Thermal resistance

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_resistance_in_electronics

Thermal resistance is a heat property and a measurement of a temperature difference by which an object or
material resists a heat flow. Thermal resistance is the reciprocal of thermal conductance.

(Absolute) thermal resistance R in kelvins per watt (K/W) is a property of a particular component. For
example, a characteristic of a heat sink.
Specific thermal resistance or thermal resistivity Rλ in kelvin metres per watt (K⋅m/W), is a material
constant.
Thermal insulance has the units square metre kelvin per watt (m2⋅K/W) in SI units or square foot degree
Fahrenheit hours per British thermal unit (ft2⋅°F⋅h/Btu) in imperial units. It is the thermal resistance of unit
area of a material. In terms of insulation, it is measured by the R-value.

Absolute thermal resistance

Absolute thermal resistance is the temperature difference across a structure when a unit of heat energy flows
through it in unit time. It is the reciprocal of thermal conductance. The SI unit of absolute thermal resistance is
kelvins per watt (K/W) or the equivalent degrees Celsius per watt (°C/W) – the two are the same since the
intervals are equal: ΔT = 1 K = 1 °C.

The thermal resistance of materials is of great interest to electronic engineers because most electrical
components generate heat and need to be cooled. Electronic components malfunction or fail if they overheat,
and some parts routinely need measures taken in the design stage to prevent this.

Analogies
Main articles: analogical models and Onsager reciprocal relations
Electrical engineers are familiar with Ohm's law and so often use it as an analogy when doing calculations
involving thermal resistance. Mechanical and structural engineers are more familiar with Hooke's law and so
often use it as an analogy when doing calculations involving thermal resistance.

structural hydraulic electrical

type analogy[1] analogy thermal analogy[2]

quantity impulse volume [m3] heat [J] charge [C]

[N·s]

potential displacement pressure temperature potential [V

[m] [N/m2] [K] = J/C]

flux load or force flow rate heat transfer current [A =

[N] [m3/s] rate [W = C/s]
J/s]

flux density stress [Pa velocity [m/s] heat flux current density
= N/m2] [W/m2] [C/(m2·s) =
A/m2]

resistance flexibility fluid resistance thermal electrical

(rheology [...] resistance resistance
defined) [1/Pa] [K/W] [Ω]

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 conductance ... [Pa] fluid conductance thermal electrical
[...] conductance conductance
[W/K] [S]

resistivity flexibility fluid resistivity thermal electrical

[m/N] resistivity resistivity
[(m·K)/W] [Ω·m]

conductivity stiffness fluid conductivity thermal electrical

[N/m] conductivity conductivity
[W/(m·K)] [S/m]

lumped Hooke's law Hagen–Poiseuille Newton's law of Ohm's law

element equation cooling
linear model

distributed ... ... Fourier's law Ohm's law

linear model

Explanation from an electronics point of view

Equivalent thermal circuits

The heat flow can be modelled by analogy to an electrical circuit
where heat flow is represented by current, temperatures are
represented by voltages, heat sources are represented by constant
current sources, absolute thermal resistances are represented by
resistors and thermal capacitances by capacitors.

The diagram shows an equivalent thermal circuit for a semiconductor

device with a heat sink.

The diagram shows an equivalent thermal

circuit for a semiconductor device with a
heat sink:
is the power dissipated by the device.

is the junction temperature in the

device.
is the temperature at its case.
is the temperature where the heat
sink is attached.
is the ambient air temperature.
is the device's absolute thermal

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 resistance from junction to case.
is the absolute thermal resistance
from the case to the heatsink.
is the absolute thermal resistance
of the heat sink.

Example calculation
Consider a component such as a silicon transistor that is bolted to the metal frame of a piece of equipment. The
transistor's manufacturer will specify parameters in the datasheet called the absolute thermal resistance from
junction to case (symbol: ), and the maximum allowable temperature of the semiconductor junction
(symbol: ). The specification for the design should include a maximum temperature at which the circuit
should function correctly. Finally, the designer should consider how the heat from the transistor will escape to
the environment: this might be by convection into the air, with or without the aid of a heat sink, or by conduction
through the printed circuit board. For simplicity, let us assume that the designer decides to bolt the transistor to a
metal surface (or heat sink) that is guaranteed to be less than above the ambient temperature. Note:
THS appears to be undefined.

Given all this information, the designer can construct a model of the heat flow from the semiconductor junction,
where the heat is generated, to the outside world. In our example, the heat has to flow from the junction to the
case of the transistor, then from the case to the metalwork. We do not need to consider where the heat goes
after that, because we are told that the metalwork will conduct heat fast enough to keep the temperature less
than above ambient: this is all we need to know.

Suppose the engineer wishes to know how much power can be put into the transistor before it overheats. The
calculations are as follows.

Total absolute thermal resistance from junction to ambient =

where is the absolute thermal resistance of the bond between the transistor's case and the metalwork.
This figure depends on the nature of the bond - for example, a thermal bonding pad or thermal transfer grease
might be used to reduce the absolute thermal resistance.

Maximum temperature drop from junction to ambient =

We use the general principle that the temperature drop across a given absolute thermal resistance
with a given heat flow through it is:

Substituting our own symbols into this formula gives:

and, rearranging,

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The designer now knows , the maximum power that the transistor can be allowed to dissipate, so they
can design the circuit to limit the temperature of the transistor to a safe level.

Let us substitute some sample numbers:

(typical for a silicon transistor)

(a typical specification for commercial equipment)

(for a typical TO-220 package)

(a typical value for an elastomer heat-transfer pad for a TO-220 package)

(a typical value for a heatsink for a TO-220 package)

The result is then:

This means that the transistor can dissipate about 18 watts before it overheats. A cautious designer would
operate the transistor at a lower power level to increase its reliability.

This method can be generalised to include any number of layers of heat-conducting materials, simply by adding
together the absolute thermal resistances of the layers and the temperature drops across the layers.

Derived from Fourier's Law for heat conduction

From Fourier's Law for heat conduction, the following equation can be derived, and is valid as long as all of the
parameters (x and k) are constant throughout the sample.

where:

is the absolute thermal resistance (K/W) across the thickness of the sample
is the thickness (m) of the sample (measured on a path parallel to the heat flow)
is the thermal conductivity (W/(K·m)) of the sample
is the thermal resistivity (K·m/W) of the sample
is the cross-sectional area (m2) perpendicular to the path of heat flow.

In terms of the temperature gradient across the sample and heat flux through the sample, the relationship is:

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where:

is the absolute thermal resistance (K/W) across the thickness of the sample,
is the thickness (m) of the sample (measured on a path parallel to the heat flow),
is the heat flux through the sample (W·m−2),

is the temperature gradient (K·m−1) across the sample,

is the cross-sectional area (m2) perpendicular to the path of heat flow through the sample,
is the temperature difference (K) across the sample,
is the rate of heat flow (W) through the sample.

Problems with electrical resistance analogy

A 2008 review paper written by Philips researcher Clemens J. M. Lasance notes that: "Although there is an
analogy between heat flow by conduction (Fourier’s law) and the flow of an electric current (Ohm’s law), the
corresponding physical properties of thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity conspire to make the
behavior of heat flow quite unlike the flow of electricity in normal situations. [...] Unfortunately, although the
electrical and thermal differential equations are analogous, it is erroneous to conclude that there is any practical
analogy between electrical and thermal resistance. This is because a material that is considered an insulator in
electrical terms is about 20 orders of magnitude less conductive than a material that is considered a conductor,
while, in thermal terms, the difference between an "insulator" and a "conductor" is only about three orders of
magnitude. The entire range of thermal conductivity is then equivalent to the difference in electrical conductivity
of high-doped and low-doped silicon."[3]

Measurement standards
The junction-to-air thermal resistance can vary greatly depending on the ambient conditions.[4] (A more
sophisticated way of expressing the same fact is saying that junction-to-ambient thermal resistance is not
Boundary-Condition Independent (BCI).[3]) JEDEC has a standard (number JESD51-2) for measuring the
junction-to-air thermal resistance of electronics packages under natural convection and another standard
(number JESD51-6) for measurement under forced convection.

A JEDEC standard for measuring the junction-to-board thermal resistance (relevant for surface-mount
technology) has been published as JESD51-8.[5]

A JEDEC standard for measuring the junction-to-case thermal resistance (JESD51-14) is relatively newcomer,
having been published in late 2010; it concerns only packages having a single heat flow and an exposed cooling
surface.[6][7][8]

Resistance in Composite Wall

Parallel thermal resistance

Similarly to electrical circuits, the total thermal resistance for steady state conditions can be calculated as
follows.

The total thermal resistance

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 (1)

Simplifying the equation, we get

(2) Parallel Thermal Resistance in composite

walls
With terms for the thermal resistance for conduction, we get

(3)

Resistance in series and parallel

It is often suitable to assume one-dimensional conditions, although the heat flow is multidimensional. Now, two
different circuits may be used for this case. For case (a) (shown in picture), we presume isothermal surfaces for
those normal to the x- direction, whereas for case (b) we presume adiabatic surfaces parallel to the x- direction.
We may obtain different results for the total resistance and the actual corresponding values of the heat
transfer are bracketed by . When the multidimensional effects becomes more significant, these differences
are increased with increasing .[9]

Equivalent thermal circuits for series-parallel

composite wall

Radial Systems
Spherical and cylindrical systems may be treated as one-dimensional, due to the temperature gradients in the
radial direction. The standard method can be used for analyzing radial systems under steady state conditions,
starting with the appropriate form of the heat equation, or the alternative method, starting with the appropriate
form of Fourier's law. For a hollow cylinder in steady state conditions with no heat generation, the appropriate
form of heat equation is [9]

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 (4)

Where is treated as a variable. Considering the appropriate form of Fourier's law, the physical significance of
treating as a variable becomes evident when the rate at which energy is conducted across a cylindrical
surface, this is represented as

(5)

Where is the area that is normal to the direction of where the heat transfer occurs. Equation 1
implies that the quantity is not dependent of the radius , it follows from equation 5 that the
heat transfer rate, is a constant in the radial direction.

In order to determine the temperature distribution in the cylinder,

equation 4 can be solved applying the appropriate boundary
conditions. With the assumption that is constant

(6)

Using the following boundary conditions, the constants and

can be computed
Hollow cylinder with convective surface
conditions in thermal conduction

and

The general solution gives us

and

Solving for and and substituting into the general solution, we obtain

(7)

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The logarithmic distribution of the temperature is sketched in the inset of the thumbnail figure. Assuming that the
temperature distribution, equation 7, is used with Fourier's law in equation 5, the heat transfer rate can be
expressed in the following form

Finally, for radial conduction in a cylindrical wall, the thermal resistance is of the form

such that

See also

References
1. ^ Tony Abbey. "Using FEA for Thermal Analysis". Desktop Engineering magazine. 2014 June. p. 32.
2. ^ "The Design of Heatsinks".
3. ^ab
4. ^ Ho-Ming Tong; Yi-Shao Lai; C.P. Wong (2013). Advanced Flip Chip Packaging. Springer Science &
Business Media. pp. 460–461. ISBN 978-1-4419-5768-9.
5. ^ Younes Shabany (2011). Heat Transfer: Thermal Management of Electronics. CRC Press. pp. 111–113.
ISBN 978-1-4398-1468-0.
6. ^ Clemens J.M. Lasance; András Poppe (2013). Thermal Management for LED Applications. Springer
Science & Business Media. p. 247. ISBN 978-1-4614-5091-7.
7. ^ a b Incropera, Dewitt, Bergman, Lavine, Frank P., David P., Theodore L., Adrienne S. (2013). Principles
of Heat and Mass Transfer. John Wiley & Sons; 7th Edition, Interna edition. ISBN 978-0470646151.

10. K Einalipour, S. Sadeghzadeh, F. Molaei. “Interfacial thermal resistance engineering for polyaniline (C3N)-
graphene heterostructure”, The Journal of Physical Chemistry, 2020. DOI:10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c02051

Michael Lenz, Günther Striedl, Ulrich Fröhler (January 2000) Thermal Resistance, Theory and Practice.
Infineon Technologies AG, Munich, Germany.
Directed Energy, Inc./IXYSRF (March 31, 2003) R Theta And Power Dissipation Technical Note. Ixys RF,
Fort Collins, Colorado. Example thermal resistance and power dissipation calculation in semiconductors.

Further reading
There is a large amount of literature on this topic. In general, works using the term "thermal resistance" are more
engineering-oriented, whereas works using the term thermal conductivity are more [pure-]physics-oriented. The
following books are representative, but may be easily substituted.

Terry M. Tritt, ed. (2004). Thermal Conductivity: Theory, Properties, and Applications. Springer Science &
Business Media. ISBN 978-0-306-48327-1.
Younes Shabany (2011). Heat Transfer: Thermal Management of Electronics. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-
4398-1468-0.
Xingcun Colin Tong (2011). Advanced Materials for Thermal Management of Electronic Packaging.
Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4419-7759-5.

External links

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Guoping Xu (2006), Thermal Management for Electronic Packaging, Sun Microsystems
http://www.electronics-cooling.com/2012/09/update-on-jedec-thermal-standards/
The importance of Soil Thermal Resistivity for power companies

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