Prepared by: Revelyn Q.

Ignacio
E-mail Address: revelynquicho@clsu.edu.ph

Central Luzon State University

Science City of Muñoz 3120
Nueva Ecija, Philippines

Instructional Module for the Course

IA 3000: Metal Works

Module 1
Topic 1 Introduction in Metal Works

Overview

Course Description

This course deals with the various welding techniques in the industry,
including gas metal arc welding. In addition, an introduction to machining is also
provided to the students.

This Module is an exploratory and introductory course which leads you to

Metal Works. Steelworks need to know the two basic types of metal and be able
to provide initial identification. While primarily work with the ferrous metals of iron
and steel, they also need to be able to identify and become familiar with the
nonferrous metals into more use each day. It covers 3 competencies in that a third
year Bachelor of Technology and Livelihood Education students.

1. familiarized were the metal works start from

2. Types and uses of ferrous and nonferrous metals.

3. Importance of mechanical properties of materials

I. Objectives

1. Acquire the information needed to be familiarize in the aspect of

industrial arts especially metal works in welding.
2. Be aware of the various methods for producing ferrous metal and be
aware of the range and composition non-ferrous metals and their alloys.
 IA 3000 (Metal Works)
Magnetic and Non-magnetic
Test a object with a magnet put check on the box which are magnetic and not
magnetic.

OBJECT MAGNETIC NOT MAGNETIC

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Lesson 1: Metalworking throughout history

At the time Solomon's Temple was believed to be constructed (mid-10th

century BCE), there lived a man named Tubal-Cain. He was said to be an instructor
and artificer of bronze and iron and all other metals. Also written about that same
time was this statement: "They will beat their swords into plowshares." As old as
I am, I was not there for those events, but it is evident that the Iron Age was not
the beginning of metalworking. Sometime during the Middle Ages, the Iron Pillar
of Delhi (Figure 1) was constructed.

This is said to be the largest weldment made in this time period. The
metalworking method of forging was becoming a common process used for all
types of metal that could be forge-welded. This method was used in blacksmithing
even in the 20th century. My grandfather made very strong fireplace tools in the
1940s by forging (Figure 2). Today it is us.

The Davys' Discoveries

The Davys are credited with two Figure 1

important discoveries in the early 1800s.
Edmund Davy discovered acetylene, and
Sir Humphry Davy discovered that two
carbon sticks connected to a battery
produced an electric arc. This became a
usable welding process in the late 1800s
and early 1900s that still is used today to
weld galvanized sheet metal with cupro-bronze filler material. The arc between
the two carbon electrodes places very little heat into the base material, barely
affecting the galvanized material.

Gas welding, brazing, and cutting with oxygen and coal gas (would be good
for West Virginia) or hydrogen came into their own in the late 1800s. Because of
its low flash point and its expansion in any conventional container, storing
acetylene was a problem. At one time an attempt was made to store it in a glass
bottle. This proved to be catastrophic. Then a steel container was used, and it also
was a failure.

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The safest method at the time was to place the gas in a steel container
filled with a concrete-like substance. The gas was absorbed in the porous material
and became relatively stable. Later, a cylinder that contained a much lighter
substance, similar to acoustic ceiling material, was found to be just as safe. This
storage method continues to be used today.

An additional stabilizer, acetone, is in the cylinder, which is stored at 250

PSI for safety. A gas regulator set at 15 PSI or less also is a safety requirement
for cutting or welding.

In the 1960s a fellow from Weston, W. Va., developed a torch that used
gasoline and oxygen. He believed that it was safer than acetylene and much less
expensive. It never really caught on because temperature variations caused liquid
to be dispersed from the torch at times, which sparked fires adjacent to the
operation mostly by artists at arts and crafts fairs.

World War I Push

World War I actually was the big push for the need for welding. The cost
and efficiency of welding far outweighed those of the riveting process. Riveting
required removing some material, and it was a two-person operation. Rosie the
Riveter became Rosie the Welder.

Ships were being built in the U.S. and Europe using arc welding. This activity
called for definition and standardization of welding language and usage.

In 1919 the American Welding Society was formed by the Wartime Welding
Committee. A gentleman named Comfort Avery Adams led the effort and helped
set the society's goals based on the criteria that it be "dedicated to the
advancement of welding and allied processes." This mission statement remains
broadly the same on the society's membership certificate.

Figure 2

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Metalwork

Metalwork, useful and decorative objects fashioned of various metals,

including copper, iron, silver, bronze, lead, gold, and brass. The earliest man-made
objects were of stone, wood, bone, and earth. It was only later that humans
learned to extract metals from the earth and to hammer them into objects.
Metalwork includes vessels, utensils, ceremonial and ritualistic objects, decorative
objects, architectural ornamentation, personal ornament, sculpture, and weapons.

General Processes and Techniques

Many of the technical processes in use today are essentially the same as
those employed in ancient times. The early metalworker was familiar, for example,
with hammering, embossing, chasing, inlaying, gilding, wiredrawing, and the
application of niello, enamel, and gems.

Hammering and Casting

All decorative metalwork was originally executed with the hammer. The
several parts of each article were hammered out separately and then were put
together by means of rivets, or they were pinned on a solid core (for soldering had
not yet been invented). In addition, plates of hammered copper could be shaped
into statues, the separate pieces being joined together with copper rivets. A life-
size Egyptian statue of the pharaoh Pepi I in the Egyptian museum, Cairo, is an
outstanding example of such work.

Embossing, or Repoussé

Embossing (or repoussé) is the art of raising ornament in relief from the
reverse side. The design is first drawn on the surface of the metal and the motifs
outlined with a tracer, which transfers the essential parts of the drawing to the
back of the plate. The plate is then embedded face down in an asphalt block and
the portions to be raised are hammered down into the yielding asphalt. Next the
plate is removed and re-embedded with the face uppermost. The hammering is
continued, this time forcing the background of the design into the asphalt. By a
series of these processes of hammering and re-embedding, followed finally by
chasing, the metal attains its finished appearance. There are three essential types
of tools—for tracing, for bossing, and for chasing—as well as a specialized tool, a
snarling iron or spring bar, which is used to reach otherwise inaccessible areas.

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Ornament in relief is also produced by mechanical means. A thin, pliable sheet of

metal may be pressed into molds, between dies, or over stamps. All of these
methods have been known from antiquity.

Chasing

Chasing is accomplished with hammer and punches on the face of the

metal. These punches are so shaped that they are capable of producing any
effect—either in intaglio (incising beneath the surface of the metal) or in relief—
that the metalworker may require. The design is traced on the surface, and the
relief may be obtained by beating down the adjacent areas to form the
background. Such chased relief work sometimes simulates embossed work, but in
the latter process the design is bossed up from the back. The detailed finish of
embossed work is accomplished by chasing; the term is applied also to the
touching up and finishing of cast work with hand-held punches.

Engraving

To engrave is to cut or incise a line. Engraving is always done with a cutting

tool, generally by pressure from the hand. It detaches material in cutting. When
pressure is applied with a hammer, the process is called carving.

Inlaying

The system of ornamentation known as damascening is Oriental in origin

and was much practiced by the early goldsmiths of Damascus; hence the name.
It is the art of encrusting gold wire (sometimes silver or copper) on the surface of
iron, steel, or bronze. The surface upon which the pattern is to be traced is finely
undercut with a sharp instrument. The gold thread is forced into the minute
furrows of the cut surface by hammering and is securely held.

Niello is the process of inlaying engraved ornamental designs with niello, a

silver sulfide or mixture of sulfides. The first authors to write on the preparation
of niello and its application to silver were Eraclius and Theophilus, in or about the
12th century, and Benvenuto Cellini, during the 16th. According to each of these
authors, niello is made by fusing together silver, copper, and lead and then mixing
the molten alloy with sulfur. The black product (a mixture of the sulfides of silver,
copper, and lead) is powdered; and after the engraved metal, usually silver, has

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been moistened with a flux (a substance used to promote fusion), some of the
powder is spread on it and the metal strongly heated; the niello melts and runs
into the engraved channels. The excess niello is removed by scraping until the
filled channels are visible, and finally the surface is polished.

Enameling

There are two methods of applying enamel to metal: champlevé, in which

hollows made in the metal are filled with enamel; and cloisonné, in which strips of
metal are applied to the metal surface, forming cells, which are then filled with
enamel.

Gilding

Gilding is the art of decorating wood, metal, plaster, glass, or other objects
with a covering or design of gold in leaf or powder form. The term also embraces
the similar application of silver, palladium, aluminum, and copper alloys.

Lesson 2 Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metal

Choice of materials for a machine element depends very much on its

properties, cost, availability and such other factors. It is therefore important to
have some idea of the common engineering materials and their properties before
learning the details of design procedure. This topic is in the domain of material
science or metallurgy but some relevant discussions are necessary at this stage.

BASIC METAL TYPES

Metals can initially be divided into two general classifications, and Steelworkers
work with both: ferrous and nonferrous metals.
Ferrous metals are those composed primarily of iron (atomic symbol Fe) and iron
alloys.
Nonferrous metals are those composed primarily of some element or elements
other than iron, although nonferrous metals or alloys sometimes contain a small
amount of iron as an alloying element or as an impurity.

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Ferrous Metals
Ferrous metals include all forms of iron and iron-base alloys, with small
percentages of carbon (steel, for example), and/or other elements added to
achieve desirable properties. Wrought iron, cast iron, carbon steels, alloy steels,
and tool steels are just a few examples. Ferrous metals are typically magnetic.
Iron
Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically
extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey,
bright yellow, deep purple, to rusty red. Iron ore is the raw material used to make
pig iron, which is one of the main raw materials used to make steel. Ninety-eight
percent of the mined iron ore is used to make steel.
Iron is produced by converting iron ore to pig iron using a blast furnace. Pig iron
is the intermediate product of smelting iron ore with coke, usually with limestone
as a flux. Pig iron has very high carbon content, typically 3.5–4.5%, which makes
it very brittle and not useful directly as a material except for limited applications.
From pig iron, many other types of iron and steel are produced by the addition or
deletion of carbon and alloys. The following briefly presents different types of iron
and steel made from iron. Steelworker Advanced will present additional
information about their properties.

Pig Iron — comparatively weak and brittle with limited use. Approximately ninety
percent is used to produce steel, although cast-iron pipe and some fittings and
valves are manufactured from pig iron.
Wrought Iron — made from pig iron with some slag mixed in during
manufacture, it is almost pure iron. Wrought iron usage diminished with the
increasing availability of mild steel in the late 19th century. Some items
traditionally produced from wrought iron included rivets, nails, chains, railway
couplings, water and steam pipes, nuts, bolts, handrails, and ornamental
ironworks. Many products still described as wrought iron, such as guardrails and
gates, are made of mild steel.
Cast Iron — any iron containing greater than 2% carbon alloy. It tends to be
brittle, except for malleable cast irons. Cast irons have a wide range of
applications, including pipes, machine and automotive industry parts such as
cylinder heads, cylinder blocks, and gearbox cases. A malleable cast iron is
produced through a prolonged annealing process.
Ingot Iron — a commercially pure iron (99.85% iron). It is easily formed, with
properties practically the same as the lowest carbon steel. In iron, the carbon
content is considered an impurity; in steel, the carbon content is considered an

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alloying element. The primary use for ingot iron is for galvanized and enameled
sheet.

Steel

Of all the different metals and materials that Steelworkers use, steel and
steel alloys are by far the most used and therefore the most important to study.
The development of the economical Bessemer process for manufacturing steel
revolutionized the American iron industry. Figure 1-1 shows the container vessel
used for the process.

With economical steel came skyscrapers, stronger and longer bridges, and
railroad tracks that did not collapse.
Steel is manufactured from pig iron by decreasing the amount of carbon and other
impurities and adding specific and controlled amounts of alloying elements during
the molten stage to produce the desired composition.

Figure 1-1 — Example of a Bessemer Converter.

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The composition of a particular steel is determined by its application and the

specifications developed by the following:

• American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
• American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

Carbon steel is a term applied to a broad range of steel that falls between the
commercially pure ingot iron and the cast irons. This range of carbon steel may be
classified into four groups:
Low-Carbon Steel — tough and ductile, easily machined, formed, and welded,
but does not respond to any form of heat-treating except case hardening.

Medium-Carbon Steel — strong and hard but cannot be welded or worked as

easily as the low-carbon steels. They are used for crane hooks, axels, shafts,
setscrews and so on.
High-Carbon Steel — responds well to heat treatment and can be welded with
special electrodes, but the process must include preheating and stress-relieving
procedures to prevent cracks in the weld areas.
Very High-Carbon Steel — similar to high-carbon, it responds well to heat
treatment and can be welded with special electrodes, but the process must include
preheating and stress-relieving procedures to prevent cracks in the weld areas.
Both steels are used for dies, cutting tools, mill tools, railroad car wheels, chisels,
knives, and so on.
High-strength steels are covered by American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) specifications.
Low-Alloy, High-Strength, Tempered Structural Steel — special low carbon
steel that contains specific, small amounts of alloying elements. Structural
members made from these high-strength steels may have smaller cross-sectional
areas than common structural steels and still have equal or greater strength. This
type of steel is much tougher than low-carbon steels, so the shearing machines
must have twice the capacity required for low-carbon steels.
Stainless steels are classified by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and
classified into two general series:
Stainless Steel 200-300 series — known as Austenitic [aw-stuh-nit-ik]. This
type of steel is very tough and ductile in the as-welded condition; therefore, it is
ideal for welding and requires no annealing under normal atmospheric conditions.
The most widely used are the normally nonmagnetic chromium nickel steels.

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Stainless Steel 400 series — further subdivided according to their crystalline

structure into two general groups:
Ferritic [fer-rit-ik]. Chromium — non-hardenable by heat treatment and
normally used in the annealed or soft condition, they are magnetic and frequently
used for decorative trim and equipment subjected to high pressures and
temperatures.
Martensitic [mahr-tn-zit-ik] Chromium — readily hardened by heat
treatment, they are magnetic and used where high strength, corrosion resistance,
and ductility are required.
Alloy steels derive their properties primarily from the presence of some alloying
element other than carbon, but alloy steels always contain traces of other elements
as well. One or more of these elements may be added to the steel during the
manufacturing process to produce the desired characteristics.
Alloy steels may be produced in structural sections, sheets, plates, and bars for
use in the “as-rolled” condition, and these steels can obtain better physical
properties than are possible with hot-rolled carbon steels.
These alloys are used in structures where the strength of material is especially
important, for example in bridge members, railroad cars, dump bodies, dozer
blades, and crane booms. The following list describes some of the common alloy
steels:
Nickel Steels — used in the manufacture of aircraft parts such as propellers and
airframe support members.
Chromium Steels — used for the races and balls in antifriction bearings; highly
resistant to corrosion and to scale.
Chrome Vanadium Steel — used for crankshafts, gears, axles, and other items
that require high strength; also used in the manufacture of high-quality hand tools
such as wrenches and sockets.
Tungsten Steel — expensive to produce, its use is largely restricted to the
manufacture of drills, lathe tools, milling cutters, and similar cutting tools.
Molybdenum — used in place of tungsten to make the cheaper grades of
highspeed steel and in carbon molybdenum high-pressure tubing.
Manganese Steels — use depends upon the properties desired:
Small amounts produce strong, free-machining steels. o Larger amounts produce
a somewhat brittle steel. o Still larger amounts produce a steel that is tough and
very resistant to wear after proper heat treatment.

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Nonferrous Metals

Nonferrous metals contain either no iron or only insignificant amounts used

as an alloy, and are nonmagnetic. The following list will introduce you to some of
the common nonferrous metals that SWs may encounter and/or work with.
Additional information about their properties and usage is available in Steelworker
Advanced.
Copper — one of the most popular commercial metals; used with many alloys;
frequently used to give a protective coating to sheets and rods and to make ball
floats, containers, and soldering coppers.
True Brass — an alloy of copper and zinc, sometimes with additional alloys for
specific properties; sheets and strips are available in several grades.
Bronze — a combination of 84% copper and 16% tin, and the best metal available
before steel-making techniques were developed; the name bronze is currently
applied to any copper-based alloy that looks like bronze.
Copper-Nickel Alloys — nickel adds resistance to wear and corrosion; some
alloys used for saltwater piping systems; other sheet forms used to construct small
storage tanks and hot-water reservoirs.
Lead — a heavy metal, but soft and malleable; surface is grayish in color, but
after scratching or scraping it, the actual color of the metal appears white.

*CAUTION
When working with lead, take proper precautions!
Lead dust, fumes, or vapors are highly poisonous!
Zinc — used on iron or steel in the form of a protective coating called galvanizing.
Tin — used as an important alloy adding resistance to corrosion.
Aluminum — easy to work with; good appearance; light in weight; needs alloys
added to increase strength.
Duralumin — one of the first strong structural aluminum alloys; now classified in
the metal working industries as 2017-T; “T” indicates heat-treated.
Alclad — a protective covering of a thin sheet of pure aluminum rolled onto the
surface of an aluminum alloy during manufacture.
Monel — an alloy in which nickel is the major element; harder and stronger than
either nickel or copper; acceptable substitute for steel in systems where corrosion
resistance is the primary concern
K-Monel — developed for greater strength and hardness than Monel; comparable
to heat-treated steel; used for instrument parts that must resist corrosion.
Inconel — provides good resistance to corrosion and retains its strength at high-
operating temperatures; often used in the exhaust systems of aircraft engines.

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Non-metals

Non-metallic materials are also used in engineering practice due to

principally their low cost, flexibility and resistance to heat and electricity.
Though there are many suitable non-metals, the following are important few
from design point of view:
Timber- This is a relatively low cost material and a bad conductor of heat and
electricity. It has also good elastic and frictional properties and is widely used
in foundry patterns and as water lubricated bearings.
Leather- This is widely used in engineering for its flexibility and wear resistance.
It is widely used for belt drives, washers and such other applications.
Rubber- It has high bulk modulus and is used for drive elements, sealing,
vibration isolation and similar applications.

Plastics
These are synthetic materials which can be moulded into desired shapes
under pressure with or without application of heat. These are now extensively
used in various industrial applications for their corrosion resistance, dimensional
stability and relatively low cost.
There are two main types of plastics:
a) Thermosetting plastics- Thermosetting plastics are formed under heat
and pressure. It initially softens and with increasing heat and pressure,
polymerisation takes place. This results in hardening of the material.
These plastics cannot be deformed or remoulded again under heat and
pressure. Some examples of thermosetting plastics are phenol
formaldehyde (Bakelite), phenol-furfural (Durite), epoxy resins, phenolic
resins etc.
b) Thermoplastics- Thermoplastics do not become hard with the
application of heat and pressure and no chemical change takes place.
They remain soft at elevated temperatures until they are hardened by
cooling. These can be re-melted and remoulded by application of heat
and pressure. Some examples of thermoplastics are cellulose nitrate
(celluloid), polythene, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride ( PVC) etc.

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Mechanical properties of common engineering materials

The important properties from design point of view are:
Elasticity- This is the property of a material to regain its original shape
after deformation when the external forces are removed. All materials
are plastic to some extent but the degree varies, for example, both mild
steel and rubber are elastic materials but steel is more elastic than
rubber.
Plasticity- This is associated with the permanent deformation of
material when the stress level exceeds the yield point. Under plastic
conditions materials ideally deform without any increase in stress.
Hardness- Property of the material that enables it to resist permanent
deformation, penetration, indentation etc. Size of indentations by
various types of indenters are the measure of hardness e.g. Brinnel
hardness test, Rockwell hardness test, Vickers hardness (diamond
pyramid) test. These tests give hardness numbers which are related to
yield pressure (MPa).
Ductility- This is the property of the material that enables it to be
drawn out or elongated to an appreciable extent before rupture occurs.
The percentage elongation or percentage reduction in area before
rupture of a test specimen is the measure of ductility. Normally if
percentage elongation exceeds 15% the material is ductile and if it is
less than 5% the material is brittle. Lead, copper, aluminium, mild steel
are typical ductile materials.
Malleability- It is a special case of ductility where it can be rolled into
thin sheets but it is not necessary to be so strong. Lead, soft steel,
wrought iron, copper and aluminium are some materials in order of
diminishing malleability.
Brittleness- This is opposite to ductility. Brittle materials show little
deformation before fracture and failure occur suddenly without any
warning. Normally if the elongation is less than 5% the material is
considered to be brittle. E.g. cast iron, glass, ceramics are typical brittle
materials.
Resilience- This is the property of the material that enables it to resist
shock and impact by storing energy. The measure of resilience is the strain energy
absorbed per unit volume.
Toughness- This is the property which enables a material to be
twisted, bent or stretched under impact load or high stress before
rupture. It may be considered to be the ability of the material to absorb

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energy in the plastic zone. The measure of toughness is the amount of

energy absorbed after being stressed upto the point of fracture.
Creep- When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long
period of time it undergoes a slow permanent deformation and this is
termed as “creep”. This is dependent on temperature. Usually at
elevated temperatures creep is high.

Assessment

Review Questions (Select the Correct Response)

Read the following statements carefully and try to answer the given
questions. Encircle the letter of your answer.

1. What term is used to describe the equivalent of the Steelworker rating in

civilian construction?

A. Steel erector
B. Iron placer
C. Steel fabricator
D. Ironworker

2. A material must be primarily composed of _____ to be considered a

ferrous metal.

A. steel
B. iron
C. nickel
D. copper

3. Ferrous metals are typically _____.

A. magnetic
B. nonmagnetic
C. copper colored
D. alloy-free

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4. Which type of iron is one of the main raw materials used to make steel?

A. Ingot
B. Cast
C. Pig
D. Wrought

5. What characteristic of pig iron limits its use?

A. It is comparatively weak and brittle.

B. It is difficult to remelt.
C. It cannot be combined with other metals.
D. It is used exclusively for manufacturing cast-iron pipe.

6. What material do Steelworkers use the most?

A. Steel
B. Cast iron
C. Copper
D. Wrought iron
7. Cast iron is any iron containing greater than _____ alloy.

A. .5%
B. 1%
C. 1.5%
D. 2%

8. What process is used to produce malleability in cast iron?

A. Remelting
B. Annealing
C. Plating
D. Alloying

9. What group of steel is best suited for the manufacture of crane hooks and
axles?

A. High carbon
B. Medium carbon
C. Mild carbon
D. Low carbon

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10. What group’s specifications cover high-strength steels?

A. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) B.

B. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
C. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
D. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

11. What group’s specifications cover stainless steels?

A. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

B. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
C. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
D. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

12. What stainless steel is normally nonmagnetic?

A. Martensitic-chromium of the 300 series

B. Austenitic chromium-nickel of the 300 series
C. Ferritic-austenite of the 400 series
D. Ferritic-chromium of the 400 series

13. What common alloy steel is used to make high-quality hand tools?

A. Nickel steel
B. Chromium steel
C. Chrome Vanadium steel
D. Tungsten steel
14. Which of the following metals is nonferrous?

A. Cast iron
B. Carbon steel
C. Aluminum
D. Pig iron

15. What combination of elements in proper proportion make bronze?

A. Copper-Zinc
B. Copper-Lead
C. Copper-Aluminum
D. Copper-Tin

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16. What action does the letter “T” signify when used in conjunction with a
numbering system that classifies different aluminum alloys?

A. The metal has been heat-treated.

B. The alloying elements have been tempered.
C. The major alloying element has been tested.
D. The metal has been covered with a tungsten-rolled cover.

17. What manufacturing marks can you look for when a metal’s color does not
provide positive identification?

A. Evidence of a sand mold

B. Forging marks
C. Rolling marks
D. All of the above

18. When applying the spark test to a metal, you notice the spark stream has
white shafts and forks only. What does this condition indicate about the
metal under test?

A. It is a high-carbon steel.
B. It is a low-carbon steel.
C. It is a nickel alloy.
D. It is a molybdenum alloy.

19. What metal produces a spark stream about 25 inches long with small and
repeating sparklers of small volume that are initially red in color?

A. Nickel
B. Stainless steel
C. Grey cast iron
D. Monel metal
20. Which of the following metals produces the shortest length spark stream?

A. High-carbon steel
B. Low-carbon steel
C. White cast iron
D. Nickel

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References

NEVEDTRA 14250 A, Introduction to Types and Identification of Metal

http://navybmr.com/study%20material/14250a/14250A_ch1.pdf

Smith, C.R. (2004) Milestones in welding process and equipment development

https://www/thefabticator.com/thewelder/article/arcwelding/metal-
working-throughout-history

Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur,

https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/course/112105125/pdf/Module-
1_Lesson2.pdf

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