Jet Engine Materials Civil Transport (HSCT) Program was terminated in

1999. Even though the HSCT airplane, designed to

Aeronautical turbine engines have continually im- cruise at Mach 2.4–2.6, was not built, materials
proved since their invention in the 1930s and their first advancements made by the team of GE Aircraft
application in aircraft in the 1940s. These engines were Engines, Pratt & Whitney, and NASA Glenn Research
originally developed to power fighter aircraft, but Center fostered the next generation of turbine disk
were quickly adapted for transport aircraft propulsion material, the next generation of single crystal, high-
in the 1950s. Today the commercial market for jet pressure turbine superalloy, and SiC\SiC ceramic
engines dwarfs the military market. Consequently, matrix composites among other achievements.
new constraints such as cost have a major influence on Material advancements are necessarily driven by the
new product offerings and on the direction of the overarching needs of the airplane designers, who in
aircraft engine industry. New military fighter engine turn reflect the needs of the airplane operators, i.e.,
applications still demand improved performance, but commercial airlines or the military. Since requirements
other factors such as low radar and IR signatures have differ somewhat between commercial and military
become quite important (Sect. 7). users, the materials focus can vary by customer. The
Modern commercial jet engines, such as those that needs of military users are discussed in more detail
power the Boeing 777, benefit from improvements below. Commercial users now dominate the product
made in performance, durability, and reliability. Fig. 1 creation process and are very cost-sensitive. Their
shows one of these engines, the GE90, in cut-away applications thus favor M&P that is inherently lower
view. In this case, performance is defined by several total cost while providing a high degree of durability
parameters: thrust per unit engine weight, fuel ef- and reliability, even if the material does not allow the
ficiency, engine operability, engine control, exhaust absolute ultimate in performance. Furthermore, com-
emissions, and noise level. Better durability means mercial airplanes are subject to increasingly strict
longer times between necessary overhaul or repair, environmental rules governing engine emissions and
and slower deterioration of performance during op- noise levels which place additional constraints on
eration. Reliability equates to fewer instances of these products. These regulations are gradually being
unanticipated failures and greatly reduced in-flight extended to military airplanes as well. Many of the
shut-downs. Advances in structural materials, includ- materials and process advances made during the 1990s
ing processing, and in manufacturing methods for benefited both military and commercial products. For
critical components, have facilitated many of these example, the continued drive to increase operating
improvements and will continue to do so in the future. temperatures to achieve increased performance and
This review highlights ongoing changes in materials lower fuel consumption is common to both military
and their processing (M&P) that will advance the and commercial applications. This article therefore
state-of-the-art of jet engine technology. focuses mainly on the M&P aspects of achieving these
The NASA-funded Engine Propulsion Materials results.
(EPM) Program, which supported the High Speed There are M&P requirements for military engines
that can be significantly different than for commercial

Figure 1
Cut-away view of the GE90 engine.

1
Jet Engine Materials

Figure 2
Cross-section through a high by-pass ratio turbo-fan engine, the CF6–80C2.

engines, although the gap is narrowing. These military two principal sections: the high-pressure system and
specific needs originate from the requirement for the low-pressure system. The high-pressure system
global deployment and wide-ranging missions. Engine consists of the high-pressure compressor, the com-
characteristics required to ensure mission effectiveness bustor, and the high-pressure turbine. The low-
and crew safety in combat include: low observable pressure system consists of the fan, the low-pressure
radar and infrared signatures, high reliability in severe compressor (also called the booster), and the low-
operating environments (e.g., the deck of an aircraft pressure turbine.
carrier), and high performance during maneuvering. Materials and processes used in the production of a
These needs have led to M&P developed to meet jet engine vary considerably depending on the operat-
military requirements; over time, these advanced ing temperatures and stresses; these parameters also
materials find their way into commercial engine vary between sections of the engine. Fig. 2 shows a
applications as the technology becomes better under- cross-section through a large commercial, high by-
stood, more affordable, and older material solutions pass ratio turbo-fan engine, the CF6–80C2, which
fall short of requirements. The military services have powers wide-body aircraft. The generic classes of
also begun to accept commercial specifications, and materials used in each section are shown.
have instituted development programs aimed at M&P highlights consisting of a description of the
reducing cost and schedule risk by favoring current state-of-the art and the expected trends for
M&P technologies already proven in commercial future products are discussed below for each section of
applications. the engine. Unique military requirements also are
A modern, high by-pass ratio jet engine consists of identified where these exist.

2
 Jet Engine Materials

Figure 3
Benefits of coarse grain processing on creep strength.

1. Fan and Booster Sections fracture-critical applications. Improved melting prac-

tices such as cold hearth melting of titanium alloys,
The fan of a transport engine provides a significant
and triple melting of titanium and nickel-based alloys,
fraction of the total thrust; the exact fraction depends
coupled with improved inspection methods such as
on the by-pass ratio. The by-pass ratio can be simply
multi-zone ultrasonic inspection, have significantly
defined as the ratio of the mass of the air that passes
decreased the likelihood of such a catastrophic event
through the fan duct to that which passes through the
during service.
core. The fan air is lower velocity air, which has better
Although nickel-based alloys are not generally used
momentum coupling to the airplane and also encapsu-
in the fan and booster, it is helpful to mention
lates the high-velocity core air and reduces the noise.
improved melt and inspection practices for both alloy
Consequently, high by-pass ratio engines are quieter
classes together, as these are related to the integrity of
and more fuel-efficient.
all rotors in the engine. Because of the consequences of
The challenge in fan design and construction is to
an uncontained failure, jet engine rotors must be
reduce the mass of the fan section so that the benefit of
designed and constructed using the best design prac-
increased by-pass ratio is not offset by increased engine
tices and highest integrity materials.
weight. The use of higher strength titanium alloys for
It also has been necessary to change the construction
the rotor disk has helped in this regard, but processing
and materials for the fan blades in very high by-pass
higher strength alloys to achieve acceptable fracture
ratio engines. Today, engines on the Boeing 777 use
toughness and fatigue crack growth properties re-
blades made from either carbon fiber-reinforced and
quires substantial process development and manu-
toughened polymer composites or superplastically
facturing costs. The other essential requirement of all
formed and diffusion-bonded titanium. One of the
rotors (also called disks) in a jet engine is the use of
most critical requirements for the fan blade is that it
design and materials technology to achieve an absolute
must be capable of withstanding the impact of a large
minimum probability of catastrophic fracture during
bird ingested during flight. Both types of blade
service. This is necessary because it is impractical to
construction mentioned above have been certified and
design a jet engine capable of containing all the pieces
are used in commercial service. An additional re-
of a rotor if it fractures in service. It is this overarching
quirement for the fan is the containment of a liberated
requirement that creates the need for retaining the
blade within the engine case and nacelle. This requires
good fracture toughness and fatigue growth character-
reinforcement of the fan case to prevent penetration
istics of the higher strength alloys. Another possible
by the liberated blade, and any fragments from
source of premature rotor fracture is the presence of a
adjacent blades that may be created as it attempts to
melt-related defect in the disk material. The detailed
exit the rotor. Containment becomes more difficult as
nature of these defects differ for titanium and nickel-
the fan size and blade mass increase. The most
based alloys, but their potential presence is the cause
common approach is to over-wrap the fan case with
of the extraordinary care taken during melting and
a lightweight, strong fiber such as Kevlar. This ap-
processing of so-called rotor grade materials in
proach has proved effective and is currently used on

3
Jet Engine Materials

Figure 4
Temperature capability of new blade alloys introduced for use in high-pressure turbines.

most Boeing 747\Airbus 330 and Boeing 777 class made from titanium alloys and the final stages from
engines. nickel-based alloys. The transition depends on the
There has been a concerted effort to improve the compression ratio and the compressor exit gas tem-
aerodynamic efficiency of all the airfoils in the engine perature, which can range from 500–700 mC, depending
from the fan to the low-pressure turbine. The use of on the engine design. Unlike the turbine section dis-
three-dimensional solutions to the Euler equations for cussed in Sect. 4, there is no provision to cool the
compressible fluid flow has enabled step improvement components in the compressor. Thus, these gas tem-
in airfoil efficiency. The resulting airfoil designs have peratures are identical to the material temperatures in
new and quite different airfoil shapes, which pose new the gas path during engine operation. Consequently,
manufacturing challenges. Except for the largest fan there has been a need to introduce higher temperature
blades, forging has been the common production capability alloys to keep pace with the increased
method for fan, booster, and high-pressure compres- operating temperatures of more fuel-efficient engines.
sor airfoils. The new complex shapes are considerably For the titanium alloy stages, this has led to the use
more difficult to make by forging. Progress in precision of improved processing and higher temperature capa-
investment casting may result in the use of this method bility alloys such as Ti–6Al–2Sn–4Zr–2Mo(jSi) and
instead of forging, especially for nickel-based alloys IMI-834. For the nickel-based stages, powder metal-
used at the rear (hottest) section of the high-pressure lurgy disk alloys such as IN-100 and R-88DT have
compressor. Cast airfoils would also allow use of been introduced. The introduction of powder metal-
higher temperature capability nickel-based alloys than lurgy disks increases the cost and creates the need for
can routinely be forged. further understanding of processing effects on proper-
ties and materials behavior. Powder metallurgy disks
have better uniformity of structure and composition;
this is an additional benefit if they are processed to
2. High-pressure Compressor
achieve coarser grains for improved creep resistance.
In addition to cast airfoils, the other change in the Fig. 3 shows the benefits of coarse grain processing on
high-pressure compressor has been higher operating creep strength. While the introduction of powder
temperatures. This has necessitated use of higher metallurgy nickel disks has been successful, there is
temperature capability materials. In a large transport general agreement that a higher temperature alloy
engine, the high-pressure compressor consists of 10– produced by conventional ingot metallurgy would
14 consecutive rotating stages. The front stages are offer a significant cost benefit.

4
 Jet Engine Materials

3. Combustor

Table 1
Typical mechanical properties of selected titanium alloys
Tensile properties at 20 mC

UTS YS Elongation RA
Alloy (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
Ti–6Al–4V 910 840 10 20
Ti–6Al–2Mo–4Zr–2Sn (jSi) 895 825 10 25
Ti–5.8Al–4Sn–3.5Zr–0.7Nb–0.5Mo–0.3Si (IMI-834) 950 1050 12 20
Ti–6Al–2Sn–4Zr–6Mo 1090–1240 1020–1090 6–14 13–42
Ti–5Al–2Sn–2Zr–4Mo–4Cr (Ti–17) 1105–1240 1035–1075 8–15 20–45

The combustor can be thought of as a small pressure tective coating for use in the mildly reducing en-
vessel as the outer portion of the combustor (the vironment of the combustor.
combustor case) must withstand both pressure and
temperature. The levels of these parameters necessitate
4. High-pressure Turbine
the use of high-temperature nickel or cobalt-based
alloys. The combustor consists of this case, a liner that In many regards, the high-pressure turbine is the heart
shields the case from the direct flame, and fuel nozzles of a jet engine. The temperature capability of the
that spray the fuel into the combustion zone. There are turbine and its efficiency determine, to a significant
numerous other individual parts in a typical com- degree, the performance characteristics of the engine.
bustor, but its functionality is determined by these For example, more thrust can be obtained from an
three major components. Combustor design changed existing engine if the turbine inlet temperature is
considerably during the 1990s in response to require- increased. Thus there is an incentive to continue to
ments for lower emissions and higher fuel economy. raise the turbine inlet gas temperature.
Several designs now dominate, each with its unique The turbine inlet gas temperatures of modern
materials requirements. Perhaps the most significant engines are typically in the range 1350–1450 mC. The
change in materials has been the incorporation of airfoil materials used for the high-pressure turbine are
improved cobalt-based alloys for the liner, the re- cast nickel alloys that are directionally solidified to
placement of a fabricated case by an investment create a single crystal structure. Since the inception of
casting that is subjected to hot isostatic pressing (HIP) single crystal turbine airfoils in the late 1970s, three
to assure mechanical properties, and the use of cast additional generations of alloys have been devel-
pieces made from nickel-based turbine blade alloys. oped—each having a higher temperature capability,
The temperatures of combustion gases may exceed but also being more difficult to cast as single crystal
1500 mC, considerably hotter than the incipient melting blades. The temperature capability of these new blade
temperature of metal parts in contact with these gases. alloys is shown in Fig. 4. Even the most advanced
Successful operation depends on supplying cooling air turbine airfoils cannot operate at these high tempera-
to the combustor liner: air from the high-pressure tures for extended time periods. However, metal
compressor is bled into the combustor and impinged temperatures can be maintained at satisfactory levels
on the liner to reduce part temperatures as dictated by through a combination of improved cooling designs
strength and oxidation resistance requirements. This and thermal barrier coatings (TBCs).
cooling air is unavoidably mixed with the fuel–air Just as in the case of the combustor liner, com-
mixture and thus detracts from the ability to control pressor bleed air cools the high-pressure turbine
the exact fuel–air ratio desired for emission control. It airfoils. This cooling air can be thought of as ‘‘over-
would therefore be desirable to use material for the head’’, inasmuch as it is air pumped by the engine that
combustor liner that has a higher temperature capa- does not directly contribute to the propulsion force of
bility than current nickel and cobalt alloys such as the engine. The cooling schemes employed for turbine
Hastelloy X and Haynes 188. Ceramic composites airfoils are conceptually simple but difficult to execute.
with SiC matrix and SiC fiber reinforcement have the Cooling of the inner surface of the airfoil is achieved
promise of fulfilling this need, but are currently not through convection—intricately cast serpentine pas-
mature enough for introduction. The improvements sageways form internal cooling circuits for cool
required before these materials can be introduced compressor bleed air. In addition, a thin film of
include: manufacturing capability, reproducibility of cooling air is formed over the outer surface of the
properties, cost, and development of a suitable pro- airfoil by compressor bleed air pumped from the

5
Jet Engine Materials

Table 2 5. Low-pressure Turbine

Mechanical properties of combustor alloys
The increased temperatures in the low-pressure tur-
Tensile properties at 20 mC bine and the increase in size of the low-pressure turbine
due to increasing fan size (by-pass ratio) have created
UTS YS Elongation some new requirements. Among these are the need for
Alloy (MPa) (MPa) (%)
higher temperature airfoil materials and lighter weight
Hastelloy X 970 464 62 materials with similar temperature capability to those
HA 188 785 360 43 materials currently in use. Modern transport engines
typically use solid (uncooled) cast nickel-based alloy
airfoils. Depending on the temperature requirement,
these can be conventionally cast (equi-axed grains),
hollow interior of the cast airfoil through an array of directionally solidified (elongated grains), or single
small, shaped holes extending to the external surface crystals. The processing benefit obtained through
of the airfoil. The details of the cooling hole array controlled solidification to produce elongated grains
depend on the particular application, but these holes or monocrystals is also illustrated in Fig. 3.
are usually drilled through the wall using a high- Because of cost, there is a strong preference for
energy, solid state laser. conventionally cast airfoils. There is a new class of
In addition, a TBC layer is applied to the airfoil to material based on titanium and aluminum known as
form an insulating layer between the metallic com- Gamma TiAl. Airfoils cast from this material have a
ponent and the hot gases of combustion. This allows temperature capability approximately equivalent to
constant metal operating temperatures at reduced conventionally cast nickel-based alloys, but have
cooling air use or increased gas temperatures at about half their weight. The total weight benefit
constant metal temperature and cooling flow. In either obtained from introduction of two stages of TiAl
case, use of these coatings enables improved per- airfoils into the low-pressure turbine of a B777 class
formance in terms of fuel consumption or thrust. engine is of the order of more than 100 kg. By engine
TBCs are " 125 µm thick ceramic coatings typically industry standards, this is a very large and attractive
consisting of yttrium-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), i.e, number. The barriers to the introduction of TiAl are
ZrO containing 5% to 10% Y O .
#
Ceramic TBCs do not provide # $ environmental re- primarily cost, but this becomes acceptable once a
significant volume of these airfoils has been produced.
sistance to the superalloys. An additional metallic There are some minor technical concerns related to the
layer is therefore placed between the substrate and the low ductility of this material, but these have been
TBC. This coating may be an overlay alloy, such as largely addressed by design engineers and demon-
MCrAlY, where M is an element(s) selected from the strated by successful factory engine testing.
group Fe, Ni and Co, or a diffusion nickel aluminide,
or a platinum aluminide. As an added requirement,
these coatings must serve as an interface layer between
the TBC and the airfoil alloy.
These coatings are applied by a variety of processes.
6. Augmentor (Military Only)
These are determined by the airfoil configuration,
coating composition and thickness, cost, and required Military fighter engines achieve higher thrust-to-
quality level. Methods include pack cementation, weight ratios than transport engines by using an
chemical vapor deposition, plasma spray, low-press- augmentor (also called an afterburner). The augmen-
ure plasma spray, physical vapor deposition, and tor section, which is part of the exhaust nozzle, injects
sputtering. additional fuel in the augmentor. This fuel is ignited to

Table 3
Mechanical properties of disk alloys
Tensile properties at 20 mC

UTS YS Elongation RA
Alloy (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
IN718 1435 1185 21
Waspaloy 1275 795 25
Udimet 720 1635 1215 18 17
MERL 76\In 100 1585 1025 20 20
R95 1650 1300 18 21
R88DT 1550 1150 21 NA

6
 Jet Engine Materials

produce additional propulsive force (thrust). The focus in terms of establishing a market for new
augmentor nozzle also has a variable geometry that materials technologies.
employs movable flaps and seals to create a variable Commercial jet engines are developed with the
nozzle area. When the augmentor is lit, the flame intent of achieving performance parity at lowest cost.
impinges directly on these flaps and seals. This creates The strong driving force to achieve higher tempera-
a need for flap and seal materials with very high tures continues because it enables better fuel economy
temperature capability. The fairly recent use of cast and longer range—this offers significant challenges to
pieces for flaps and seals has allowed longer lifetimes the materials community as nickel-based superalloys
to be achieved between replacement, but the actual reach their inherent physical limitations.
times are still quite short. A higher temperature Powder metallurgy disk alloys are now commonly
capability material could allow longer life and lower used in commercial engines to allow higher operating
maintenance costs. Ceramic matrix composites temperatures and better fuel consumption character-
(CMCs) have been shown to be excellent candidates istics; even higher temperature disks will be required in
for augmentor flap and seal applications. CMC the future.
manufacturing technology has advanced appreciably Thermal barrier coatings are commonly used on
for this application; the increase in durability offsets a high-pressure turbine blades to extend their life and
cost increase for this new material system. Conse- reduce the amount of cooling air required.
quently, the latest fighter engines are successfully using High by-pass ratio fans with high aerodynamic
ceramic composite flaps and seals. efficiency have necessitated the introduction of both
complex-shaped polymer composite and hollow ti-
tanium fan blades.
7. Other Special Military Requirements Advances in process technologies are as important
as material advancements. For instance, the need to
Another requirement for military engines that does significantly reduce uncontained rotor failures was
not exist for commercial engines is the need to reduce satisfied by the introduction of new and improved
the radar signature from the inlet and the IR signature melting technologies for both nickel and titanium disk
from the exhaust nozzle. The well-known stealth alloys, as well as developing more capable non-
fighter and bomber aircraft have demonstrated the destructive inspection technology to minimize the
feasibility of achieving lower signatures through a possibility of using materials in rotors that contain
combined use of special materials and design methods. melt defects.
Material possibilities include radar-absorbing and low The need to reduce emissions has changed the
emissivity coatings. Coatings offer flexibility in the design and construction of combustors and created
design of the underlying structure, but durability can the need for better liner materials. Ceramic matrix
be an issue. Materials possessing the intrinsic capa- composites are attractive in this regard, but require
bility to absorb radar or have low emissivity offer additional development for introduction.
attractive solutions. Work is continuing on these The need to reduce inlet and exhaust signatures in
technologies. military engines has created a special set of materials
technologies.
8. Typical Material Properties
Some typical properties of titanium and nickel-based Bibliography
alloys are shown for reference in Table 1, Table 2 and Antolovich, Stusrud, MacKay, Anton, Khan, Kissinger,
Table 3. More complete data on these and other alloys Klarstrom(eds.)1992Superalloys1992.TheMinerals,Metals&
can be found in many of the references in the Materials Society (TMS), Warrendale, PA
bibliography. Boyer, Welsch, Collings (eds.) 1994 Materials Property
Handbook—Titanium Alloys. American Society for Metals,
Materials Park, OH
9. Summary Bradley E F (ed.) 1988 Superalloys: A Technical Guide. American
Society for Metals, Materials Park, OH
This article has addressed the reasons for changing History Office, Aeronautical Systems Division 1986 An En-
materials and process requirements in jet engines and counter Between the Jet Engine InŠentors, Sir Frank Whittle
has outlined the nature of these changes. Detailed and Dr. Hans Šon Ohain, 3–4 May 1978. Wright-Patterson Air
accounts of advances in the metallurgy and processing Force Base, OH
Kissinger, Deye, Anton, Cetel, Nathal, Pollock, Woodford
of titanium and nickel alloys can be found in the
(eds.) 1996 Superalloys 1996. The Minerals, Metals & Ma-
references in the bibliography. terials Society (TMS), Warrendale, PA
There has been a major shift in emphasis in materials Lee J, Schafrik R E (eds.) 1998 Modern manufacturing. In:
technology since the mid-1980s. The major changes Kreith F (ed.) CRC Handbook of Mechanical Engineering.
are: CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
A transition from military focus to commercial Mattingly J D, Heiser W H, Daley D H 1987 Aircraft Engine

7
Jet Engine Materials

Design. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Research Council 1998 Visionary Manufacturing Chal-
Washington, DC lenges for 2020. National Academy Press, Washington, DC
Nathal, Darolia, Liu, Martin, Miracle, Wagner, Yamaguchi Sims C T, Hagel W C (eds.) 1972 The Superalloys. J Wiley, New
(eds.) 1997 Structural Intermetallics 1997. The Minerals, York
Metals & Materials Society (TMS), Warrendale, PA Wilson D G 1984 The Design of High-efficiency Turbomachinery
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Structural Materials: Trends and Opportunities. National
Academy Press, Washington, DC R. E. Schafrik and J. C. Williams

Copyright ' 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.

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Encyclopedia of Materials : Science and Technology
ISBN: 0-08-0431526
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