Kurdistan Region Government-Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Duhok Polytechnic University

Technical College of Engineering

Department of Petrochemical Engineer

________________________________________________________

Project Title

Surface Chemistry and it’s relation to adsorption and

absorption and catalysis and their application in industry

Name of Students

Bayar Shawkat
Hawyar Jawhar
Samir Mustafa

Name of the Supervisors

Dr. Farhad M. Ali

Miss. Suzan Sidqe

Academic year Kurdish year

(2020-2021) (2720-2721)
 Table of Contents
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................. III
Abstract ...........................................................................................................IV
List of Figures ................................................................................................... V
Chapter One ....................................................................................................VI
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 7
1.1 History ......................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Surface Concept ........................................................................................ 11
1.3 Surface Chemistry Concept ....................................................................... 13
1.4 Surface Phenomena .................................................................................... 14
Chapter Two .................................................................................................... 15
Adsorption ...................................................................................................... 16
2.1 Adsorption Basic Principles ....................................................................... 16
2.2 Energetics of Adsorption ........................................................................... 17
2.3 Types of Adsorption .................................................................................. 18
2.4 Applications of Adsorption ....................................................................... 20
Chapter Three ................................................................................................. 21
Absorption ....................................................................................................... 21
3.1 Absorption Basic Principles ....................................................................... 22
3.2 Absorption Types ...................................................................................... 23
3.3 Mechanisms of Absorption ....................................................................... 24
3.4 Applications of Absorption ....................................................................... 26
Chapter Four .................................................................................................. 28
Catalysis .......................................................................................................... 28
4.1 Catalysis Basic Principles .......................................................................... 29
4.2 Application of Catalysts ............................................................................ 30
Experiment ...................................................................................................... 31
5.1 Objective ................................................................................................... 33
5.2 Substances Used ....................................................................................... 33
5.3 Procedure .................................................................................................. 38
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5.3 Results ....................................................................................................... 38
5.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 39
References ....................................................................................................... 40

Acknowledgment

This graduation project deals with (Surface Chemistry and it‘s relation to

adsorption and absorption and catalysis and their application in industry). It has

been carried out at the Petrochemical Engineering department of Duhok

Polytechnic University.

Our first and greatest thanks are to Allah (God) Almighty, who was, is, and will

be the source of help and guidance that counts.

We would like to thank everyone who supported us during this graduation

project; especially we like to thank our graduation committee for their advice

and support and also Miss. Suzan Sidqe & Dr. Farhad M. Ali. They were

acknowledged, helpful and very supportive. We would also like to thank the

staff members and administration of Petrochemical engineer‘s department for

their support.

Page | III
 Abstract

Nowadays Surface chemistry plays an important role in everyday life, The

number of industries related to it have increased dramatically during the past
decades, so having a Knowledge about surface chemistry is fundamental
importance in many areas such as ,oil recovery , pollution abatement
technologies, cleaning or refining fuels ,detergents, biomedical, biotechnology,
agriculture and pharmaceuticals.

The purpose of this research is to overview and provide the reader with useful
information and better understanding about surface chemistry and processes that
is related to it, such as adsorption , absorption , catalysis , and what is their
application in industry and our daily life.

Using these processes in a suitable way is critical important to make a human

life easier and more comfortable, and to reduce the impurities and wastes in our
world, we will discuss how these interested processes change the world and It is
not only an interesting Processes but also useful processes too, and then we will
discuss how these processes are working, and where we use them

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 List of Figures

Figures Number Figures Title Page Number

Figure 1.1 Paul Sabatier 7

Figure 1.2 Irving Langmuir 8

Figure 1.3 Fritz Haber 9

Figure 1.4 Carl Bosch 9

Figure 1.5 Gerhard Ertl 10

Figure 1.6 Atoms Of Liquid 12

Figure 1.7 Liquid Atoms at Surface 12

Figure 2.1 Adsorbate and Adsorbent Molecules 17

Figure 2.2 Surface Atoms and Interior Atom 18

Figure 3.1 Absorption Process 20

Figure 3.2 CO2 capture based on amine absorption. 28

Figure 4.1 Catalysis Applications 25

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Chapter One
“Introduction”

Page | VI
Introduction

1.1 History

The field of surface chemistry started with heterogeneous catalysis pioneered by

Paul Sabatier on hydrogenation and Fritz Haber on the Haber process.

Prof. Paul Sabatier (5 November 1854 – 14 August

1941) he was a French chemist, born in Carcassonne ,
In 1912 Sabatier was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry along with fellow Frenchman Victor
Grignard.

Sabatier is best known for the Sabatier process and

his works such as La Catalyse en Chimie Organique
(Catalysis in organic chemistry) which was published
in 1913.
Figure 1.1 : Paul Sabatier

Sabatier process produces methane and water from a reaction of hydrogen with
carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures (optimally 300–400 °C) and pressures
(perhaps 30 bar ) in the presence of a nickel catalyst. This reaction is used in the
International Space Station to produce the necessary water without relying on
stock from the earth.

CO2 + 4H2  CH4 + 2H2O

∆H = −165.0 kJ/mol (exothermic reaction)

Optionally, ruthenium on alumina (aluminium oxide) makes a more efficient

catalyst.

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 Irving Langmuir was also one of the founders of this
field, and the scientific journal on surface science
which bears his name Langmuir, (Langmuir is a peer-
reviewed scientific journal that was established in
1985 and is published by the American Chemical
Society. It covers research in the areas of surface and
colloid chemistry.).

Figure 1.2 : Irving Langmuir

Irving Langmuir (31 January 1881 – 16 August 1957) he was an American

chemist, physicist, and engineer. In 1917 he published a paper on the chemistry
of oil films, that became the basis for the award of the Nobel Prize in chemistry
in 1932.

Langmuir theorized that oils consisting of an aliphatic chain with a hydrophilic

end group (perhaps an alcohol or acid) were oriented as a film one molecule
thick upon the surface of water, with the hydrophilic group down in the water
and the hydrophobic chains clumped together on the surface.

The thickness of the film could be easily determined from the known volume
and area of the oil, which allowed investigation of the molecular configuration
before spectroscopic techniques were available.

The Langmuir adsorption equation is used to model monolayer adsorption

where all surface adsorption sites have the same affinity for the adsorbing
species and do not interact with each other,

and it explains adsorption by assuming an adsorbate behaves as an ideal gas at

isothermal conditions. And the adsorbent is assumed to be an ideal solid surface
composed of a series of distinct sites capable of binding the adsorbate

According to the model, adsorption and desorption are reversible processes.

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 The most important process that has been discovered in
the late 18th's and early 19th 's century is The Haber-
Bosch process, this method of directly synthesizing
ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen was Developed
by the German physical chemist Fritz Haber ,and He
received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1918 for this
method

Figure 1.3 : Fritz Haber

Then The method was translated into a large-scale process

using a catalyst and high-pressure by Carl Bosch, he is an
industrial chemist who won a Nobel Prize in 1931 jointly
with Friedrich Bergius for high-pressure studies

Figure 1.4 : Carl Bosch

and the process was extremely important because it was the first of processes
developed that allowed people to produce synthetic fertilizers and produce
sufficient food for the Earth‘s growing population.
Indeed without the Haber-Bosch process we would only be able to produce
around two-thirds the amount of food we do today ,and approximately half of
the protein in today's humans originated it is with nitrogen fixed through the
Haber-Bosch process
This method works by taking nitrogen from the air and mix it with hydrogen to
produce ammonia. The process must use high pressure because nitrogen
molecules are held together with strong triple bonds. The Haber-Bosch process
uses a catalyst which is container made of iron or ruthenium with an inside
temperature of over 800 F (426 C) and a pressure of around 200 atmospheres to
force nitrogen and hydrogen to mix together

This process considered by many scientists and scholars as one of the most
important technological advances of the 20th century.

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 Gerhard Ertl (born 10 October 1936) he is a German
physicist ,in 1974 he described for the first time the
adsorption of hydrogen on a palladium surface using a
novel technique called LEED, Most recent
developments in surface sciences include the 2007
Nobel Prize of Chemistry that Gerhard Ertl awarded
for his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces,

Figure 1.5 : Gerhard Ertl

he is known for determining the detailed molecular mechanisms of the catalytic

synthesis of ammonia over iron (Haber Bosch process) for the first time, and
specifically his investigation of the interaction between carbon monoxide
molecules and platinum surfaces (catalytic converter).

During his research he discovered the important phenomenon of oscillatory

reactions on platinum surfaces, and using photoelectron microscopy, was able to
image for the first time the oscillating changes in surface structure and coverage
that occur during reaction.

The Ertl's research laid the foundation of modern surface chemistry, which has
helped explain how fuel cells produce energy without pollution, and how
catalytic converters clean up car exhausts and even why iron rusts,

The Nobel academy said Ertl provided a detailed description of how chemical
reactions take place on surfaces. His findings applied in both academic studies
and industrial development

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Introduction

1.2 Surface Concept

Some of the most important chemical and physical processes on our planet
occur at a surface or interface. A surface, as the term is most generally used as
the outermost or uppermost layer of a physical object or space. it is the portion
or region of the object that can first be perceived by an observer using the
senses of sight or touch, and is the portion with which other materials first
interact.

The physical boundary of any condensed phase like liquid or solid is considered
as surface. It separates one or group of substance from the other. It can be
considered as series of points which make a plane or layer where one phase
ends and the other begins. The surface may be uni-layered or multi-layered.

The interfaces that exist between two immiscible liquids like oil and water;
between a metal and a gas like platinum and hydrogen ….etc. are some
examples.

The surface of a medium whether it is a liquid or a solid has very special

properties which are often quite distinct from the bulk substance.

For example, the surface of water has a very high surface tension, allowing
more dense objects to float on top of it,

The surface of a semiconductor can have very different electronic properties

than the bulk due to the molecular orbitals of the surface atoms .

But what is special about surface?

Particles that make up a liquid are in constant random motion (they are
randomly arranged),

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We might expect the particles at the surface, at the micro-level, to form a
random surface,

Figure 1.6 : atoms of liquid

But this is not what actually happen, the atoms at the surface show unique
properties that are different from those of atoms in the bulk,

The atoms in the bulk are surrounded in all directions and hence the forces of
attraction are balanced from all directions,

But at the surface the force of attraction pull on the molecules from lateral and
downward, there is negligible intermolecular attraction above the molecular,

So the net force on surface molecule is downward, the result from this
downward force is that surface particles are pulled down until counter-balance
by the compression resistance of the liquid, surface molecules are compressed
more tightly together at the surface forming a sort of skin on the surface and
with less distance between them compared to the particles below them,

Figure 1.7: liquid atoms at surface

Because the particles (atoms or molecules) on the surface have nearest

neighbours beside and below but not above, the physical and chemical
properties of a surface differ from those of the bulk material,

The forces of attraction acting outside are not balanced and hence are known as
residual forces, which give unique properties to the surface.

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Introduction

1.3 Surface Chemistry Concept

The importance of an accurate study of the actions, equilibria, and structures

which occur at the interfaces between phases of matter is widely recognised at
the present time. Thus knowledge of these matters is required for a proper
understanding of adsorption, absorption, catalysis, enzyme actions…etc. and the
best science that can explant such things is surface science,

Surface science is the study of phenomena that occur at the interfaces (two
different phases), including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–
vacuum interfaces, and liquid-gas interfaces. It includes the fields of surface
chemistry and surface physics,

Or in another word you can say, surface chemistry is a branch of chemistry and
it can be defined as the study of chemical properties and phenomenon that occur
between two surfaces or interfaces of substances. Which explain how molecules
and atoms interact with surfaces and with each other while on surfaces, this is
key to understanding desirable chemical reactions, such as in heterogeneous
catalysis, and also those that are undesirable, such as in corrosion chemistry.

There are various phenomena taking place on the surface of a substance and out
of them some are: (crystallization, adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis, and
corrosion) those processes are very applicable in industries and day to day lives.

Surface chemistry also overlaps with electrochemistry. In other words, it deals

with all types of surface phenomenon, and whilst the progress of research we
will shows more and more clearly that those are the phenomena of life.

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Introduction

1.4 Surface Phenomena

There are various phenomena taking place on the surface of a substance and out
of them, in a wider perspective, surface chemistry deals with the interaction of
surfaces of one system with that of the other system, some examples as:

 Absorption
 Adsorption
 Heterogeneous Catalysis
 Chromatography
 Corrosion
 Colloid Formation
 Crystallization
 Electrode Reactions

Those phenomena have a major role in various chemical processes such as:

-In gas sweetening and acid gas removal absorption process applied, amine is
used to capture or to remove hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
from other gases.

-In automobile exhausts, the heterogeneous catalysts found in the catalytic

converter for cleaning emissions.

-in the pharmaceutical industry, crystallization is used as a separation and

purification process

-In the electronics industry, the use in the surface and interface of microchips
used in computers.

-Enzymatic reactions at the biological interfaces found in the cell walls and
membranes.

In this particular research we will try to focus on three phenomena which are
(adsorption, absorption and catalysis), we will also try to delve into the depths
of details and describe physical and chemical properties and its mechanism and
industrial application.

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Chapter Two
“Adsorption”

Page | 15
Adsorption
2.1 Adsorption Basic Principles
Separation and purification of liquid mixtures by adsorption has become an
important unit operation in the chemical industry, adsorption is a surface
process, that can be defined as the accumulation or concentration or sticking
together of atoms(ions, molecules) of a gas, liquid , dissolved solid, to the
surface of solid or sometimes a liquid,

which means that it leads to transfer of a molecule from a fluid bulk to solid or
liquid surface, those molecules are weakly held by the surface and can easily
dropped off ,

in every adsorption process there are two type of substance:

1- Adsorbate: The gas or liquid that is accumulated over the surface of a solid or
liquid is known as adsorbate.in another word it is a material that has been or is
capable of being adsorbed.

E.g. Oxygen molecule adsorbed on cobalt. Here oxygen is adsorbate.

2- Adsorbent: The solid or liquid on whose surface, molecules of other

substance are adsorbed, or we can say an adsorbent is a solid substance used to
collect adsorbate molecules from a liquid or gas,

And this process creates a film of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent
due to intermolecular force is known as adsorption. For Example, gases such as
H2, O2, N2 adsorbs on the surface of activated charcoal.

Illustration: If a gas is taken in a closed vessel containing finely powdered

charcoal, it is observed that the pressure of the gas in the enclosed vessel
decreases. It is due to accumulation of gas molecules over the surface of
charcoal.

Figure 2.1 : Adsorbate

and Adsorbent Molecules

Note: The charcoal is acting as adsorbent and gas as adsorbate.

Page | 16
Similar to surface tension, adsorption is a consequence of surface energy.
In a bulk material all the bonding requirements of the constituent atoms of the
material are filled by other atoms in the material.

However, atoms on the surface of the adsorbent are not wholly surrounded by
other adsorbent atoms and therefore can attract adsorbates.

Surface Atoms 

Interior Atoms 

Figure 2.2 : Surface Atoms and Interior Atom

Adsorption
2.2 Energetics Of Adsorption
The surface atoms or molecules of adsorbent are relatively unstable due to
positive surface free energy. Unlike in the bulk, there are unbalanced residual
forces at the surface as the molecules at the surface are not symmetrically
surrounded by other molecules as we mentioned before. Hence they have
tendency to attract adsorbate molecules and retain them to minimize the surface
energy.

In general, adsorption is an exothermic process (ΔH = -ve) heat is liberated

since new bonds are formed. However entropy of the system is also decreased
(ΔS = -ve) due to decrease in the number of microstates and decrease in the
freedom of movement of molecules. Hence adsorption is thermodynamically
more favorable at low temperatures.

Note: at low temperatures, and when both ΔH and ΔS are negative. The value of
ΔG becomes negative which means that the process will be spontaneous

Therefore, in general, at higher temperatures, the bonds between adsorbate and

adsorbent are weakened and the reverse of adsorption which is desorption is
favored.

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 Adsorption
2.3 Types of Adsorption
Due to the force of interaction between adsorbate and adsorbent, adsorption in
surface chemistry is classified into two types.
1- Physical Adsorption or Physisorption :

If the adsorbate molecules are attracted by weak van der Waals forces towards
the adsorbent molecules, the adsorption is known as physical adsorption or
physisorption.

Characteristics of Physisorption:

- Energetics & kinetics: Physisorption is an exothermic process, however it is

characterized by low enthalpy values (20– 40 kJ mol-1), due to weak van der
Waals forces of attraction.

- The activation energy for physisorption is also very low and hence it is
practically a reversible process.

- Specificity: Since the van der Waals‘ forces are universal, a given surface of
an adsorbent does not show any preference for an adsorbate in physisorption
which is mean it is not specific with respect to adsorbent.

- Nature of adsorbate: However, the extent of adsorption depends on the nature

of gas (adsorbate). In general, easily liquefiable gases with higher critical
temperatures) are readily adsorbed as the van der Waals‘ forces are stronger,
especially, near the critical temperatures.

Example: Sulphur dioxide (critical temperature 630K) is adsorbed more than

methane (critical temperature 190K) over activated charcoal under given set of
conditions.

- Effect of temperature: Since physical adsorption is an exothermic process, it

occurs more readily at lower temperatures and decreases with increase in
temperature (Le-Chatelier's Principle).

- Effect of pressure: In case of physisorption of gases over solids, the extent of

adsorption increases with increase in pressure as the volume of the gases
decrease during adsorption (Le-Chatelier's Principle).

Page | 18
 During adsorption, the volume of gases decreases along with the liberation of
heat. Hence at high pressures and low temperatures, adsorption is favored.
Whereas at low pressures and high temperatures, desorption is favored.

- Surface area of adsorbent: The extent of adsorption increases with the increase
of surface area of the adsorbent. Hence finely powdered metals and porous
substances having large surface areas perform well as adsorbents.

2- Chemical Adsorption or Chemisorption:

If the adsorbate molecules are bound to the surface of adsorbent by chemical

bonds, the adsorption is known as chemical adsorption or chemisorption.

Characteristics of Chemisorption:

- Energetics & kinetics: Chemisorption is also an exothermic process and the

enthalpy values are higher (80-240 kJ mol-1) as it involves formation of
chemical bonds.

- However, the activation energy for chemisorption is high and occurs slowly.
Hence it is also called activated adsorption. It is practically irreversible.

- High specificity: Chemisorption is highly specific and occurs only if there is

some possibility of chemical bonding between adsorbent and adsorbate.

Example; Oxygen is adsorbed on metals due to formation of oxide.

- Effect of temperature: Even though chemical adsorption is an exothermic

process, it does not occurs at lower temperature due to high kinetic energy
barrier. Hence, like most chemical changes, the extent of chemisorption
increases with increase in temperature up to certain limit and then after that it
starts decreasing.

It is also observed that, in some cases, physisorption of a gas adsorbed at low

temperature may change into chemisorption at high temperatures.

- Effect of pressure: The chemisorption is not appreciably affected by small

changes in pressure. However, very high pressures are favorable for
chemisorption.

- Surface area: Like Physisorption, chemisorption also increases with increase

of surface area of the adsorbent.

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Adsorption
2.4 Application Of Adsorption

Adsorption is present in many biological and chemical systems and is widely

used in industrial application, Modern use of adsorbents began with the
discovery of the decoloring effect of charcoal on solutions, followed by the
invention of a charcoal cartridge for personal protection during the First World
War, with the increasing availability of different types of adsorbents nowadays,
and the more recent interests in chemical industry and biotechnology and green
technology, there has been a great expansion in the applications of adsorption in
many areas, Some of the applications are:

1- in a Liquefied natural gas plant: the feed stream must be ―conditioned‖

through removal of ppm levels of a variety of contaminants including H2O,
H2S, various sulfur compounds and mercury ,mercaptans, and Hg via solid
bed adsorption

2- dehydrating natural gas: Solid-desiccant dehydration is the primary form of

removing a water from natural gas using adsorption ,Typical desiccants
include activated alumina, silica gel, and molecular sieve.

3- Separation of inert gases: Due to the difference in degree of adsorption of

gases by charcoal, a mixture of noble gases can be separated by adsorption
on coconut charcoal at different temperatures.

4- Production of high vacuum: The remaining traces of air can be adsorbed by

charcoal from a vessel evacuated by a vacuum pump to give a very high
vacuum.

5- Gas masks: activated charcoal in a gas mask attracts toxic gas molecules
allowing person wearing the mask to breath fresh and it is usually used for
breathing in coal mines to adsorb poisonous gases.

6- CO2 capture for addressing climate change.

7- Advanced treatment of waste water (domestic and industrial).

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Chapter Three
“Absorption”

Page | 21
Absorption
3.1 Absorption Basic Principles
Since the foundation of modern industry until the present time, absorption of
(gases in liquids) & (liquids in solids) has been of interest to Practitioners and
theoreticians of chemical and process engineering. This reflects the fact that it is
one of the basic operations in many technological processes.

Absorption refers to processes in which a substance penetrates into the actual

interior of another substance (blocks of amorphous solids or of liquids).
Absorption involves the diffusion of molecules of a substance into the bulk of
liquid or solid to form a solution.

Sometimes the word sorption is used to indicate the process of the taking up of
a gas or liquid by a solid without specifying whether the process is adsorption or
absorption, Absorption is a bulk phenomenon, whereas adsorption is a surface
phenomenon.

Example; Hydrogen gas is absorbed into the bulk of palladium metal, which is
also known as occlusion

Figure 3.1: Absorption Process

In another word absorption is a process by which a substance incorporated in

one state is transferred into another substance of a different state.

as an industrial process, the most commonly encountered use of absorption is

for the separation and purification of a gas mixture by the absorption of part of
the mixture in a solvent.

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 Absorption
3.2 Absorption Types
Absorption process can be divided into two types based on mechanism of work
which are : (Physical Absorption and Chemical Absorption)

1- Physical absorption: is absorption of a gas in a liquid solvent involves the mass

transfer that occurs at the interface between the gas and the liquid and the rate at
which the gas diffuses into the liquid, Physical absorption of gases in a liquid
solvent depends on the following parameters:

A. Solubility of The Gases.

B. Pressure Conditions.
C. Temperature Conditions.

An example of physical absorption of a gas into a liquid is the absorption of

ammonia (NH3) into water (H2O).

Some other examples are: the glycol dehydration of raw natural gas by
absorption of the water vapor contained in the natural gas into liquid glycols,

Separation of low molecular weight gases such as propane (C3H8) and butane
(C4H10) from a hydrocarbon gas mixture.

2- Chemical absorption or reactive absorption involves a chemical reaction

between the substance being absorbed and the absorbing medium. In some
cases, it occurs in combination with physical absorption. Chemical absorption
depends upon the stoichiometry of the reaction and the concentration of the
reactants.

An example of chemical absorption is the purification of natural gas by passing

the natural gas through an aqueous solution of an ethanolamine in which any
acid gases, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are
removed from the natural gas .

Another example is the removal of any hydrogen sulfide gas from the feedstock
to an ammonia production plant by contacting the hydrogen sulfide with a bed
of solid zinc oxide (ZnO) with which it reacts to form solid zinc sulfide (ZnS).

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Either type of absorption may be reversible or irreversible.

The physical absorption of small amounts of oxygen in water can be reversed

by heating the water. The reactive absorption of acid gases by an aqueous
solution of ethanolamine can be reversed by distillation of the ethanolamine
solution.

However, the reactive absorption of hydrogen sulfide by zinc oxide cannot be

reversed. The reactive absorption of carbon dioxide by an aqueous solution of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is also irreversible and they are not as economically
acceptable as the reversible reactive absorption of carbon dioxide by
ethanolamine solutions.

Absorption
3.3 Mechanisms of Absorption
There must be a similar polarity

There must be a capillary in the absorbent

There must be wetting

Polarity

In this case we are talking about whether something is either water-loving or

oil-loving. When something is water loving we say it is hydrophilic. Hydro is a
Latin or Greek root meaning ―water;‖ philic is Latin or Greek for ―like.‖

When something is oil-loving, we say it is oleophilic. If it does not like oil, then
it is oleophobic. Oleo is a Latin or Greek root for ―oil;‖ phobic is a Latin or
Greek root for ―fear‖.

When something is hydrophilic, it is oleophobic, and when it is oleophilic, then

it will be hydrophobic.

Everything in chemistry and physics is either polar, nonpolar or somewhere in

between. As a result, absorbents either absorb water or oil or a little bit of both.

Page | 24
For example, wool is hydrophilic and polypropylene is oleophilic. Many
sources would determine wool‘s absorbency at 35 percent, while one source
puts polypropylene‘s water absorbency at 0.025 percent.

Capillary action

A capillary is like a little canal or tunnel. When these capillaries fill with
liquids, they increase the size of fibers. If a substance does not have capillaries,
then it would be hydrophobic and oleophobic.

An example would be a fluorochemical protectant. While it is non-polar, both

oil and water will bead on its surface.

Wetting

Wetting is the uniform distribution of liquids over the surface of a solid. In

other words, the liquid must uniformly adsorb into the surface of other
substance, The contrast to this is when liquids bead on surface, it is because of
surface tension.

Surface tension is measured in a unit called dyne centimeters. The surface

tension of pure water is 72.6 dyne centimeters. Therefore, for liquid to bead on
a solid, the surface tension of the liquids needs to be greater than the surface
tension of the solid.

In most cases, for a substance to adsorb onto a surface, it must be sticky. A

good definition for stickiness is when a substance has a stronger attraction for
another solid compared to itself.

For the most part, stickiness is a non-reactive form of chemistry. When it is

reactive, it normally turns into something that is no longer sticky. Many glues
would be an example of this.

The non-reactive forms of chemistry that create stickiness are called hydrogen
bonding and Van der Waals forces, which generally deal with surface area.
Hydrogen bonding is the force that makes water bead. It is also why soil from
shoes sticks to wet carpet.

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Absorption
3.4 Application of Absorption
absorption is very important in gas and crude oil processing, many intermediate
and final products in the manufacture of organic chemicals are obtained as a
result of the absorption of gases with their simultaneous reaction in the liquid
phase, and also The fertilizer industry is a good example of the role of
absorption process.

Recently, environmental protection has emerged as a significant problem , One

of the basic operations of use in the solution of these problems is absorption.

As we all know the Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a GHG (Green House Gas) that
comes from burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas, through
activities like driving a car or creating electricity. For large stationary sources of
CO2 like an oil refinery, use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) can help
prevent these emissions from entering the atmosphere,

In (CCS) CO2 capture based on amine absorption, CO2 is removed by a

chemical absorption process that involves exposing a flue gas stream to an
aqueous amine solution.

CO2 reacts with the amines to form a soluble carbonate salt. This reaction is
reversible and the CO2 can be released by heating the solution with the
carbonate salt in a separate stripping column.

Page | 26
 Figure 3.2: Post-combustion CO2 capture based on amine absorption.

The flue gas from a coal power plant enters the absorption column, also called
absorber (1).

CO2 is represented by black particles and other components in the flue gas,
mainly nitrogen and water vapor is represented by green particles,

a mixture of water and amine (blue particles) enters the top of the absorber (2)

and the amine reacts with CO2 inside the absorber to form carbonate salt (3)
Cleaned gas will leave the top of the absorber (4)

and the carbonate salt leaves the absorber (5)

and is transferred to the stripper (6).

Hot amine from the reboiler (7) enters the stripper, causing the carbonate salt to
heat up.

As a result the carbonate salt reacts to pure CO2 and pure amine (8)

The amine formed in the stripper is transferred to the reboiler where it is heated
and transferred to the stripper (8) or recycled to the absorber (9).

Pure CO2 formed in the absorber (10) is compressed and transported to a

storage site(11).

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Chapter Four
“Catalysis”

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Catalysis
4.1 Catalysis Basic Principles
Catalysis is a phenomenon known from very ancient times, and nowadays it
plays a fundamental role in the manufacture of the vast majority of chemicals
used by our society. Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius (20 August 1779 – 7 August
1848) was a Swedish chemist. he invented the term catalysis, that comes from
the Greek words (kata) meaning down and (lyein) meaning loosen.

Industrial catalysis is an old practice. Catalysts have always been used in the
production of wine and beer. Among the first industrial catalytic processes are a
few inorganic oxidation processes.

Generally Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction

by adding a substance known as a catalyst or it is a process of using catalyst.

When addition of a small amount a chemical substance which increases the rate
of attainment of chemical equilibrium but the substance itself does not undergo
any chemical change, then the reaction is called a catalytic reaction.

The substance that enhances the reaction rate is called a catalyst. Catalysts work
by providing alternative mechanism involving a different transition state of
lower energy. Thereby, the activation energy of the catalytic reaction is lowered
compared to the uncatalyzed reaction ,often only very small amounts of catalyst
is required.

Illustration:

disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen:

2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2

This reaction proceeds because the reaction products are more stable than the
starting material. The uncatalysed reaction is slow. In fact, the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide is so slow that hydrogen peroxide solutions are
commercially available. This reaction is strongly affected by catalysts such as
manganese dioxide, or the enzyme peroxidase in organisms.

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Upon the addition of a small amount of manganese dioxide, the hydrogen
peroxide reacts rapidly, This effect is readily seen by the effervescence of
oxygen. The manganese dioxide is not consumed in the reaction, and thus may
be recovered unchanged, and re-used indefinitely.

Catalysis
4.2 Application Of Catalysis
The science and technology of catalysis is of great significance as it affects our
daily life. Four major sectors of the world economy; petroleum and energy
production, chemicals and polymer production, food industry and pollution
control, involve catalytic processes.

Figure 4.1: Catalysis Applications

Catalysts are used to produce fuels such as gasoline, diesel, heating oil, fuel oil
Production of plastics, synthetic rubbers, fabrics, cosmetics, the production of
clean energy from renewable energy sources, such as hydrogen for fuel cells
and transportation fuels from non-edible biomass are also catalyst dependent
processes.

Catalysts are also used in the production of the polymers including adhesives,
coatings, foams, textile and industrial fibers. The pharmaceutical industry uses
catalysts for production of drugs that are used to save lives and improve the
health of people. Catalysts are also widely used in food processing. More than
90 % of industrial processes actually use catalysts in one form or the other.

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 Catalyst also used in Automobile emission control to reduce emissions of CO,
NOx and unburned hydrocarbons from mobile vehicles.

The catalyst is also used in :

1- Haber process: An industrial process for producing ammonia by reaction of

nitrogen with hydrogen

N2+3H2 ⇌ 2NH3

The reaction is reversible and exothermic, so that a high yield of ammonia is

favored by low temperature .However; the rate of reaction would be too slow
for equilibrium to be reached at normal temperatures, so an optimum
temperature of about 450°C is used, with a catalyst of iron containing potassium
and aluminium oxide promoters, The higher the pressure the greater the yield,
although there are technical difficulties in using very high pressures. A pressure
of about 250 atmospheres is commonly employed.

2- Contact-Process: Contact-process plants are of two types. The simpler type, the
sulfur-burning contact plants, this process work by using sulfur as the raw
material. Molten sulfur is burned to form sulfur dioxide, which is cooled, then
oxidized, usually in the presence of pellets of porous siliceous material
impregnated with vanadium pentoxide and a potassium compound.to form
sulfur trioxide at moderately high temperatures.

The other type of contact-process plant produces sulfur dioxide from low-grade,
sulfur-bearing materials, such as pyrite. Cooling of the gas is necessary to
remove impurities and to condense and remove part of the water vapour, which
would dilute the acid product. The sulfur dioxide gas is then dried with
concentrated sulfuric acid. As a result of its purification, the gas in this process is
cold, instead of hot as in sulfur-burning plants, and then must be heated to the
temperature at which the catalyst begins to function.

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Experiment
5.1 Objective
The purpose of this experiment is to observe how fast the catalysts will
decompose hydrogen peroxide to form oxygen gas and water

The Substances Used in this experiment are :

1- Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
2- Manganese dioxide (MnO2)
3- Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
4- Zinc (Zn)
5- Yest
6- Potato

Experiment
5.2 Substances Used
5.2.1 Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2 )
Hydrogen peroxide is the simplest kind of peroxide available (oxygen-oxygen
single bond). It is a colourless liquid, it is often referred to as water with one
more oxygen atom. It is acidic in nature and PH is about 4.5. It is 100 percent
degradable compound. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide is a very reactive
oxygen species. The chemical formula for hydrogen peroxide is H2O2.

Properties of H2O2
Molecular Weight/ Molar Mass = 4.0147 g/mol
Density = 1.05 g/cm3
Boiling Point = 150.2 °C
Melting Point = -0.43 °C

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Structure of Hydrogen Peroxide
The structure of hydrogen peroxide is non-planar. H2O2 has an open book
structure with O – O spins. The dihedral angle is 111°. The O-O bond length
(https://byjus.com/chemistry/bond-parameters/) is 145.8 pm and the O-H bond
length is 98.8 pm(which is equal to 9.88 × 10-13 m).

Hydrogen peroxide decomposes when exposed to sunlight to form oxygen gas

and water ,

this process is catalyzed by traces of alkali metals. Therefore, H2O2 is stored in

wax-lined glass or plastic containers and kept in dark. It should also be kept
away from dust particles because dust can induce explosive decomposition of
this compound.

Uses of Hydrogen Peroxide

1- Chemical Synthesis
In this field, it has found its use as an oxidizing agent. Hydrogen peroxide has a
low molecular weight; it is thus a more efficient oxidizing agent than
potassium permanganate or dichromate. It is solvable in several organic
solvents including water and the substrate itself.

2- Aseptic Packaging
Hydrogen peroxide is a highly microbiologically safe reagent. Therefore, it is
used as a sterilizing agent for the internal aseptic zones of the manufacturing
machines and the surface of the packaging material that will be in contact with
the food.

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3- Electronics Industry
In this field, it finds its use as an oxidizing and a cleaning agent. The
production process of printed circuits boards uses hydrogen peroxide as an
etchant. The manufacturing process of semiconductors uses high-quality
electronic grade hydrogen peroxide as an oxidizing and cleaning agent.

4- Environment
Hydrogen peroxide is environmentally and ecologically friendly; hence, it
finds use in a variety of applications related to the environment e.g. in an
advanced oxidation process (AOP). The AOP process uses hydroxyl radicals to
decompose toxic substances. Technological processes also use hydrogen
peroxide to reduce their negative environmental impact.

5- Food Processing
In the food processing industry, hydrogen peroxide is the most commonly used
bleaching agent where it finds its use as a peroxygen reagent. Natural oils,
natural sugars, waxes, starch, and gums are some of the compounds bleached
using peroxides.

Experiment
5.2.2 Manganese dioxide (MnO2 )
Manganese dioxide is the inorganic compound with the formula MnO it is
blackish or brown solid

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Physical Properties of Manganese dioxide

Uses of Manganese dioxide

1- Used in Ceramic Industries for making glass practically all the raw materials
used in glass contain some iron, usually in the form of ferric oxide.
2- Ores of manganese are not ‗active‘ for direct use in dry cell manufacture and
many of them need to be activated by physical or chemical treatment.
3- Used in glassmaking to remove the green tint caused by iron impurities.
4- Used as an important component in batteries. The Leclanche cell the positive
electrode carbon is surrounded by manganese dioxide and carbon.
5- The principal use for MnO is for dry-cell batteries, such as the alkaline
battery and the zinc-carbon battery.

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Experiment
5.2.3 Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
Sodium Chloride is also known as salt. It occurs in oceans and sea waters. It is
also found as rock salt. About 1% to 5 % of seawater is made of NaCl. It is a
crystalline solid, white. In its aqueous form, it is called a saline solution.

Properties of Sodium Chloride

Uses of Sodium Chloride

1- used in cleansers like shampoo, toothpaste
2- used in the soda ash industry to produce sodium carbonate through Solvay
process
3- used in the paper industry, textile industry and in the construction of roads
4- used in water softening

Experiment
5.2.4 Zinc (Zn)
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol (Zn) and atomic number 30. Zinc is
a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a silvery-greyish appearance
when oxidation is removed.

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Properties of Zinc
Color: bluish-white
• Boiling point- 1665°F
• Melting point- 787.15°F
• Lustrous metal
• Conductor of electricity
• Thermal conductivity
• Malleable

Experiment
5.2.5 Yest
Yeasts are unicellular (single-cell) organisms called Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
which needs food, warmth, and moisture to thrive. It converts its food—sugar
and starch—through fermentation, into carbon dioxide and alcohol. It's the
carbon dioxide that makes baked goods rise.

Uses of Yeast
Yeast is used in baking bread. There are a few dessert recipes that call for yeast
such as Christmas bread, sweet rolls, and bee sting cake. It's also essential for
beer production.

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Experiment
5.2.6 Potato
A raw potato is 79% water, 17% carbohydrates (88% is starch), 2% protein, and
contains negligible fat potato provides 322 kilojoules nd is a rich source of
vitamin B6 and vitamin C .ones reaction potatoes can undergo is when iodine
is put onto the potato. ... This is because an enzyme (catalase) in the potato
reacts with the hydrogen peroxide to break it down into water and oxygen gas.

Experiment
5.3 Procedure
1. Bring 5 empty test tubes
2. Fill 20 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution into each test tube
3. Put each catalyst in single test tube
4. record the time until all hydrogen peroxide is decomposed (stop time when
there is no longer bubbles )

Experiment
5.4 Results
Substances Time
MnO2 Immediately (1 Second)
Yest 31.64 Seconds
Potato 51 Seconds
NaCl 60 Seconds
Zn 10 Minutes

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Experiment
5.4 Conclusion
This experiment, ―The decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide,‖ provides very
interesting results. The task was to aid the reaction by the addition of a catalyst.
The experiment used a variation of salts, Enzymes, and chlorides. Some
experiments did barely anything and others had very violent notable reactions,
for example adding Manganese dioxide (MnO2) to hydrogen peroxide
accelerate the rate of the reaction , the reaction happen immediately and
oxygen gas formed , but when adding zinc to the solution it increase the rate of
the reaction but not as (MnO2), it takes approximately 10 minutes to
decompose all hydrogen peroxide, so we observe that the different catalysts
provide different rate of the reaction .

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