Pil Apuntes
Pil Apuntes
1. Relativism: norms, facts and values (Derecho Internacional otorga libertad cada uno
de los países para decidir si consiente o no una norma. Es más, cada país puede incluso
interpretar una norma de diferente manera que otro, llegando incluso a contraponerse
con la interpretación de un tercero).
o Formation: norms (soft law: soft law: states do not want to take it as soft law is
a rule which has no legally binding force, but which is intended to influence
conduct (e.g., certain norms that try to organize tax relation between states,
within the framework of the OECD) Grey zone: example of relativism (not clear
about whether is binding or not)
o Application: facts (prevention and sanction of violations: institutional
deficiencies, means of dispute resolution: freedom in the choice of means,
political controversies). (Ex: dispute over Gibraltar)
o Validity: it is respected more in technical fields, it affects many acts of people's
daily life, the State Constitutions provide for its application. Values: what
grounds your respect?
2. Interdisciplinarity: analysis of the norms together with their factual substratum
(political, economic, geographical, technological factors) and the values that condition
their creation and application: humanist conception. Realism.
3. The source or form of production, not the regulated matter (which is unlimited for IL),
distinguishes IL from the internal laws of States.
o In the Law of Treaties and other international Agreements the regulation of
administrative agreements subject to the Right is discarded. Internal.
o Political agreements are defined by reference to ID.
4. Contemporary IL is draws on values which are present in different sectors of the
discipline:
o International protection of the human rights
o Free self-determination of the villages
o The notions of the ius cogens (norms that admit neither the exclusion nor the
alteration of its content, so that any act that is contrary to it will be declared
null and void) and international crimes…
5. The mandatory fundament of the IL:
o From a doctrinal perspective it is not just the will of the subjects of the IL
(states), but there is a humanistic conception rooted in the Natural Law. This
conforms limits to the states’ sovereignty.
o In the international case law, with some exceptions, we can find solutions in
the General Principles of Law.
General principles of law are basic rules whose content is very general and
abstract, sometimes reducible to a maxim or a simple concept. Unlike other
types of rules such as enacted law or agreements, general principles of law
have not been “posited” according to the formal sources of law. Yet, general
principles of law are considered to be part of positive law, even if they are only
used as subsidiary tools.
o In the interstate practice the GPL is also operative, as the article 38 of the
statute of the ICJ states though GPL are not usually invoked.
o States establish the norms of the ius cogens (obligatory) in the articles 53, 69,
86 of the Vienna Convention.
o Norms of the ius cogens = obligations erga omnes (for all) For example:
protection of the human rights or the prohibition of the use of force.
6. IL is conditioned by the structure and dynamic of the international society.
o It is not an organized international society. There is not a general institutional
authority and superior to states.
o IOs do compose the formal structure of the international society, and they
develop functionally the IL.
o The State is the main actor of the international society and subject by
excellence of the IL.
o In terms of the globalization: North-South economic Gap due to the
industrialization
i. Social injustice and inequality. Not palliated by the IL of Development
and the action of the UN
Formal sources are those methods for the creation of rules of general application
which are legally binding on their addressees. In the context of international relations,
however, the use of the term ‘formal source’ is misleading since it conjures up notions
associated with the constitutional machinery of law-making within states. Nonetheless
they are (generally) not binding on states. In this sense ‘formal sources’ hardly exist in
international law. As a substitute, and perhaps as a ‘constitutional’ equivalent to
formal sources, international law works on the basis that the general consent or
acceptance of states can create rules of general application.
The material sources provide evidence of the existence of rules which, when
established, are binding and of general application. The rules. Peremptory norms (ius
cogens) are above the rest.
Ius cogens: Peremptory norms in International Law from which no derogation is
permissible. They cannot be violated by any state through international treaties or
local or special customs.
(treaties, international customs, general widely recognized principles of law, the
decisions of national and lower courts, and scholarly writings).
- Según art. 96.1 Constitución de España costumbre y tratado tienen el mismo rango
jerárquico (supralegal-infraconstitucional).
There is no express hierarchy, but the draftsmen stipulated an order, and in one draft the word
‘successively’ appeared. In practice subparagraphs international conventions and international
custom are the most important: we can explain the priority of international conventions by the
fact that it refers to a source of obligation which will ordinarily prevail as being more specific.
But it is unwise to think in terms of hierarchy as dictated by the order (a) to (d) in all cases.
! Constitution is above treaties so that is Spain ratifies a treaty the Constitution must be
amended. When it is a conflict between treaty and domestic law treaty must be applied.
Art 96: Los tratados internacionales válidamente celebrados, una vez publicados oficialmente
en España, formarán parte del ordenamiento interno.
International treaties validly concluded in Spain must be officially published and then they
form part of the domestic legal system. Provisions of treaties can be modified or suspended
in the form provided in the treaty itself or in accordance with General International Law.
Vienna convention on the law of treaties reflects general international law. Treaty law and
customary law are at the same level.
Customary International Law1 is the generalization of the practice of the States, accepted as
law. Consistent state practice undertaken with the notion in mind that the law requires them
to act in that manner. Art 38: evidence of a general practice accepted as law. Defective
element in the definition: evidence is not custom.
Difference of custom and usage: usage is a general practice which does not reflect a legal
obligation. Such practices are carried on out of courtesy (or ‘comity’) and are neither
articulated nor claimed as legal Reference’s requirements. International comity is a species of
accommodation: it involves neighbourliness, mutual respect, and the friendly waiver of
technicalities. However, particular rules of comity, maintained consistently without
reservation, may develop into rules of customary law. Usage is a repetition of acts
whereas custom is the law or general rule that arises from such repetition.
Usus (material element): The objective element, the practice. Usus is the behavioural
component of Customary International Law and deals with acts and omissions. A State
practice can be evidenced in different ways: domestic legislation, diplomatic and
ministerial statements, judicial decisions, and votes in the UNGA and UNSC.
o The jurisprudence thesis of the Court of The Hague affirms that custom obliges
all States, whether or not they contributed to its gestation, with the exception
of those who have opposed it in their formative period.
o NEGATIVE CUSTOMS MAY ARISE. (STPJI 1927 as. Lotus).
Usus requires of three points to be fulfilled:
o Consistency and uniformity: Repetition and continuity. Constant and
acquiescent form usage practiced by States. Major inconsistencies stop the
creation of the customary rule.
SCIJ 1986 as. actividades militares y paramilitares en Nicaragua y contra ella).
o Generality of the practice: An essential prerequisite before a custom could
come into existence. There is no need for absolute conformity just enough to
prove uniformity of practice.
Opinio iuris (the spiritual element): Shows the acceptation of practice. Psychological
notion that drives a state to act in a certain manner. A State acts in a certain way
because it believes it ought to act in that manner under the law. The evidence of the
opinio iuris is composed by Treaties, UN Resolutions, scholar opinions…Also of the
material element. Different value of each source taking the particular circumstances.
The role of acquiescence
Tacit recognition manifested by unilateral conduct which the other party may interpret as
consent and as founded upon the principles of good faith an equity. It indicates a presumption
1
General and particular, local or special
in favour of the acts or conducts of other states and implies that when States silent in response
to the conduct of one other state, there is acceptance of the practice as being legitimate.
The term ‘general international law’ should not be taken to require universal acceptance of a
rule by all subjects of international law. True, there are rules of international law which are
universally accepted, and the system of international law is daily reaffirmed by states in
making and responding to claims of right. But the principles of the system—consent, the
requirements for custom, the persistent objector—mean that particular rules may have less
than universal acceptance, yet still form part of international law. Similarly, a rule of
international law to which a state has not expressly or by implication accepted may not be
opposable to that state.
Two manifestations:
Importance of the spiritual element, accelerating the formation of the custom. Thanks to it,
the custom nowadays has considered the universalization and democratization of the
international society. Made by everyone, not only by the great powers like in Classic
International Law. It is evolving, adapting itself to changes.
INTERNATIONAL JURISPRUDENCE
Set of legal rules that emerge from judicial decisions. Article 38 section 2 of ICJ. They do not
create law, only in certain situations when they interpret treaty obligations. (The decision of
the Court has no binding force except between the parties and in respect of that particular
case.)
Normative value: it is not a source of rules of law, but an auxiliary means to determine
them. Although other authors such as Scelle consider them to have autonomous
normative power (he adapts the rule to evolved social needs and substitutes for the
law), Giraud, for example, qualifies jurisprudence as “international custom”. The
jurisprudence comes from the assumptions in which the solution has been
investigated in the superior principles by a qualified organ of the community, which is
the judicial.
Function in the development of International Law: in Álvarez's opinion, based on a
resolution of the United Nations General Assembly, the functions of the International
Court of Justice are to clarify the precepts, modify them according to current
conditions, and create and formulate new. Others claim that its function is vital due to
the increasing integration of the state society together with the fact that the
codification does not allow everyone to be grouped into common categories. But in
reality, its role has been very limited, and these last opinions are considered too
optimistic due to two reasons: the principle of voluntariness and that International
Tribunals such as the Hague do not enjoy the support of the States. Although it has
had influence in some situations. This is a vicious circle, since one of the factors that
explain this is the insufficient development of International Law.
Sectores donde ha influido especialmente: en las reglas sobre delimitación de los espacios
marinos (CONVEMAR 1982).
LAW OF TREATIES
The law of treaties concerns the content of specific obligations accepted by the parties (states
and other persons with treaty-making power), that is, it concerns the incidence of obligations
resulting from express agreement. Treaties may be bilateral or multilateral, but even if
multilateral the obligations they create may run primarily between the two parties concerned
—for example, the sending state and the receiving state in the case of diplomatic relations. But
even if genuinely multilateral, the constraints of the treaty form still apply in principle, treaties
neither oblige nor benefit third parties without their consent. Treaties as such are a source of
obligation and not a source of rules of general application. Treaties may however form an
important material source in that they may be reflective of, or come to embody, customary
international law.
Tribunals have not adopted a mechanical system of borrowing from domestic law. Rather they
have employed or adapted modes of general legal reasoning as well as comparative law
analogies in order to make a coherent body of rules for application by international judicial
process. It is difficult for state practice to generate the evolution of the rules of procedure and
evidence as well as the substantive law that a court must employ. An international tribunal
chooses, edits, and adapts elements from other developed systems. The result is a body of
international law the content of which has been influenced by domestic law, but which is still
its own creation.
Other sources:
TREATIES
Convención de Viena sobre el Derecho de los Tratados (23/5/1969) then the national
legislation (el won treaties an other international agreements).
1. Definición: acuerdo internacional celebrado por escrito entre estados y regido por el
Derecho Internacional, ya consté en un instrumento único o en dos o más
instrumentos y cualquiera que sea su denominación particular. (artículo 2.1)
“Entre Estados” excluye estados-organizaciones o org-org
o Los acuerdos internacionales concluidos por una organización
internacional, aun no sometidos a la Convencion, son tratados, siendo
el hecho de que ella no se aplique no afecte a su valor jurídico, su
aplicación, y a la aplicación de la Convencion a las relaciones de los
Estados entre sí como sujetos del Derecho Internacional. (artículo 3
Convención de Viena)
! Los tratados entre estados y organizaciones se rigen por la Convención
de Viena de 1986, aun no en vigor. Un acuerdo entre un estado y un
particular (persona física o jurídica no es un tratado internacional
(sentencia Tribunal de La Haya en el caso de la Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (UK-
Iran) en 1952).
Celebration of treaties
Seccion 1ª parte II Convención de Viena: adopción del texto, manifestación del consentimiento
y órganos competentes.
General principles: the process of signing treaties is governed by the principle of good
faith (it causes behavioural obligations to arise from the negotiating States). This
constitutes a rule of international law. There is also an obligation not to frustrate the
object or purpose of a treaty before it enters into force (Article 18 Vienna Convention ).
Furthermore, according to Article 74 of said Convention "the rupture or absence of
diplomatic relations between two or more states will not prevent the conclusion of
treaties between them"*
Stages: these are the adoption of the text, its authentication, and the expression of
consent to be bound, all with prior negotiation.
o Negotiation: that State that has participated in the preparation and adoption
of the text (always acting under the principle of good faith)
o Adoption (art 9): agreement on the text of a treaty of all participating States,
the text can be changed. The general rule is unanimity for bilateral treaties or
treaties agreed upon by a small number of States; however, for multilateral
treaties a different rule is established (although if the participants so wish,
unanimity can be established), at an international conference it will be the
majority of two thirds. For example, at the III United Nations Conference on
the Law of the Sea (1982), general agreement or consensus was used for the
adoption of the text. In the adoption of a treaty by an international
organization, Article 5 of the Convention says that the pertinent norms of the
latter will enter this case as ius specialis in the matter, being the normal
adoption by majority vote.
o Authentication (art 10): it is the act by which the definitive text of a treaty is
established and in which it is certified that this text is correct and authentic,
looking to all the provisions for mistakes or clarifications and amend it, then
sign it to authenticate it (cannot change anything) (it is necessary for States to
know the unalterable text of a treaty before forming part of him). At present it
is carried out through an organization of an international organization or a
special act carried out by a competent entity of it (article 5). In this step the
text of the treaty is sent to the Parliament for authorisation and provisionally
apply it (provisional application article 25 VCLT, fully application). Sino se aplica
provisionalmente hay un vacío (EU-UK 1st January)
o Manifestation of consent: there is a historical evolution of the form, first it
was the signature of the head of state through a representative, then the
approval of the parliament was needed, but with the increase in relations
between states, different forms have been adopted. Therefore, as to article
11, there is freedom and equality of forms (acceptance, notification,
ratification, silence, no objection (prolepsis doctrine), anticipation…).
-COMPETENT STATE BODIES (ART 7)
1. Negotiation.
2. Sign: consent, adopt and authenticate all in one act.
Do not need authorisation of the Parliament.
INCONSTITUTIONALITY OF TREATIES
Article 95 Spanish Constitution:
1. The conclusion of any international treaty containing stipulations contrary to the
Constitution shall require prior Constitutional amendment.
2. The Government, or either of the Houses may request the Constitutional Court to
declare whether or not there is a contradiction.
Intrinsic: In case of conflict, international laws (treaty) prevail. Because it would be
contradictory to change a treaty for many countries when the problem is only for
Spain (Maastrich Treaty 1992). But the Constitution ranks higher (supremacy over
treaties), so it has to be amended to Spain to ratify a treaty. Article 31 of Spanish Law
of treaties.
Extrinsic: Article 32 of the Spanish Law of Treaties.
Puede haber una inconstitucionalidad anterior (material) o posterior (formal o
material) a la conclusión. Si es previa es material (artículo 95.1 Constitución). Si es
posterior al consentimiento entonces puede ser formal o material.
Formal: violating of constitutional norms related to conclusion of treaties.
E.g human rights treaty consented and entered into force before being sent to
the Parliament and its authorisation.
Material: conflict concerning the content of the treaty.
CALIFICATION OF TREATIES
Article 94 Constitution:
1. Before contracting obligations by means of treaties or agreements, the State shall require
the prior authorisation of the Cortes Generales in the following cases:
RESERVATIONS
Definition
In effect, a reservation allows the state to be a party to the treaty, while excluding the legal
effect of that specific provision in the treaty to which it objects
These definitions only apply for multilateral treaties, because according to the international
law Commission “reservations in bilateral treaties do not suppose any problem as it is just new
suggestions that make restart negotiations between the two States; If they reach an
agreement accepting or rejecting the reservation, the treaty will be concluded, otherwise it
will not be concluded.”.
Procedure
The Articles 19–23 of the Vienna Convention details the procedures relating to reservations. To
see if a reservation is valid the legality of the reservation test applies as described in article 19
of the Vienna Convention. According to this article a state may not formulate a reservation if:
EFECTIVIDAD
Los efectos de las reservas dependen de su aceptación u objeción por los demás contratantes :
Art. 20 CVDT 1969.
4.2. Casos especiales de aceptación: tratados constitutivos de OO. II. requieren aceptación del
órgano competente de la O.I.; tratados que requieren aceptación de todas las partes, porque
lo exigen el nº de negociadores y el objeto y fin del tratado.
4.3. Objeción (expresa): no rige la reserva con el objetor, pero no impide la e.v. tratado
EVOLUTION
The formal point of view considers reservations as a problem in the process of conclusion of
treaties, but evolution has shown that it is a problem of participation, that is found between
two principles:
Article 19:
A State may, when signing, ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to a treaty, formulate a
reservation unless:
o the reservation is prohibited by the treaty; (e.g., the Supplementary Convention on the
Abolition of Slavery and Convention against Discrimination in Education)
o the treaty provides that only specified reservations, which do not include the
reservation in question, may be made.
! This is often the case when during negotiations it becomes apparent that a certain
provision in a treaty will not be agreed upon by all parties. Therefore, the possibility is
given to parties not to agree with that provision but to agree with the treaty in
general.
o in cases not failing under subparagraphs (a) and (b), the reservation is incompatible
with the object and purpose of the treaty.
! called the compatibility test and is difficult to determine. It is not always clear what
the object and purpose of the treaty is, especially when treaties are long and complex.
A reservation must be put into writing and then sent to the either the depository of
the treaty, in the case of a multilateral treaty, or directly to the other States party to
the treaty.
Possibilities of a treaty:
1. A reservation expressly authorized by a treaty does not require any subsequent acceptance
by the other contracting States unless the treaty so provides. (reservation is effective)
2. When it appears from the limited number of the negotiating States and the object and
purpose of a treaty that the application of the treaty in its entirety between all the parties is an
essential condition of the consent of each one to be bound by the treaty, a reservation requires
acceptance by all the parties. (Priority to integrity)
4. In cases not falling under the preceding paragraphs and unless the treaty otherwise
provides:
The joint meaning is that the Convention is more favourable to the State author of the
reservations than to those who wish to object to them.
o The objection must be express and must be formulated within a defined period
(twelve months after receiving the notification of the reservation or on the date on
which it has expressed its consent (if it is earlier). It must also be clear in not
considering the State that has made the reservation as a party to the treaty, but it is
enough for only one State to accept the reservation for the author to become a party
to the treaty. (Conditions for reservations to have juridical effects).
Article 21: legal effects of reservations and objetions of reservations)
1. A reservation established with regard to another party in accordance with articles 19, 20
and 23:
o modifies for the reserving State in its relations with that other party the provisions of
the treaty to which the reservation relates to the extent of the reservation.
o modifies those provisions to the same extent for that other party in its relations with
the reserving State.
2. The reservation does not modify the provisions of the treaty for the other parties to the
treaty inter se.
3. When a State objecting to a reservation has not opposed the entry into force of the treaty
between itself and the reserving State, the provisions to which the reservation relates do not
apply as between the two States to the extent of the reservation.
Result: possible decomposition of the treaty obligations in some circles or even their
extinction.
o Between reservation author State and State accepting the reservation State:
modification of the dispositions of the content of the reservation.
o Between reservation author State and objection to reservation State that has not
manifest its intention to consider the author State as not part of the treaty: Only the
provisions of the treaty that have not been the subject of the reservation govern.
o Between author State and objection State that has manifest its intention to not
consider the former as part of the treaty: the treaty does not govern. (extinction of
obligations).
o Between the rest of the States the treaty governs fully.
Article 27:
Internal law and observance of treaties A party may not invoke the provisions of its internal
law as justification for its failure to perform a treaty. This rule is without prejudice to article 46.
In Spain, as the Cortes must authorise the manifestation of consent to be bound by a treaty,
they both (Congress and Senate) must authorise the reservations proposed by the
Government, and the parliamentarians can propose reservations to the treaties sent to them
by the Government to authorise the manifestation of consent.
The entering into force is the true final point of the process of conclusion of treaties, a partir
del cual el tratado empieza a gobernar en todos los Estados partes.
o A treaty enters into force in such manner and upon such date as it may provide or as
the negotiating States may agree.
Regla residual: artículo 24.2:
o Failing any such provision or agreement, a treaty enters into force as soon as consent
to be bound by the treaty has been established for all the negotiating States.
Si un Estado manifiesta su consentimiento después de que el tratado entre en vigor artículo
24.3
o When the consent of a State to be bound by a treaty is established on a date after the
treaty has come into force, the treaty enters into force for that State on that date,
unless the treaty otherwise provides.
Provisional application
o A treaty or a part of a treaty is applied provisionally pending its entry into force if:
(a) the treaty itself so provides; or
(b) the negotiating States have in some other manner so agreed.
Compliance with internal constitutional requirements delays the entry into force of treaties,
and states save it by applying them provisionally (especially those that need parliamentary
authorization to express consent).
In Spain there is silence on the part of the Constitution on this matter, but as it is part of the
1969 Vienna Convention, its article 25 constitutes the legal basis for the issue. In any case, it is
dealt with in the Law of Treaties of 2014. In article 15 it says that the competence to
provisionally apply a treaty has the Council of Ministers, but this does not fit with respect to
the previous treaties in article 93 of the Constitution (those who attribute to an international
organization powers derived from the Constitution), in this case the competence for their
authorization is the legislature. Although if the parliamentary authorization for consent is not
given, it is provisionally applied without further ado.
The basic principle of the observance of treaties is good faith (article 26). This reference is
operative, as could be seen in the case of the rights of United States nationals in Morocco.
o Every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in
good faith.
Treaties must be observed, even if they are contrary to the internal law of any of the States
parties (article 27). According to the Court of The Hague, a State cannot escape from the
obligations imposed by the treaties, invoking its constitutional law or internal laws. Although
according to article 46, if the treaty manifestly or in matters of fundamental importance
violates the domestic law on the conclusion of treaties of a State party, the latter may request
the nullity of the treaty.
o A party may not invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to
perform a treaty. This rule is without prejudice to article 46.
Application: article 28
Non-retroactivity rule: it does not apply to any act or event prior to the entry into force.
Although it does apply to situations that continue to exist on the date of its entry into force,
even though these originated before (facta pendentia). Non-retroactivity can be ruled out
when the treaty or in some way the States parties state their intention in this regard.
o Unless a different intention appears from the treaty or is otherwise established, its
provisions do not bind a party in relation to any act or fact which took place or any
situation which ceased to exist before the date of the entry into force of the treaty with
respect to that party.
Regarding territorial application, article 29 governs, which says that they apply in the entire
territory of a State party, unless there is somehow an intention to the contrary . States whose
territory includes a free zone may exclude such zone from the application of a commercial
treaty.
1. Primacy over Article 103 of the Charter of the United Nations (In the event of a conflict
between the obligations of the Members of the United Nations under the present Charter and
their obligations under any other international agreement, their obligations under the
present Charter shall prevail.)
2. The latter prevails, when it is specified that it is subordinate to another and is not
incompatible with that other treaty. (relationship expressly regulated).
3. The former will remain in force but will apply to the extent that it is compatible with the
provisions of the later (unregulated relationship). But if it is totally incompatible so that the
two treaties cannot be applied at the same time, the previous one is considered finished
(Article 59), it is the case of a tacit repeal.
4. When not all the States part of the first wish to be part of the second, relationship between
the States.
Part in both: the previous one will be applied to the extent that its dispositions
are compatible with those of the later one.
One that is only in one and the other part of both: the rights and obligations
will be governed by the treaty to which the two States are part.
Interpretation: 31, 32, 33
Objective: the text is the expression of the will of the parties, so that it prevails in the
interpretation. Although the extrinsic proof of the intentions of the parties and the
objectives and purposes of the treaty.
Subjective: intention of the parties is a different element of the text. Liberality of
other ways of the parties to manifest their intentions.
Teleological: importance to the objects and purposes of the treaty. It is prone to
interpretations of the text that go beyond the original intentions of the parties as they
have been expressed in the text.
The International Law Commission has been more inclined towards the objective criterion
completed by the teleological one. Thus, according to article 31 essential elements to interpret
a treaty are:
Regarding additional means to which to resort, article 32 provides that it is possible to resort
to them, especially the preparatory work of the treaty and the circumstances of its conclusion
when the interpretation of article 31 leaves the meaning ambiguous or leads to a result
illogical.
1. When a treaty has been authenticated in two or more languages, the text is equally
authoritative in each language, unless the treaty provides or the parties agree that, in
case of divergence, a particular text shall prevail.
2. A version of the treaty in a language other than one of those in which the text was
authenticated shall be considered an authentic text only if the treaty so provides or the
parties so agree.
3. The terms of the treaty are presumed to have the same meaning in each authentic
text.
4. Except where a particular text prevails in accordance with paragraph 1, when a
comparison of the authentic texts discloses a difference of meaning which the
application of articles 31 and 32 does not remove, the meaning which best reconciles
the texts, having regard to the object and purpose of the treaty, shall be adopted.
Spain
Los órganos del Estado (judiciales, consultivos y administrativos) deben interpretar los tratados
de acuerdo con la Convención de Viena, ya que como manifestó su consentimiento y fue
publicada en el BOE, de acuerdo con el artículo 96.1 de la Constitución ya forma parte del
ordenamiento interno español. Aunque esa no siempre es la actitud de los tribunales
españoles, especialmente el Tribunal Supremo.
Desprendiéndose del artículo, los tratados pueden generar derechos y obligaciones para
terceros con su consentimiento. Además, según el principio de la efectividad, los tratados
producen efectos para terceros en los siguientes casos:
o Only if the parties have the intention to the treaty to be the way of creating the
obligation and the third state accepts expressly and written.
Article 37: the obligation may not be revoked or modified without the consent of the parties to
the treaty and the third state, unless it is established that something else has been agreed in
this regard.
Article 36: rights
o If the parties intend to do so and the third State agrees. Your assent will be presumed
as long as there is no indication to the contrary, unless the treaty provides otherwise .
The right may not be modified or revoked by the parties if there is an intention that it
would not be modifiable or revocable without the consent of the third State.
Obligations: express consent
Rights: the assent of the third State is presumed
Article 38: interaction custom-treaty
The effects are based on the verification that one or more of the States parties have special
competence to conclude treaties on the matter, completed with the consideration of the legal
relevance of the principle of effectiveness.
Las organizaciones pueden poseer una personalidad efectiva que nunca es objeto de
reconocimiento expreso de terceros Estados y que no puede ser desconocida por ellos.
The agreement of the parties is required and the general rules on the conclusion of treaties
will apply, unless the treaty provides otherwise.
Relationship between States party of the amended treaty and the ones only part of the original
one, ruled by the article 30. But if the State enters to a treaty after the amendment entering
into force and the State has not manifested the intention otherwise, it is part of the amended
treaty (article 40.5).
Modification: 41
La modificacion puede hacerse cuando la prevea el tratado o cuando no esté prohibida. Para
este último deben ocurrir dos condiciones:
Causas de nulidad.
La nulidad sólo se puede declarar por las causas previstas expresamente por el Convenio de
Viena de 1969:
1.Violación manifiesta de normas constitucionales del Derecho interno. Por el hecho de que
en la celebración de este se haya violado alguna disposición de derecho interno sobre
competencia para celebrar el tratado. Se reduce esta posibilidad a dos condiciones: la violación
ha de ser manifiesta, evidente, obvia; y ha de afectar no a cualquier norma, sino a una norma
fundamental del derecho interno.
2.- Inobservancia de una restricción de los poderes para la manifestación del consentimiento
en obligarse por el tratado. Si los poderes que se conceden al representante del Estado para
manifestar el consentimiento en obligarse están sometidos a limitación específica, ésta se
comunica a la otra parte. Y si esta restricción no se observa, no obstante, esto también puede
ser motivo de nulidad.
3.- Error de hecho. Que afecte a un hecho esencial para que los Estados parte hayan decidido
manifestar el consentimiento en obligarse por el tratado. Sería el caso de un tratado bilateral
por el que dos Estados establecen su frontera y lo hacen fijando, teniendo en cuenta ciertos
accidentes geográficos, y pensando que ese río o montaña está en determinado lugar. Pero
por un error cartográfico ese río o esa montaña están en otro lugar.
4.-Dolo de alguno de los Estados en la celebración del tratado. Un Estado logra la celebración
de un tratado. Conducta engañosa, fraudulenta.
5. Corrupción del representante del Estado. Cuando un Estado logra la celebración de un
tratado mediante la corrupción del representante del otro Estado. Corrupción que si no se
hubiese llevado a cabo el tratado no se hubiera celebrado.
6.- Coacción del representante de otro Estado. (amenaza o uso de la fuerza) Mediante la cual
se logra la celebración que de otra forma no hubiera tenido lugar.
8. Es la única causa que no tiene que ver con un vicio, sino con el propio contenido del tratado.
El contenido viola alguna norma de ius cogens (norma imperativa de derecho internacional
general). Aunque concurran estas causas el Estado afectado por las mismas puede convalidar
la celebración del tratado, y así desaparecería la causa de nulidad. Esto es posible salvo que la
nulidad se deba a que el modo en que se celebró el tratado, o su contenido, viole una norma
imperativa de derecho internacional general (tratados celebrados mediante el uso de la fuerza,
mediante coacción, o cuyo contenido es contrario a una norma de ius cogens).
Desde que se declara la nulidad del tratado deja de aplicarse, deja de obligar a los Estados
parte y en consecuencia estos dejan de cumplirlo. Pero además supone que en la medida de
lo posible se anulan los efectos jurídicos que hubiera producido hasta entonces. La situación
resultante debe ser la misma que antes de que se celebrara el tratado. La nulidad tiene efecto
retroactive.
TERMINACION DE UN TRATADO
Efectos desde la misma terminación, no ab initio.
Depende de la voluntad de los Estados partes (art. 54 CVDT). Mismas normas que en la nulidad
sobre divisibilidad y sobre obligaciones del tratado que sean costumbre.
SUSPENSION DE TRATADOS
Efectos: incumplimiento del tratado durante un periodo determinado por las partes (art. 72
CVDT). Mismas normas que en la nulidad y en la terminación sobre divisibilidad y sobre
obligaciones del tratado que sean costumbre.
9.4. Si pasan 12 meses sin solución, si la controversia afecta al ius cogens, las partes pueden
someterla al CIJ o al arbitraje. Si se refiere a otra causa, se puede recurrir a la conciliación
regulada en el Anexo a la CVDT (informes no obligatorios).
e.g declaration King Spain: could bind State because it is a representative of Spain that can act
behalf it in international relations. REPRESENTATIVE WITH CAPABILITY OF LEGALLY BIND A
STATE.
1. Three: head of state, prime minister or head government, and the Minister of Foreign
Affairs.
2. Its behaviour has the effect of creating legal obligations, so that it was beyond political
terms. A principal UN Charter (equal sovereignty of states), so every state can commit itself
through unilateral acts.
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
1. Three assumptions in practice
a. Unilateral acts in its own sense: manifestation of the will of a State which
generates obligations of IL. They do not create general norms.
b. Estoppel: it is an act that causes a loss of rights. It is not purely unilateral.
c. Acquiescence: silence or passivity of a State against the behavior of other
state deserving of protest. It is not purely unilateral.
2. Fundaments of the effects of these unilateral acts in the IL: good faith and
reciprocal trust.
a. They produce autonomous legal effects, independents of other unilateral
acts in the frame of other sources of the IL, such as the custom and the
treaties.
3. Llicit object of the unilateral act: according to the norms of the ius cogens.
4. Requirements for the production of legal effects:
a. Capacity of the state organ to internationally commit it. According to article
7 VCLT 1969 and to the international jurisprudence, it would be three
organs: Head of State, Head of Government, and the Ministry of External
Affairs
b. Form of the act: a manifestation of public will, both verbal and written.
c. Will of legally commit. Casuism
5. Revocation or modification of the effects of a unilateral act is possible if not
arbitrary (example: Military and Paramilitary Activities in Nicaragua, Sentence of the
26th of November 1984, competence of the ICJ)
ACQUIESCENCE
7. It means inaction, passivity or silence before acts deserving of protest.
a. It resembles to the estoppel, but in this one (estoppel) the prime attitude is
not the silence or inaction, and the secondary attitude is not of
acquiescence.
b. Example: Olivenza, ceded by treaty to Spain in 1801 and lately claimed but
with large periods of acquiescence
c. Example: Gibraltar, there is no acquiescence from Spain in favour of the UK.
. Debate doctrinal:
Dualism emphasizes the distinct and independent character of the international and
national legal systems. International law is perceived as a law between states whereas
national law applies within a state, regulating the relations of its citizens with each
other and with that state. Neither legal order has the power to create or alter rules of
the other. When international law applies in whole or in part within any national legal
system, this is because of a rule of that system giving effect to international law. In
case of a conflict between international law and national law, the dualist would
assume that a national court would apply national law, or at least that it is for the
national system to decide which rule is to prevail.
Monism postulates that national and international law form one single legal order, or
at least a number of interlocking orders which should be presumed to be coherent and
consistent. On that basis international law can be applied directly within the national
legal order
Spanish law
Custom: tribunals have expressly applied (monist doctrine) 1978 Constitution: There is
no general constitutional rule that regulates the reception and hierarchy of custom in
Spanish law. SUPRALEGALITY OF IL
Treaties:
1. Reception
o art 1.5 CC (norms not directly applied if not yet published in BOE).
o Art 96.1 SC: treaties form part of internal law if validly concluded and
published in BOE.
2. Hierarchy or prevalence: supralegality and infraconstitutionality (Article 96.1 of
the Constitution, article 28 of the Law of Treaties and other International
Agreements)
o Observance: by all powers, organs, and bodies of the state (article 29 of the
Law of Treaties)
o Execution: Direct application, except if in the text of the treaty states the need
of internal intervention (article 30 of the Law of Treaties)
3. Infraconstitutionality and unconstitutionality of the treaty in Spain:
o Previous control of constitutionality to the celebration, and intrinsic or by
reason of the content (article 95.1 of the Constitution: La celebración de un
tratado internacional que contenga estipulaciones contrarias a la Constitución
exigirá la previa revisión constitucional.
o Later control of constitutionality over the content (intrinsic) and procedure
(extrinsic). Organic Law of the Constitutional Court
It implies a treaty published in the BOE, that means, in force or that it is
known the date of entry into force.
IO resolutions:
o It only affects to those resolutions which are mandatory.
o Spanish legislation keeps silence. By analogy, the norms of the treaties over
reception and hierarchy are applied.
o Article 93 of the Constitution: Cortes and Government must guarantee the
compliance. (Artículo 93 de la Constitución española: Mediante ley orgánica se
podrá autorizar la celebración de tratados por los que se atribuya a una
organización o institución internacional el ejercicio de competencias derivadas
de la Constitución. Corresponde a las Cortes Generales o al Gobierno, según los
casos, la garantía del cumplimiento de estos tratados y de las resoluciones
emanadas de los organismos internacionales o supranacionales titulares de la
cesión)
o EU: it has a specific system.
Tema IV : Sujetos: El individuo en el DI
LA SUBJETIVIDAD INTERNACIONAL
1. Es una categoría del DI que permite distintas aproximaciones y que posee diversos
grados:
1.1. Técnico-jurídica. Para ser sujeto de DI se necesita tener:
- Legitimación activa para reclamar por incumplimiento del DI; y
- legitimación pasiva para sufrir responsabilidad por tal incumplimiento.
- No basta ser destinatario de una norma internacional. Hace falta tbn poder reclamar
por su violación.
- El sujeto por excelencia del DI es el Estado.
- Existen diversos grados de subjetividad internacional: el individuo ( y las OOII) en
menor grado que el Estado.
1.2. Axiológica. Concepción humanista del DI: los fines humanos son la meta del
ordenamiento jurídico y de sus valores.
Conclusión: el individuo posee una subjetividad internacional cierta aunque limitada.
- Ej.: Piratería (art 105 CONVEMAR 1982), la responsabilidad penal del individuo se
hace por el Estado de apresamiento del buque pirata. Idem, en el Convenio de Tokio de
1963 sobre infracciones y otros actos cometidos a bordo de aeronaves. Y los Convenios de
Ginebra de DIH, 1949, junto a los Protocolos Adicionales de 1977.
- Convenio para prevención y sanción contra Genocidio, 1948: establece los tipos
delictivos y la r.i. se hace efectiva por el tribunal competente del territorio del Estado, o
ante tribunal penal internacional competente.
3.2. Un paso más en la exigencia de r.i. penal es la creación por el CSNU de los Tribunales
Penales ad hoc: para la exYugoslavia (RESCSNU 827, de 1993; y RESCSNU 955, de
1994; por RESCSNU 1966, de 2010 se crearon sendos mecanismos residuales de esos
dos Tribunales).
3.3. En 1998 por tratado internacional se creó la CPI http://www.icc-
cpi.int/EN_Menus/icc/Pages/default.aspx, de carácter permanente, para el castigo de
los crímenes internacionales más graves:
- Genocidio, como el de Srebrenica en julio de 1995
http://www.rtve.es/alacarta/videos/fue-noticia-en-el-archivo-de-rtve/asesinatos-
srebrenica-1995/818184/ , juzgado por el TPAY y por la CIJ en lo que atañe a la r.i.
indirecta de Serbia (as. relativo a la aplicación de la Convención de 1948, Sentencia de
26 de febrero 2007).
- … but they were not accompanied by the specific INTENT to DESTROY, in whole or in
part, the protected group.
- However, the ICJ found that the killings in Sbrenica was indeed genocide (a decisión to
kill the adult male Muslim population).
- The killings are attributed to some members of the Army of the Republika Srpska
(Bosnian-Serbs). It cannot be attributed to Serbia under the rules of State
responsibility.
- Serbia violated its obligation to prevent the genocide, and its obligation to punish the
perpetrators, including non cooperation with the ICTY.
(1) by ten votes to five, Rejects the objections contained in the final submissions made
by the Respondent to the effect that the Court has no jurisdiction; and affirms that it
has jurisdiction, on the basis of Article IX of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, to adjudicate upon the dispute brought before
it on 20 March 1993 by the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina
(2) by thirteen votes to two, Finds that Serbia has not committed genocide, through its
organs or persons whose acts engage its responsibility under customary international
law, in violation of its obligations under the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
(3) by thirteen votes to two, Finds that Serbia has not conspired to commit genocide,
nor incited the commission of genocide, in violation of its obligations under the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
(4) by eleven votes to four, Finds that Serbia has not been complicit in genocide, in
violation of its obligations under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide
(5) by twelve votes to three, Finds that Serbia has violated the obligation to prevent
genocide, under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, in respect of the genocide that occurred in Srebrenica in July 1995
(7) by thirteen votes to two, Finds that Serbia has violated its obligation to comply with
the provisional measures ordered by the Court on 8 April and 13 September 1993 in
this case, inasmuch as it failed to take all measures within its power to prevent
genocide in Srebrenica in July 1995;
(6) by fourteen votes to one, Finds that Serbia has violated its obligations under the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide by having
failed to transfer Ratko Mladic´, indicted for genocide and complicity in genocide, for
trial by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, and thus having
failed fully to co-operate with that Tribunal
(9) by thirteen votes to two, Finds that, as regards the breaches by Serbia of the
obligations referred to in subparagraphs (5) and (7) above, the Court’s findings in
those paragraphs constitute appropriate satisfaction, and that the case is not one in
which an order for payment of compensation, or, in respect of the violation referred to
in subparagraph (5), a direction to provide assurances and guarantees of non-
repetition, would be appropriate.
Count 2, Genocide.
Count 10, Unlawful attacks on civilians, a violation of the laws or customs of war; and
For having committed these crimes, the Chamber sentences Mr. Mladić to life
imprisonment
- La CPI actúa a iniciativa del Fiscal (cuando el crimen se comete en un Estado parte
(122) en el Estatuto de Roma, sobre la base de información de individuos,
organizaciones y del Estado afectado: R Centroafricana, RD Congo, Mali y Uganda) o a
iniciativa del CSNU (Sudán, Libia).
4.2. España posee jurisdicción penal universal, según LO 1/2014 14 marzo 2014, de
modificación de la LOPJ http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2014/03/14/pdfs/BOE-A-2014-
2709.pdf
5. Derecho español sobre los crímenes internacionales.
- - El Código Penal (Titulo XXVI, arts. 605-614) tipifica e impone penas a delitos o
crímenes internacionales, según consta en tratados consentidos por España.
“La invocación por un Estado, mediante la acción diplomática o por otros medios de
solución pacífica, de la responsabilidad de otro Estado por el perjuicio causado por un hecho
internacionalmente ilícito de ese Estado a una persona natural o jurídica que es un nacional
del primer Estado, con miras a hacer efectiva esa responsabilidad”.
1.1. Se deduce que es una relación de Estado a Estado, con dos consecuencias:
- Discrecionalidad de su ejercicio, dependiendo de consideraciones políticas. No es
obligatoria en el DI, puede serlo en el D interno.
4. Los particulares afectados, antes de solicitar la PD, deben agotar los recursos internos
del Estado infractor.
4.1. Son recursos internos: Los legales ante tribunales u órganos administrativos.
4.2. Excepciones a la regla del agotamiento :
- Cuando no haya recursos internos que provean una reparación efectiva o algún tipo de
reparación.
- Basta una situación de necesidad o desgracia del nacional del Estado que envía la
oficina consular.
Article 74 Members of the United Nations also agree that their policy in respect of the
territories to which this Chapter applies, no less than in respect of their metropolitan
areas, must be based on the general principle of good-neighborliness, due account
being taken of the interests and well-being of the rest of the world, in social,
economic, and commercial matters.
- Además, se reconocen ciertos DDHH en el PDCP 1966: derecho a tener su propia vida
cultural, profesar y practicar su religión, emplear su idioma.
6.2. ResAGNU 2625 (XXV), 1970: “Declaración de los principios de DI referentes a las
relaciones de amistad y cooperación entre los Estados de conformidad con la Carta”.
- Es un derecho de los pueblos (todos, no sólo los coloniales) y un deber de los Estados.
Esta ampliación a todos los pueblos ya se estableció en los Pactos 1966.
6.3. Salvaguardas o límites al PLD, ya que éste se aplica a todos los pueblos.
La secesión.
- Op. Consultiva Kosovo CIJ, 2010: Es muy discutible. Entiende que las DUI no son
contrarias al DI y que el ppio de la integridad territorial sólo rige en las relaciones
interestatales, no entre un pueblo y el Estado.
- El UP es un límite al PLD porque impide que un pueblo, dividido entre dos fronteras
estatales, invoque el PLD contra la estabilidad de esas fronteras.
6.4. Finalmente, el PLD tiene carácter de ius cogens. Además de en la Carta ONU y en las
Res AGNU se consagra en los Pacos DDHH 1966
CASOS SINGULARES: GIBRALTAR Y TERRITORIOS DE ESPAÑA EN EL
NORTE DE ÁFRICA
7. Gibraltar: Otra forma de dominación colonial es la de un enclave colonial de un Estado
en el territorio de otro Estado.
Dos contenciosos:
- El resto de territorios fueron incorporados a España a finales del siglo XV, antes de la
existencia de Marruecos. Marruecos los reivindica al considerarlos enclaves coloniales,
pero nunca fue soberano de ellos.
2.3. Las competencias pueden ser territoriales (sin distinguir su aplicación sobre nacionales o
extranjeros) y personales (atendiendo a la nacionalidad y no al territorio: un cónsul presta
asistencia consular a un nacional en el Estado receptor).
- En siglo XXI hay varios casos de Estados fallidos: Somalia, Sudán del Sur, Afganistán, Haití,
¿Grecia?
3.1. Territorio: Continental, insular, terrestre, marítimo, aéreo. Limitado por fronteras.
3.2. Población: Significa el vínculo de la nacionalidad (de personas físicas, jurídicas, buques,
aeronaves). El DI exige una nacionalidad efectiva. Además, se ejercen competencias sobre
extranjeros que se hallen o residentes en el territorio.
3.3. Gobierno: Ejercido internamente e internacionalmente (velando por el respeto del DI).
Recognizing also that, to date, 132 States Members of the United Nations have
accorded recognition to the State of Palestine,
4.3. Efectos:
Ante los antiguos y nuevos soberanos: ¿qué pasa con los tratados, bienes, archivos, deudas,
nacionalidad de los habitantes, status miembro de una OI?
Es “la sustitución de un Estado por otro en la responsabilidad de las rr.ii. de un territorio” (CV
1978 y CV 1983). Hay un Estado predecesor y otro sucesor.
5.4. La Convención de 1978 entró en vigor (1996) con escasa participación (22 Estados partes:
no España, sí Ucrania, no Rusia).
- Ámbito de aplicación : Tratados entre Estados (no OO.II.). No los tratados territoriales
(fronteras).
- Parte de un territorio pasa a otro (Crimea): Movilidad de los tratados desde la fecha de
la sucesión (se aplican automáticamente los del sucesor y se dejan de aplicar los del
predecesor). Responde a la práctica y al art 29 CVDT 1969.
- Nuevos Estados descolonizados: Principio general: Tabla rasa (no obligación del Estado
sucesor de mantener en vigor tratados bilaterales o multilaterales del predecesor). El
Estado sucesor tiene derecho a ser parte en los multilaterales del predecesor, y los
bilaterales sólo si hay consentimiento o asentimiento entre los interesados.
- Bienes:
- Deudas: Se trata de la deuda pública con otros sujetos de DI. Los efectos dependerán
de cada supuesto de sucesión. Nuevos Estados por separación: Prima el acuerdo y,
subsidiariamente la sucesión en proporción equitativa.
- Personas naturales (Proy. Arts. 1999): Hay dos principios generales: El DI puede
imponer límites a la adquisición de la nacionalidad y la prevención de la apatridia (se
adquiere la nacionalidad del sucesor).
INTRODUCCION
En este tema se verán tres puntos principales con sus apartados correspondientes:
1. La Soberanía Territorial (ST), esto es, el conjunto de las competencias del Estado,
consecuencia de la soberanía, ejercidas sobre un territorio. Y la definición del territorio
en España.
- No se estudian las competencias de los Estados sobre los espacios marinos, el espacio
aéreo, el espacio ultraterrestre, los cursos de agua internacionales, los espacios
polares ni la protección del medio ambiente.
- Exclusividad:
+ Una obligación: La protección dentro del territorio estatal de los derechos de los
otros Estados.
“El termino «España» significa el Reino de España y, utilizado en sentido geográfico, significa el
territorio del Reino de España, incluyendo el espacio aéreo, sus aguas interiores, su mar
territorial y las áreas exteriores a su mar territorial en las que, con arreglo al Derecho
internacional y en virtud de su legislación interna, el Reino de España ejerza o pueda ejercer en
el futuro jurisdicción o derechos de soberanía respecto del fondo marino, su subsuelo y aguas
suprayacentes, y sus recursos naturales”.
- La ocupación física opera sobre terra nullius, sin dueño. No es el caso de los territorios
colonizados, donde había una organización sociopolítica.
- Las efectividades también juegan cuando existen títulos jurídicos distintos a las situaciones de
hecho.
4.1. Fecha crítica: Aquella a partir de la cual el comportamiento de las partes es irrelevante
al haberse establecido la ST. Un titulo provisional se convierte en definitivo.
4.2. Período crítico: Tiempo anterior a la fecha crítica en el que se valoran especialmente
los comportamientos estatales.
4.3. En contenciosos de delimitación territorial en los que la frontera se establece por
distintos tratados, interviene el tratado crítico de fronteras.
INTRODUCCION
1. Los órganos nacionales se desdoblan funcionalmente para cumplir las funciones
nacionales e internacionales, en:
- Plano ejecutivo: Los Estados garantizan en muchos casos la observancia del DI:
protección diplomática, sanciones, …
- Plano judicial: Los órganos nacionales aplican el DI: regla del agotamiento de los
recursos internos ante una jurisdicción internacional.
2.2. Privilegios e inmunidades del JE, para el ejercicio de sus funciones (Convención 1969
sobre misiones especiales):
- Inviolabilidad: no arresto ni detención, no coerción en residencia, propiedades, equipaje,
correspondencia.
* Respecto a los actos oficiales: Inmunidad persiste (como sucede con el Jefe de Misión
Diplomática, CVRR.DD. 1961).
- Art 63.2 Constitución junto a Ley de Tratados y otros AAI I: Art 22: “El Rey, con el
refrendo del Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores y de Cooperación, firmará los
instrumentos de ratificación y de adhesión que manifiesten el consentimiento de
España en obligarse por un tratado internacional”.
- Art 63.3 Constitución y la guerra : “Al Rey corresponde, previa autorización de las
Cortes Generales, declarar la guerra y hacer la paz”. Anacronismo.
- Código Penal, artículos 605 y 606 tipifica delitos (matar, causar lesiones, violación de
inmunidad personal) contra el JE extranjero que se halle en España.
- Los artículos 605 y 606 del Código Penal de España se aplican al JG.
MINISTRO DE AAEE
También tiene capacidad para comprometer al Estado, unilateral (as. Groenlandia Or., 1933,
CPJI, Declaración Ihlen) y convencionalmente (art 7 CVDT y 10 LTAI) .
Article 31
1.The representatives of the sending State in the special mission and the members of its
diplomatic staff shall enjoy immunity from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving State.
2.They shall also enjoy immunity from the civil and administrative jurisdiction of the
receiving State, except in the case of:
(a) a real action relating to private immovable property situated in the territory of the
receiving State, unless the person concerned holds it on behalf of the sending State for the
purposes of the mission;
(b) an action relating to succession in which the person concerned is involved as executor,
administrator, heir or legatee as a private person and not on behalf of the sending State;
(c) an action relating to any professional or commercial activity exercised by the person
concerned in the receiving State outside his official functions;
(d) an action for damages arising out of an accident caused by a vehicle used outside the
official functions of the person concerned.
3.The representatives of the sending State in the special mission and the members of its
diplomatic staff are not obliged to give evidence as witnesses.
(b), (c) and (d) of paragraph 2 of this article and provided that the measures concerned can
be taken without infringing the inviolability of his person or his accommodation.
5.The immunity from jurisdiction of the representatives of the sending State in the special
mission and of the members of its diplomatic staff does not exempt them from the
jurisdiction of the sending State.
8.1. La disyuntiva conceptual es una inmunidad absoluta frente a otra relativa. La relativa
exige la, a veces difícil, distinción entre:
- Actos iure imperii: actos como soberano.
9. La inmunidad de ejecución:
- Supuestos de ejecución de sentencias contra un Estado extranjero, por renuncia a la
inmunidad o por inmunidad restringida.
10. Ante la práctica internacional divergente, se adoptó en 2004 la Convención ONU sobre
inmunidades jurisdiccionales de los Estados y de sus bienes (no en vigor, España es
parte).
- Bienes utilizados por el Estado para fines distintos de los fines oficiales no comerciales.
Son bienes oficiales (C/C Embajadas y Consulados, bienes militares, bienes del Banco
Central, patrimonio cultural)
b) en un contrato escrito; o
c) por una declaración ante el tribunal o por una comunicación escrita en un proceso
determinado.
a) Cuando este haya sido iniciado mediante la interposición de demanda o querella por el
propio Estado extranjero;
b) Cuando el Estado extranjero haya intervenido en el proceso o haya realizado cualquier acto
en relación con el fondo;
d) Cuando se haya formulado reconvención basada en la misma relación jurídica o los mismos
hechos que la demanda presentada por el Estado extranjero.
- Ley de Enjuiciamiento Civil 1/2000, también reenvía al DI, lo que comporta la dificultad
de distinción entre actos y bienes iure imperii o iure gestionis.
- Dado que España ha consentido la Convención de 2004, que no está en vigor pero
constituye la codificación del DI, ese tratado internacional puede fundar la actuación
de los jueces españoles.
SUJETO DE DI
1. Sigue primando el Estado.
CONCEPTO DE OI
1. Los elementos de la definición no son sólo doctrinales sino que también emanan de la
práctica internacional.
- Creadas por tratado u otro instrumento de DI (ej.: resoluciones de OOII que crean
órganizaciones subsidiarias: UNCTAD-AGNU; PMA-FAO).
2. Votación: con distintas mayorías (simple, absoluta, 2/3, …). El voto puede ser
igualitario (cada Estado un voto) o no igualitario (voto ponderado y derecho de veto:
miembros permanentes). La votación puede generar minorías discrepantes o de
bloqueo.
Conclusiones
1. . Las OOII están regidas por el DI, adaptado a sus peculiaridades según las
competencias de atribución.
3. Características de la RI en el DI:
- La RI puede surgir por hechos ilícitos y por actos no prohibidos por el DI (daño
transfronterizo por actividades peligrosas).
Existe una controversia jurídica resuelta por la vía judicial internacional: Alemania demanda a
Italia ante la CIJ. Grecia interviene en la controversia sin carácter de parte pq decisiones de
tribunales griegos se declararon ejecutables en Italia.
Italia solicita reparación a las víctimas italianas por violaciones del DIH por parte del
Reich alemán. Reconvención rechazada por la CIJ (Providencia, 2010).
6.2. Solución:
- La CIJ considera que Italia ha incumplido su obligación de respetar las inmunidades de
jcción y de ejecución.
- La CIJ afirma que Italia debe promulgar legislación para no reproducir las violaciones
(obligación de cesación del HI).
- Siempre que haya disconformidad del hecho del Estado con la obligación, sea cual
fuera el origen o nza de esa obligación (tratado, costumbre, jurisprudencia, actos
unilaterales, resoluciones de OOII). Obligación de hacer o de resultado.
8. HHII que son como crímenes internacionales: ¿Hay un régimen agravado de RI?
- PA2001 no contempla los crímenes internacionales sino las “violaciones graves de
obligaciones emanadas de normas imperativas” (art 40). Anexión Crimea-Rusia 2014.
- Legítima defensa: Ucrania podría haber recurrido al uso de la fuerza armada para
rechazar la agresión de Rusia en Crimea y el Este del país.
- Fuerza mayor: Aeronave de Estado que por avería penetra en espacio aéreo de otro
Estado sin autorización. Imposibilidad material de cumplir.
- Peligro extremo: Es un peligro para órganos del Estado no para el mismo Estado.
Aterrizaje de una aeronave de Estado en suelo extranjero sin autorización para impedir
catástrofe. Diferencia con fuerza mayor, en peligro extremo hay opción teórica de
observar la obligación internacional.
- tanto si pertenece al gobierno central como a una división territorial del Estado.
- Órgano de un Estado prestado a otro: Ejemplo: Policías de otro Estado para sofocar
disturbios internos; servicios sanitarios para epidemia.
- Órgano del Estado que actúa en el territorio de otro, con consentimiento (misiones
diplomáticas, bases militares) o sin consentimiento (fuerzas militares). No RI del Estado
territorial, aunque puede incumplir algunas obligaciones internacionales.
+ Subsidiariamente, la indemnización.
OBJETIVOS DE LAS MR
2. . Su adopción tiene objetivos múltiples e interrelacionados:
- Hacer frente a situaciones de conflicto armado o de post-conflicto: Afganistán, Irak,
Rusia (anexión Crimea),….
- Objetivo indirecto: el respeto de los DDHH al adoptar y aplicar las MR: que las
inclusiones y solicitud de exclusiones en las listas de personas y entidades terroristas
garantice los derechos fundamentales.
- Asunto KADI, asociado a Bin Laden. Sentencia TJUE 18 julio 2013: El respeto a las
resoluciones CSNU no puede comportar la falta de control de la legalidad de las MR
desde el punto de vista de los DDFF según se recogen en Dcho UE.
“1. Cuando una decisión adoptada de conformidad con el capítulo 2 del título V del TUE prevea
la interrupción o la reducción, total o parcial, de las relaciones económicas y financieras con
uno o varios terceros países, el Consejo adoptará por mayoría cualificada, a propuesta
conjunta del Alto Representante de la Unión para Asuntos Exteriores y Política de Seguridad y
de la Comisión, las medidas necesarias. Informará de ello al Parlamento Europeo.
2. Cuando una decisión adoptada de conformidad con el capítulo 2 del título V del TUE así lo
prevea, el Consejo podrá adoptar por el procedimiento establecido en el apartado 1 medidas
restrictivas contras personas físicas o jurídicas, grupos o entidades no estatales.
+ El grupo RELEX prepara los actos jurídicos institucionales, para su endoso por el
COREPER y su adopción por unanimidad en Consejo.
- La adopción y la aplicación de una MR puede someterse al TJUE, según el art 275 TFUE
y en el ejercicio del control de legalidad del art 263 TFUE.
http://curia.europa.eu/juris/document/document.jsf;jsessionid=9ea7d0f130d5583dbc5df4a04
1fab46cfd0c701b54e7.e34KaxiLc3eQc40LaxqMbN4Obh0Qe0?
text=&docid=158631&pageIndex=0&doclang=ES&mode=lst&dir=&occ=first&part=1&cid= 3932
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- Partes:
- Objeto del asunto: Recurso de anulación del Reglamento de Ejecución 83/2011 del
Consejo, de 31 de enero de 2011, que aplica otro Reglamento de 2001 sobre MR
frente a personas y entidades vinculadas al terrorismo.
- Hechos:
+ Mediante una Decisión del Consejo de 2006 se incluye a los Tigres Tamiles en la
lista de organizaciones terroristas a efectos de la lista de congelación de fondos ,
establecida en un Reglamento de 2001.
- Fundamentos de Derecho:
a) Los Tigres son parte en un conflicto armado con el Gobierno de Sri Lanka para la
autodeterminación del pueblo tamil. Al ser un combatiente, los Tigres entienden que están
regidos por el DIH y no por las normas sobre terrorismo (MR).
+ Los Tigres, por tanto, consideran que la inclusión en la lista de congelación de fondos
constituye una injerencia de un Estado tercero en un conflicto armado, contrario al DIH.
d) TJUE:
+ Puede aplicarse a este caso el DUE (MR) sobre terrorismo. El objetivo de la UE es luchar
contra el terrorismo cualesquiera que sean sus formas. Lo hace en ejecución de la Res 1373
(2001) del CSNU.
+ Los Tigres no pueden invocar el ppio de no injerencia pues el DI lo refiere a las relaciones
interestatales, como corolario de la igualdad soberana.
+ No procede examinar si también podría haber adoptado MR frente a Sril Lanka, pues la UE
no debe determinar quién tiene razón en estos conflictos: “nadie puede invocar en su
provecho una ilegalidad cometida por otro”.
c) TJUE: Las autoridades administrativas, no sólo las judiciales, también pueden adoptar
decisiones que funden una MR.
El TJUE anula ciertos reglamentos. Puede recurrirse ante el TJUE y volver a listar a los Tigres
modificando la motivación.