Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sensors and Actuators A: Physical

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sna

Flexible temperature sensors: A review

Burcu Arman Kuzubasoglu a,∗ , Senem Kursun Bahadir b,∗
a
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Textile Technologies and Design, Department of Textile Engineering, Beyoglu, 34437, Istanbul, Turkey
b
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Beyoglu, 34437, Istanbul, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The research and development of wearable sensors have gained a growing interest due to the advan-
Received 2 May 2020 tage of being flexible, thin, and light, which makes them highly desirable for robotic and healthcare
Received in revised form 30 July 2020 applications. One of the essential devices in wearable technology is flexible temperature sensors for
Accepted 12 August 2020
body temperature detection. Recent advances in flexible temperature sensors based on nanomateri-
Available online 18 August 2020
als and conductive polymers are evaluated in this review. The temperature-responsive mechanisms,
temperature-sensitive materials, and production methods of temperature sensors and recent outcomes
Keywords:
of related papers are explained and classified in a detailed perspective. The flexible temperature sensors
Temperature sensor
Conductive materials
based on nanomaterial-filled polymer composites, printed/coated conductors, and textiles are explained
Nano-inks in terms of structures and performances by giving examples from recent literature studies. The reliability
Wearable sensors and challenges of flexible temperature sensors are outlined from the point of view of structural design
and implementation.
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Types and working principles of temperature sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. Resistance temperature sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2. Thermocouple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3. Thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. Temperature-sensitive conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.1. Carbon-based materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
3.1.2. Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.3. Conductive polymer-based materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2. Temperature-sensitive inks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2.1. Metal-based inks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2.2. Carbon-based inks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2.3. Conductive polymer-based inks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3. The role of surfactants in nano-inks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4. Flexible substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Sensor fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.1. Printing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2. Coating and deposition techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3. Textile-based techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5. Related works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6. Reliability of flexible temperature sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: armanb@itu.edu.tr (B. Arman Kuzubasoglu),
kursuns@itu.edu.tr (S. Kursun Bahadir).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2020.112282
0924-4247/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282

7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Declaration of Competing Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1. Introduction all, we list the type and mechanisms of temperature sensors.

In the second section, carbon-based, metal-based, and conduc-
Flexible and stretchable devices gain tremendous interest and tive polymer conductors are subsequently summarized. Herewith,
have a wide variety of applications due to their compressibility, temperature-sensitive conductors on flexible substrates are pre-
bendability, and compatibility to irregular and curvilinear surfaces sented by providing data on conductive inks and flexible substrates.
[1]. Increase in total number of publications in this field also demon- In the third section, the fabrication methods, including printing,
strates the growing popularity of flexible sensors. Fig. 2 gives a coating, deposition, and textile-based techniques, are introduced.
clear idea of the number of articles published since 2010 on flex- In the fourth section, we also describe the latest examples of flexi-
ible sensors. In comparison with conventional rigid sensors, they ble temperature sensors and their performances. The final section
offer mechanical robustness, biocompatibility, multifunctionality includes details on the flexible temperature sensor’s reliability and
along with comfort. Interest in flexible, stretchable, and soft devices challenges.
enables next-generation wearable technologies. The required prop-
erties of flexible sensors vary according to the application areas. 2. Types and working principles of temperature sensors
Flexible temperature sensors must accurately and rapidly detect
target signals for applications such as food logistics in a cold chain Many physical stimuli, such as resistance, volumetric expan-
system [2,3], robotics in a teleoperated system [4], monitoring sion, vapor pressure, and spectral properties, are temperature-
physiological parameters of firefighters [5,6], and healthcare for dependent. For this reason, the physical stimuli associated with
body temperature measurements [7,8]. Fig. 1 presents schematic temperature is used in the development of temperature measure-
view of flexible temperature sensors highlighted in this review. ment systems. The measurement result, i.e. temperature value,
Temperature sensing is an essential feature of human skin to is derived from a measurement model based on a measurement
help diagnose diseases, avoid accidents, and provide information principle, that is, from a mathematical relationship between the
about the surrounding environment [9,10]. The alteration in the data contained in a measurement [20,21]. Resistance temperature
body’s normal temperature range has been defined as a symp- detectors (RTDs), thermocouples, and thermistors are the most
tom of illness for decades. Normal body temperature does not common type of temperature sensors.
mean that a person is entirely healthy, but a person could be in
an unhealthy state when the normal temperature range is either
2.1. Resistance temperature sensor
surpassed or lowered. The stable human body temperature usually
ranges between 37 ◦ C and 37.5 ◦ C [11,12]. The temperature sen-
The RTDs use the temperature dependence of the material on
sors must be sensitive to the real-time human skin temperature
electrical resistance to determine the temperature. The increase in
and temperature changes (± 0.1 ◦ C from 37 ◦ C to 39 ◦ C and ± 0.2
◦ C both below 37 ◦ C and above 39 ◦ C) [13].
temperature is causing an increase in resistance due to electron
vibrations at higher temperatures which prevent the free flow of
Typically, the skin temperature can be easily measured by rigid
electrons in conductive material [22,23]. A high degree of accuracy,
temperature detectors, such as thermometers. However, the main
linearity and quick response properties of RTDs, makes them more
problem is to create pressure points against the skin by using rigid
preferable than thermocouples. Additionally, RTD’s are also avail-
sensor structures to monitor conditions in an enclosed environ-
able with a low thickness profile manufactured by the deposition
ment (such as inside the clothing or prosthetic areas). Moreover,
of a thin film of conductor on a substrate [24,25].
this approach is not ideal for children, as thermometers cannot be
The temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) defined as a
positioned easily under the arm as desired [11,12].
critical parameter to analyze the temperature sensitivity of the
For high-precision temperature measurements, direct contact
materials. For RTD applications, Eq. (1) defines thermal response
with the human body is preferred. However, traditional rigid tem-
(TCR) of the Material:
perature detectors cannot achieve conformal contact with uneven
surfaces. This problem plays a crucial role in the development 1 R (T ) − R (T0 )
˛= (1)
of flexible and wearable temperature sensors [14]. Soft, flexible, R (T0 ) T − T0
biocompatible, lightweight, durable, and non-irritating tempera-
where R(T) is the resistance at temperature T, R(T0 ) is the initial
ture sensors should be developed to satisfy wearable requirements
resistance of the tested sample at temperature, T0 [26]. The high
[13,15]. Establishing comfort is another crucial issue for prolonged
TCR value indicates high precision [13,15,25,27]. For the application
use or wear in particular. Textiles offer exceptional flexible platform
of the device to the human body, the sensing material should have
to provide sensing functions and comfort to the wearer thanks to a
a high TCR in the interval of room temperature and 42 ◦ C [28].
wide range of fibers, yarns, and textiles outside of their protective
RTDs are constructed in two forms based on the arrangement of
and aesthetic functions [16–18]. For instance, classic thermocou-
resistive wire: wire wound (Fig. 3a) and thin film (Fig. 3b) RTD ele-
ples placed in the clothing to monitor user body temperature can
ments. In wire wound RTD, the fine metal wire is wrapped outside
cause significant discomfort, even result skin irritations. The struc-
of the ceramic rod and covered with an insulating material. Thin-
ture of the thermocouples should be compatible with the textile to
film RTD is obtained by depositing a thin layer of a temperature
eliminate this drawback [19].
sensing material on a substrate [29–31].
We here present a comprehensive review of flexible temper-
The Wheatstone bridge is widely used to prevent errors due to
ature sensors in which their properties, fabrication techniques,
the self-heating of resistive wires. An example of the most straight-
and sensing performances are outlined and compared. First of
forward configuration of the measurement circuit at 1/4 of the
 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282 3

Fig. 1. Schematic view of temperature sensor types and methods to deposit sensing materials onto the substrates.

Fig. 4. Scheme of a thermocouple made of thermoelement A and B [39].

tion of RTD is also critical due to such issues e.g. cost, resistance
temperature coefficient (TCR), oxidation resistance, and manufac-
turing requirements [32]. Copper, gold, nickel, platinum, and silver
Fig. 2. A year-by-year increase in the number of publications on flexible sensors in
are the most commonly used materials [33]. For example, the good
2010–2019 (under keywords “flexible sensor” in ScienceDirect database).
thermal and non-oxidation properties of platinum, despite its low
TCR level and cost, make it preferable [34]. Nickel is used due to
its high TCR value, low cost, and high endurance [35]. Furthermore,
bridge is shown in Fig. 3c. This bridge consists of a voltage source
conductive polymers and carbon-based materials are also widely
and two parallel resistive voltage divider circuits with two resis-
used for temperature sensing applications [27,36,37].
tors. To have better measurement results, three-wire or four-wire
connections can also be used [29,30].
Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) take the advantage of 2.2. Thermocouple
changes in temperature with respect to electrical resistance of con-
ductors and semiconductors. For RTD, like all other sensor types, A thermocouple is a type of temperature sensor that consists of
designing the most suitable device for a particular application is not two different thermoelements (conductors, semiconductors, or a
an easy process. Several aspects should be considered in order to combination of both) (Fig. 4) that allow the generation of a poten-
provide the desired sensor performance: material, size, precision, tial difference or voltage based on the thermoelectric phenomenon
configuration, endurance, and temperature coefficients. The selec- which is known as Seebeck. According to Seebeck, if heat energy

Fig. 3. (a) Wire wound, and (b) Planar film RTDs. (c) The Wheatstone bridge with one RTD element [29].
4 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282

sensors presents high sensitivity, fast response, and recovery [53].

Graphene-based polymer nanocomposites are also widely used as
flexible electronics and sensing devices. Graphene is a semi-metal
with a zero bandgap and exhibits unique electrical properties. In
the literature, it is shown that graphene resistance increases and
decreases due to the tendency of temperature changes: the semi-
conductor behavior and metallic behavior effect of graphene cause
temperature-dependent electrical property. The decrease in resis-
tance at higher temperatures is due to semiconductive behavior
Fig. 5. (a) Thermistor constructions [50] and (b) a thermistor circuit [51]. which is primarily because of the emergence of thermal electron-
hole pairs and the increase in resistance at higher temperatures
is due to the metallic behavior which is related to charge carrier
is applied to the two different conductor ends, a thermal voltage
scattering [54]. Graphene oxide (GO) is being used for the sensing
(electromotive force, emf) occurs between the end points. The elec-
layer in temperature sensor production [14,55]. Reduced GO (rGO)
tromotive force causes the electrons moving from the hot end to the
is widely used due to its higher conductivity than GO [56].
cold end. This force, which is formed in the opposite direction to the
electron flow, is called S̈eebeck electromotive forceänd the event
3.1.2. Metals
is called “Seebeck Thermoelectric Effect” [38–40]. Rugged, low cost
Metals are known to be among the most conductive materials
and self- powered properties of thermocouples makes them prefer-
on earth due to their high free electron density [57]. Metal nanopar-
able for having stable reference temperature. However, due to its
ticles have entirely different physical and chemical properties than
continuous exposure to a sudden environment change, their use as
bulk materials because of their small size [58]. Typically, silver,
a wearable sensor is limited [24].
nickel, or copper particles in a polymer matrix are used to create
The potential difference (V) is calculated as:
versatile temperature sensing [59]. The bulk resistivity of silver is
V = ˛ × T (2) 1.59 × 10−8 m, copper, 1.72 × 10−8 m, and gold, 2.44 × 10−8
m. However, in terms of price, one ounce of gold is about $ 1300,
where ␣ denotes the difference in the Seebeck coefficient of ther-
silver is $ 27, and copper is 30 cents [60]. Silver nanomaterials are
moelement A and B, and T is the difference between temperatures
the most widely studied metal nanostructures due to the highest
of hot and cold junctions. Seebeck coefficient usually measured in
electrically conductive structure of silver material [59].
␮V/K [41].

3.1.3. Conductive polymer-based materials

2.3. Thermistor
The conductive polymers have great scientific and technologi-
cal importance due to their unique electronic, electrical, magnetic,
Thermistors are ideal for detecting small temperature changes
and optical properties [61]. Conductive polymers such as poly(3,4-
and manufactured from materials that have a significant change
ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:P SS) or
in electrical resistance with temperature [42,43]. Thermistors as
polyaniline (PANI) are supposed to have special properties when
thermally sensitive resistors can have a negative temperature coef-
incorporated with electronics or used as sensors into clothing. They
ficient (NTC) or positive temperature coefficient (PTC) [44,45]. The
are flexible, wearable, and potentially washable, and have more
semiconductor-based thermistors exhibit NTC behavior which dif-
fatigue resistant than metal equivalents [62]. The characteristic fea-
ferentiates them from thermocouples based on the Seebeck effect
ture of conductive polymers is possessing a conjugated pi-electron
[46].
system along the polymer backbone that gives them conduct-
InR (T0 )⁄R (T ) ing properties [63]. Importantly, conductive polymers exhibit high
ˇ= (3)
1
− 1 electrical conductivity as close to metals beside their flexibility and
T0 T
wearable potential [64]. PEDOT: PSS has many interesting prop-
The thermal index (temperature constant, ␤) is a criterion that erties. It is highly conductive, transparent, and environmentally
indicates the resistance-based temperature sensor’s measurement safe [65]. Conductive polymer-based temperature sensors have also
capability [47]. This parameter is also dependent on temperature been investigated due to the easy synthesis process. The conduc-
and output tolerances. Thermal index values for NTC thermistors tivity is obtained by doping and chemical treatments [66].
typically vary from 2000k to 5000k [48]. e.g., when ␤ = 4500 K, the
sensitivity at room temperature (T =300 K) is 5 %/K while the sen- 3.2. Temperature-sensitive inks
sitivity at 350 K decreases to 4 %/K [48]. The high ␤ value indicates
high-temperature stability [49]. 3.2.1. Metal-based inks
The most common types thermistors are constructed in rod, The use of conductive nanomaterials rather than conventional
disc, and bead form (Fig. 5a). They are encapsulated in glass or plas- metal coatings would have a significant impact on the cost, volume,
tics. The bead thermistor is the smallest in size with a diameter of weight, and mechanical properties. Easy, inexpensive, solution-
0.15 mm–1.25 mm [52]. Fig. 5b exhibits a typical circuit used to based deposition techniques such as spin coating, spray coating,
measure the temperature with the thermistor. The accuracy of this and ink-jet printing could effectively convert these materials into
circuit depends on thermistor tolerance, resistance tolerance and thin films. Conductive metal nanomaterials play a crucial role in
reference accuracy [51]. the manufacturing process of stretchable conductors because of
their flexibility and stretchability feature compared to conventional
3. Materials conductive materials [67].
Depending on the application, different types of inks, such as
3.1. Temperature-sensitive conductors nanoparticle (NP)-based, organometallic, and conductive polymer
inks, can be used in the printing of wearable electronics. During
3.1.1. Carbon-based materials selection of an ink, the most critical step is to determine its fluidic
One of the most promising applications in electronics is the properties particularly surface tension, viscosity, and density play
use of carbon-based nanomaterials in sensor devices. CNT based a crucial role on deposition of the ink on the substrate [63].
 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282 5

Typically, the properties of ink should coincide with the perfor- 3.2.3. Conductive polymer-based inks
mance of a specific printer. A typical ink with a viscosity of up to The characteristic feature of conductive polymers is possess-
2 mPa.s is configured for printers to process with low viscosities. ing a conjugated pi-electron system along the polymer backbone
When polymeric additives are utilized to strengthen dye bonding that gives them conducting properties. These polymers have been
to paper, other additives serve to decrease the chain expansion widely used in sensing applications as their electrical or electro-
and viscosity. To prevent drying and clogging, humectants, water- chemical properties can be sensitized to specific environmental
miscible low-volatility liquids such as ethylene glycol, are added at or chemical factors by using an appropriate conducting poly-
10–20 % concentration. If surface tension reduces excessively due mer backbone or molecular dopant. The inkjet printing method is
to the use of surfactants, ink wets the faceplate around the nozzles further complicated as conductive polymeric inks can exhibit non-
and prevents a stable droplet stream [68]. Newtonian behavior. Poly-(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT),
Typically, in the case of metal-containing inks, their preparation, polypyrrole and polyaniline are common conductive polymers that
storage, and printing are easy to perform with low-cost property have been widely used as polymeric conductive ink for the inkjet
and yield a high degree of conductivity after deposition and post- printing process. Their electrical conductivity is typically lower
treatment. The choice of nickel ink is challenging due to its excellent than metallic inks [63].
conductivity and lower price than silver [60]. The copper [69] and PEDOT itself is very poor in processability since it is highly
nickel NP [70] inks, however, tend to oxidize that shorten the ink’s water-insoluble. This can be solved by polymerizing PEDOT in a
lifetime. The NP-printed structure involves post-treatment known water-soluble electrolyte PSS [99]. Commercially available PEDOT:
as sintering due to the presence of water in the inks. PSS cannot be used directly as a conductive ink because of the low
In general terms, NPs have the benefits of being manufactured viscosity, solubility, and poor wettability, which would cause the
in large quantities, being dispersed in high concentrations, and are clogging of the print head and inconsistence of the ink droplet. The
capable of producing comparatively good electrical conductivity. solution’s viscosity and surface tension are needed to be adjusted
NP inks, however, are particularly prone to the clustering of sus- by additives. PEDOT: PSS with additives prevents the formation of
pended particles, increasing viscosity, and surface tension, and may a coffee-stain effect and helps the improvement of electrical con-
potentially lead to the clogging of the nozzles of the print head [71]. ductivity [100]. The properties of some conductive polymer-based
There are organometallic inks consist of silver [72], platinum inks are given in Table 3.
[73], gold [74], copper [75], nickel [70] and graphene [76]. In
the form of a solution is the key advantage of organometallic 3.3. The role of surfactants in nano-inks
inks. Therefore, the risk of agglomeration and thus clogging of
the nozzles is eliminated. Furthermore, higher conductivity can be The surfactants commonly used to prepare nanofluid disper-
obtained with a reduced sintering temperature in comparison to sions are sodium dodecylbenzene sulphonate (SDBS) [106], sodium
NP equivalents [77]. Silver-based inks [63,78,79], are the most pre- dodecyl sulfate (SDS) [107], gum Arabic [108], hexadecyltrimethy-
ferred type of organometallic inks with resistivities of 2–3 ␮ cm lammonium bromide (CTAB) [109], and octyl phenol ethoxylate
[80,81]. The properties of some Ag-based inks are given in Table 1. (Triton-X100) [110,34]. The quality of common surfactants (Fig. 6a)
applied in CNT dispersions can be aligned as Gum arabic > SDBS >
Triton-X100 > SDS [111]. Due to the benzene function of SDBS and
3.2.2. Carbon-based inks Triton X-100, the powerful ␲-␲ interaction with CNT surface can be
The main problem in the development of carbon nanotube obtained. SDBS has a higher dispersibility than Triton X-100 due to
ink for the printing process is the dispersion of carbon nano- the low concentration of Triton on the CNT surface. The low concen-
tubes in a solution. Carbon nanotubes tend to agglomerate due tration of Triton is a result of the steric hindrance of its tip chains.
to the hydrophobic structure of carbon nanotubes and strong van SDS molecule on the surface of CNTs creates negative charges to
der Waals forces between them because of the high aspect ratio, provide stable dispersions by preventing agglomerations [110]. As
large surface areas of CNTs causing clog of the cartridge nozzle it is seen from Fig. 6b, various organizations of SDS molecules on
[87]. The difficulty of dispersion of CNTs is because of the high the surface of the CNTs can be observed. Additionally, gum arabic
affinity for each other. Carbon nanotube functionalization, use of has been used in numerous researches due to promising properties
organic solvents (such as dimethylformamide (DMF) or N-methyl- [112,113].
2-pyrrolidone), or use of dispersants for water-based ink can be The surfactant concentration is a significant factor to form sta-
implemented to obtain stable carbon nanotube dispersions for ble dispersions. The high concentration of the surfactant is likely
inkjet printing. Apart from a stable dispersion, the two critical to hinder charge transport through the CNT network, resulting in
parameters, which are low viscosity and surface tension should be poor electrical conductivity. The optimum surfactant concentra-
maintained in the carbon nanotube ink solution. Since the organic tion can be determined by the help of critical micelle concentration
solvent and water have low viscosities, an adequate viscosity con- (CMC) value. A concentration of 0.5 CMC is adequate to achieve the
dition might be adjusted in the preparation of the carbon nanotube best dispersibility results. Any further increase in the surfactant
ink. On the other hand, water-based inks can exhibit high surface concentration has a minimal effect on dispersibility [114].
tension that can lead to inconsistent printing. This problem can be In general, the sonication method is used to disperse nanoma-
easily solved by the use of a surfactant [88,89]. terials in an aqueous medium. The mechanical energy provided
Pristine graphene is difficult to disperse in aqueous solutions for throughout the sonication process overcomes the van der Waals
ink applications due to its hydrophobic structure [90]. Modification interactions in the CNT bundles and leads to the generation of
of graphene by adding functional groups to the surface is required CNT ëxfoliation,ẅhereas adsorption of the surfactant molecules
to enhance its dispersibility and electrical conductivity [91]. It is occurs onto the surface of the CNTs walls [116]. The stability of the
essential to obtain stable graphene-based ink without any aggre- CNT dispersions with adsorbed surfactant molecules on their sur-
gation and precipitation to provide reproducible performance. The face originates from electrostatic and/or steric repulsion (Fig. 6c)
use of stabilizers in the ultrasonication process or chemical reduc- [112,117,118].
tion process of GO is needed to prepare inks. The viscosity and Short CNTs are dispersed by tip-sonication using SDS at a
surface tension properties of the resulted ink should also possess weight ratio of 1:2 CNTs: SDS, whereas a weight ratio of 1:7.5
proper fluidic properties for the printing process [90]. The proper- CNTs: surfactant is required for exfoliation of long CNTs. The
ties of some carbon-based inks are given in Table 2. longer MWCNTs present much better surface quality compared
6 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282

Table 1
Physical and chemical properties of some Ag-based inks and conductivity values.

Particle Particle size (nm) Solvent Process Viscosity (mPa s) Resistance/(or resistivity) Ref.

Ag 18−80 ethylene glycol inkjet printing 10.5 0.29 ± 0.04 /sq [82]
Ag 20−40 water ink pen 1−3 9.43 × 10−8  cm [83]
Ag 10−50 water-DEG inkjet printing 2−6 1.6 × 10−5  cm [84]
Ag 8−15 ethanol inkjet printing – 6.2 × 10−6  cm [85]
Ag 15 water inkjet printing – 16 × 10−6  cm [86]

Table 2
Physical and chemical properties of some carbon-based inks and conductivity values.

Material Nanotube diameter (nm)/ length (␮m) Solvent Process Viscosity Resistance/(or resistivity) Ref.

SWCNT – water Road coating 3 mPa.s <600 /sq SWeNT

SWCNT – water Inkjet printing – 12  cm [92]
SWCNT – water Inkjet printing – 132 /sq [88]
SWCNT – water Ink pen – 20 k/cm [93]
MWNT-(CO2H)n 10−70/ 1−2 water Inkjet printing – 40 k/sq [94]
MWCNT 60/ 3−8 ethanol Screen printing 2.09 Pa.s 0.5–13 /sq [95]
Graphene sheets 30−100 nm EC/cyclohexanone Inkjet printing 10 mPa.s 0.81 ± 0.2 /sq [96]
Graphite flakes 200 nm NMP Inkjet printing 3.14 mPa.s 22–173 k/sq [97]
Graphite flakes – ethanol/terpineol gravure printing 0.2–3 Pa.s 51.9 ± 4.4 k/mm [98]

Table 3
Physical and chemical properties of some conductive polymer-based inks and conductivity values.

Material Solvent Process Viscosity Resistance-resistivity/(or conductivity) Ref.

PEDOT: PSS – Spray coating 8−25 mPa.s 10.8 ± 1.2 k/sq [101]
Graphene/PEDOT:PSS DMSO/EG Inkjet printing – – [102]
PEDOT: PSS/SWCNT-COOH Water/Ethanol Inkjet printing – 10 k/sq [103]
Graphene/PEDOT:PSS Ethanol/diethylene glycol Inkjet printing 7.2 mPa.s ∼9 k [101,104]
Graphene/PEDOT:PSS Ethanol/diethylene glycol Spray coating 7.2 mPa.s 61 ± 12 /sq [101]
Graphene platelets/PANI ethanol Screen printing 125 mPa s 8.4 S/cm [105]

Fig. 6. (a) The adsorption of the surfactants on CNT surface [111] (b) Potential configurations of the SDS surfactant molecules on the surface of the CNT walls [115] (c) Surface
modification of CNTs [110].

to the shorter ones. The composites containing longer MWCNTs high potential value indicates high electrostatic repulsion between
are demonstrated to have a lower percolation threshold and ulti- particles. The zeta potential higher than 35−40 mV provides stable
mate conductivity than the composites based on the shorter CNTs dispersions. This stabilization is attained by the use of carboxylic
[115]. acid, anionic, and cationic surfactants. Steric stabilization of metal
The value of electrical potential on the surface of nanoparticles nanoparticles is used to have a higher content of nanoparticles in
has a significant effect on the stable dispersion of nanoparticles. The dispersion.
 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282 7

Conductive polymeric based surfactants can also be used the viscosity and surface tension values changes in the range of
to decrease the contact resistivity between CNTs or graphene 1–25 mPa s and 25–50 mN/m, respectively [63,136].
platelets. PEDOT/PSS is a conductive polymer that can be used to Screen printing is the most popular and most mature technol-
disperse CNTs in water. The minimum required PEDOT/PSS: CNTs ogy for printed circuit applications. As it adds simplicity, reasonable
ratio is stated as 4:1 for stable dispersions and complete exfoliation. price, speed, and adaptability to the manufacturing process, it is
The percolation threshold is as low as 0.2 wt% of the loading of the faster and more versatile than other printing tools [135]. The main
SWCNTs. An ultimate conductivity of 500 S/m is achieved [115]. disadvantage is that the printable paste should have a high viscos-
ity. Additives are required to formulate a plurality of conductive
materials into a high viscosity paste. The presence of additives
3.4. Flexible substrates
causes electrical conductivity to decrease. Due to the high viscosity,
the pattern surface can be very rough. Moreover, the low-resolution
The primary substrates that give flexibility to the sensor struc-
problem limits the printing of electronic devices with thin struc-
ture are polyimide (PI) [119], polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) [27],
tures [136,137].
polyurethane (PU) [12], polyethylene terephthalate (PET) [120]
Gravure printing is widely used printing technique based on
based films, papers [121] and fabrics [122]. PDMS is widely chosen
a transfer of the ink to the substrate via the small engraved cav-
as a substrate material due to its flexibility and high thermal expan-
ities in the engraving cylinder. The viscosity of diluted gravure
sion. It is indicated that one of the reasons for the high response of
inks is lower than flexographic inks, and it is between 0.01−0.2
the temperature sensor is the large expansion coefficient of PDMS
Pa s. The biggest obstacle encountered by the gravure printer is the
substrate [27]. The low durability of printed silver patterns on paper
high-resolution print line, i.e., less than 20 ␮m. The inability to pro-
results from the effect of the surrounding environment on the silver
duce uniform structures with sharp edge pattern lines restricts the
patterns. For instance, moisture absorption of paper causes mal-
gravure printing to be able to manufacture top layers on electronic
functioning in printed electronics [77]. The melting temperature is
devices [135,138,139].
fully compatible with widely used PET substrate, in which melting
In flexographic printing, ink is transferred via direct contact
temperature is approximately160 ◦ C [123].
of a soft printing plate cylinder with patterns developed by pho-
PI provides strong adhesion to metal coatings, which attains a
tolithography. A flexographic printer is more complicated than a
high degree of strain delocalization in the operating temperature
screen or a gravure printer. The interactions between ink, substrate,
range of −269 ◦ C to 400 ◦ C. Therefore, deposition techniques such
and printer devices such as the cylinder, plate, and anilox should
as sputtering and e-beam evaporation are suitable for PI [124,125].
be under control to obtain high printing quality [137,139].
For the textronic applications, polyamide is selected as a substrate
In the offset printing method, the ink is transferred from the
due to its high flexibility, good adaptation to textile applications,
printing plate to a rubber blanket and then to the substrate.
and resistivity to high temperature and humidity [15].
Although offset printing is the most popular process in the tra-
Textile substrates enable sensors and other devices to be
ditional printing industry, it is rarely used in printed electronics.
built into or embedded in a fabric-based network [61]. Thin,
The most important reason for this is that the inks used in the
lightweight, soft, flexible, robust, deformable, breathable, and
conventional offset printer have too much high viscosity. It is
washable [126] structure of textiles enable them as substrates in
extremely challenging to formulate conductive materials at this
wearable temperature sensors. Sensors can be deposited onto the
viscosity level. Furthermore, the complex structure limits usability
textile substrates using conductive polymers, carbon-based nano-
in wearable technologies [137].
materials, and nanometals with deposition techniques [127–130].
Stencil printing is a method to press a viscous material through
pre-defined open apertures in a solid foil onto a substrate by the use
4. Sensor fabrication of an angled blade, named as a squeegee. The stencil printing pro-
cess is an adaptation of the screen-printing process. The difference
4.1. Printing techniques between them lies in the actual artwork through which the print-
ing material is transferred. The screen is a woven mesh, whereas a
In recent years, electronics manufactured with printing technol- stencil is a solid foil with holes [140].
ogy have gained much interest. Numerous developments have been
achieved using different type of substrate material, ink composi- 4.2. Coating and deposition techniques
tion, and innovative printing and production techniques. Interest
is due to the advantages of additional techniques: low cost, an easy Solution coating and deposition, including spray coating, spin
way to print on flexible surfaces, and versatility [14]. Printed sen- coating, dip-coating, drop-casting and doctor blading, are also the
sors have been produced by using various printing techniques such leading techniques for the development of stretchable sensors
as inkjet [37], screen [131], gravure printing [132]. based on nanomaterials [7,55,141,142].
The inkjet printing method provides direct printing without Polymers, nanoparticles, and biomaterials are frequently
the need for intermediate tools and contact with the substrate. deposited via spin coating [143]. In this method, the solution is
It also provides direct patterning without the necessity of extra spread on a rotating base material. A thin film is formed after evap-
processes like lithography and etching [133]. By the inkjet print- oration of the solvent. A repetitive process that can control the
ing method, the precise amounts of a wide variety of materials in thickness of the film is feasible. The concentration of the solution
the form of colloidal or chemical solutions are deposited through and speed of rotation can control the thickness of the deposited
a micrometer-sized inkjet nozzle head forming conductive lines layer [144].
or single droplets on various substrate materials. It is an inexpen- In the method of spray coating, an ultrasonic nozzle produces
sive, non-impact, fast method [134,135]. The droplet formation in droplets. The substrate is slowly rotated while the nozzle passes
the inkjet printing method is adjusted by the viscosity and sur- through the substrate. The solution’s viscosity should be lower than
face tension of inks. Also, the pigment particle must be less than 20 cSt. The low spin speed reduces centrifugal forces to a minimum.
one ␮m to avoid the agglomeration and the clogging of the small This method is suitable for the sidewall coverage of the micro and
channel nozzles of the printhead. Mostly, inkjet inks are defined as nanostructures on a substrate with high aspect ratio [145].
non-Newtonian fluids, and even small deviations can change the The drop-casting method is also widely used to obtain thin
stability of the jet and droplet formation. For the inkjet printing, films. In this method, a droplet is placed on the surface, and
8 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282

then the solvent is evaporated. The thickness of the obtained film black, graphite powder, carbon nanofibers, and PDMS as a matrix
varies by solution concentration. It is not reproducible, and this polymer, are used [119]. Yang et al. demonstrated an ultrasensitive
method does not always form uniform films. It is typically limited wearable temperature sensor prepared using graphene nanowalls
to smaller samples, and it takes quite a while to produce the film (GNWs) combination with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) (Fig. 7b)
[7]. exhibiting TCR of 0.214 ◦ C−1 [27]. Recently, Jeon et al. developed
The dip-coating method relies on the approach of the Sol-gel Ni microparticle-filled polyethylene (PE), and polyethylene oxide
/ nanomaterial solution. Throughout this process, the substrate is (PEO) composites as temperature sensors for monitoring body tem-
dipped into the solution and then withdrawn at a fixed speed. The perature in the range of 35 ◦ C–40 ◦ C. The sensitivity found as 0.1 to
dip-coating has advantages over the drop-casting process to pro- 0.3 V/◦ C, which is ∼3 orders of magnitude larger than the standard
duce a uniformly thin layer, owing to its excellent controllability thermocouple devices (40 ␮V/◦ C) [159].
[146]. Sadavisuni et al. made a temperature sensor from cellulose/rGO
Doctor blading is another method for creating a thin film layer. composite film by tuning the rGO reduction. The temperature
During the blading process, the blade and substratum are contin- sensor was performed between 25 and 80 ◦ C, and it exhibited lin-
uously connected. An appropriate paste is then applied over the earity to the temperature change [56]. Mahadeva et al. produced a
substrate, and a gel-like layer is created after drying [7]. biodegradable and flexible temperature sensor based on cellulose
The sensor arrays can also be fabricated by dispensing sensi- and Polypyrrole (Fig. 7c) [160]. Khan et al. demonstrated a cop-
tive material on the flexible substrates. The temperature-sensitive per oxide-based temperature sensor with a temperature reading
composite solution is injected into the dispensing system. The con- sensitivity of 4.0 %/◦ C [164]. In another study, Wang et al. devel-
ductive composite can be fully matched with the sensor design by oped a PEDOT: PSS based temperature sensor exhibiting a high
regulating the three-axis movement mechanism of the dispensing sensitivity of −0.77 % ◦ C−1 in the range of 25 ◦ C–50 ◦ C (Fig. 7d)
system [147,148]. [161]. Soni et al. designed a skin conformable GO/PEDOT: PSS
Nanomaterial-based sensor structures can be prepared by the based temperature sensor. This sensor includes an NTC behavior
vacuum filtration method. Nanoporous membranes with different with approximately 80 % resistance change and a sensitivity of
pore size and density have been used for vacuum filtration. To 1.09 %/◦ C with temperatures ranges from 25 to 100 ◦ C (Fig. 7e)
obtain conductive films, the nanomaterial-based suspension is first [162]. Zhang et al. developed a hybrid sensor based on PEDOT:
dispersed with the help of ultrasonication or surfactants. Then, the PSS/reduced graphene oxide aerogels that exhibits high per-
suspension is filtered through a filter paper. The thickness of the formance in temperature-sensitive properties (Fig. 7f) [163]. A
film is controlled by the concentration of the suspension [17,149]. nanocomposite made of graphene doped poly(vinylidene fluoride-
co-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDF-TrFE)) was developed to function as
an ultrasensitive flexible temperature sensor by Mahmod et al. The
4.3. Textile-based techniques
sensor detected changes in the temperature with a sensitivity of
0.025 ◦ C−1 from -20 ◦ C to 300 ◦ C, and displayed a fast temperature
Textile based wearable electronics can be fabricated by knitting,
response time around 4 s and a fast recovery time around 3 s [165].
weaving, or braiding techniques using conductive yarns, fibers or
Some researchers studied inkjet printing of conductive ink on
wires [150–152]. Due to the easy preparation process, machining of
a substrate for the design of resistive temperature sensors [133].
a variety of conducting yarns, and precise placement of detection
Fig. 8 depicts the latest studies about printed/coated temperature
patches in one phase clothing, the knitting technology is widely
sensors. Courbat et al. have designed a sensor based on Ag nanopar-
used in the production of wearable devices. The knitted struc-
ticle printed structures on paper by inkjet printing technique to
tures are preferred rather than woven structures for direct contact
measure temperature changes (Fig. 8a). Sensor resistance is mea-
required applications because of their capability to conform to the
sured from −20 ◦ C to 60 ◦ C with a good linear characteristic. The
body shape [150]. However, the strain sensitivity of the knitted
sensor platform had a nominal resistance of 670  at 20 ◦ C. The
structures can cause problems in temperature sensing applications.
TCR was measured as 0.0011 ◦ C−1 with a coefficient of determina-
Therefore, the welding technology is widely used to preserve the
tion to a linear fit of 0.992 [166]. Dankoca et al. used organic silver
temperature sensing areas in order to avoid conductive track break-
ink to develop flexible resistive temperature sensors on the Kap-
ages in knitted fabric [153,154].
ton substrate by the inkjet printing method (Fig. 8b). The resistive
Yarn encapsulation technology is also used for the development
temperature detectors exhibited good linearity, in the range of 20
of wearable temperature sensors. First, a small sensor is attached ◦ C–60 ◦ C and less than 5% hysteresis in the extended measurement,
to fine metal wires, and coated with a resin. The sensor and metal
with a temperature coefficient of resistance for the printed lines of
wire is combined with carrier fibers within encapsulation to enable
about 2.23 × 10−3 ◦ C−1 [167]. Wu et al. fabricated a flexible temper-
mechanical strength to the metal wire [155,156].
ature sensor based on the flake graphite (FG)/ CNT/PDMS composite
Textile-based temperature sensors can also be manufactured
by screen printing method. When the mass ratio between FG and
using an embroidery machine. The sensor can be efficiently embroi-
CNT is close to 4:1, the TCR value is mostly preserved at the same
dered in a defined geometry by using conductive yarns together
level as 0.028 K. FG/CNT/PDMS films also exhibited good linearity
with conventional threads [6,157,158]. Furthermore, embroidery
[168]. The miniaturized flexible temperature sensor based on the
technique can also be considered as an option for attachment of
MWCNT/polyvinylidene composite (PVDF) was developed by Sib-
the electronics to textile structure [158].
inski et al. and the TCR of the sensor was found to be 0.13 % K-1
[129]. Li et al. showed that inkjet printing techniques with conduc-
5. Related works tive copper and nickel lines could be easily printed on the paper
substrate. The conductivities of the printed copper and nickel lines
Shih et al. elaborated a temperature sensor array based on were found to be 1.8 × 106 S/m and 2.2 × 104 S/m, respectively
graphite dispersed in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) matrix with [70]. In a further study, the temperature sensors were fabricated by
polyimide (PI) films (Fig. 7a). The TCRs of the composites with the graphene / PEDOT: PSS ink with inkjet technique and the printing
graphite volume fractions of 25 % and 15 % are found as 0.042 was done on a skin-conformable polyurethane plaster (adhesive
K−1 and 0.286 K−1 , respectively [147]. Similarly, temperature sen- bandage) (Fig. 8c). Graphene / PEDOT: PSS temperature sensors
sor arrays are fabricated by dispensing electroresistive polymer on exhibited a high sensitivity from 0.0006 ◦ C−1 with negative tem-
flexible polyimide films. The conductive fillers, including carbon perature dependency [104].
 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282 9

Fig. 7. (a) A flexible temperature sensor array (Insets: the interdigitated electrode and composites on the electrode, respectively) [147]. (b) Schema of flexible GNWs/PDMS
temperature sensor [27]. (c) View of a temperature and humidity sensor based on Polypyrrole and cellulose [160]. (d) Photography of PEDOT:PSS/PEN based temperature
sensor attached on skin [161]. (e) An image of PEDOT:PSS-Graphene Oxide composite temperature sensor [162]. (f) Illustration of a sensor based on an aerogel of rGO and
PEDOT: PSS in a PDMS matrix [163].

Fig. 8. (a) Optic view of inkjet-printed lines of Ag nanoparticles on paper and scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of the printed silver layer [166]. (b) Image of
inkjet-printed silver temperature sensor on Kapton substrate and SEM image of printed silver lines [167]. (c) Image of the sample being attached to the skin with a sensor
array of four sensors [104]. (d) A rGO based temperature sensor for robot skin [169]. (e) A photograph of CNT based thermistor [170].

Bielska et al. [15] designed a sensor based on polymer paste a flexible multifunctional sensor based on a hybrid film consist-
material deposited by the fine-mesh screen-printing technique on ing of graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) and MWCNTs. They obtained
a Kapton substrate to detect human body temperature changes. −0.1373 %/◦ C, −0.0786 %/◦ C, and −0.0644 %/◦ C TCR values for films
Sensor resistance is measured from 30 ◦ C to 42 ◦ C with a good with GNP contents of 0 wt%, 25 wt%, and 50 wt%, respectively [172].
linear characteristic. Neella et al. developed a flexible reduced Albrecht et al. applied the spray-coating method to deposit thin
graphene oxide (RGO) temperature sensor on cellulose filter paper films of semi-transparent conductive materials like AgNWs and
by using a vacuum filtration method. The fabricated RGO based PEDOT: PSS, and semiconductive CNTs for the use of thermocou-
film on the filter paper had a sensitivity of 0.278  /◦ C and the ples. The thermocouple has an acceptable sensitivity value of 55
TCR was found to be as 0.00245 ◦ C−1 [171]. Maskey et al. intro- ␮V/◦ C. The sheet resistance values were 45, 102, and 72k /sq for
duced PEDOT:PSS/ functionalized graphene oxide–polyvinylidene the AgNWs, PEDOT: PSS, and CNTs, respectively [173]. The sens-
fluoride (FGO–PVDF) based thermistor with a 1272.57  /◦ C sensi- ing performance of rGO based temperature sensor produced by the
tivity, 0.395 %◦ C−1 TCR, and a 40 s per ◦ C response time from 10 ◦ C to spin coating method was found as 0.801 %/K (in 303 K–373 K) [55].
30 ◦ C for intelligent packaging system along the food logistic chain PEDOT: PSS and PANI based inks were printed on cotton using the
[2]. Huang et al. also used vacuum filtration method to develop screen-printing method. At room temperature, electrical resistance
10 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282

Fig. 9. (a) Illustration of a temperature sensor: sensing wire inlaid in a double layer knitted structure [35]. (b) A temperature sensor produced by a stencil printing method
[179]. (c) An MWCNT based temperature sensor on cotton fabric [128]. (d) An image of the flexible temperature sensor embedded within textile yarn [180]. (e) A prototype
temperature-sensing sock made with sensing yarns [155]. (f) Embroidered temperature sensor [6].

ranged from 20 k/m for PEDOT: PSS, 8 M/m for PANI. In the tions. A PEDOT:PSS based aqueous solution was deposited on paper
research, the effect on resistivity and thermoelectric properties of substrate. The paper sensor exhibited a sensitivity of 658.5 /◦ C
multiple thermocyclers between 235 K (−38 ◦ C), and 350 K (77 ◦ C) for the temperature range of 30–42 ◦ C. However, it was reported
was investigated. When thermocouples were figured in combina- that moisture reduces the performance of the sensor and limits its
tion with Cu, the Seebeck coefficient was found to be approximately application [178].
18 ␮V/K for PEDOT: PSS (valid for the entire temperature range Husain and Kennon [35] developed a sensing fabric that was
measured, cycling from 235 to 350 K) and 15 ␮V/K for PANI (valid manufactured on an industrial scale flat-bed knitting machine by
for temperature increases up to cycling 335 K). A thermoelectric laying-in the sensing fine metal wire into the double layer knitted
voltage of around 10 ␮V/K was detected when polymer thermo- structure (Fig. 9a). Ziegler and Frydrysiak manufactured thermo-
couples were formed by mixing PEDOT: PSS and PANI [62]. Konishi couple textile thermoelectrodes from mono or multi-filaments
and Hirata presented a flexible thermocouple with a soft microactu- and staple fibers. The electrical resistance of the textile-based
ator designed for a micro hand robot of a teleoperated haptic robot thermocouple was found as 103–105 . The sensitivity of a tex-
system. A K-type thermocouple consisting of chromel and alumel, tile thermocouple manufactured from graphite nonwoven – silver
and a T-type thermocouple consisting of copper and constantan covered thread was 1.4 ␮V/◦ C and 41.4 ␮V/◦ C for the metallic
were designed. Both of the sensors showed good linearity. The See- wire knitted fabric. The fabricated textile-based thermocouples
beck coefficients of K-type and T-type thermocouples were found had low accuracy and low sensitivity in comparison with con-
to be as 10.6 ␮V/◦ C and 22.3 ␮V/◦ C, respectively [4]. A temperature ventional metallic thermocouples. But also the humidity factor
sensor for robot skin is fabricated by Liu et al. The rGO/PET based is an obstacle for the accurate measurement of temperature
sensor showed high sensitivity of 0.6345 %◦ C−1 , and exhibited sta- [19]. Jung et al. reported a stretchable and wearable textile-
ble structure after three cycles of heating and cooling (Fig. 8d) [169]. based self-powered temperature sensor fabricated by a stencil
Hilal et al. developed a graphene/nickel-based fiber-shaped tem- printing method (Fig. 9b). Various combinations of poly(3,4-
perature sensor having high repeatability and linearity response to ethylene dioxythiophene)-poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT: PSS),
temperature with a TCR of 0.0108 ◦ C-1 between 25 ◦ C and 100 ◦ C. silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), and graphene inks based thermo-
The response and recovery times of the sensor were approximately couples achieved output voltage of 1.1 mV, 0.8 mV, and 0.53
13 and 22 s, respectively [174]. Bae et al. developed an e-skin based mV at temperature differences of 100 K [179]. In another study,
temperature sensor by spray coating of rGO on parylene C substrate an MWCNT based conducting cotton fabric was developed for
that exhibits a linear and reproducible TCR of 0.83 % /K in the tem- the aim of humidity and temperature sensing (Fig. 9c). MWCNTs
perature range 22–70 ◦ C and fast response to temperature change with different compounds were used to obtain a viscous paste
within 100 ms [175]. Turkani et al. developed a CNT based NTC on cotton fabric by knife-over-roll technique. The film developed
thermistor by using additive print manufacturing processes. A 53 a sensor that showed a clear response–recovery behavior and
% resistance change was observed with a TCR of −0.4 % ◦ C−1 in the good repeatability as humidity/temperature sensor [128]. Lugoda
range of −40 ◦ C to 100 ◦ C (Fig. 8e) [170]. Zhu et al. demonstrated et al. have studied the effect of the textile yarn-based protective
circuit design strategies that can enhance robust and accurate of layer on the temperature sensor’s performance. Compared with
a CNT based flexible temperature sensor having TCR of 14.35 × the uncovered sensor, sufficient sensitivity was reduced only up
10-3 [176]. Chi-Yuan Lee et al. fabricated micro sensors that were to 14 % (Fig. 9d) [180]. Hughes-Riley et al. fabricated a temper-
embedded on a flexible parylene substrate, having 7 ± 1 ␮m thick- ature sensing garment for skin measurements with an accuracy
ness. The TCR of the temperature sensor was 0.481 %◦ C−1 [177]. Lee of 0.5 by yarn encapsulation technology (Fig. 9e) [155]. Polan-
et al. produced a paper-based, body-attachable temperature sensor sky et al. reported a large-area embroidered temperature sensor
using dip-coating technique for the wearable technology applica- based on a hybrid resistive thread. The obtained TCR values were
 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282 11

Table 4
Some of the reported temperature sensors: materials, production methods, and performances.

Material Method Measurement range (◦ C) TCR (%/◦ C) Ref.

Graphite- PDMS matrix with polyimide (PI) films Automatic dispensing 30−110 4.2 [147]
PEDOT:PSS-poly(ethylene-phthalate) (PEN) Dispensing system 25−50 0.77 [161]
Graphene nanowalls (GNPs)-PDMS Polymer-assisted transfer method 25−120 0.214 [27]
CuO–Si-adhesive Drop casting/ doctor blade 25−80 4.0 [164]
GO/PEDOT: PSS Drop casting 25−100 1.09 [162]
Graphene- P(VDF-TrFE)) Casting −20−300 2.5 [165]
PEDOT:PSS/rGO-aerogel Freeze drying 30−50 1.69 [163]
rGO Vacuum filtration −40−80 0.245 [171]
MWCNT/GNP Vacuum filtration 30−100 0.138 [172]
MWCNT/PVDF Printing/ dip coating 20−120 0.13 [129]
Organic silver ink/Kapton Inkjet printing 20−60 0.223 [167]
Silver NP/Paper Inkjet printing −20−60 0.11 [166]
Graphene-PEDOT: PSS/PU Inkjet printing 35−45 0.06 [104]
rGO/ Aluminum Spin coating 30−100 0.801 [55]
rGO-PEDOT:PSS/ PU Spin coating 30−80 1.34 [142]
rGO/ PET Air spray coating 30−100 0.6345 [169]
rGO/ Parlylene Spray coating 22−70 0.83 [175]
Silver nanowire/ PI Spray coating 25−60 0.332 [141]
PEDOT: PSS-CNT/ Flexible substrate Mask printing 22−48 0.61 [28]
PEDOT:PSS/ FGO–PVDF Mask printing/ bar coating 10−30 0.395 [2]
CNT/ PET Screen/ gravure printing −40−100 0.4 [170]
FG/CNT/PDMS Screen printing 40−80 2.8 [168]
SWCNT/SEBS Photolithography 16−55 1.435 [176]
Ti-Au/Parylene Photolithography 30−100 0.481 [177]
Graphene-Nickel/ PET Magnetron sputtering 25−100 0.83 [174]
Hybrid thread (PES – Steel microwire) Embroidery 40−120 0.10 [6]

Fig. 10. (a) Humidity insensitivity of the developed ion-channel based flexible temperature sensor [187]. (b) Time-dependent humidity sensing analysis of
Polyethyleneimine/Reduced Graphene Oxide based temperature sensor [188]. (c) Folding test of the CNT-based wearable thermal flow sensor [36]. (d) Resistance and
TCR variation of Graphene/Nickel-based sensor with temperature after 1000 bending cycles [174].

between 1025–1054 ppm/ ◦ C for the temperature range changing is a significant feature. The resistance of a flexible temperature
from 40 ◦ C to 120 ◦ C. It is envisaged that the proposed sen- sensor may be affected by human body-induced strain/ stress that
sor can be used as a warning system to monitor the heat stress would cause a decrease in their reliability [181]. One of the solution
and thermal balance of firefighters [6]. The some of the reported to achieve this is the usage of the highly deformable thermo-
temperature sensors having composite structure are shown in plastic polymers, such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and
Table 4. polyurethane (PU), and the silicone elastomers (PDMS, EcoFlex)
[27,147,182,183]. Kim et al. presented a flexible organic temper-
ature sensor based on polyvinyl alcohol that showed remarkable
6. Reliability of flexible temperature sensors
stability for 50 bending cycles [184]. Dinh et al. tested a CNT-
based thermal flow sensor with different folding angles. The folding
Avoiding the effect of mechanical stimulus on the sensor’s per-
experiments exhibited a maximum resistance change of about 0.2
formance is still a challenge for temperature sensors. The structure
%, suggesting the high stability of a CNT-based sensor (Fig. 10c) [36].
of the temperature sensors should always ensure conformity to
Hilal et al. demonstrated a graphene/nickel-based fiber-shaped
curved surfaces. Wearable sensors should be precise and reliable
temperature sensor. The developed sensor retained 75 % of its
without compromising users ’ natural motions and comfort. Thus,
sensitivity after the bending tests (Fig. 10d) [174]. Rajan et al. inves-
the skin-like conformability and stretchability of flexible sensors
12 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282

Fig. 11. (a) Implementation of fractal-inspired layout for temperature sensing [193]. (b) Schematic diagram of the serpentine design pattern [192]. (c) A stretchable organic
transistor net-shaped matrix of pressure and thermal sensors [195]. (d) Temperature sensor with serpentine Au wires [194]. (e) The illustration of the device serpentine
layout for the core-body temperature sensor [196]. (f) Stretchable lateral spring design for adaptive thermotherapy [191].

tigated the flexibility and mechanical resilience of their developed revealed that the air permeability of the CNT printed fabric is similar
temperature sensor based on graphene-coated polypropylene tex- to the primitive fabric that can fulfill the human skin’s breathable
tile fibers. They observed no significant change in resistance with requirement to long-term wrap comfortably around human skins
multiple bending [185]. In another study, PEDOT:PSS printed cot- with millions of pores [61,199]. The porosity design, low thickness
ton and Kapton-based flexible sensors displayed high stability, and and low modulus with extremely good substrate elongation make
no significant changes after bending up to 300 times [186]. it possible for the wearer to be breathable when applied to human
Humidity stability is another challenge for temperature sensors. skin [12].
Flexible and wearable sensors are inevitably subjected to ambi- The welding method can be used to increase the reliability of
ent humidity. Therefore, to develop a flexible temperature sensor a textile-based system. The transmission lines can be protected
that is insensitive to humidity would be of considerable signifi- from potential short circuits and are prevented from water contact
cance. Kim et al. demonstrated a flexible temperature sensor based by using welding techniques. The ultrasonic welding technology
on ion channels. The developed temperature sensor’s performance allows synthetic fabrics to stick together. Adhesion occurs with
remained constant in the air and water (Fig. 10a) [187]. Wang heat generated by vibrations in the applied region. However, it is
et al. developed a crosslinked PEDOT:PSS-based flexible tempera- essential to determine the ultrasonic welding parameters that are
ture sensor, which exhibits a very good stabilization between 30 appropriate for the conductive yarn type and the structure of the
% RH and 80 % RH [161]. Liu et al. presented a skin-attachable base fabric [200–202].
polyethyleneimine/ reduced graphene oxide-based temperature
sensor resistant to humidity. (Fig. 10b) [188].
Besides the intrinsically excellent nanomaterial stretchability, 7. Conclusion
structural arrangements can improve the degree of stretchabil-
ity (Fig. 11). Designs of deformable structures (including buckling, In this paper, a comprehensive review of the latest devel-
noncoplanar, fractal, net-shaped, island-bridge, and serpentine opments of flexible temperature sensors is presented. The
designs) can prevent the influence of body motions on the perfor- temperature-responsive mechanisms, sensor materials, and fab-
mance of the temperature sensors while enhancing stretchability. rication methods of temperature sensors and recent outcomes
The priority is a high level of sensitivity. For instance, the use of a of related papers are explained and classified in a detailed per-
serpentine design increases sensitivity along the length direction spective. The flexible temperature sensors based on nanomaterial-
of the sensor under a fixed strain due to the longer material path printed/coated conductors, and textiles are summarized in terms
of serpentine design in the direction of sensing with a minimum of structures and performances. The choice of materials and the
occupancy of the entire sensing region. The serpentine structure design of sensors are vital to fulfill the high-performance tem-
with lower length and width is preferred as more cycles, and lower perature sensors’ demands. Materials, especially, nano-based and
electrode width can enhance sensitivity [181,189–196]. polymeric materials and their composites are examined for devel-
The washability is always a barrier in terms of implementa- oping flexible temperature sensors. The notable properties of
tion, which reduces textronic equipment’s reliability. The wearable nanomaterials provide promising potential for designing flexi-
device can become unstable after several cycles of the washing pro- ble temperature sensor architecture with high sensitivity, great
cess and, in some cases, start to fail [197]. Rajan et al. studied the flexibility, high accuracy, and exceptional durability for body-
washability of their textile-based sensor in a solution of laundry temperature measurement applications.
detergent and tap water at different temperatures by using a beaker Printed sensors gained considerable attention due to cost-
and magnetic stirring bar. The developed sensor was found to be effective production. The inkjet printing method is a widely used
insensitive to washing [185]. Since washing is a long term and mul- simple production method with low prices, high accuracy and pre-
tiparameter operation, it is crucial to identify an equivalent test cision compared to other methods. However, it has a great concern
to examine the reliability of textile-based electronics. Raziye et al. on fabricating large-scale sensor arrays. However, the formation of
proposed a novel protocol that simulates the deterioration of the nanomaterial-based conductive inks is a challenging issue. Apart
e-textile structure in a washing cycle. In this method, the number from printing methods, several scientific studies have also been
of washing cycle that an e-textile structure can resist up to, is pre- reported on flexible temperature sensors based on carbon and
dicted [198]. Breathability is another significant issue for wearable metal nanomaterial filled composites. The selection of the filler
electronics to maintain the comfort of the user. In a research, it is and polymer with required functional properties is significant to
 B. Arman Kuzubasoglu and S. Kursun Bahadir / Sensors and Actuators A 315 (2020) 112282 13

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paper temperature sensor and body-attachable patch for thermometers, in textile engineering, a master’s degree in polymer sci-
Sens. Actuators A: Phys. (2020), 112205. ence and technology from Istanbul Technical University
[179] M. Jung, S. Jeon, J. Bae, Scalable and facile synthesis of stretchable (ITU) in 2010 and 2012. She is currently pursuing the
thermoelectric fabric for wearable self-powered temperature sensors, RSC Ph.D. degree at ITU Faculty of Textile Technologies and
Adv. 8 (2018) 39992–39999, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8ra06664g. Design. Her research interests include nanomaterials,
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Senem Kursun Bahadir received the B.Sc. degree in textile
temperature sensors for the internet of things, Adv. Funct. Mater. 27 (2017),
engineering and the M.Sc. degree in industrial engineer-
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ing, and the Ph.D. degrees in automatic control/computer
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engineering from the University of Lille, France, and in
platforms for healthcare and biomedical applications, Microsystems
textile engineering from Istanbul Technical University,
Nanoeng. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/micronano.2016.43.
Turkey, in 2011. From 2015 to 2016, she was the Vice
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Head of Textile Engineering Department and later became
Encapsulation of polyvinyl alcohol based flexible temperature sensor
the Vice Dean at the Faculty of Textile Technologies and
through spatial atmospheric atomic layer deposition system to enhance its
Design, Istanbul Technical University (ITU). She is cur-
lifetime, Thin Solid Films 673 (2019) 44–51.
rently an associate professor in ITU. Her areas of research
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activities include electronic textiles, smart clothing sys-
Alves, M.F. Craciun, A.I.S. Neves, Low operating voltage carbon-graphene
tem designs and simulation techniques in clothing area.
hybrid e-textile for temperature sensing, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces (2020).
She has authored and co-authored over 60 scientific pub-
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lications in international and national peer-reviewed journals and conferences. She
based on PEDOT: PSS, IEEE trans, Electron. Devices 66 (2019) 3129–3133.
has been involved in many projects (European or national funding) as a Researcher
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and Coordinator in the field of textile technology: 1) design of textile-based sensors
sensor with humidity insensitivity, Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 271 (2018)
(temperature, ultrasonic, and so on); 2) actuator implementations to textile struc-
139–145.
tures (pressure and vibration motors); 3) energy harvesting and thermal heating
[188] Q. Liu, H. Tai, Z. Yuan, Y. Zhou, Y. Su, Y. Jiang, A high-performances flexible
e-textiles; and 4) design and development of interactive clothings. She is currently
temperature sensor composed of polyethyleneimine/reduced graphene
the ITU Coordinator of the EU H2020 Project (ETEXWELD), where the aim is the
oxide bilayer for real-time monitoring, Adv. Mater. Technol. 4 (2019),
development of e-textile structures for interactive clothing. She was also awarded
1800594.
two international awards and one national award for textile innovation in the field
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of smart textiles and wearable technologies.
sensors using a copper nanowire and graphite microflake hybrid conductive
network, Nanoscale 8 (2016) 16596–16605.