from 14
to 16 August 2019.
 141st Assembly of Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) in Belgrade, Serbia from 13 to
17 October 2019.
 29th BASIC Ministerial meeting on Climate Change in Beijing, China on 26
October 2019.
 25th session of Conference of Parties to UNFCCC and related meetings in
Madrid, Spain from 2 to 13 December 2019.
 11th session of Petersberg Climate Dialogue in Berlin, Germany from 27 to 28
April 2020 (conducted virtually).

6.9.7 India hosted Global events

During the reporting period of 2019-20, India hosted several global environment events.
Some of the major events are listed below:

 14th session of Conference of Parties to the United Nations Convention to

Combat Desertification in New Delhi from 2 to 13 September 2019.
 2nd Lead Author Meeting of the IPCC Working Group III Sixth Assessment Report
in New Delhi from 30th September to 4 October 2019.
 13th session of Conference of Parties to the Convention on Migratory Species in
Gandhinagar, Gujarat from 17 to 22 February 2020.

6.9.8 Bilateral Cooperation on Environment and Climate Change

 MoU between India and the UK on Cooperation in weather and climate sciences

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 Signed on 28 January 2019, the partnership also includes an implementation
agreement on weather and climate science for service partnership.

 MoU between India and Argentina on Antarctic cooperation

Signed in February, 2019, the MoU will help scientific cooperation on projects in
the fields of Earth sciences, as well as those related to the protection and
conservation of the natural environment of Antarctica and the Southern Oceans
(PIB, 2019f).

 India and Norway launch initiative to combat Marine Pollution

MoEFCC established an initiative with the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs
on the Marine Pollution. In January 2019, the Indian and Norwegian governments
agreed to work more closely on oceans by signing an MoU and establishing the
India-Norway Ocean Dialogue during the Norwegian Prime Minister’s visit to
India. A joint Task Force on Blue Economy comprising of government officials,
researchers, and experts and the private sector was established to develop
sustainable solutions within strategic areas of the blue economy, such as the
maritime and marine sector and the energy sector. In this partnership, Norway
and India will share experiences and competencies, and collaborate on
developing clean and healthy oceans, sustainable use of ocean resources, and
growth in the blue economy (PIB, 2019f).

 MoU on Bio energy between India and Brazil

Signed on January 25, 2020, the partnership aims to share information on
vehicular performance under different blending options and climatic conditions
and positive externalities in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving
the environment.

 Memorandum of Cooperation by National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research

(NCPOR) under Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) and the Canadian High Arctic
Research Station (CHARS) operated by Polar Knowledge (POLAR), Canada
The MoU, signed on 26 February 2020 enables cooperation in Arctic and
Antarctic research by facilitating access to research infrastructure, and sharing
resources and data, and advance knowledge creation in the polar regions
through joint development of work plans relating to specific shared research
initiatives, access to infrastructure and logistical cooperation.

 MoU for technical cooperation in Earth Observation and Earth Sciences between
MoES and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of USA
The MoU signed on 23 October 2020 on the scientific and technical cooperation
will support Earth Observations and Earth Sciences's development and
improvement to understand better the regional meteorology and oceanography,
improved data assimilation and modelling for better prediction and early warning
of natural disasters.

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 MoU between India and Saudi Arabia on renewable energy
India has signed an MoU on Renewable Energy with Saudi Arabia in October
2019. The MoU aims at setting up a framework for cooperation in the fields of
Solar, Wind, biogas, and geothermal energy.

 MoU between India and Bahrain on renewable energy

MoU for cooperation in the field of renewable energy was signed between India
and Bahrain in July 2018. It aims to establish the basis for a cooperative
institutional relationship to encourage and promote bilateral technical cooperation
on new and renewable energy based on mutual benefit, equality, and reciprocity
between two countries. The cooperation will focus on small hydro, solar, wind,
and bio-energy and capacity building. Two countries will establish a Joint Working
Group (JWG) to identify areas of mutual interest and cooperation for the
development of new and renewable energy technologies.

 JWG between India and UAE

The Joint working group (JWG) on renewable energy cooperation has been
established. The 2nd JWG meeting was held on 11 November 2020, wherein both
sides discussed R&D collaboration, investment models, and cooperation for the
development of new and renewable energy technologies.

 India-Denmark green strategic partnership

On September 28, 2020, Prime Ministers of India and Denmark in a virtual
summit agreed to elevate India-Denmark relations to a green strategic
partnership. This partnership would build on and consolidate the existing
agreement establishing a Joint Commission for Cooperation (signed 6 February
2009) between India and Denmark, which envisaged cooperation within the
political field; economic and commercial field; science and technology;
environment; energy; education and culture. In addition, it builds on and
complements the existing Joint Working Groups on renewable energy, urban
development, environment, agriculture and animal husbandry, food processing,
science, technology and innovation, shipping, labour mobility, and digitization.

 MoU between India and Myanmar on wildlife conservation

An MoU on Cooperation on Combating Timber Trafficking and Conservation of
Tigers and Other Wildlife was signed on 27 Fenruary 2020. The halting of cross-
border timber trafficking is an aspect of carbon sequestration in forests.

 India-Germany Joint Declaration of Intent (JDI) on Marine litter

During the 5th Inter Governmental Consultations between India and Germany in
November 2019 in New Delhi, a Joint Declaration of Intent (JDI) on Marine litter
was signed between Indian Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) and

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 German Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety
(BMU).

 MoU between India and France

MoU between NISE, MNRE, GoI, and The French Alternative Energies and
Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) was signed during Prime Minister’s visit to
France in August 2019. A Space Climate Observatory was launched by the
French President in 2019. ISRO and the French space agency CNES are part of
this observatory, further enhancing Indo-French cooperation on combating
climate change.

 Alliance on environment protection between India and Italy

In November 2020, India and Italy agreed to establish a new alliance on
environment protection to enhance their cooperation in food safety and security,
climate change, water management, resource efficiency and circular economy,
waste management, biodiversity and land degradation, as part of the pillars of
the Action Plan for an enhanced partnership between India and Italy (2020-
2024). The two sides also signed the following MoUs:

o MoU to enhance the development of green hydrogen between Snam S.p.A.,

Italy and Greenko Energies Private Ltd, India.
o MoU to promote energy transition and cooperate on gas infrastructures
development between Snam S.p.A., Italy and Indian Oil Corporation Limited.
India.
o MoU in the area of conversion of plastic recycling between NextChem (Maire
Tecnimont Group), Italy and Indian Oil Cooperation, India.

 India-Netherlands collaboration to decarbonisation and energy transition

A Statement of Intent (SoI) was signed between India and the Netherlands on 28
September 2020 to support the decarbonisation and energy transition agenda for
accommodating cleaner and more energy. The SoI was signed by Chief
Executive Officer (CEO), NITI Aayog, and Ambassador of the Netherlands to
India. As part of the cooperation between the Government of the Netherlands
and the State of Kerala in India, a 4-member Dutch Risk Resilience Team (DRR)
visited Kerala from 8-23 March 2019 to work on the integrated river and flood
management. A report on flood prevention in Kuttanad Region, Kerala, was jointly
developed. Regular roundtables are being held between the two sides to take
forward the cooperation.

 MoU between India and Russia

A MoU between the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR)
and the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute of Roshydromet (AARI) on
cooperation in research and logistics in the Antarctic, was signed in Goa on 15
October 2019.

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 MoU between India and Portugal
India and Portugal signed a MoU for launching a 4 million euro joint fund for S&T
research collaboration on 1 March 2019 between the Department of S&T and its
Portuguese counterpart FCT. The proposals include projects for renewable
energy and green technologies related themes and are now being evaluated by
both sides.

 MoU between India and Finland

India and Finland signed a MoU for developing cooperation between two
countries in the field of Environment protection and biodiversity conservation on
26 November 2020. The MoU is a platform to advance Indian and Finnish
partnerships and support and exchange best practices in areas like prevention of
air and water pollution. Other thrust areas include waste management, promotion
of circular economy, low-carbon solutions and sustainable management of
natural resources including forests, climate change, and conservation of marine
and coastal resources.

 India-EU partnership
During the India-EU Summit held on 15 July 2020, both sides adopted a “joint
declaration on resource efficiency and circular economy” to establish an India-
EU Resource Efficiency and Circular Economy Partnership bringing together
representatives of relevant stakeholders from both sides, including governments,
businesses (including start-ups), academia and research institutes. The jointly
adopted “EU-India Strategic Partnership: A Roadmap to 2025” during the
Summit mentions that the two sides agree to strengthen cooperation on
environmental matters through the Joint Working Group on Environment as well
as the Environmental Forum to support India’s transition to a resource-efficient
and circular economy, to address air and water pollution, and to find innovative
solutions to tackling plastic and marine litter, as well as to promote the integration
of environmental concerns and solutions into economic growth policies. Two
sides agreed to strengthen cooperation on water-related matters through the
Joint Working Group on Water and the EU-India Water Forum, as well as in the
context of the India-EU Water Partnership (IEWP).

India-EU Climate Change Dialogue: Climate change and clean energy part of the
jointly adopted “EU-India Strategic Partnership: A Roadmap to 2025” mentions
that the two sides agree to cooperate for the full implementation of the UNFCCC,
and its legal instruments including the Paris Agreement, and of NDCs, as well as
the formulation of long-term low greenhouse gas emission development
strategies, in line with the principles of equity and CBDR-RC in light of different
national circumstances.

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6.9.9 India – UN Fund contribution to climate change

The India – UN Development Partnership Fund, realizing the paramount importance of

supporting vulnerable communities in these countries, has provided support to climate
actions and clean energy projects to the Global South countries. The partnership
includes projects that support Pacific Island Countries' governments to prepare,
respond, and recover from climate-related disasters by providing equipment, training,
capacity building workshops, and international visits.

India – UN Fund has also supported clean energy projects as part of the efforts to reduce
carbon footprint and reverse climate change. These projects support governments and
communities of the Global South with renewable energy and energy-efficient
technologies and provision of training and conducting workshops on the utilisation of
these technologies. The Fund also supports projects in the Pacific Islands that utilise
renewable energy technology such as solar photovoltaic elements or solar pumps for
the valorization of natural resources, improvement of the living conditions, and the
resilience of communities. Moreover, India – UN Fund supports disaster recovery efforts
in countries that have suffered immense damage due to climate change induced
hurricanes such as Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, and Mozambique. In Chad, the
India Fund project focused on increasing community capacity for resilience, adaptation,
and land restoration.

Country-specific projects

1. Climate Early Warning Systems in seven Pacific Island Countries (Cook Islands,
Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Solomon Islands, and
Tonga) enables the governments of these countries to prepare, respond to and recover
from climate-related disasters. This project provides equipment for measuring
meteorological conditions, training to build capacity for monitoring and warning, and
support to the coordination of data collection among partnering Pacific Island countries.

2. Chad: Increasing community capacity for resilience, adaptation, and land

restoration.

3. Gabon: Early warning systems in vulnerable communities of coastal zones

strengthen technical capacities of national institutions and local communities to ensure
the conservation, sustainable use, adaptation, access, and benefit sharing of natural
resources, biodiversity, and ecosystems in line with international conventions.

4. The Gambia: Use of drones for pre-and post-disaster assessments that include
mapping of safe sites, unsafe areas, and evacuation routes; climate risk assessments;
and rapid identification of damage to the most vulnerable communities and the physical
environment.

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5. Haiti: Installation of solar pumps that will contribute to the valorization of natural
resources (soils, water and plants) and the improvement of farmers' living conditions,
and the resilience of communities in the face of climate change.

6. India – UN Fund has supported disaster recovery efforts in Antigua and

Barbuda, Dominica, Mozambique that has suffered immense damage due to
hurricanes.

7. Cameroon: Renewable Energy and Energy-efficient Technologies to improve

access to sustainable energy and energy efficiency in rural areas in the northern and
north-eastern regions.

8. Promotion of renewable energy in 11 Pacific Island Countries (Fiji, Kiribati,

Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Tonga,
Tuvalu, Vanuatu) via installing grid-connected solar photovoltaic cells.

9. Tuvalu: Clean energy through stand-alone photovoltaic solar home systems.

Another project to support solar-powered refrigeration systems is underway in Marshall
Islands.

6.10 Private sector engagement

India’s private sector is at the forefront of addressing the growing challenge of climate
change. There are many examples of such initiatives carried out in collaboration with
civil society organisations, government departments and agencies and local
communities. In January 2019, over ten of the country’s top philanthropies came
together and found the India Climate Collaborative (ICC), a first of its kind, India-focused
platform that seeks to channel funding and increase visibility of India's climate action.
The ICC marks the first-ever collective response by industry leaders, and besides them,
the ICC also has over 45 organizations as members. It seeks to direct funding and
visibility towards climate action in India (Mukul, 2020).

6.10.1 Reduction in carbon emissions by industries

The Climate Action Summit was convened by the Secretary-General of UN in New York
on 23 September 2019 to boost climate ambitions and implement the Paris Agreement.
India, along with Sweden, launched the Leadership Group for Industry Transition to
accelerate the voluntary transition of all industry sectors, particularly in areas of hard to
abate industrial sectors to low carbon pathways in line with the goals of the Paris
Agreement. The Leadership Group is envisioned as a group of countries, companies,
and other actors voluntarily committed to enhance climate action and to support the
implementation of NDCs of the countries under the Paris Agreement while
acknowledging the principles and provisions of UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement,
including equity and CBDR-RC. So far, 12 countries, including India and Sweden, and
11 companies, three of which are from India, have joined as members of the Leadership
Group (MoEFCC, 2020).

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6.10.2 Renewable energy consumption in companies

In 2019, the 59 responding companies in India consumed 95 terrawatt hour (TWh)

electricity, of which 5 per cent (4.4 TWh) came from RE sources; 23 companies have
reported RE targets, a 44 per cent growth over 2018. Most companies have reported
RE consumption targets, and three adopted 100 per cent RE consumption targets and
have joined the RE100 initiative (CDP, 2020).

6.10.3 Infosys and Global Climate Action Award

In December 2019, Infosys became the first Indian corporate to receive the prestigious
United Nations Global Climate Action Award in the "Climate Neutral Now” category at
UNFCCC CoP-25 in Madrid, Spain. Infosys is one of the first companies of its kind to
commit to carbon neutrality. They have provided a practical model for climate action
while setting a benchmark for integrating sustainable development and climate action.
Infosys is in the process of building new energy-efficient buildings and upgrading its
existing buildings towards transitioning to 100 per cent renewable energy. It has placed
an internal price on carbon against which it assesses all projects and investments and
runs an offset programme that works with communities to reduce emissions and
contribute to sustainable development. All emissions are tracked using software
applications and audited by a third-party verifier. Infosys’ approach to achieving carbon
neutrality is based on three pillars: reducing energy consumption through energy
efficiency, transitioning to renewable energy sources, and offsetting emissions beyond
its control. Infosys has also promoted sustainable practices amongst its employees and
vendors to reduce their carbon footprint (UNFCCC, 2019).

6.10.4 Climate-friendly initiatives undertaken by Indian corporates (CII, 2019)

Climate Actions by ACC Limited: Being a resource and energy-intensive industry with
a high carbon footprint, ACC has been continuously working towards reducing its raw
material consumption, fossil fuel intensity, energy intensity, and water and carbon
intensity in cement manufacturing over eight decades. Currently, the Indian cement
sector’s CO2 intensity of 588 kg/tonne is the lowest globally. ACC has achieved a carbon
intensity of 504 kg/tonne of cement against India’s national cement average of 588
kg/tonne. Some of ACC's cement products have carbon intensity as low as 300 kg/tonne
of cement. To realize this, ACC has undertaken the following initiatives:

 Blended Cements: Company aggressively promotes Blended Cements like

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC), Portland Slag Cement (PSC), and
Composite Cement. These cement products use waste materials like fly ash from
captive power plants, slag from the steel industry and chemical gypsum. During
2018, the company's blended cement portfolio stands at ~88 per cent.
 Adoption of latest low carbon technologies: Being the oldest cement company
having a rich heritage of 83 years, ACC has adopted state-of-the-art
technological interventions, innovative production techniques, and climate-
resilient resource optimization measures.
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  Innovative and premium products: ACC has developed various value-added
solutions of products like such as ACC LeakBlock - a high-performance
waterproofing compound that prevents water seepage, ACC Gold - cement which
repels water, ACC Permecrete (Permeable Concrete helping in water harvesting)
and ACC Thermocrete (Thermal Insulation Concrete).
 Water conservation and water harvesting: ACC has installed sewage treatment
plants (STP), effluent treatment plants (ETP), and zero liquid discharge (ZLD)
systems for effective re-utilization of wastewater at plants. In 2018, ACC met
approximately half of the total water requirements through rainwater.
 Tree plantation: Each of its cement plants has its own success story of tree
plantation, greening activities, horticulture, flower and fruit cultivation, and water
conservation. This helps conserve the biodiversity and helps in sequestering
carbon emissions (ACC Limited, 2020).

Climate actions by Dalmia Bharat Limited (DBL): The climate actions of the Dalmia
group are recognized by the UN. The UN Secretary-General invited Dalmia Cement to
share its climate actions and commitments during the UN General Assembly session at
Climate Action Summit on 23 September 2019 in New York before 63 Heads of States.
DBL tracks local and international developments regarding environment and climate
change and assumes ambitious targets viz., RE100, EP100, and water positivity. DBL
has leveraged global best practices viz. Internal Carbon Pricing (ICP) (current price is
USD 11/tonne of emission) and Science-based targets (SBT) to reduce climate impacts
for the present and future. DBL uses IEA ETP 2DS scenario for setting its emission
reduction targets to reach the laudable aim of becoming a Carbon Negative company
by year 2040. Under this, the company is ambitiously looking to replace the fossil fuel-
based electricity by 2030, fossil fuels in the cement kiln by 2035, and CCU technology
by 2040. Dalmia Cement is:

 First cement company to join RE 100 and EP 100 global initiatives.

 First India-headquartered cement group to join the caring for climate initiative of
United Nation Global Compact (UNGC).
 First India-headquartered cement group to join Carbon Pricing Leadership
Coalition.
 First cement company globally to commit to a carbon-negative footprint by 2040.
 Setting up the largest carbon capture facility globally in the cement sector.

Climate Actions by Mahindra Group: In Environmental, Social and Governance

(ESG) disclosures like the CDP and Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI) Mahindra
Group has performed exceptionally well. Mahindra Group has planted 15 million trees
in the past ten years with a survival rate of approximately 70 per cent (1.45 million trees
planted in FY18). In 2018, it was the only Indian company at the UNFCCC conference
in Bonn for Talanoa Dialogue. Twenty Mahindra Group companies are part of the SBT
initiatives.

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Mahindra Life Spaces is one of the founder members of the Sustainable Housing
Leadership Consortium for sustainable housing with a green portfolio of more than 90
per cent in green buildings. Many of Mahindra companies are heading towards making
existing buildings and plants green certified. The immediate benefits are savings in
electricity bill up to 20 per cent, water bill up to 30 per cent, lighting load and reduction
in Operating and Maintenance Cost. The group has also partnered with Ola Cabs to
launch a fleet of 100 Electric Vehicles. Mahindra group is the first global signatory of
EP100.

The group is exploring the use of Shadow Carbon Price on the Capital Purchasing
decisions for equipment worth USD 7,50,000 and above. Mahindra's Igatpuri plant is a
certified carbon neutral plant. In consolidation, the RTS number has reached
approximately 12 MW. At the Nashik, Chakan, and Kandivali plants, technology for
converting LPG to natural gas was introduced by which carbon emissions were reduced
by 6,152 MT and financial savings of INR 113.4 million to date. Mahindra's electric
mobility division rolled out two versions of its first-ever lithium-ion battery-powered
electric three-wheelers - the Treo and Treo Yaari in the year 2018. Treo and Treo Yaari
were showcased at MOVE 2018; the Global Mobility Summit organised by NITI Aayog.

Climate Actions by Tata Steel Limited: As a responsible corporate, Tata Steel

recognises that, though steel is considered a ‘hard to abate’ sector globally, it will be an
integral part of the solution to climate change because of its infinite recycling properties.

Tata Steel has taken the following steps to address the challenge of climate change
through various initiatives such as:

 Tata Steel engages with the Cambridge Institute of Sustainability Leadership (CISL)
for organizing a program to sensitize the implications of climate change to the board
members and senior management of the organization.
 To streamline the focus on climate change and GHG emissions reduction across
the organization through a common platform, a Centre of Excellence for GHG
emissions reduction was formed in 2018.
 An internal carbon price of 15 USD/t is also fixed and is being used for evaluating
capital projects. Carbon Capture and Use (CCU) Pilot Projects have also been
initiated to reduce GHG reductions at the industry level.
 Initiatives towards Energy Efficiency: A separate “Energy Impact Centre” has been
formed to focus on process optimisation initiatives. These initiatives include:
o Power generation from by-product gases
o Coke Dry Quenching (CDQ) facility for Waste Heat Recovery
o Conversion to LED lighting
o Use of VFD in power-intensive motors
o Fuel rate reduction in Iron Making
 Focus on Renewable and Clean Energy: 3 MW Solar PV Power Plant wsa
commissioned in July 2017. Tata Steel has the country’s first Solar PV Power Plant
installed in an iron ore mine in Noamundi. The project executed by Tata Power Solar

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 will help in reducing CO2 emission by about 3,000 tonne per annum. This project is
one of its kind in using the mining sites for an effective application.

Climate Actions by Delhi International Airport Limited: Located in India’s capital city,
Delhi Airport is, managed and developed by Delhi International Airport Limited (DIAL),
a joint venture consortium of GMR Group, AAI, and Fraport AG. Environment
Sustainability Management is an integral part of DIAL’s business strategy, which helps
achieve credibility and business sustainability at Delhi Airport. DIAL has adopted the
globally recognized Airport Carbon Accreditation Program of Airports Council
International (ACI) for effective GHG management at Delhi Airport. Under this
framework, Delhi airport became the first Carbon Neutral Airport in the Asia-Pacific
region to receive “Carbon Neutral” Accreditation in 2016 (SLOCAT, 2016).

Some of DIAL’s key initiatives towards climate change mitigation and adaptation are-

 Green building: DIAL has adopted “green building” principles for all new and existing
infrastructure at Delhi Airport. Terminal 3 of Delhi Airport is a LEED India Gold-
certified green building under the “new construction” category, and Platinum rated
Green Building under IGBC “Existing Building” category.
 Renewable energy and emission management: DIAL has installed 7.84 MW solar
PV plant in Delhi Airport's airside premises. DIAL has also adopted ISO 14064
standard for GHG accounting.
 Operational improvement measures and emission reduction process/technologies:
Delhi Airport is the first airport in India to have implemented Airport Collaborative
Decision Making (A-CDM). DIAL has installed Fixed Electrical Ground Power Unit
(FEGPU) and Pre- Conditioned Air (PCA) as Bridge Mounted Equipment (BMEs)
for ensuring reduced use of Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) requirement by Airlines.
DIAL implemented Multimodal Connectivity, CNG fuelling station and dedicated fuel
hydrant system. Delhi Airport has recently adopted taxibot for aircraft taxi procedure,
which has led to a significant reduction in emission during aircraft taxing.
 Wastewater treatment and rainwater harvesting: DIAL has commissioned 16.6 MLD
state-of-the-art “Zero Discharge” sewage treatment plant treats entire sewage water
generated in Delhi Airport. DIAL has constructed more than 300 rainwater
harvesting structures to improve the airport's groundwater level and in the
surrounding area.

Climate Actions by Mumbai International Airport Limited: Mumbai International

Airport Limited (MIAL) operating Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport
(CSMIA) has become a Carbon Neutral Airport, i.e., ACA Level 3+ accreditation under
the Airport Carbon Accreditation (ACA) programme of Airport Council International (ACI)
in 2018. In 2018-19, MIAL surpassed its target set for 2030, i.e., of 35 per cent reduction
of Scope 1 and 2 GHG emission intensity against its base year, just over a decade in
advance.

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MIAL guided by its GHG policy, carbon road map, sustainability vision, and strong
management backup, has implemented a plethora of carbon reduction initiatives. This
includes initiatives such as moving towards greener fuel like CNG, increasing electric
vehicles, increasing onsite renewable generation, 100 per cent aero-bridges at T1 and
T2 with fixed electric ground power and pre-conditioned air, A-CDM, green buildings,
and waste management. Over and above MIAL’s continuous reduction trajectory and
purchase of carbon credits to neutralize non-avoidable direct and indirect GHG
emissions enabled them to achieve carbon neutrality. MIAL is yearly offsetting its
residual scope 1 and 2 emissions since 2016-17 by procuring carbon credits.

Key highlights:
 Scope 1 and Scope 2 GHG reduction ~36 per cent compared to the base year
2014-15.
 Scope 3 GHG reduction ~21 per cent compared to the base year 2014-15.

Climate Actions by Toyota Kirloskar Motor (TKM) Private Limited: TKM has
comprehensively addressed climate change in its global strategy and set ambitious
targets in this context as part of the Toyota Global Environmental Challenge 2050.
TKM’s commendable initiatives include the ecozone project and the engagement with
school children on climate change, water, waste, and biodiversity through this initiative,
management of canteen waste in onsite biogas plant, and the incentive-linked
environmental rating system for dealers. TKM has already started addressing value
chain (scope 3) emissions.

Key steps that TKM has taken towards low carbon development:

 The company's long-term environmental strategy (Toyota's Global Environmental

Challenges 2050) recognises climate change. Strong focus is seen on "Green
Mobility" solutions. The company is actively involved in R&D and mainstreaming
of LC technology, especially hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and hybrids. TKM’s
preparedness to emerging regulatory requirements is robust (BS IV to BS VI,
Electric Mobility, CAFE regulation).
 The GHG accounting for scope 1 and 2 emissions is well established. Total
(Scope 1 + Scope 2) absolute and emissions intensity show a decreasing trend
in the last 3 years.
 The company has an impressive renewable energy target of 80 per cent by 2021.
It shows good progress with the achievement of 64 per cent of total energy supply
from solar energy currently (8.5 MW of installed solar capacity and 18 MW of
solar through PPAs) compared to 7 per cent in 2014.
 Initiatives to increase efficiency of raw material use exist. Zero waste to landfill is
one of its initiatives (Toyota Bharat, 2020).

Climate actions by Tata Chemicals Limited: Tata Chemicals Limited has the following
five climate adaptation initiatives, which are as follows:

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A. Impact of Integrated Water Resource Management Program is shown in the picture
below:

Figure 6.12: Water Demand Comparison 2005 & 2019

Figure 6.13: Year wise Cumulative Storage Capacity

B. Impacts of promotion of micro-irrigation through drip irrigation system:

Table 6.2: Number of drip and sprinkler installed

Year Installation Number

2011-12 270
2014-15 625
2017-18 873
Total 1,768

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Figure 6.14: Okhamandal Irrigation Pattern

1. Sprinkler based irrigation system showed positive results in controlling crop

diseases; hence reduction in the use of pesticides.
2. The water requirement in drip and sprinkler irrigation is 70 per cent and 50 per
cent lesser, respectively, compared to traditional flood irrigation method.

C. Impacts of promotion of laser levelling:

1. Reduction in salinity in agricultural land.
2. Crop yield increased by 15 per cent compared to 2011 production level.
3. Around 9 per cent farmers cultivated Rabi crops - Chilli and Cumin resulting in
higher income of INR 30,000/ha.

D. Impacts of ensuring safe drinking water by water harvesting:

1. Availability of safe drinking water to rural households.
2. Reduction in workload of women for carrying water from distant places

E. Tata Chemicals took the initiative towards environmental conservation, and the
following is the data at a glance:

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Table 6.3: Environmental initiatives by Tata Chemicals

Description 2018-19 Cumulative

No. of mangroves planted
5,06,500
-Sundarbans 60,000
4,14,940
-Mithapur
No. of eco-clubs promoted
40 40
-Mithapur
Whale shark rescued (Mithapur) 20 710
No. of indigenous flora species introduced (Mithapur) 5 149
No. of fauna species recorded (birds and animals at Mithapur) 90 105

Climate-friendly action of Coal India Limited (CIL): The CIL is one of the world's
largest coal-producing companies. It is a state-owned Maharatna Company operating
352 coal mines spread over 8 States of India. CIL also operates 12 coal washeries and
also manages other establishments like workshops, hospitals and training centres. The
CIL produces around 83 per cent of India’s overall coal production and meets 40 per
cent of country’s primary commercial energy requirement. The CIL has been producing
coal to meet the country's rising energy demand and been equally sensitive towards
minimizing the adverse footprints of mining on environment and society. CIL has taken
several initiatives for maintaining a sustainable environment in and around the mining
areas (MoC, 2020):

 CIL has adopted a dedicated “Environment Policy” for the care of environment in
its command areas. It has created Sustainable Development Cells (SDCs) at
corporate level and in all subsidiary companies. The SDC cell is committed to
addressing climate change, promote sustainable development by protecting the
environment through integrated project planning, mitigation of pollution,
conservation of natural resources, restoration of ecology, proper disposal of
waste and inclusive growth.
 Reclamation of mined-out areas: Mined out areas, OB dumps, and other
disturbed areas are concurrently reclaimed as soon as they get delinked from the
active mining zone. Topsoil is segregated and stored in a clearly demarcated
area for use within the mine as soon as the backfilling and concurrent reclamation
starts. Three-tier biological reclamation in external and internal dumps is
undertaken through expert agencies i.e., State Forest Development
Corporations. Species for biological reclamation are selected in consultation with
expert agencies like SFDC, ICFRE and NEERI. Satellite Surveillance: Status of
land reclamation is monitored through satellite surveillance.
 Plantation in and around mining areas: Since inception, CIL has planted around
99.6 million trees in an area of 39,842 hectares till March 2020. In the present
fiscal year, around 800 ha of the affected area will be brought under green cover.
These efforts not only lead to improved environment and enriched bio-diversity
but also create an effective carbon sink.
 Development of eco-parks in mining areas: CIL has developed 23 eco-
parks/mine eco-tourism projects till 2019-20. These parks improve the land use
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 of mining areas and enrich the bio-diversity and create potential for earning to
local inhabitants. CIL has planned to develop 10 new mine eco-tourism projects
and another 5 expansion mine eco-tourism projects in the current fiscal.

Mitigation of air pollution: Regular environmental monitoring is carried out in all coal
mines of CIL to assess the air quality and immediate remedial measures are taken
in case of any deviation. Various measures taken in the mines of CIL are:

 Installation of fixed sprinklers/rain guns at/along/around the dust-generating

sources viz., haul roads, stockyard, railway siding and coal handling plants;
 Mobile water sprinklers deployed along haul roads and other transportation
roads, rain gun and fixed type sprinklers installed at various transfer points along
conveyor route in coal handling plants and bunkers;
 Fog canons, for effective dust control;
 Installation of continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations (CAAQMS);
 Black-topping of roads, tarpaulin covering of trucks, and roadside avenue
plantation is undertaken;
 Belt pipe conveyor (BPC) closed pipe shaped conveyor system to replace road
transport;
 Vertical wind barrier systems are being developed in mega projects to arrest dust
propagation,
 Large capacity mobile sprinklers/mist type of sprinklers deployed;
 Dust screens at railway sidings.

Mitigation of water pollution: Regular environmental monitoring is carried out in all

coal mines of CIL to assess the water quality and immediate remedial measures are
taken in case of any deviation. Various measures taken in the mines of CIL are:

 WETPs of sufficient capacity with Oil and Grease Trap for treatment and reuse.
 Sewage Treatment Plants of sufficient capacity for treatment of domestic sewage
from townships / colonies.
 Provision of settling tank at surface.

Mine water utilization: Intersection of aquifers during mining results in the

accumulation of water in mine pits, which needs to be pumped out for continuance
of mining. CIL has taken several initiatives for gainful utilization of mine water and
minimize the water footprint of mining. One of such initiatives is supply to the nearby
community for domestic and irrigation purpose. During 2019-20, about 162.7 million
kilolitres of mine water were supplied to the community, resulting in the supply of
domestic/drinking water to about 0.750 lakh people and irrigation of 2,262 ha of land.
Also, more than 330 numbers of rainwater harvesting projects are under operation
in CIL as of 31 March 2020.

Reduction in carbon footprint and air pollution through projects of First Mile
Connectivity (FMC): FMC Projects have been strategized for the mines having
capacity of 4 MTY and above for easier handling and transportation of coal from pit
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 head to destination. Total 49 FMC projects have been identified in CIL with an
investment of about INR 1,54,890 million and the total Rapid Loading Capacity by
2024-25 will be 657.5 MTY. Out of these 49 projects, 35 projects for transporting 406
MTY capacity is being built in the first phase. The benefits by the implementation of
FMC will be as follows:

 Reduction in air pollution from reduced vehicular exhaust emissions and road
dust emissions.
 Lesser energy consumption and savings, carbon footprint and water budget of
coal loading and transfer activities.
 Reduction in background sound level in the region.
 Better human health from a possible reduction in air pollution.
 Potential economic and social benefits of the mechanized Conveyor Belt and Silo
Loading systems to the population living in the buffer zones of the mines.

Other sustainability initiatives:

 CIL is in process to venture into the Coal-to-Chemicals sector on stand-alone

basis by setting up a Coal-to-Methanol plant of 2050 MTPD (0.676 MTPA)
capacity at Dankuni Coal Complex (DCC). Coal from Raniganj coalfields shall be
gasified to produce Syngas, which shall be subsequently converted into
methanol. MOU has been signed between CIL and GAIL (India) Limited to
explore areas of cooperation for setting up of coal-to-chemical plant in the vicinity
of coalfields of CIL having high CV coal reserves.
 CIL is also taking up more projects of surface coal gasification with relatively
lesser carbon footprints. The upcoming projects of Coal Bed Methane (CBM)
extraction will also reduce the liberation of CH4 (GHG) into the atmosphere during
coal mining, which will be taken up in future.
 Hindustan Urvarak & Rasayan Limited (HURL), a joint venture among CIL, NTPC
Limited, IOCL, FCIL and HFCL is setting up natural-gas based 1.27 MTPA urea
plant at the premises of closed fertilizer plants of FCIL at Gorakhpur (U.P.) and
Sindri (Jharkhand) and that of HFCL at Barauni (Bihar) with 29.67 per cent
shareholding of CIL.
 Talcher Fertilizers Limited (TFL), a joint venture among RCF, CIL, GAIL and FCIL
is setting up Surface Coal Gasification based integrated fertilizer complex at
Talcher using coal. CIL has 29.67 per cent share in the said joint venture. Coal
blended with pet-coke up to 25 per cent shall be gasified to produce Syngas
which shall be converted into neem coated urea of annual capacity of 1.27 million
metric tonne.
 Projects for sand segregation from waste have been commissioned in one of its
kind. The segregated sand is mainly used to construct houses under government-
sponsored housing projects such as Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana. This initiative
will reduce the burden on river bed mining.

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  Subsidiary companies are also pursuing use of alternative energy sources. As of
31 March 2020-21, 4.85 MW Solar Power Projects (rooftop and ground mounded)
have been installed in CIL.

6.10.5 Declaration of private sector on climate change

On 5 November 2020, a declaration on climate change was released which was signed
by 24 key industry captains and MoEFCC at the virtual India CEO forum on climate
change. Key industries like TATA, Reliance, the Adani group, Mahindra, Sun pharma
and Dr. Reddy’s, listed out various clean processes and initiatives they have taken and
their agenda towards further decarbonisation post-2020 (PIB, 2020f).

6.10.6 Green bonds

Green bonds are debt securities issued by financial, non-financial or public entities
where the proceeds are used to finance 100 per cent green projects and assets. Climate
bonds remain focused on green bonds, linked explicitly to climate-change mitigation,
adaptation and resilience. India has the second-largest emerging green bond market
after China. NABARD is accredited as the National Implementing Entity under Green
Climate Fund (GCF). GCF has been designated as an operating entity of the financial
mechanism of the UNFCCC. NABARD has so far mobilized USD 50 million from the
Fund to support the development of Solar Rooftop Units for clients of the country's
commercial, industrial and residential housing sector. Several Government agencies
have contributed to issuance: IREDA and the Indian Railway Finance Corporation
(IRFC). In 2018, the SBI entered the market with a USD 650 million Certified Climate
Bond (DEA, 2020). India’s renewable energy sector requires significant financing, which
presents one of the biggest green bond opportunities. The country needs USD 4.5 trillion
within the next ten years to meet its renewable energy and urban sustainability targets,
and green bonds can attract sizeable investment to fulfill this requirement (PTI, 2018).
Agriculture and forestry, water resources, and disaster management are also the key
sectors that are exploring the benefit of green bonds (Guha, 2019).

6.10.7 International Platform on Sustainable Finance (IPSF)

To scale up the environmentally sustainable investments, India joined the International

Platform on Sustainable Finance (IPSF) in October 2019. The Platform recognises the
global nature of financial markets, which can facilitate the transition to a green, low
carbon, and climate-resilient economy by linking financing needs to the global sources
of funding. The main objectives are to exchange and disseminate information to promote
best practices in environmentally sustainable finance, compare the different initiatives
and identify barriers and opportunities to scale up environmentally sustainable finance
internationally while respecting national and regional contexts (DEA, 2020).

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6.10.8 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Programmes

CSR programmes being undertaken by several large companies in India suggest that
they have started thinking about their impact on the environment and are striving to
become responsible corporations. Data analysed by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs
(MCA, 2020) for CSR expenditure of all Indian companies in 2014-15 showed that 14
per cent (INR 12,130 million) of total CSR spending in India was made on activities
focusing on conserving the environment. It was the third highest expenditure on a social
impact issue after education (32 per cent) and health (26 per cent) and was greater than
the amount spent on rural development (12 per cent). These figures highlight that
companies today have an increasingly broad understanding of the risks and
opportunities that climate change poses to their strategies and operations and that larger
issues of sustainability triggered by climate change are becoming an integral component
of dialogues with the major stakeholders.

The enactment of Companies Act 2013 by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA), GoI
was one of the world's largest experiments of introducing the CSR as a mandatory
provision by imposing statutory obligation on companies to take up CSR projects
towards social welfare activities. This has made India the only country which has
regulated and mandated CSR for some select categories of companies registered under
the Act. This CSR Initiative will push the nation towards achievement of SDGs and
public-private partnership in transforming India.

Table 6.4: Details of CSR projects and funding

Total amount
Total no. of Total no. of Development sectors
Year spent on CSR
companies CSR projects entered by companies
(INR million)
FY 2014-15 16,548 100,660 9,365 29
FY 2015-16 18,291 145,170 18,468 29
FY 2016-17 19,546 143,330 23,073 30
FY 2017-18 21,411 137,080 23,833 29
FY 2018-19 24,902 186,530 30,619 29
Source: National CSR Data Portal, 2020.

NextGen's study to analyse the CSR expenditure of the top 100 companies for FY15-
16 supports this trend. Among these companies, the top spenders in environment
conservation were primarily from the following three sectors (Kumari & Bandyopadhyay,
2018):

• FMCG - ITC (INR 720 million), HUL (INR 220 million)

• Energy companies – NTPC Limited (INR 440 million), IOCL (INR 300 million)
• IT and financial services companies – Wipro (INR 480 million), Axis Bank (INR
280 million).

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The idea is to work in collaboration and convergence and be part of the implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation. The central point is not to take CSR “for granted.” Instead,
CSR can be utilised to combat impending disasters, pandemics, and climate change.
Recently, MCA has stated that all COVID-19 related spending on health care can be
classified as CSR spending. India Inc. has monetarily contributed to help fight the
pandemic by contributing to PM CARES (a centrally created fund to fight the pandemic).

6.10.9 Small companies in the field of renewable energy sector

The private sector is primarily setting up renewable energy projects with Central/State
organizations buying power at a rate either discovered through a transparent
competitive bidding process or fixed by the concerned State Electricity Regulatory
Commission. Most of the country's renewable energy projects are being set up by the
private sector developers selected through a transparent bidding process. The
Government has issued standard bidding guidelines to enable the distribution licensees
to procure power at competitive rates in cost effective manner. Since renewable energy
power plants are capital intensive, any power plant developer needs to mobilize capital
for the same at the rate of INR 40-60 million per MW. To protect the interest of small
developers as per central government guidelines, States/UTs can procure power from
solar projects (less than 5 MW capacity) and wind projects (less than 25 MW capacity)
not covered under competitive bidding guidelines through Feed-in–Tariff (FiT) (MNRE,
2019b).

6.11 Other environmental initiatives

6.11.1 Hydrogen economy

In the year 2005, India’s first National Hydrogen Road map was prepared, and MNRE
has been undertaking a broad based research and development programme on different
aspects of hydrogen and fuel cells including production of hydrogen from renewable
energy sources, safe and efficient storage of hydrogen, and pilot projects on
transportation, production, and refuelling. Between 2010 and 2020, around INR 1,000
million financial support was provided to research institutions, academia, and industry.
MNRE supported projects have resulted in ongoing developmental work on fuel cell
stacks, hydrogen-fuelled vehicles, hydrogen refuelling stations. Globally competitive
technologies have also been developed for hydrogen production from biomass and
storage in metal hydrides and carbon materials. Besides, major institutions, including
DRDO, BARC, ISRO, and CSIR laboratories, have been developing cutting edge
hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. The DST has also been supporting basic R&D in
hydrogen and fuel cells.

The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) has been supporting R&D in hydrogen

production through microbial fermentation. DBT has also constituted an expert working
group for developing a biomass-to-hydrogen roadmap mission document.

447
6.11.2 Methanol economy

The Methanol economy program initiated by NITI Aayog aims to reduce the oil import
bill, reduce GHG emissions, and convert Indian coal reserves and municipal solid waste
into methanol, leading to independence from import while creating new jobs by setting
up methanol production plants.

Methanol economy will result in a minimum 15 per cent reduction in fuel bill annually for
the country by 2030. It will also create close to 5 million jobs through methanol
production/ application and distribution services. Additionally, INR 60,000 million can be
saved annually by a blending of 20 per cent DME (Dimethyl Ether – a derivative of
methanol) in LPG. It will result in savings of INR 50 to INR 100 per cylinder to the
consumer.

Under the Indian Methanol Economy program, five methanol plants based on high ash
coal, five DME plants, and one natural gas-based methanol production plant with 20
MMT/ annum production in a joint venture with Israel, are planned to be set up. Cochin
Shipyard Limited is building three boats and seven cargo vessels for the Inland
Waterways Authority of India to use Methanol as a marine fuel for the inland waterways
program.

Thermax Limited has successfully developed a 5 kW methanol-based reformer on a

Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC). This module is being tested to replace DG sets in
mobile towers. Kirloskar Oil Engines Limited has converted a 5 kW generator set to run
on 100 per cent methanol and demonstrated successfully for direct electricity
generation. Kirloskar is working towards converting generator sets of 150 - 300 KVA/kW
capacity in collaboration with Dor Chemicals Limited, Israel.

As a part of the R&D program, work is in progress to set up coal to methanol plants in
the country using the indigenous technology which is currently being demonstrated at
BHEL (Hyderabad), Thermax, BHEL (Trichy), and IIT Delhi. Thermax with IIT Delhi is
working on a 1 TPD demonstration plant while BHEL (Hyderabad) and BHEL (Trichy)
are working on 1 TPD and 40 TPD demonstration plants, respectively. The Department
of Biotechnology has sanctioned R&D project to produce Methanol from biomass to IISc
Bengaluru and Praj Industries Pune. Phase I of the demonstration of syngas production
from biomass was demonstrated in January 2019 (NITI Aayog, 2020).

To reduce import dependency, NITI Aayog had made an ambitious plan to produce
methanol that can be blended (15 per cent) in gasoline to make M15 fuel for the
automobile sector. Coal is one of the major feedstock for methanol production, and Coal
India Limited has planned to set up coal to methanol plant at Dankuni Coal Complex in
West Bengal. Tenders have been floated for inviting agencies to set up the plant on
BOO basis.

448
6.11.3 Electricity from plastic waste

MoEFCC has notified Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 for environmentally
sound management of plastic waste and preventing plastic pollution. The Ministry has
also issued “Standard Guidelines for Single-Use Plastic” on 21 January 2019 to all
States/UTs and Ministries. The guidelines entail waste management system
improvements, legal options for States/UTs to prohibit single-use plastic items through
regulatory measures, eco-friendly alternatives, social awareness, and public education.
MNRE is implementing a 'Programme on Energy from Urban, Industrial, Agricultural
Wastes/ Residues and Municipal Solid Waste' in the country for recovery of energy in
the form of Biogas or Bio-CNG or power from urban, industrial, and agricultural
waste/residues. The Ministry has set the following targets under the programme:

(i) Setting up of cumulative installed capacity of 200 MW for electricity generation from
MSW where MSW fed into incinerator should be of non-biodegradable, non-recyclable,
non-reusable, non-hazardous solid waste having a minimum calorific value exceeding
1,500 kcal/kg and excluding chlorinated materials like plastic and wood pulp.

(ii) Setting up of 57 MWeq of capacity for generation of energy in the form of

Biogas/BioCNG from biodegradable waste (MNRE, 2019c).

6.11.4 India Cooling Action Plan

The India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP) was launched on 8 March 2019. The ICAP has a
long-term vision with a 20-year time horizon and lists out actions that can inter alia help
reduce cooling demand. Besides refrigerant-based space cooling technologies such as
air conditioners, the ICAP provides for the use of non-refrigerant based technologies
such as fans and coolers and not-in-kind technologies such as district cooling.

The India Cooling Action Plan seeks to (i) reduce cooling demand across sectors by 20
per cent to 25 per cent by 2037-38, (ii) reduce refrigerant demand by 25 per cent to 30
per cent by 2037-38, (iii) reduce cooling energy requirements by 25 to 40 per cent by
2037-38, (iv) recognize “cooling and related areas” as a thrust area of research under
national S&T Programme, (v) training, and certification of 1,00,000 servicing sector
technicians by 2022-23, synergizing with Skill India Mission. The Ministry has
constituted a Steering Committee and six thematic working groups with representatives
from other Ministries of GoI / State Governments to implement the ICAP (PIB, 2019g).

A first of its kind initiative, of bulk procurement of super-efficient air conditioners was
launched for transforming the market to energy efficient air conditioners was under taken
by Energy Efficiency Services Limited. The aim of the programme was to provide
consumers with super-efficient air conditioners at comparable prices to average
efficiency units. These air conditioners were over 40 per cent more efficient, perform at
high ambient temperatures, are reliable over wide operating voltage range, and are
backed up by five years of additional warranty. India has issued guidelines to encourage

449
increasing temperature set points to 24°C in commercial buildings, saving 20 per cent
in annual energy consumption compared to a 20°C set point. A first of its kind initiative,
enabling more cooling at a lower cost - for both customers and climate, India has
launched bulk public procurement that aims to deliver ACs that are comparably priced
with average efficiency units but over 40 per cent more efficient. They also perform at
high ambient temperatures, are reliable over a wide operating voltage range, and are
backed up by five years of additional warranty.

6.11.5 Van Dhan Yojana

The Van Dhan Start-ups, established under the scheme initiated by Tribal Cooperative
Marketing Development Federation of India Limited (TRIFED), MoTA has emerged as
a source of employment for tribal gatherers and forest dwellers and also the home-
bound labour and artisans. Under the Van Dhan Yojana, 1,205 Tribal Enterprises have
been established to provide employment opportunities to 0.36 million tribal gatherers
and 18,000 Self-Help Groups in 22 States. The slogan “Go Vocal for Local,” a Mantra in
these troubled Pandemic times, has been adapted to include ‘Go Vocal for Local Go
Tribal – Mera Van Mera Dhan Mera Udyam.’ The Startups scheme aims to treble the
coverage to 1 million tribal gatherers through the COVID-19 relief plan of the MoTA
under article 275(I) (PIB, 2020g). Started in 2019, startups have spread relatively quickly
to 22 Indian States and almost became a competition once the states realised the value
added by this initiative.

For States like Nagaland and Rajasthan, this scheme underlines the critical significance
of this programme for tribal livelihoods, which ensures that the proceeds from these
value-added products go to the tribals directly and offers a ray of hope for home-bound
tribal labour and artisans through Van Dhan startups. The value-added products benefit
largely from the packaging and marketing that these tribal enterprises provide. A total of
2,000 products have been identified throughout the country.

To help tribal enterprise scheme benefit, market linkages have been created to
transform tribal gatherers into entrepreneurs. Many of these tribal enterprises are
connected to markets and have received many orders already. Van Dhan Kendras have
also been established across states for value addition and processing of forest
produces. Real-time information of the Van Dhan Yojana across the country can be
viewed at https://trifed.tribal.gov.in/vdvk/auth/login.php (PIB, 2020g).

6.11.6 Ladakh Geothermal project

A 500 KV geothermal pilot project at Puga hot water springs in Leh district of the Ladakh
UT would come up by November 2020. A team of engineers from ONGC Energy Centre
Delhi discussed their plans to explore geothermal energy in Puga Changthang on 13
November 2019. Puga hot water springs alone have the potential of generating 80 MW
of geothermal energy. Puga geothermal energy project has immense potential, and it
would be a game-changer for the UT of Ladakh in the long run. Several organizations
have made efforts to explore this clean energy for decades in Ladakh. Presently, GoI
450
under the MNRE has assigned ONGC to harness geothermal energy from Puga and
other potential areas of UT Ladakh for which initial survey will start soon (The Tribune,
2019). A pilot project for exploratory drilling and setting up of 1 MWe power project from
geothermal energy has been proposed by ONGC Energy Centre (OEC) in Puga valley,
Union Territory of Ladakh. Depending upon experience generated, prospects for setting
up larger capacity Geothermal plants will be explored.

6.11.7 Resource efficiency and circular economy

Circular economy is closely interlinked with climate change, and it would not be possible
to achieve the climate change target of limiting temperature increase to 2o Celsius
without addressing its key issues. As part of the ambitious 'Circular Economy Package,'
waste-management targets regarding reuse, recycling, and landfilling, strengthening
provisions on waste prevention, and extended producer responsibility have been
adopted.

The “Status Paper and Way Forward on Resource Efficiency and Circular Economy”
and “Four Sectoral Strategy Papers on Resource Efficiency on Steel, Aluminium,
Construction and Demolition Waste, Secondary Materials Management in Electrical and
Electronics Sector” released by NITI Aayog in collaboration with MoEFCC and the
European Union delegation to India, focussed on enhancing the resource-use efficiency
in the Indian economy and industry, develop indicators for monitoring progress, and
create an ecosystem for improving the resource security and minimizing environmental
impacts.

NITI Aayog had undertaken a facilitator's role to mainstream the approaches and
measures towards a resource-efficient and circular Indian economy. This was also in
line with the Government’s commitment to the goals of sustainability. A few notable
actions for the transformation of the RE Ecosystem in India include the formulation of
the National Policy on RE/CE, establishment of Bureau of Resource Efficiency (BRE),
mainstreaming RE and CE in existing flagship missions, a modern recycling industry
with level playing between primary and secondary producers, R&D for development of
scalable technologies for RE and CE, and development and promotion of skill and
capacity building programmes for the informal sector (PIB, 2019h).

The Department of Biotechnology has supported R&D programs for development and
demonstration of technologies for treatment of solid and liquid wastes, for recovering
value in the form of energy and nutrients, while protecting the environment from
pollution. The technologies supported include bio-methanation, constructed wetlands
and restoration of degraded ecosystems to act as carbon sinks. Mapping of GHG
generation potential of landfills, and studies on treatment of landfill leachate have also
been supported.

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6.11.8 Knowledge management initiatives

India Climate Change Knowledge Portal: On 27 November 2020, MoEFCC launched

the “India Climate Change Knowledge Portal.” It is a “single point Information resource”
which provides information on the different climate initiatives taken by various line
ministries enabling users to access updated status on these initiatives. The portal
captures sector-wise adaptation and mitigation actions taken by the various line
ministries in one place, including updated information on their implementation. The
knowledge portal will help disseminate knowledge among citizens about all the major
steps Government is taking at both national and international levels to address climate
change issues (CCKP, 2020).
The eight major components included in the knowledge portal are:
 India’s Climate Profile
 National Policy Framework
 India’s NDC goals
 Adaptation Actions
 Mitigation Actions
 Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation
 International Climate Negotiations
 Reports and Publications
India Energy Modelling Forum (IEMF):. While Indian researchers have been
undertaking rigorous energy and climate policy modelling exercises, there had been no
formalized and systematic process of having a modelling forum. Even then, various
think-tanks/research organizations like TERI, IRADe, CSTEP, CEEW and NCAER have
been consistently developing scenarios and contributing through modelling studies and
analyses to provide required inputs to MoEFCC and other relevant ministries, including
NITI Aayog. The India Energy Modelling Forum will accelerate the efforts in the following
ways:

 Provide a platform to examine vital energy and environment-related issues;

 Inform decision-making process to the Indian government;
 Improve cooperation between modelling teams, government, and knowledge
partners, funders;
 Facilitate the exchange of ideas, ensure production of high-quality studies;
 Identify knowledge gaps at different levels and across different areas;
 Build the capacity of Indian institutions.

NITI Aayog will initially coordinate the activities of the forum and finalizing its governing
structure. The forum would include knowledge partners, data agencies and concerned
government ministries.

452
6.11.9 Training of government officials on adaptation planning and
implementation

One of the key activities undertaken by NMSHE is training programs of legislators and
government officials in climate change adaptation. These training programmes'
objective is to strengthen the capacities of state government officials at different levels
on adaptation planning and implementation for responding to climate change risks.

DST, in partnership with the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC),
NABARD Consultancy Services (NABCONS), and the State Climate Change Cell
(SCCC) organized training programmes organised in the 12 Himalayan States under
the NMSHE. The Training Programme intends to enable officials of the state at various
levels of governance to plan strategies that will address state's climate change concerns
and be all-inclusive, enabling them to manage the existing policies and programmes
towards adaptation while improving their performance by enhancing knowledge, skill,
and attitude. To ensure the sustainability of capacity building initiatives on climate
change adaptation, these training programs aim to create a pool of master trainers for
autonomous replication in each Himalayan State.

A pool of 153 Master trainers has been developed in 8 Himalayan States (J&K (50),
Manipur (45), Arunachal Pradesh (14), Meghalaya (25), Nagaland (6), Sikkim (3),
Mizoram (4), and Assam (5)). Close to 1,400 officials were trained in the 12 Himalayan
States. A manual for climate change adaptation in the Indian Himalayan Region has
been developed, which will serve as a guiding document to facilitate the integration of
climate change adaptation in the region's overall development process. It is aimed at
promoting, planning, and implementation of adaptation solutions towards climate
change risks.

6.11.10 Educational and awareness initiatives

India recognises the role of education in environmental protection and its conservation.
Several efforts have been made to reorient and reorganise the educational process and
to raise awareness among the students on environmental issues. About 100 million
students joined the Jal Shakti Abhiyan conversation campaign that is expected to save
36,500 million litres of water each year. Students across the country planted around 3.5
million saplings under the "one student one tree" campaign (The New Indian Express,
2020).

Many civil society organisations (CSOs) are also supporting initiatives that are creating
environmental awareness among school children:

 The Green Schools Programme led by Centre for Science and Environment
(CSE) honoured 172 schools with Climate Change Awards in 2019. These
schools participated in a rigorous environmental audit exercise, where students
had the opportunity to minimise the usage of resources in the school premises
(The Times of India, 2020).
453
  Go Green Kids is an initiative by Green Yatra which aims to sensitise and educate
children towards environmental protection and improvement. The initiative
reached about 5 million students across the country and inspired them to reduce
pollution and contribute to sustainable development (Green Yatra, 2020).
 Youths across the country participated in a series of events, a photography
contest and a blog competition at the Youth Climate Conclave. This conclave was
jointly organised by EU, GiZ, TERI, CEEW, and MoEFCC, and aimed at
increasing awareness on climate change issues. In the final event, a simulation
of the CoP) was held where participants took the roles of negotiators from major
counties to negotiate climate policies on achieving the Paris Agreement goals
(United News of India, 2020).

6.11.11 Gender mainstreaming in climate programmes

Considerations of gender in India’s approach to tackling climate change at various

phases have been incorporated in NAPCC, also translating into SAPCCs.

Programmes like Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) and MGNREGS significantly
influence women empowerment socio-economic aspects and initiate women’s
involvement in decision-making processes. The gender-sensitive attributes of these
schemes have ensured significant work participation from women.

Aajeevika - National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM), which was launched by the
Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD), GoI in June 2011, aims to create efficient and
effective institutional platforms for the rural poor, enabling them to increase household
income through sustainable livelihood opportunities and improved access to financial
services. Gender barriers are being addressed in village cycle activities such as social
mobilization, institution and capacity building, and livelihood planning.

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*****

460
 Annexure I- Abbreviations

Acronym Expansion

AAI Airports Authority of India

ADB Asian Development Bank
ADCPs Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers
AIBP Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme
AICRP All India Coordinated Research Project
AJAY Atal Jyoti Yojana
AMRUT Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
AR4 Fourth Assessment Report
ARGs Automatic Rain Gauges
AS Arabian Sea
ASI Annual Survey of Industries
ATF Aviation Turbine Fuel
AUST Advanced Ultra Supercritical Technology
AWS Automated Weather Stations
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
BEEP Buildings Energy Efficiency Programme
BEVs Battery Electric Vehicles
BHAVINI Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited
BHEL Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
BNVSAP Bharat New Vehicle Safety Assessment Programme
BoB Bay of Bengal
BPKP Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati Programme
BR Biological richness
BRTS Bus Rapid Transit System
BS Bharat Stage
BUR Biennial Update Report
C2F6 Hexafluoroethane
CADWM Command Area Development and Water Management
CAFÉ Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency
CAGR Compounded Annual Growth Rate
CAMPA Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority
CAT Climate Action Tracker
CBDR-RC Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities
CBM Coal Bed Methane
CC Canopy Cover
CCA Culturable Command Area
CCAP Climate Change Action Programme
CCU Carbon Capture Unit
CCUS Carbon Capture Utilisation & Storage
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
CDRI Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure
CDs Cyclonic Disturbances
CEA Central Electricity Authority
CERC Central Electricity Regulatory Commission
CF4 Carbon tetrafluoride

461
CGD City Gas Distribution
CGWB Central Ground Water Board
CH4 Methane
CII Confederation of Indian Industry
CIMFR Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research
CMFRI Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
CMIS Coastal Management Information System
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
CO2 Carbon dioxide
COP Conference of Parties
CORDEX Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment
COVID-19 Corona Virus Disease of 2019
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
CRCPMP Climate Resilient Coastal Protection and Management Project
CRRI Central Road Research Institute
CRZ Coastal Regulation Zone
CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
CSR Corporate social responsibility
CSS Centrally Sponsored Scheme
CVI Coastal Vulnerability Index
CWC Central Water Commission
CWMI Composite Water Management Index
CZMAs Coastal Zone Management Authorities
CZMP Coastal Zone Management Plan
DAY Deendayal Antodaya Yojana
DAY-NULM Deendayal Antodaya Yojana-National Urban Livelihoods Mission
DCs Designated Consumers
DDUGJY Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana
DFCC Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Limited
DI Disturbance Index
DIAL Delhi International Airport Limited
DISCOMs Power Distribution Companies
DoDW&S Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation
DoWR Department of Water Resources
DoWR, RD&GR Department of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga
Rejuvenation
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
DSM Demand Side Management
DSR Direct Seeded Rice
DSS Decision Support System
DST Department of Science and Technology
DVC Damodar Valley Corporation
DWRs Doppler Weather Radars
EBP Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme
ECBC Energy Conservation Building Code
EEFP Energy Efficiency Financing Platform
EESL Energy Efficiency Services Limited
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EIT Economies in Transition
EM-DAT Emergency Events Database

462
ENS Eco Niwas Samhita
EPA Environment (Protection) Act
ESCerts Energy Saving Certificates
ESCOs Energy Service Companies
ESCS Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm
ESIP Ecosystems Service Improvement Project
EV Electric Vehicle
EVI Electric Vehicles Initiative
FAME Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid %) Electric Vehicles
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FEEED Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development
FHTC Functional Household Tap Connections
FICCI Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry
FMBAP Flood Management and Border Areas Programme
FMD Foot & Mouth Disease
FMOs Flood Meteorological Offices
FMP Flood Management Programme
FRA Forest Resources Assessment
FSI Forest Survey of India
GCF Green Climate Fund
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEC Green Energy Corridor
GEF Global Environment Facility
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GII Global Innovation Index
GIM Green India Mission
GIS Geographic Information System
GLOFs Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
GMBM Global Market Based Measure
GoI Government of India
GRIHA Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment
GST Goods and Services Tax
GVA Gross Value Added
GVW Gross Vehicle Weight
GWP Global Warming Potential
HDI Human Development Index
HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons
HPC High Performance Computing
HW Heatwave
HWRF Hurricane Weather Research & Forecast
ICA International Consultation and Analysis
ICAP India Cooling Action Plan
ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research
ICAT Initiative of Climate Action Transparency
ICC India Climate Collaborative
ICFRE Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
ICMR Indian Council of Medical Research
ICT Information and Communication Technology
ICZMP Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project
IEA International Energy Agency

463
IFS Integrated Farming System
IGO Inter-governmental Organization
IHR International Heath Regulations
IITM Indian Institute of Technology Madras
IMD India Meteorological Department
IMR Infant Mortality Rate
INC Initial National Communication
INCOIS Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services
INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contributions
INR Indian Rupee
IODE International Oceanographic Data Exchange
IOTWMS Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System
IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
IPPU Industrial Processes and Product Use
IR Indian Railways
IRC Indian Road Congress
IREDA Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
IROAF Indian Railways Organisation for Alternate Fuels
ISA International Solar Alliance
ISFR India State of Forest Report
ISRO Indian Space Research Organization
ITEC Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation
ITEWC Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre
IWH Indian Western Himalayan
IWMI International Water Management Institute
IWMP Integrated Watershed Management Programme
JFM Joint Forest Management
JJM Jal Jeevan Mission
JSA Jal Shakti Abhiyan
KTR Kanha Tiger Reserve
KVKs Krishi Vigayan Kendras
LAI Leaf-area Index
LCO Locust Circle Offices
LED Light Emitting Diode
LNG Liquefied Natural Gas
LPA Long Period Average
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
LULUCF Land Use, Land-use Change and Forestry
MAP Mean Annual Precipitation
MDF Moderately Dense Forest
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MHVM Multi-Hazard Vulnerability Maps
MIDH Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture
MMR Maternal Mortality Ratio
MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
MGNREGS Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
MoAFW Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare
MoC Ministry of Coal
MoEA Ministry of External Affairs

464
MoEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
MoES Ministry of Earth Sciences
MoFAH&D Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying
MoHFW Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
MoHUA Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
MoJS Ministry of Jal Shakti
MoP Ministry of Power
MoR Ministry of Railways
MoSPI Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
MOVCDNER Mission for Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region
MPAs Marine Protected Areas
MRTS Metro Rail Transport System
MRV Measurement, Reporting and Verification
MSME Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
MuDSM Municipal Demand Side Management
N Nitrogen
N2O Nitrous Oxide
NADCP National Animal Disease Control Programme
NAFCC National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change
NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change
NATCOM National Communication
NBARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NCCR National Centre for Coastal Research
NCDC National Centre for Disease Control
NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction
NCIWRD National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development
NCR National Capital Region
NCSCM National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management
NCZMA National Coastal Zone Management Authority
NDC Nationally Determined Contribution
NDMA National Disaster Management Authority
NDRF National Disaster Response Fund
NEEFP National Energy Efficient Fan Programme
NEMMP National Electric Mobility Mission Plan
NEPZ North Eastern Plains Zone
NER North-Eastern Region
NFSM National Food Security Mission
NGO Non Governmental Organization
NIC National Informatics Centre
NICRA National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture
NIH National Institute of Hydrology
NIMS National Inventory Management System
NIO North Indian Ocean
NISE National Institute of Solar Energy
NITI National Institution for Transforming India
NLAs National Level Agencies
NMEEE National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency
NMSA National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture

465
NMSKCC National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change
NMVOC Non Methane Volatile Organic Compound
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NODC National Oceanographic Data Centre
NOx Nitrogen Oxides
NPCIL Nuclear Power Corporation India Limited
NPD National Project Director
NPEE National Programme on Energy Efficiency
NPL National Physical Laboratory
NPMCR National Policy for Management of Crop Residues
NPP Net Primary Production
NRRI National Rice Research Institute
NRSC National Remote Sensing Centre
NSC National Steering Committee
NSO National Statistical Office
NSS National Sample Survey
NSSO National Sample Survey Office
NTFP Non-Timber Forest Product
NWP Numerical Weather Prediction
OC Organic Carbon
ODF Open Defecation Free
OF Open Forest
OGD Open Government Data
ONGC Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
PAT Perform, Achieve and Trade
PBCMs Plastic Bottle Crushing Machines
PC Planning Commission
PDDU-GKY Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana
PDMC Per Drop More Crop
PFC Perfluorocarbon
PFZ Potential Fishing Zone
PGS Participatory Guarantee System
PHEIC Public Health Emergency of International Concern
PKVY Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana
PMAY Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
PMAY(U) Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana Urban
PMEGP Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Programme
PMFBY Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
PMKSY Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
PMU Project Management Unit
PSU Public Sector Undertaking
PV Photovoltaic
QA Quality Assurance
QC Quality Control
QPF Quantitative Precipitation Forecast
R&D Research and Development
R&M Renovation and Modernization
RAD Rainfed Area Development
RCP Representative Concentration Pathway
RD&GR River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation

466
RE Renewable Energy
REC Renewable Energy Certificate
REDD Reduced Emission from Deforestation and Degradation
REMCs Renewable Energy Management Centres
RES Renewable Energy Sources
RET Renewable Energy Technology
RFA Recorded Forest Area
RGI Randolph Glacier Inventory
RPO Renewable Purchase Obligation
S&L Standards and Labelling
S&T Scientific and Technological
SAC Space Application Centre
SAPCC State Action Plans for Climate Change
SARAT Search and Rescue Aid Tool
SBM Swachh Bharat Mission
SBTi Science Based Targets initiative
SBTs Science Based Targets
SCA Snow Cover Area
SCM Smart Cities Mission
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SDRF State Disaster Response Fund
SEB State Electricity Board
SEC Specific Energy Consumption
SECI Solar Energy Corporation of India
SERC State Electricity Regulatory Commission
SF6 Sulphur Hexa-fluouride
SHC Soil Health Card
SHOC Strategic Health Operations Centre
SHW Severe Heatwave
SIDHIEE Simplified Digital Hands-on Information on Energy Efficiency
SLNP Street Lighting National Programme
SNC Second National Communication
SO2 Sulfur Dioxide
SOC Soil Organic Carbon
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
SPCBs State Pollution Control Boards
SPV Special Purpose Vehicle
SPV Solar Photo Voltaic
SSAP State Specific Action Plan
STR Satpura Tiger Reserve
T&D Transmission and Distribution
TAC Technical Advisory Committee
TARANG Transmission App for Real-time Monitoring & Growth
TPES Total Primary Energy Supply
TTE Team of Technical Experts
UBGO Upper Ganga Basin Organization
UDAY. Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana
UJALA Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All
ULB Urban Local Body
UN United Nations

467
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNGC UN Global Compact
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
URJA Urban Jyoti Abhiyaan
USD United States Dollar
UTs Union Territories
VDF Very Dense Forest
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
VSCS Very Severe Cyclonic Storms
WHO World Health Organization
WIM Warsaw International Mechanism
WIPO World Intellectual Property Organisation
WMO World Meteorological Organisation
WRB Wave Rider Buoy
WRI World Resources Institute
WtE Waste to Energy
ZED Zero Defect Zero Effect

Units and Quantities

BCM Billion Cubic Meter (equals 1 km3)

C Celsius
Gg Giga gram
GW Gigawatt
GWh Giga Watt hour
ha Hectare
km kilometre
km2 Square kilometre
km3 Cubic kilometre
ktoe kilo tonne of oil equivalent
kW kilowatt
kWh kilowatt hour
kWp kilowatts peak
m Million
m3 Cubic meter
Ma-1 Water equivalent per unit area per year
Mha Million hectare
MJ Mega Joule
Mt Million tonne
MtCO2 Million tonne of Carbon dioxide
MtCO2e Million tonne of Carbon dioxide equivalent
MtCO2eq Million tonne of Carbon dioxide equivalent
MW Megawatt
m.w.e.a-1 Mean water equivalent per annum
t tonne
Tg Teragram
TJ Terajoule

468
toe tonne of oil equivalent

Conversion Table

1 Gigagram (Gg) = 1000 tonne

= 109 g

1 Teragram (Tg) = 1 Million tonne

= 1000 Gg
= 106 tonne = 1012 g

1 Terajoule (TJ) = 103 GJ

= 1012 Joules
1 Calorie = 4.18 J
1 Lakh = 100,000 = 105
1 Crore = 10,000,000 = 107
1 Million = 1,000,000 = 106
1 Billion = 1,000,000,000 = 109
1 Trillion = 1,000,000,000,000 = 1012

469
 ANNEXURE II- Institutional Arrangements
Composition of the National Steering Committee (NSC) for India’s Third
National Communication (TNC) and Biennial Update Reports (BUR) to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Chairman
(i) Secretary, MoEFCC

Members
(ii) Special/ Additional Secretary (In-charge: Climate Change matters), MoEFCC
(iii) CEO, NITI Aayog or his representative
(iv) Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmers Welfare or his representative
(v) Secretary, Department of Agriculture Co-operation and Farmers Welfare,
Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare or his representative
(vi) Secretary, Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance or his
representative
(vii) Secretary, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy or his representative
(viii) Secretary, Department of Science & Technology or his representative
(ix) Secretary, Ministry of Coal or his representative
(x) Secretary, Ministry of Power or his representative
(xi) Chairman, Railway Board or his representative
(xii) Secretary, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways or his representative
(xiii) Secretary, Ministry of Shipping or his representative
(xiv) Secretary, Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas or his representative
(xv) Secretary, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga
Rejuvenation or his representative
(xvi) Secretary, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare or his representative
(xvii) Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences or his representative
(xviii) Secretary, Department of Rural Development or his representative
(xix) Secretary, Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs or his representative
(xx) Secretary, Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion, Ministry of Commerce
and Industry or his representative
(xxi) Secretary, Ministry of Steel or his representative
(xxii) Secretary, Ministry of Civil Aviation or his representative
(xxiii) Secretary, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation or his
representative
(xxiv) Director General, India Meteorological Department or his representative
(xxv) Joint Secretary (UNES), Ministry of External Affairs
(xxvi) Representative, United Nations Development Programme, India-Office, New
Delhi
(xxvii) Joint Secretary (Climate Change), MoEFCC

Member Secretary
(xxviii) Advisor (Climate Change), MoEFCC

470
Composition of the Technical Advisory Committee for India’s Third National
Communication and Biennial Update Reports to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change

Chairman
(i) Additional Secretary / Special Secretary (In-charge: Climate Change
matters), MoEFCC

Members
(ii) Representative, Indian Space Research Organization
(iii) Advisor (Energy), NITI Aayog
(iv) Director General or representative, Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(v) Director General or representative, Forest Survey of India
(vi) Dr. Ajay Mathur, Director General, TERI
(vii) Prof. J. Srinivasan, Divecha Centre for Climate Change, IISc, Bengaluru
(viii) Prof. Chandra Venkatraman, IIT Bombay
(ix) Dr. K. Kavi Kumar, Madras School of Economics
(x) Dr. L.S. Rathore, Former Director General, India Meteorological Department
(xi) Dr. Kirit Parikh, Chairman, IRADe, New Delhi
(xii) Prof. T. Jayaraman, MS Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai
(xiii) Prof. Amit Garg, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
(xiv) Prof. Raman Sukumar, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru
(xv) Dr. Subodh Sharma, Former Adviser, MoEFCC
(xvi) Dr. Navroz Dubash, Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi
(xvii) Dr. Arvind Kumar, Chair, India Water Foundation, New Delhi
(xviii) Joint Secretary (Climate Change), MoEFCC

Member Secretary

(xix) Advisor (Climate Change), MoEFCC

471
Contributors to India’s Third Biennial Update Report

Project Management Unit

National Project Director

Dr. J. R. Bhatt
Scientist ‘G’/ Adviser
National Project Director, NATCOM
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Government of India,
Room number 326, ‘Jal’ Wing, Indira Paryavaran Bhavan
Jor Bagh Road, New Delhi
Telefax No.+91-11-24695293
E-mail: jrbhatt@nic.in

Programme Officers

Lokesh Chandra Dube Abhijit Basu Biba Jasmine Kaur

lokesh.dube@gov.in abhijit.basu31@govcontractor.in biba.kaur@nic.in

Sruthi Vinod Jaypalsinh Chauhan

sruthi.vinod92@gov.in chauhan.jaypalsinh@gmail.com

NATCOM Cell, 115, Pandit Deendayal Antyoday Bhawan, CGO Complex, New Delhi-
110 003

Participating Institutions and Experts

Laboratories of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (CIMFR)

Barwa Road, Dhanbad – 826001,
Phone: 91-326-2296023

Dr. Pinaki Sarkar

Dr. D Mohanty
Dr. Santi Gopal Sahu
Dr. Ashok K. Singh
Dr. Ashis Mukherjee
Dr. Manish Kumar
Dr. Pradeep K Singh

472
Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP)
Mohkampur, Rajpur Road,
Dehradun- 248001
Phone: 91-135-2660203

Dr. Sunil Pathak

Dr. Iranna Gogeri
Dr. Pranab Das
Mr. Yograj Singh
Mr. Vineet Sood

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)

Nehru Marg, Nagpur - 440 020
Tel: 91-712-2249755

Dr. Atul Vaidya

Dr. Karthik M
Ms. K. V. V. K. Sravvya
Mr. Harish Barewar

Institutes of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

Central Research Institute of Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA)

Santoshnagar, Hyderabad - 500 059
Ph: 91-40-24530177

Dr. J.V.N.S. Prasad

Dr. K.V. Rao
Dr. DBV Ramana
Dr. C.A. Rama Rao
Dr. BMK Raju
Dr. G Venkatesh
Dr. V Girija Veni
Dr. Sumanta Kundu
Dr. B Ramakrishna

Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI)

Pusa Road, New Delhi 110 012
Tele: 91-11-25841490

Dr. Arti Bhatia

Dr. Niveta Jain
Dr Himanshu Pathak

National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI)

Karnal-132001
Ph.: 91-184-2259088

Dr. Madhu Mohini

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Dr. S. S. Thakur
Dr. Goutam Mondal

Institutions of Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Forest Survey of India (FSI)

Kaulagarh Road, PO-IPE, Deharadun-248194
Tel.: 91-135-2756139

Dr. Subhash Ashutosh

Mr. Prakash Lakhchaura

Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE)

PO- New Forest, Dehradun-248006
Phone: +91-135-2750296 (O)

Dr. R. S. Rawat
Dr. Gurveen Arora

Other Institutions

Confederation of Indian Industry (CII)

Thapar House, 2nd Floor, 124 Janpath,
New Delhi 110001 India
Phone: +91 11 41502307

Dr. Seema Arora

Mr. Kamal Sharma
Ms. Priyanka Yadav
Ms. Tanya Sinha
Mr. Varun Agarwal

National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC)

CRF Colony, Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana
91-40-23884000

Dr. T R Kiran Chand

Dr. K Sreenivas
Dr. P V N Rao
Dr. C. S. Jha

Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council

'A' Wing, Vishwakarma Bhavan, Shaheed Jeet Singh Marg, New Delhi, Delhi 110016

Prof. Pradeep Srivastava

Dr. Gautam Goswami

474
Universities/ Educational institutions

Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad (IIM A)

Vastrapur, Ahmedabad - 380015, India
Ph: 91 79 6632 4952

Prof. Amit Garg

Mr. Jaypalsinh Chauhan
Dr. Vidhee Avashia
Ms. Jyoti Maheshwari

Indian Institute of Science (IISc)

CV Raman Road,
Bangalore - 560 012
Phone: 91 - 80 - 2334 1838

Prof. N. H. Ravindranath
Dr. Indu K Murthy
Prof. G. Bala

Non-governmental research organizations

Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW)

Sanskrit Bhawan, A-10,
Qutab Institutional Area, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg,
New Delhi - 110067, India
Tel: +91 11 40733300

Dr. Arunabha Ghosh

Dr. Vaibhav Chaturvedi
Mr. Sumit Prasad
Ms. Shanal Pradhan
Ms. Shikha Bhasin

The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)

Habitat Place, Lodhi Road
New Delhi -110003
Tel: 91 11 24682100

Dr. Ritu Mathur

Ms. Monica Dutta

Iora Ecological Solutions

225 B, FF, Indraprastha Gyan Mandir Complex, Lado Sarai Village Complex, New
Delhi 110030, Tel: +91-11-41077547

475
Dr. Sumana Bhattacharya
Ms. Shweta Pandey

MS Swaminathan Research Foundation

3rd Cross Street, Institutional Area, Taramani
Chennai 600 113, India

Prof. T. Jayaraman
Dr. Sreeja Jaiswal
Mr. Gaurav Gharde
Mr. Goutham Radhakrishnan

National Institute of Advanced Studies

Indian Institute of Science Campus
Bangalore 560 012, India

Dr. Tejal Kanitkar

Miss. Juhi Chatterjee

Individual expert contributors

Dr. Hardik Shah, Formerly PS to MoEFCC

Dr. Raman Sukumar, Professor, IISc, Begaluru
Dr. L S Rathod, Formerly DG, IMD
Dr. K J Ramesh, Formerly DG, IMD
Dr. P C Maithani, Adviser, MNRE
Dr. Anjan Ray, Diretor, CSIR-IIP, Dehranun
Dr. S D Attri, DDG, IMD
Shri Shivendra Mohan, ED, Railway Board
Shri Abhay Bakre, DG, BEE
Shri Ashok Kumar, Director, BEE
Ms. P. Bhanumati, DDG, MoSPI
Shri Krishna Kumar Tiwari, Deputy Director, MoSPI
Dr. Himangana Gupta, Formerly Programme Officer, NATCOM Cell
Dr. Nayanika Singh, Formerly Programme Officer, NATCOM Cell
Dr. Simi Thambi, Formerly Programme Officer, NATCOM Cell
Ms. Abha Tewary, Formerly Programme Officer, NATCOM Cell

476
Comments/ Inputs

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India

Mr. Ravi Shankar Prasad, Additional Secretary, MoEFCC

Mr. Sanjay Kumar, DGF & SS, MoEFCC
Ms. Richa Sharma, Joint Secretary, MoEFCC
Ms. Anshu Singh, Statistical Adviser
Dr. Subrata Bose, Scientist F
Mr. Raghu Kumar Kodali, Scientist F
Dr. Amit Love, Scientist E
Mr. Shard Sapra, Scientist E
Mr. Ajay Raghava, Scientist D

External Reviewers

Ms. Aishwarya KS, SSEF

Dr. Ajay Mathur, TERI
Dr. Ajay Kumar Singh, CIMFR
Dr. Amit Kanaudia
Dr. Anshu Bharadwaj, SSEF
Ms. Apurba Mitra, WRI
Prof. Arshid Jehangir, UoK
Dr. Arvind Kumar, IWF
Prof. Ashok Bhatnagar, formerly University of Delhi
Dr. Ashwini Kulkarni, IITM
Dr. Asif Qureshi, IITH
Dr. Baerbel Sinha, IISER Mohali
Dr. Balakrishnan Nair T.M., INCOIS
Dr. Binoy Saikia, CSIR-NEIST
Prof. Bhaskar Sinha, IIFM
Mr. Chirag Gajjar, WRI
Dr. Damandeep Singh, CDP
Dr. Divya Shah, DAC&FW
Prof. G. S. Rawat, WII
Shri Gopal Iyengar, MoES
Dr. Himanshu Pathak, IARI
Dr. K. R. Shanmugam, MSE

477
Dr. M. Maheswari, CRIDA
Dr. M. Mohapatra, IMD
Dr. Manda Verma, DAC&FW
Dr. Naresh Kumar, BIT Mesra
Dr. Navroz Dubash, CPR
Dr. O. P. Sreejith, IMD
Dr. Pulak Guhathakurta, IMD
Dr. Purnamita Dasgupta, IEG
Mr. Pustav Joshi, SSEF
Shri Rabindra Kumar Jena, MoP
Shri Rajendra Kumar Jain, CWC
Dr. R. Krishnan, IITM
Dr. R. S. Maheshkumar, MoES
Dr. R. S. Rawal, GBPNIHE
Mr. Raghav Anand, SSEF
Prof. Rajiv Chaturvedi, BITS Goa
Prof. Ramya Sunder Raman, IISER Bhopal
Mr. Raman Mehta, Vasudha Foundation
Mr. Ruchir Shukla, SSEF
Dr. S. Naresh Kumar, IARI
Prof. Satish Chandra, CRRI
Ms. Saumya Chaturvedula, ICLEI
Mr. Shantanu Goel, Independent Consultant
Mr. Shubhashis Dey, SSEF
Prof. Sudhir Chella Rajan, IITM
Mrs. Sunitha Devi S., IMD
Prof. Tarun Gupta, IITK
Ms. Ulka Kelkar, WRI
Dr. Umamaheswaran, ISRO
Prof. Vimal Mishra, IITGN
Dr. V. K. Soni, IMD
Ms. Vaishali Sharma, SSEF
Mr. Vivek Chandran, SSEF
Mr. Vivek Sen, SSEF

478
Annexure-III
List of events /consultative meetings

 National Brainstorming Meeting on GHG Inventory at Godavari Conference

Hall, Indira Paryavaran Bhawan, Jor Bagh Road, New Delhi on 21 February
2019.
 Meeting of the Technical Advisory Committee of National Communications at
on 03 April 2019 at Indira Paryavaran Bhawan, New Delhi.
 Symposium on environmental and climate initiatives of Indian Railways at
MoEFCC on 28 January 2020.
 Expert Group Meeting of LULUCF Sector Inventory at Satluj Hall, MoEFCC,
Indira Paryavaran Bhawan, Jor Bagh Road, New Delhi on 07 February 2020.
 Meeting of the Inventory Experts on BUR-3 on 9 March 2020 at MoEFCC, Indira
Paryavaran Bhawan, New Delhi.
 Virtual Meeting of the Technical Advisory Committee to India’s Third National
Communication and BURs to the UNFCCC on 15 October 2020 at Indira
Paryavaran Bhawan, New Delhi.
 A virtual meeting to review national GHG inventory for BUR-3 on 7 November
2020.
 Virtual meeting to the National Steering Committee to India’s Third National
Communication and BURs to the UNFCCC on 11 November 2020.

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Nayar, R. (2020). Humayun Tomb, Delhi.