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A History of Korea
 Understanding Korea No. 10

A HISTORY OF
KOREA
Written by Song Ho-jung
Jeon Deog-jae
Lim Ki-hwan
Kim In-ho
Lee Kang-hahn
Choi E-don
Understanding Korea Series No. 10
Chung Yeon-sik
A History of Korea Suh Young-hee
Chun Woo-yong
Published in December 2019
Published by The Academy of Korean Studies
Hahn Monica
Chung Chang-hyun
The Academy of Korean Studies
323 Haogae-ro, Bundang-gu, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13455, Korea Translated by Daniel Kane
Phone: 82-31-739-9725
Jong-Chol An
Fax: 82-31-739-9726
Homepage: www.aks.ac.kr Keith Seidel

Copyright © 2019 The Academy of Korean Studies

All rights reserved

No portion of the contents may be reproduced in any form without written permission
of The Academy of Korean Studies.

ISBN 979-11-5866-604-0 03910

Edited and designed by Korea Sharing Welfare Association

Printed in the Republic of Korea

Contents
8 Foreword Chapter 4 . Goryeo and East Asia
10 Introduction
90 Emergence of the Later Three Kingdoms
94 Goryeo Reunification and the Nature of Goryeo Society
103 The Goryeo Dynasty and the States of East Asia

Chapter 1 . P
 rehistoric Culture and the Formation of
Centralized Polities
Chapter 5 . G
 oryeo and the Mongol Empire
16 Prehistoric Society and Culture
112 Goryeo’s Resistance to the Mongol Invasion (1231-1259)
22 The Establishment and Development of Gojoseon
116 Diplomacy with the Mongols, and Management of Domestic Affairs
30 Ancient Korean Society and the Lelang Commandery
(1260-1307)
125 A New Era for Goryeo: Mixed-blood Monarchy (14th Century)
137 Changes in the Goryeo-Yuan Relationship (1350s and ’60s)
Chapter 2 . Th
 e Foundation and Development of the Three
141 Shifting Northeast Asian Order: Goryeo, Northern Yuan and Ming
Kingdoms
(1370s, ’80s and ’90s)
38 Establishment and Expansion of the Three Kingdoms
48 Administrative Systems and Social Makeup of the Three Kingdoms
54 Culture and Religion of the Three Kingdoms Chapter 6 . The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its
State System
146 Founding of Joseon
Chapter 3 . The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of
151 Political Structure and Conditions of the Commoners
Northern and Southern States
158 Economic Structure and Status of the Common People
66 Goguryeo’s Wars with Sui and Tang China 163 Structure of and Changes in the Status System
71 The Silla Wars of Unification
77 The Flourishing of Unified Silla
82 Founding and Development of Balhae
 Chapter 10 . N
 ational Division and the Korean War
Chapter 7 . C
 hanges of the Late Joseon
242 Liberation and Division
170 The Japanese and Manchu Invasions: Trial and Resurgence
256 The Korean War and Permanent Division
178 A New Society
185 A New Crisis

Chapter 11 . T
 oday’s Korea

Chapter 8 . Th
 e Modern World and the Korean Empire 266 The Spread of Industrialization and Popular Culture
(Daehan jeguk) 274 The Expansion of the Democratization Movement and Establishment
of a Democratic System
194 Opening of Ports and the Enlightenment Policy
278 Policies for the Unification of North and South Korea and Striving
199 The Empire of Korea and Movement to Establish a Modern State
Towards Unification
209 Diplomacy of the Korean Empire and the Road to Colonization

Chapter 9 . Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean

284 About the Authors
Independence Movement
286 Translators
218 Japanese Aggression in Korea and the Korean National Movement after
the Russo-Japanese War
220 Japanese Annexation of Korea and the March First Movement
226 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement in the
1920s
233 Japanese Invasion of Mainland China and the Korean Independence
Movement
8 9

FOREWORD

The Academy of Korean Studies(AKS) has made contribution to the thank Daniel Kane, Professor An Jong-chol and Keith Seidel for their
studies of history and culture of Korea internationally for the past four excellent translations. Our thanks should go to the institutions that
decades. The Center for International Affairs (CEFIA) at AKS has allow pictures to use in this book including the National Museum of
committed to the Understanding Korea Project since 2003. It aims Korea, Cultural Heritage Administration, Kyujanggak Institute For
to promote the better understanding of Korea by various methods in- Korean Studies, Seoul National University Library, Buyeo National
cluding the development of sources on Korean history and culture and Museum, Gyeongju National Museum, Northeast Asian History
investigation of Korea-related articles in the international textbooks. Foundation, Korea University Museum, Jangseogak of AKS, National
With this objective in mind, CEFIA has published the Understanding Palace Museum of Korea, Royal Portrait Museum, National Folk
Korea Series. This series offers in-depth knowledge to international Museum of Korea, The Museum of Silhak, Kansong Art and Culture
community who wants to understand Korea. As the series covers a Foundation, Myongji-LG Korean Studies Library, The Independence
variety of Korea-related topics, we hope it would be available to many Hall of Korea, Seodaemun Prison History Hall and National Archives
readers. of Korea.
A History of Korea is the tenth volume in the Understanding Korea It is our hope that this book will contribute to a better understanding
Series. It explains the history of Korea from prehistoric times to the of Korean history and to raising the interest of the international com-
present. This book, divided by periods, helps readers to understand munity in the history of Korea.
the main events and overall characteristics of Korean history. It covers
each era’s political systems, culture, society, and foreign relations.
As a concise introduction to Korean history, this book would be
suitable for international Koreanists and students, textbook authors,
and the general readers. Center for International Affairs
Academy of Korean Studies
Many people have assisted us to make this publication possible.
We appreciate authors of chapters such as Professor Song Ho-jung,
Professor Jeon Deog-jae, Professor Lim Ki-hwan, Professor Kim In-
ho, Professor Lee Kang-hahn, Professor Choi E-don, Professor Chung
Yeon-sik, Professor Suh Young-hee, Professor Chun Woo-yong,
Professor Hahn Monica and Director Chung Chang-hyun. We also
10 11

INTRODUCTION

Korea has an ancient, rich, and dynamic history. These experiences peninsula anew, and describes Goryeo’s relationship with other East
have shaped the identity of the Korean people and created their unique Asian states. Chapter 5, “Goryeo and the Mongol Empire,” deals with
culture, characteristic mindset, and ideological values. Outside of the Mongol invasion, Goryeo’s resistance, and the unique form of co-
Korea, Korean history is typically viewed from a Chinese or Japanese existence that emerged between Goryeo and Mongol Yuan dynasty in
perspective or in the context of East Asian history. This has resulted in China. This chapter helps readers understand how Goryeo was able
a general lack of understanding and an abundance of misconceptions to maintain its national sovereignty and identity even as other coun-
regarding Korea’s history. We live in a time of increasing informatiza- tries were swallowed up by Mongol Yuan Empire. Chapter 6, “The
tion and globalization. Understanding each country’s history and cul- Founding of Joseon and Formulation of its State System,” recalls the
ture is needed more than ever, and that understanding must be from a disorder of the late-Goryeo period and describes the political, social,
worldwide and comparative point of view. To this end, this book was and economic characteristics of the new dynasty that appeared in its
designed to help readers outside of Korea easily understand the main wake, the Joseon dynasty. Chapter 7, “Changes of the Late Joseon,”
events in the development of Korean history describes Joseon’s tax reforms and efforts to improve agricultural
The eleven chapters in this book cover the totality of Korean his- productivity following its struggles with both Japan and the Manchus.
tory, from the peninsula’s ancient civilizations to present-day Korea. This chapter also explains the social changes and external threats that
Chapter 1, “Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Joseon experienced during the subsequent eighteenth and nineteenth
Politics,” details the ancient civilizations and the development of centuries. Chapter 8, “The Modern World and the Korean Empire,” de-
Gojoseon, the first nation on the Korean Peninsula. Chapter 2, “The lineates Joseon’s efforts to enact modernization policies and establish a
Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms,” describes modern nation called the “Korean Empire” (Daehan jeguk) in order to
the establishment and development of the early Korean kingdoms combat both external and internal threats. This chapter examines the
of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. Chapter 3, “The Wars of Korean Korean people’s hopes and efforts to maintain an independent nation
Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States,” explains even as the international powers around them sought to seize control
the political and diplomatic dynamics between the Three Kingdoms of the peninsula. Chapter 9, “Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean
and the process of their eventual unification into one nation. It goes Independence Movement,” covers the Japanese seizure of Korea,
on to detail the formation and development of the state of Balhae, Japan’s colonial rule of its new colony, and the independence move-
which existed in what is today northern area of the Korean Peninsula ment that emerged amongst the Korean people. Chapter 10, “National
and northeast China. Chapter 4, “Goryeo and East Asia,” deals with Division and the Korean War,” describes Korean efforts to establish an
the establishment and characteristics of Goryeo, which unified the independent, unified nation against the backdrop of the global Cold
12

War following World War II. This chapter goes on to examine the es-
tablishment of opposing governments in North and South Korea, the
outbreak of the Korean War, and the hardening of national division.
Chapter 11, “Today’s Korea,” describes how Korea went on to indus-
trialize after the destruction of the Korean War and the subsequent
blossoming of democratization after decades of military dictatorship.
It also covers efforts to build a peace regime on the Korean Peninsula.
The scholars who authored these chapters are the foremost experts
in their respective periods of Korean history, and they have imparted
to these chapters their wealth of knowledge and insights. Despite
space limitations, this book also includes visual aids and maps to help
readers understand the contents more clearly. It is our hope that this
book will increase understanding of and interest in Korean history and
convey Korea’s historical experiences to a larger audience.
14
BCE 500th millenium~BCE 108
BCE 500th millenium
Paleolithic Age begins
Chapter 1
BCE 10,000
Neolithic Age begins
BCE 2333
Dangun Wanggeom founds Gojoseon
(Dongguk tonggam)
BCE 2000~1500
Bronze Age begins
BCE 400
Iron Age begins
BCE 4th century
Jin is founded in the southern region of the Korean
Peninsula
BCE 3rd century
Buyeo is founded in Manchuria PREHISTORIC CULTURE
BCE 194
Wiman becomes king of Gojoseon after ousting King
AND THE FORMATION OF
Jun CENTRALIZED POLITIES
BCE 108
Gojoseon falls after Han China’s invasion

Song Ho-jung
translated by Daniel Kane
16 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 17

Prehistoric Society and Culture ince (in present-day North Korea), and following this at Seokjang-ri
in Gongju and in the caves of Mt. Seungni in Deokcheon. Among
Life and society of the Paleolithic period these discoveries, the mandible bones and molars excavated from
the caves of Mt. Seungni in Deokcheon have become important evi-
The Paleolithic Age, during which humanity lived in closest connec-
dence pointing to human habitation of the Korean Peninsula dating
tion with nature, refers to the period from about 2.5 million years
back to the Paleolithic period.
ago to 10,000 years ago. During this time, humans survived through
On the Korean Peninsula as throughout the world, Paleolithic
hunting and gathering, using various tools fashioned of chipped
peoples dwelled in caves or rocky outcroppings and acquired food
stone.
resources through hunting and foraging. The remains found at
Paleolithic remnants in Manchuria and on the Korean Peninsula
Jeongok-ri in Yeoncheon and at Suyanggae in Danyang were situ-
date back to about fifty thousand years ago. On the Korean Peninsula,
ated in an expansive river basin, well-placed for finding cave shelters
an increasing number of bone remains confirmed as belonging to
and access to water.
Paleolithic humans have been found, beginning with the first dis-
For the purposes of foraging, they fashioned thrushes, fist axes,
covery in 1962 at Gulpo-ri in Unggi, North Hamgyeong-do prov-
and stone cleavers to suit their purposes. They also made small, sharp
objects such as various scrapers and picks, and fashioned tools from
animal bones and horns. Notably, they used fire to cook their food.
Because the primary concern in the Paleolithic period was subsis-
tence through hunting and gathering, the number of people required
for this decided the size of a given social group, with the standard
size seeming to be about twenty-five people. As no socioeconomic
gaps differentiated rich from poor, the hunting duties would have
been distributed equally within the group.

Life and society of the Neolithic period

Fist axe from Jeongok-ri, Yeoncheon National Museum of Korea The Paleolithic came to an end approximately ten thousand years
Fist axes were originally thought to have been used only in Africa and Europe. This fist axe gained
worldwide attention following its discovery in 1977 amongst Early Stone Age artifacts in Jeongok-ri, before the present era as the climate warmed and the world entered
Yeoncheon.
18 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 19

the postglacial age. During this period conditions were warm and teriors might contain simply a hearth and cooking pot. Dwellings
humid and with the rise in sea levels flora and fauna also changed. were typically of a size to accommodate a household of 4 to 5 people
The retreating glaciers also shaped the landscape of the Korean while about 15 to 20 such dwellings would comprise a collective
Peninsula into what it is today. With warming temperatures plant settlement.
life increased and forests grew denser and smaller animals such as With settled life, people began to build dwellings on the plains,
deer, wild boar, and rabbits began to supplant the larger mammals and these dwellings began to include places for the storage of seed
that inhabited the ice age landscape. In this transformed environ- and food. Production of pottery for the cooking or eating of food
ment humans first began to produce their food through primitive increased. People engaged in fishing, hunting, and foraging while
agricultural practices and animal husbandry. carrying out communal life in groups made up of scores of clans.
With such changes in the natural environment, humans began to Neolithic peoples fashioned hempen garments using spindles and
fashion the polished stone tools required of their new livelihoods. needles made of bone, a work done largely by women. Neolithic peo-
The bow was developed as were various stone implements like ples also made objects representative of fertility, such as figures of
knives, axes, adzes, and whetstones. Developed as well were var- pregnant women and goddesses, as a way of praying for abundance.
ious other tools for fishing as well as agricultural implements such In a context where agriculture was so completely dependent on
as semicircular blades and mortar and pestles. During the Neolithic natural conditions, nature and its forces held a compelling interest to
period the primary means of livelihood consisted of hunting, fishing, the peoples of the Neolithic. During this period, people had animist
and the foraging of wild plants. In the early period, subsistence was notions, wherein not only humans but all natural objects possessed
aided through the fashioning of spears and fishing hooks from such souls, including the sun, water, and mountains, and they maintained
things as deer antlers, while those living on the sea coasts or along a totemic belief system that saw the worship of certain animals.
rivers were also able to gather and eat things like shellfish. The late Further, there was the belief that the soul lived on after death, and
Neolithic saw the emergence of primitive agriculture in some regions. thus emerged worship of the soul and of ancestors, and shamanism
During the Neolithic, those inhabiting the Korean Peninsula and also appeared with its soothsayers and the attendant belief in the
Manchuria largely cultivated minor cereals such as millet or sesame. power of magic.
With the adoption of agriculture, the field became the locus of daily The people of the Neolithic lived together based on clan affilia-
life. People of the Neolithic commonly dwelt along rivers and on tion. In this period, because children came to know intimately only
low hills. The floors of dwellings were burned with fire and made their mother’s side, groups naturally formed around the mother’s
hard, with pillars and rafters then built to support a roof. Their in- lineage group. And because harvests were not only impossible to
20 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 21

store for long periods, but were the result of collective labor, they opment of rice paddies. Although we can find traces of rice farming
were distributed equitably among group members. Therefore, so- in the previous Neolithic era, rice cultivation began in earnest during
ciety from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic period is termed primi- the Bronze Age. With the development of settled agriculture, people
tive communal society. came to inhabit the banks of rivers, the lower slopes of mountains,
or the bases of hills. Farming and animal husbandry now became
much more important than hunting and gathering.
From Bronze Age to Iron Age culture
The Bronze Age saw the collapse of primitive communal societies.
About a thousand years before the Common Era, the use of bronze Gradually, the various tribal groups established economic ties with
tools emerged on the Korean Peninsula. With the advent of this one another, and rivalry between the tribes regarding the right to
Bronze Age, the former egalitarian relationships vanished and social use major resources intensified, leading to both domination and
classes emerged among the populace while discord and confronta- subordination among them. In the villages, moats and wooden bar-
tions frequently led to war. ricades were erected for defensive purposes, Geomdan-ri in Ulsan
During this period, tribal chiefs possessed the power of priest- and Songguk-ri in Buyeo being examples of this. Over time, these
hood, and they made display of their dignified status through wooden barricades gave way to earthen walls. This trend is similar
symbols of religious authority, such as bronze swords and bronze to the emergence of walled city-states in the West. These walled
mirrors. In addition, the development of various wooden tools led
to significant advances in farming and animal husbandry.
The use of bronze implements allowed for the production of
sharper and more precise tools. Although farming implements
such as hoes, scythes, and plowshares continued to be fashioned of
stone and wood as before, their quality improved. Bronze was a very
valuable commodity in itself, and thus difficult for ordinary people
to possess. Rulers alone used bronze to augment the prestige and
authority that befitted their status.
In this period, the people primarily cultivated varieties of millet,
such as Foxtail millet, proso millet, and sorghum. During the Bronze Dolmen located in Bugeun-ri, Ganghwa-gun ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration
Age, water began to be diverted into low-lying ground for the devel- Dolmen are thought to be the graves of important persons from the Bronze Age. In 2000, areas in Korea
with many dolmen were registered as World Heritage Sites, including Gochang, Hwasun, and Ganghwa.
22 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 23

fortress towns became political and religious centers controlling the

various villages of their given area.
Powerful rulers (chieftain) possessing power and wealth came
to establish control over larger populations, and then established
laws to protect authority and property. They set up administrative
apparatuses and formed armies to enforce the law and punish trans-
gressors. From such a process states or polities were born. In Korea,
Gojoseon emerged as the first centralized state.

The Establishment and Development of Samguk yusa Kyujanggak Institute For Korean Studies / Seoul National University Library
Samguk yusa ’s chapter on Gojoseon containing the Dangun legend about the founding of Gojoseon.
Gojoseon
period of Gojoseon’s founding. Dangun Wanggeom (or Dangun) is
The Dangun myth and Gojoseon said to have ruled for 1500 years, though such a figure is just a way
Every country in the world has its foundation myth. For Korea, the of expressing how Dangun Joseon (or Gojoseon) existed a very long
Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms; 1281) relates time.
the foundation myth of the first Korean state, Gojoseon. This is the This ancient society seems to have been a communal farming
oldest extant record of Dangun, and subsequent Korean historical society because mugwort and garlic appear prominently in the
records refer to Dangun as the first ruler and progenitor of the Dangun myth. This period bears similarities to Liaoning bronze
Korean nation. dagger culture that emerged in what is today northeastern China
The Dangun myth reflects the Korean Peninsula’s historical ex- (1000 BCE-300 CE).
perience of state-founding. The story of Dangun communicates
how a political power based in Bronze Age culture consolidated
Founding and development of Gojoseon
several tribes to establish Gojoseon. Further, the myth also seeks to
demonstrate the justness and legitimacy of the establishment of this The word “Joseon” originally denoted a region and the name of a
rule. Embellished as it may be with mythological elements, the story tribe of peoples. When this area called Joseon grew and became a
of Dangun relates in an implicit manner the historical facts of the state, the name of the region was adopted as the name of the state.
24 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 25

Spatially, the Joseon people inhabited an area centered on what its power increased to rival the Chinese state of Yan. The Chinese
is today Liaodong in southern Manchuria and the northwestern people were dismissive of the people of Gojoseon, calling them bar-
Korean Peninsula. The area saw the very early development of ag- barians. They referred to the populace of Gojoseon as the Yemaek,
riculture, and its population consisted mainly of members of the Ye to mean people inhabiting dirty and wild lands, and described them
and Maek tribes. At first, this region saw the emergence of a small as “haughty and violent.”
number of political groupings, which were then subdued and con- The representative culture left by the Yemaek and Gojoseon
solidated by the dominant among them. people who lived in the region of Liaodong and the northwestern
In the “Treatise on the Xiongnu” (Xiongnu liezhuan) chapter Korean Peninsula is the mandolin-shaped (i.e., Liaoning style)
of the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) of Sima Qian it is bronze dagger culture. Besides the eponymous mandolin-shaped
recorded that to the west of Joseon were found such tribes as the bronze dagger, other representative features of the mandolin-shaped
Sanyung (Ch. Shanrong) and Dongho (Ch. Donghu) and that bronze dagger culture of southern Manchuria include dolmen (jis-
“none can unite these one hundred or so barbarian tribes into one.” eokmyo), Misongni-type pottery, and Paengihyeong-type (or sharp-
The situation with the “Rongdi” (a pejorative Chinese term for bottomed-type) pottery. The fact that the table-style (or north-
non-Han tribes living in the area) on Gojoseon’s right (or eastern) ern-style) dolmen is found spread from Liaodong to the northwest
flank would have been very similar. Thus, in this period, as in the of the Korean Peninsula speaks to the wide-ranging influence
case of the barbarians to the west, Gojoseon was unable to establish Gojoseon life and cultural patterns exerted during the Bronze Age.
administrative control, with the chiefs of each political grouping From the 5th to 4th centuries BCE, the diffusion of the more
seeming to come together to form a loose alliance. advanced culture of China along with movement of peoples led
The name “Joseon” makes its earliest appearance in the Guanzi, to a cultural change in the region of Liaodong and on the Korean
where it is recorded that around the 7th century BCE Joseon sent Peninsula, to include the emergence of iron culture and so-called
as tribute items to the state of Qi, located in what is today China’s pit burial (ummudeom). Gradually, Gojoseon came to be perceived
Shandong Peninsula, specialty products such as tiger pelts at the as a political entity or state by polities in China and by surrounding
request of that state’s Duke Huan. This record notes that the state of ethnic groups.
Joseon was some 8000 ri distant from Qi, a hyperbolic expression The “Weilüe” (Brief History of Wei) found in the Sanguozhi
that meant simply it was a great distance away. (Record of the Three Kingdoms), records that in the 4th century
At first, Gojoseon maintained only loose control over various BCE, the “Joseon feudality” (huguk) adopted the title of kingdom
ethnic groups, but over the course of the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, and launched an attack on the Chinese state of Yan of the Warring
26 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 27

States period. At that time, the king of this “Joseon feudality” served emerge out of China and move into the northwestern part of the
as the chief of a confederation of regional ethnic groups and pos- Korean Peninsula. Based on these historical movements, at the start
sessed a rudimentary bureaucratic system with such offices as baksa of the second century BCE an independent political power developed
(an academician of sorts) and daebu (minister). Gojoseon already in this region: Wiman Joseon established by Wiman (Ch. Weiman).
displayed at this date the characteristics of an ancient state. According to the “Record of Joseon” ( Joseon yeoljeon) in the
Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), Wiman was a subject of the
Yan state and a deputy commander under Lu Wan, whom the Han
Wiman Joseon
emperor had set up as the king of Yan. At the time of Empress Lü
In the course of the 3rd century BCE, the Iron Age culture of Warring of Han, when Lu Wan fled to the Xiongnu, Wiman chose to strike
States China spread into southern Manchuria and the Korean off on his own, traversing the Qianshan (K. Cheonsan) Mountains
Peninsula. With this, the former mandolin-shaped dagger culture and arriving in the area of the Cheongcheon River. At the end of the
was supplanted by a slender-shaped dagger culture centered on an second century BCE, Wiman came to settle in this area and there
area south of the Cheongcheon River in the peninsula’s northwest. established so-called “Wiman Joseon.”
From the 4th to the 3rd centuries BCE migrant forces began to With Pyeongyang (present-day Pyeongyang in North Korea) as
their base, Wiman and his descendants extended their authority
not only throughout the northwestern part of the Korean Peninsula
but also to the south and east, subjugating Jinbeon and Imdun, and
also conquering the Eastern Okjeo located to its north. In this way,
after conquering and establishing its administrative control over
neighboring territories, Wiman Joseon was able to prevent the many
tribes and lesser polities under its control from offering tribute to
or trading with Chinese commanderies and settlements in neigh-
boring Liaodong.
Although such an assertive posture by Wiman Joseon was cer-
tainly made possible by its own native strength, it also seems to have
Ironware excavated in Yongyeon-dong, Wiwon-gun, Pyeonganbuk-do province, North Korea benefited from a close relationship with the empire of the Xiongnu,
National Museum of Korea
which was a powerful political power in north Asia at the time.
These ironware relics are representative of the iron culture in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula.
28 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 29

Wiman Joseon saw the emergence of wooden chamber tombs from That the ruling system of Wiman Joseon was based on the local
pit-burial tombs, while the slender-shaped (or Korean-style) dagger community can be confirmed also by its strict censure of any in-
culture distinct to Gojoseon was further developed. This slen- fringement upon private property and aspects of retributive justice,
der-shaped dagger culture is distinguished by the slender bronze as reflected in that state’s “Eight Prohibitions” (beopgeum paljo). The
daggers, wagon accessories, and ironware that have been found in extant three articles of the “Eight Prohibitions” hint at the emerging
its wooden tombs. power and economic disparities in Wiman Joseon society and that
When King Jun of Gojoseon lost his throne to Wiman he fled slavery and the system of punishments developed with the emer-
south down the Han River with some of his people and loyal re- gence of private ownership.
tainers. He settled there and adopted the title of king of the Han. If out of penury a person stole and was caught, the thief became
In Korean history, the Han dynasty commences with this King Jun. a slave to the victim of the theft. To avoid this fate by payment of a
The administrative system of Wiman Joseon is characterized by fine, that amount was 500,000 coin (jeon). In the case of injuries to
such features as all of its civilian offices carrying the name of sang, others, this was compensated with grain. In the end, it can be seen
and military offices carrying the name general (janggun). Perhaps that the Eight Prohibitions were formulated to protect the lives and
the most distinctive feature of the Wiman Joseon government of- property of the Gojoseon rulers and to give these rulers arbitrary
fice system was its incorporation of indigenously based patriarchal authority over the general population.
forces into its central bureaucracy. Leveraging its geographical position, Wiman Joseon was able to
The centralized monarchy of Wiman Joseon basically exercised prevent direct trade or intercourse between the Ye to its east and
its dominance over local society through the Daegeosu or Geosu, the Jin to its south and Han China, and so monopolized the benefits
while the position of Sang (chief minister) was granted to those of middleman. Naturally, based on these economic and military de-
powerful figures at the local level who were drawn into the service velopments, Gojoseon came into conflict with the Han dynasty in
of the centralized monarchy. At the end of Wiman Joseon, King China. An angry Emperor Wudi of Han first launched an invasion
Ugeo (grandson of Wiman) came into conflict with a high official by land and sea, coming at Wiman Joseon from two sides. In the first
(Joseonsang) called Yeokhyegyeong, who then took some 2,000 round of fighting Gojoseon was victorious, tenaciously holding off
families and migrated with them south to the state of Jin. At this the Han army for about a year. However, the prolonged war created
period, such a massive migration of peoples would have been all internal divisions among the Wiman Joseon leadership, and the
but impossible were there were no bonds of kinship between the state’s capital of Wanggeomseong ultimately fell in 108 BCE and
Yeokhyegyeong and the migrants. with it Gojoseon was destroyed.
30 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 31

Ancient Korean Society and the Lelang population of Nangnang at that time was approximately 280,000,
Commandery divided into about 45,000 households. Among these households,
86 percent were native peoples of Gojoseon. In the region around
Structure and historical character of the Lelang Pyeongyang that was the heart of the Lelang Commandery, there
(Nangnang) Commandery were many native forces that had been inhabiting the area since
the Gojoseon period. The Han China established the Lelang
After its destruction of Gojoseon, the Han Empire took adminis-
Commandery, dividing it up into administrative units of gun and
trative control over the former Gojoseon territory. There it estab-
hyeon, while still recognizing the local indigenous communities.
lished a total of four commanderies, what came to be known as the
Among the residents of the Han China system in Korea, there
“Four Han Commanderies,” though two of these—the Zhenfan
were the “Han Chinese”, who arrived after the establishment of
(K. Jinbeon) and Lintun (K. Imdun)—were soon abolished.
the Lelang Commandery, and then the “native Chinese ethnics”,
The Xuantu(K. Hyeondo) Commandery fell to the rising state of
who had settled in the area during the time of Gojoseon prior to
Goguryeo when that latter polity expanded into the Liao River
the establishment of the Lelang Commandery. Those migrants
basin area. The Lelang (K. Nangnang) Commandery survived until
arriving in the Lelang Commandery from Han China played a key
313, but it too was eventually absorbed by Goguryeo.
role in settling the peripheral northwestern region of the Korean
The Lelang Commandery proved a conduit for the advanced cul-
Peninsula, and spreading there the advanced material culture of the
ture of China into the Korean Peninsula and it had a defining impact
central plains (that is, the Yellow River Valley of China). With the
on the formation and development of both the Three Han confed-
prolonged dominance of the Chinese administration of the region, a
eracies and the Three Kingdoms. To the south of the Daedong River
fusion was gradually affected between the indigenous tribal peoples
that runs through Pyeongyang, at the center of what was the Lelang
of Gojoseon and the Han China interlopers.
Commandery, have been discovered around three thousand tomb
By the late second century CE, the strength of the Lelang
sites. In addition, many relics from this period can be found in the
Commandery had weakened considerably. At this time, the
Pyeongan-do and Hwanghae-do areas.
Gongsun clan began to grow in power in the region of Liaodong.
The Lelang Commandery was divided into 25 prefectures and
During the period of upheaval that characterized the end of the
supported a population of about 406,748, a number that gradually
Later Han China (around the year 204), Gongsun Kang in Liaodong
decreased over time. According to a hogubu (household registry)
conquered the territories of the former Zhenfang (K. Jinbeon)
dating to the fourth year of the Chuyuan era of Han (45 BCE) and
Commandery south of Tunyou (K. Dunyu) prefecture (what is
discovered in tomb no. 364 in Jeongbaek-dong in Pyeongyang, the
32 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 33

ruling forces. It is thought that the primary function of the Lelang

Commandery was in coordinating the dispatch of specialty prod-
ucts, such as tiger pelts, from the Gojoseon region to the Han China.
During the period of its existence, the Lelang Commandery,
rather than being a “Chinese colony,” served more as a Chinese
base for relaying trade between the territory of Gojoseon and the
Chinese mainland. Therefore, the Lelang Commandery, though
once the locus of Chinese power, must also be understood as a part
of Korean history.

Gold buckle excavated at Seogam-ri, Pyeongyang National Museum of Korea

This is the oldest object of metalwork discovered to date on the Korean Peninsula. This artifact shows
that various cultures were represented in the traditions and tastes of the indigenous people before the The formation of early Korean states
establishment of the Lelang Commandery.
After the fall of the first Korean state of Gojoseon to Han China,
today Hwangju in North Korea’s Hwanghaebuk-do province) in a strong political entity did not appear on the Korean Peninsula
the Lelang Commandery, and renamed this region the Daifang (K. or Manchuria for some time. In this period (around the third cen-
Daebang) Commandery, and established it as his power base. Even tury CE), according to the description of historical conditions on
as a growing Gongsun clan was styming the expansion of the Han the Korean Peninsula as described in the “Record of the Eastern
polities of the peninsula, commanderies and districts were being Barbarians” (“Dongyi zhuan”) of the “Book of Wei” (“Weishu”)
established beyond the Lelang Commandery—the traditional arm in the Sanguozhi (Chinese Record of the Three Kingdoms), the
of influence of the dynasties of the central Yellow River plains. These primary Korean political groupings were the Buyeo, Goguryeo, the
new polities would gradually increase in power. This had the effect Eastern Okjeo, the Ye, and the Han.
of squeezing the Lelang Commandery from the south. According to the aforementioned “Record of the Eastern Barbarians”
Though the Han period of dominance over this region was brief, of the Sanguozhi (Chinese Record of the Three Kingdoms), the state
it did manage to subjugate and control the native forces, though of Buyeo arose in the region of Manchuria at an early date, and the
its control never went beyond that. The officials of the Lelang state of Goguryeo then emerged from the collapse of Buyeo. Further,
Commandery were always limited to the indirect control of the it records that in the later stages of Gojoseon, the Okjeo and Dongye
local population through the mediation of indigenous Gojoseon (or Eastern Ye) polities emerged in the eastern coastal regions of
34 A History of Korea Chapter 1 Prehistoric Culture and the Formation of Centralized Polities 35

the peninsula. In middle and high school Korean history textbooks seen destruction since its founding,” one can surmise that as late as
and general histories of Korea, this period is often referred to as the late 2nd-early 3rd century it remained a formidable power. But
the “early confederated kingdoms period” or “proto-state period.” by the end of the 4th century, Buyeo territories had fallen to the con-
Among these many early polities, Gojoseon was the first. Following quest of King Gwanggaeto and were under the control of Goguryeo.
this came the emergence of the Buyeo-Goguryeo state. Notable in Following this, the power of the Buyeo monarchy rapidly weakened,
the southern region of the peninsula, among the lesser chieftains and though it maintained its power until the end of the 5th century,
that emerged from out of the Three Han (Samhan), Baekje and Saro ultimately in 494 the Buyeo king and royal family were exiled to
would develop into the kindgoms of Baekje and Silla, respectively. Goguryeo, and the final vestiges of Buyeo power were destroyed.
These early states enlarged their territories through campaigns of One should mention that in the case of Buyeo, which existed for
conquest, establishing political structures to govern their enlarged such an extended period of time alongside the Three Kingdoms,
holdings. In these early states as well, power came to be centralized there were significant social differences between it and the early
in a monarchy and administrative systems were set up. Though these states of the peninsula.
early polities began as largely classless confederated chieftains, as From the first century BCE the three kingdoms of Goguryeo,
their territories expanded, kingly power increased and administra- Baekje, and Silla, from their position on the periphery of Gojoseon
tion became more systemized. society, resisted the direct and indirect domination of the Chinese
The governmental systems and state functions of the early ancient Commanderies, while at the same time being influenced by the
states of the peninsula seem to have been largely similar among the advanced Chinese culture they offered. It is also necessary to under-
three early states of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. However, between stand the period of the Three Kingdoms as an extension of Buyeo-
the earliest society of Gojoseon and the social character of the Three Three Han society. For instance, in the case of Goguryeo, the forces
Kingdoms there was a large gap. As for Buyeo, though this state belongs represented by Jumong (later King Dongmyeong, the founding
among the early states, its history stretched back more than 700 years monarch of Goguryeo) broke away after a power struggle among
so it is problematic to describe as one of the proto-Three Kingdoms. the ruling groups of Buyeo to establish a new state. In the case of
Until its destruction at the hands of King Gwanggaeto of Silla and Baekje, in the petty states represented by Baekje and Saro,
Goguryeo, the Buyeo state preserved its administrative system and power became centralized and they then absorbed other polities
functioned as an ancient state to the north of the Three Kingdoms. migrating from the periphery to form the states of Baekje and Silla,
Considering the Chinese history Weilüe (Brief History of Wei; ca. respectively.
250 CE) described Buyeo as “a wealthy state that has never once
BCE 57~562
BCE 57
Silla is founded
Chapter 2
BCE 37
Goguryeo is founded
BCE 18
Baekje is founded
42
Gaya is founded
313
Goguryeo destroys Lelang commandery
427
Goguryeo transfers its capital from Gungnaeseong to
Pyeongyang
433
Alliance is formed between Silla and Baekje
475 THE FOUNDATION AND
Goguryeo succeeds in capturing Hanseong, the capital
of Baekje, and Baekje transfers its capital to Ungjin
DEVELOPMENT OF THE
494 THREE KINGDOMS
Buyeo is absorbed by Goguryeo
538
Baekje transfers its capital to Sabi
552
Baekje disseminates Buddhism to Japan
553
Silla captures the region around the Han River
562
Silla conqueres Gaya

Jeon Deog-jae
translated by Daniel Kane
38 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 39

Establishment and Expansion of the power of Goguryeo grew greatly.

Three Kingdoms In the 3rd century, during the reign of Goguryeo’s King Sansang,
the monarchy was changed from a fraternal system of succession to
Foundation and growth of Goguryeo that of father-to-son, and the kingdom was further strengthened.
By about the 4th century, Goguryeo had developed into an ancient
In the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, there appeared along the middle
state, the central power in a federated kingdom of five polity groups,
reaches of the Hun River in Huanren and Amnok(Ch. Yalu) River,
or 5 bu, to include Gyerubu and Biryunabu.
Liaoning province, China, small political groupings called “Na”.
In the 240s, Goguryeo went through a period of crisis when it was
Around 75 BCE, Goguryeo people, following their successful at-
attacked by General Guanqiu Jian of the Wei kingdom, but quickly
tacks on the Chinese Xuantu (K. Hyeondo) Commandery, formed
regained its strength. In the 4th century, when China’s Western Jin
a coalition state they named Goguryeo, which was centered on the
dynasty became preoccupied by internal struggles for succession as
Sono (Biryuna) polity group.
well as invasions by the five barbarian tribes (the Xiongnu, Xianbei,
Sometime after this, Jumong, an emigrant from the state of Buyeo,
Jie, Di, and Qiang), King Micheon of Goguryeo in 313 seized the
established his power base at Jolbon (corresponding to Huanren
opportunity to annex the Lelang Commandery around modern
in what is today Liaoning, China), centered on the Gyeru polity
Pyeongyang, and the following year did the same to the Daifang
group. Then around 37 BCE Jumong vanquished the Sono polity
Commandery located in present-day Hwanghae-do. Goguryeo then
group and established the kingdom of Goguryeo. It is the Samguk
made plans to advance into Liaodong.
sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms; 1145) that records Jumong
established the kingdom of Goguryeo at this date of 37 BCE.
Around the first century CE, King Taejo of Goguryeo conquered Establishment and growth of Baekje, Silla, and Gaya
the Okjeo polity along the peninsula’s eastern coast and subjugated
By the mid-3rd century CE, the “Three Han” confederated states of
the surrounding petty states. In addition, having proved him-
Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan comprised more than 70 lesser pol-
self victorious in his attacks on both the Chinese Liaodong and
ities that together spanned the middle and southern regions of the
Xuantu Commanderies, he then seems to have moved his capital
Korean Peninsula. In this situation, King Jin of the polity of Mokji
to Gungnaeseong in what is today Ji’an, Jilin province, China. As a
(located in the area of today’s Chungcheongnam-do province),
result of this policy of foreign conquest during the era of King Taejo,
which led the Mahan confederation, seems to have communicated
and the resulting acquisition of prisoners of war and looted mate-
with the Chinese kingdoms on behalf of the Three Han confedera-
rials as well as increase in tribute given by local subordinates, the
40 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 41

tions. Around the beginning of the Common Era, descent groups the second half of the third century, the Silla king, representing the
of Baekje and Goguryeo came to settle in the Han River basin and Jinhan confederacy, managed relations with the Chinese Western
there founded Baekje. For a period Baekje was under the control Jin dynasty, indicative of the fact that Silla authority had grown suf-
of Mokji before expanding its own power considerably during the ficiently by this time to make it representative of the Jinhan.
reign of its King Goi in the mid-to-late 3rd century. It was in the late 4th century, during the reign of its King Namul,
King Goi was able to annex the polity of Mokji and to occupy that Silla grew into a centralized state. It was during this time that
the central region of the peninsula, making Baekje the representa- Silla monarchs adopted the title of “king” from the former maripgan
tive power of the Mahan confederation. And when Wei’s General (meaning essentially “great chieftain”), and the Kim clan came to
Guanqiu Jian attacked Goguryeo in concert with the governors of monopolize the throne. Externally, with the assistance of Goguryeo,
the Lelang and Daifang Commanderies, King Goi seized the op- Silla dispatched an emissary to the Former Qin in China informing
portunity and had his Commanding General Jin Chung attack and that state of its existence, and then with the assistance of some fif-
absorb some of the peripheral regions of the Lelang Commandery. ty-thousand troops dispatched from Goguryeo’s King Gwanggaeto,
The result of such an active policy of conquest by King Goi was Silla was able to fend off an invasion by troops from Wa ( Japan).
the expansion of Baekje territory northward to the Pae River For a period, Silla fell under the powerful influence of neigh-
(today’s Yeseong River in North Korea), south as far as the Ung boring Goguryeo, but in the process it acquired the products of a
River (today’s Anseong River in Gyeonggi-do, South Korea), west more advanced civilization leading to a breakthrough in its own de-
to the Yellow Sea and east to Juyang (today’s Chuncheon city in velopment and its emergence as a centralized kingdom by the early
Gangwon-do, South Korea). In order to effectively govern such an 6th century.
enlarged domain and its populace, King Goi established a system Around the time Baekje and Silla were established, the polity of
of official ranks centered on that of “minister” (jwapyeong), with an Guya, around what is today Gimhae in the Nakdong River basin,
attendant color scheme for official dress based on one’s rank. emerged as the representative power of the Gaya confederation.
After the fall of Gojoseon, refugees from that state had settled Guya (also known as Geumgwan) led the Gaya confederation for
in the area of present-day Gyeongju and around the dawn of the some time, going into eclipse following an invasion by Goguryeo
Common Era established the polity of Saro (later Silla). In its early forces in 400. In the 5th century, Daegaya, centered around what is
period, the power of the Silla king was weak, with the Bak, Seok, and Goryeong, emerged to take the place of Geumgwan (or Geumgwan
Kim clans occupying the throne on a rotational basis. Though these Gaya) as leader of the Gaya confederation, which was ultimately
clans intermarried, they sometimes competed for the kingship. In incorporated by Silla in 562.
42 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 43

Expansion of Baekje and Goguryeo

Amidst the turmoil and confusion that characterized the region
Mt. Baekdu
in the 4th century, Goguryeo was able to annex the Lelang and

r
ive
eR
Daifang Commanderies, but its plans to advance into Liaodong Gungnaeseong

oh
Lia
Goguryeo
were stymied by the Former Yan, a Xianbei state established by the Former Qin
Murong clan. With this check, Goguryeo turned its sights south Pyeongyang

and sought to advance toward Baekje. Meanwhile Baekje’s King

Geunchogo (r. 346–375) actively established diplomatic relations East Sea

Baekje
with Gaya, the Wa of Japan, Silla, and the Eastern Jin in southern
Hanseong
China, and prepared for the Goguryeo onslaught. When Goguryeo Yellow Sea

Silla
attacked Chiyang Fortress (in today’s Baecheon, Hwanghaenam-do,
Geumsung
North Korea) in 369, Baekje fended it off and in its turn attacked Gaya

Goguryeo’s Pyeongyang in 371, winning a great victory. In the after-

math of the battle of Pyeongyang, Goguryeo curtailed its outward Easten Jin
expansion, instead concentrating on putting its own house in order
through such things as accepting the religion of Buddhism from the Map of the development of the Three Kingdoms
state of Former Qin and proclaiming a code of administrative law. Growth of Baekje in the 4th century

It was during the reign of its King Gwanggaeto (r. 391–413) that
Goguryeo once more took up an active policy of foreign conquest. cial title of Silla) Kim Daeseoji to Goguryeo as a hostage. And when
After assuming the throne King Gwanggaeto launched numerous in the year 399, Wa from Japan launched raids against Silla’s coast,
attacks against Baekje, and after putting extreme pressure on the Silla called upon Goguryeo for assistance. In response, the next
Baekje capital of Hanseong (modern Seoul), in 396 he obtained the year, King Gwanggaeto dispatched 50,000 troops to Silla, defeating
submission of Baekje’s King Asin along with some 700 villages and the Wa forces and advancing all the way to Gimhae in the state of
58 fortresses north of the Han River. Geumgwan (or Geumgwan Gaya).
After King Gwanggaeto ascended the throne of Goguryeo, Silla’s After 396, when the Later Yan fell into turmoil due to succes-
King Namul personally acknowledged Silla to be a client state of sion struggles, King Gwanggaeto attacked that state and occupied
Goguryeo, and sent Silseong, son of the ichan (a high-ranking offi- the Liaodong region. He then went on to subjugate in succession
44 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 45

the Khitan to the northwest, the Sushen that occupied the entire advanced culture of China diffused widely among peripheral states,
Maritime region of Siberia, and Eastern Buyeo in the Tumen River and a common East Asian cultural sphere became more definitively
basin. During his reign King Gwanggaeto pushed the borders of established.
Goguryeo outward, greatly expanding the territory of that state. With the growth in power of the Northern Wei dynasty in
Thus did the people of Goguryeo give him the name of Gwanggaeto, northern China, in 427 Goguryeo’s King Jangsu decided to transfer
meaning “expander and opener of lands.” his capital from Gungnaeseong to Pyeongyang, which was more
easily defendable in the event of a Northern Wei attack. Following
this, Goguryeo began its southern push in earnest, and in response
Goguryeo's southward push and the Baekje-Silla response
Baekje and Silla cemented an alliance against Goguryeo in 433.
In the 5th century, the Northern Wei established by the Xianbei After the Baekje capital of Hanseong fell to Goguryeo’s attack,
tribe unified North China in 439, while the Song destroyed the Baekje’s King Munju moved his capital to Ungjin (today’s Gongju in
Eastern Jin and occupied South China in 420. In South China, the Chungcheongnam-do) in 475. Following this, Goguryeo continued
Song was succeeded by the Qi, Liang, and Chen dynasties. Until its southern advance, eventually seizing more than two thirds of the
the Sui unified China in 589, this period of confrontation between Korean Peninsula. By 494, Goguryeo had completed its annexation
the Northern Wei in the north of China and by turns the Song, Qi, of the Buyeo state and attained the apex of its power.
Liang, and Chen in the south is called the “Northern and Southern
dynasties period.”
In the Northern and Southern dynasties period the Northern Silla's advance to the Han River basin
Wei was dominant. However, the Rouran Khaganate founded by In the mid-6th century, in contrast to the relative calm that char-
northern nomadic people and the state of Tuyuhun established by acterized the international situation, on the peninsula momentous
the Xianbei on the Tibetan Plateau together were able to keep the change was afoot. In 544, as Goguryeo’s King Anwon ailed, a dis-
Northern Wei in check and prevent its southward expansion. With pute erupted over the succession to the throne. Though this was
the division of China during this period, Goguryeo also obtained resolved, from this point onward internal conflict among the ruling
a preponderant position on the international stage. During the elite of that state would be a chronic condition.
Northern and Southern dynasties period, the Rouran, Tuyuhun, In 551, Silla and Baekje attacked Goguryeo, which was then
and Goguryeo all maintained a vigorous and formal exchange in wracked by internal dissensions, and occupied both the upper
tribute and investiture with the Chinese dynasties. As a result, the and lower reaches of the Han River. At this time, when the Tujue
46 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 47

(Turks) broke the truce and menaced Goguryeo from the north-
west, Goguryeo allied with Silla and saw to its internal affairs in an
attempt to avert existential crisis.
In 553, Silla’s King Jinheung, now with the support of Goguryeo,
seized territories of its Baekje along the lower reaches of the Han
River. Against this backdrop, in 554, Baekje’s King Seong made

Mt. Baekdu

Chungju Goguryeo Stele from the 5th century(Left) ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration
Goguryeo Monument on Bukhansan Mountain commemorating the border inspection by King
Jinheung of Silla from the 6th century(Right) National Museum of Korea
As they expanded, the Three Kingdoms erected monuments to claim territory.

East Sea common cause with Daegaya and the Wa (of Japan) and attacked
Gwansan Fortress (today’s Okcheon in Chungcheongbuk-do), but
Silla met with a great defeat at the hands of Silla forces, losing his life in
the process. Thus was frustrated Baekje’s dream of national resur-
Yellow Sea
gence that had been launched in 538 with the establishment of its
new capital at Sabi (today’s Buyeo in Chungcheongnam-do).
Following its victory at the battle of Gwansan Fortress, Silla was
Baekje able to leverage its new foothold in the Han River basin to establish
direct relations with China in preparation for its effort to unify the
Three Kingdoms. In 562, Silla conquered Daegaya, annexing all
of the Gaya territory, and advanced into the Hamgyeong region.
Map of the development of the Three Kingdoms
Growth of Silla in the 6th century Through the active conquests by its King Jinheung (r. 540–576),
48 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 49

Silla managed to triple its territory. In the 7th century, when a was called the Jega Council. These early councils of Goguryeo,
Goguryeo-Baekje alliance began to press upon Silla, Silla responded Baekje, and Silla later evolved into such institutions as the Daero
by reaching out first to the Sui and then Tang dynasty of China. Council, Jeongsaam Council, and Hwabaek Council.

Administrative Systems and Social Makeup of Maintenance of centralized governance

the Three Kingdoms In Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla this so-called bu administrative
system was succeeded by a centralized state apparatus in the 4th,
Administrative systems of the early Three Kingdoms late 5th, and early 6th century, respectively. In establishing this
Like Gojoseon and Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla have their centralized authority, all of the Three Kingdoms had to absorb the
origins as members of political confederations that included nu- various bu rulers to make possible this new form of government. In
merous other polities. Goguryeo and Baekje were each part of a Goguryeo and Baekje a new system of official ranks was established,
confederated state made up of five bu, while Silla formed part of a centered on such offices as the saja and hyeong in Goguryeo and
confederated state of six bu. In the early Three Kingdoms period, it sol and deok in Baekje. Silla, meanwhile, established a system of 17
was the leader of the most powerful bu in each of these confedera- ranks, beginning with ibeolchan and ichan, for the ruling elites of the
tions that emerged as king. In addition, the rulers of each member six districts of the royal capital, while granting separate ranks, such
bu had some authority over the king while maintaining sovereignty as sulgan and gogan, to the ruling class outside the capital.
over their own territory and subjects. Because this system of bu—be In Goguryeo, five officials, led by the Daedaero, were appointed
it five or six—played such a critical role in state operations during to sit in on the Daero Council to deal with important affairs of state.
the early Three Kingdom period, this administrative system is re- The Daedaero had a term of three years, during which time he led
ferred to as the “bu administrative system” (bucheje). the Daero Council and managed the overall state administration.
In the early days of the Three Kingdoms, the weakness of kingly In Baekje, by the Sabi period (that is, after the mid-6th century
authority was such that the monarch could not rule all five or six bu when Baekje transferred its capital to Sabi), central administrative
directly. Rather, the important work of the kingdom was dealt with tasks were divided among 6 jwapyeong (ministries) and 22 bu (de-
in deliberative bodies made up of the king and nobility representing partments). In the first half of the 6th century, during the reign of
the various bu. As a result, the conference system developed in the its King Beopheung, Silla established the office of sangdaedeung
early Three Kingdoms period. The early Goguryeo council system to manage affairs of state. Then, in the mid-7th century, during
50 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 51

the reign of King Jindeok, the jipsabu, along with numerous other during the reign of King Beopheung, and later established the left
government offices, were established to manage the administrative and right ibangbu (akin to a ministry of justice) as the administrative
affairs of a growing Silla state. offices responsible for the law code’s implementation.
All of the Three Kingdoms worked to formalize and improve A law code consists of laws prescribing punishments as well as the
regional administrative functions as they strengthened central au- ordinances and regulations necessary for the administrative func-
thority. In the late 3rd century, Goguryeo dispatched officials such tioning of the state. Chinese historiographical works detail the strict
as the susa or jae to manage regional administration, but from the law code of Goguryeo, wherein traitors or those who attempted to
6th century, these responsibilities were assigned to offices such as foment revolt were put to death and their surviving family members
the yoksal and cheoryeo geunji. For administrative purposes, Baekje made slaves. It is further described how the enemies of Goguryeo
initially divided its territory into 22 districts called damno, but by who surrendered or were captured in battle were also put to death,
the Sabi period, the kingdom was divided administratively into 5 and those who stole had to pay back an amount ten times the value
bang, with each of these subdivided into counties (gun) and walled of the stolen property. Baekje and Silla enacted laws similar to those
towns (seong). These units were administered by such offices as of Goguryeo.
the bangnyeong (governor of a bang) and county chief (gunjang). Major statutes of these law codes included regulations on the at-
As for Silla, it divided its territory administratively into provinces tire of officials. In Silla, the official robes of those with rank daeachan
(ju), followed by counties (gun), and then villages (chon) or walled to taedae gakkan were purple, while ranks geupchan to achan wore
towns (seong), which were administered by such offices as the gunju, scarlet, daenama and nama wore blue, and those of rank daesa or
dangju, and dosa, dispatched by the central government. below wore yellow. Baekje and Goguryeo also regulated official at-
tire and headgear according to rank.
In the process of establishing a centralized ruling apparatus, all of
Law codes and systems of social stratification
the Three Kingdoms created a stratified ruling class. The represen-
All of the Three Kingdoms had centralized ruling regimes, and to tative example of such a system of stratification is Silla’s so-called
maintain administrative order and structure for such rule they insti- bone-rank system (golpumje). The bone-rank system comprised the
tuted administrative codes of law. Goguryeo established its law code seonggol (or sacred bone) at the top, followed by the jingol (or true
in 373, during the reign of King Sosurim, while Baekje seems to have bone), and then the head-ranks six, five, and four. The Silla royal
established and promulgated its code of law sometime between the family belonged to either the seonggol or jingol class, while the ruling
late 4th and late 5th century. Silla established its code of law in 520, class of the capital’s six districts were of head-rank six or below. By
52 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 53

the mid-7th century, the size of one’s house and carriage, as well as and military duties imposed by the state. In Goguryeo, a tax of five
one’s clothing and even the utensils one was permitted to use, were rolls of cloth (be) and five seok of grain was uniformly imposed on
determined by one’s “bone status.” In Goguryeo and Baekje, as well, each household, while a differential rate of grain tax (jo) was also
limitations were placed on one’s potential for official advancement imposed based on a household’s relative wealth. This grain was then
based on lineage, reflecting the existence in those states of status used as a source for relief loans (jindae). Silla and Baekje imple-
systems analogous to the bone-rank system of Silla. mented taxation systems similar to that of Goguryeo. In addition, in
the Three Kingdoms, contributions of tribute goods (gongbu) were
imposed on each village or administrative unit, and men aged 15
Life of the nobility and peasantry
or older were liable for corvee duty to construct such things as for-
Members of the ruling aristocracy of the Three Kingdoms period tresses or reservoirs as well as to perform three years of military duty.
were granted rank and office according to their social status and At the bottom of the social ladder, slaves (nobi) in this period were
received their official emolument from the state. For Silla specifi- subjected to toilsome labor, either as private or government prop-
cally, aristocratic officials were paid in the form of a stipend village erty. In the early Three Kingdoms period, slaves derived largely from
(nogeup), that is, a piece of land granted to an official while he was either prisoners of war or convicted criminals, but as the societies of
in office that came with the right to tax the produce of that land the Three Kingdoms grew in complexity, an increasing number of
in lieu of an official emolument. Members of the royal family and people were pushed into slavery due to economic hardship.
high nobility, or in some case those who had performed a notably In order to reduce the proliferation of slavery, when farmers suf-
meritorious service, could also be granted so-called salary land (si- fered from flood or drought, the state distributed or lent grain to
geup) or landed estates (jeonjang)—which unlike nogeup could be the most impoverished. Notable in this respect is the relief loan law
held in perpetuity—or slaves. In addition, nobles often possessed (jindaebeop) of Goguryeo, instituted under King Gogukcheon in
large-scale landed estates and slave households inherited from their the latter half of the 2nd century. In addition, not only were farmers
ancestors, and thus were able to maintain a comfortable lifestyle. In supplied with iron farming implements and encouraged to use ox-
the capital cities of the Three Kingdoms, markets were established driven plows, the state also promoted the cultivation of wasteland
where the nobility could also procure goods. and the expansion of arable land, as well as the construction and
A large proportion of the commoner class was composed of maintenance of reservoirs in order to alleviate the damages of flood
peasant farmers. A great many of these peasants owned the small and drought.
plots that they tilled, and they were subject to taxation and corvee
54 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 55

Culture and Religion of the Three Kingdoms Baekje, like early Goguryeo, created stone-mound tombs, the par-
tial remains of which can still be found in the Seokchon-dong neigh-
Tombs of the Three Kingdoms borhood of Seoul. This lends support to the account that Baekje’s
founders originated from Goguryeo.
In its early period Goguryeo constructed stone-mound tombs,
Following the Baekje transfer of the capital to Ungjin (modern
gradually shifting toward the practice of stone-chamber tombs.
Gongju) in the late 5th century, the construction of shaft chamber
Over 12,000 examples of stone-mound tombs—made as the name
tombs using bricks became popular. The brick tomb of King
implies by the piling of stones—can still be found in Ji’an county of
Muryeong (r. 501–523), whose form was influenced by the styles of
China’s Jilin province, including the renowned Tomb of the General,
the Liang kingdom of China, has been discovered in complete form.
Tomb of a Thousand Years, and Tomb of the Great King. The stone-
After the transfer of the Baekje capital to Sabi (modern Buyeo) in
chamber tomb with tunneled entrance is constructed by piling cut
538, stone-chamber tombs once more came into wide prominence,
stone to create a burial chamber and then covering it entirely with
while there was also an increase in cremation following Buddhist
packed dirt to form a tomb mound. The burial chamber’s interior
rituals. In the shaft stone-chamber royal tombs of Baekje found in
walls and ceiling are painted with murals depicting scenes from the
Gongju’s Songsan-ri and Buyeo’s Neungsan-ri have been discovered
daily lives of the Goguryeo people as well as of the afterlife.
mural paintings depicting the symbolic creatures of the four direc-
tions (sasindo).
Burial practices in Silla and Gaya before the middle of the 4th
century were characterized by the use of chamber tombs or wooden
chamber tombs. From the latter 4th century, wooden chamber
tombs with stone mounds and shaft stone chamber tombs made
their appearance, however, the wooden chamber tomb with stone
mound is found only in the area of Gyeongju, the Silla capital. In
this type of tomb construction, large stones would be piled over
the coffin chamber and then earth packed on top of this, a process
that ensured grave robbing would be difficult and contributed to
Seoul Seokchon-dong stone-mound tombs ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration
the preservation of such tombs in their original state. In such tombs
This is a stone-mound tomb from the early Baekje period, bearing similarities to those of Goguryeo. have been unearthed gold and silver ornaments, to include golden
56 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 57

Reception of Buddhism and Daoism

Prior to the acceptance of Buddhism, shamanism held great sway
over ancient peoples of the peninsula. Much faith was placed in
the magic powers of the shaman, who mediated between gods and
humans. What is more, the royal lineages of all Three Kingdoms
claimed descent from heaven, that is, the Heavenly Spirit (cheonsin),
and held heaven-worshipping rituals to both augment royal au-
thority and unify the subjects of their respective states.
In Goguryeo, every year in the tenth month the heaven-wor-
shipping rite called Dongmaeng was held, during which the myth
of Jumong (the legendary founder of Goguryeo) was reenacted,
serving to both augment the authority of the Goguryeo king and

The brick tomb of King Muryeong of Baekje ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration

The tomb of King Muryeong was built with bricks after the Chinese style. It is located in Gongju-si,
Chungcheongnam-do.

crowns.
For burials in the Silla and Gaya territories beyond Gyeongju,
a large pit was dug at the foot of a mountain, and a stone-lined
chamber tomb built within. The large-scale shaft stone chamber
tombs scattered about the Jisandong tomb site in Goryeong, com-
prising the tombs of members of the Daegaya ruling class and dating
from after the 5th century, are the largest of all the known Gaya
tombs, and from them have been excavated some of the finest tomb
relics of Korea, to include a gilded bronze crown. Gilt-bronze standing Buddha with the inscription, “Yeonga Seven year”
National Museum of Korea
This statue was cast in Goguryeo in 539 CE.
58 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 59

strengthen ties of kinship between the state’s five bu. In Baekje and unify and govern the entire world under the dharma, or Buddhist
Silla as well, through sacrificial rites performed for the sijo (state Law. King Jinpyeong posited that “the king is Buddha,” thus empha-
founder or original ancestor)—who was believed to be descended sizing the sacred nature of kingly power in Silla.
from heavenly beings—the integration of the five or six bu, respec- On the other hand, in the period of the Three Kingdoms, the be-
tively, was forged. lief in reincarnation and karma, which emphasize notions of “merit
As the Three Kingdoms developed into centralized states a new and fate” and “encouraging virtue and punishing evil” became prev-
ideology was needed to spiritually unite the general populace. alent. Such beliefs contributed to the cultivation of individual values
Further, as the local village social structure fell apart and as the com- and ethics in the process of shifting people’s driving concern from
munal order collapsed to be replaced by more individual-centered the communal to the pursuit of selfhood.
modes of life, a new advanced religion was sought. It was in the con- In the tomb murals of Goguryeo, painted scenes in burial cham-
text of such social imperatives that Buddhism was accepted. bers of Daoist immortals (sinseon) and the symbolic creatures of the
Goguryeo accepted Buddhism in 372, during the reign of its King four directions—blue dragon, white tiger, black tortoise, and ver-
Sosurim, via the Former Qin, while Baekje accepted it in 384, in the million phoenix—indicate that Daoist beliefs had been introduced
reign of King Chimryu, from a Buddhist monk named Malananda to that state from an early date. In the waning years of Goguryeo,
of the Eastern Jin. In both cases, Buddhism was accepted without the strongman-turned-ruler Yeon Gaesomun promoted a policy of
great social or political friction, aided by the active support of the
royal families of both states. In the 5th century, the monk Mukhoja
of Goguryeo conveyed Buddhism to Silla during the reign of Silla’s
King Nulji, but it was met by the active hostility of that state’s aris-
trocratic classes and was at first rejected. It was only in the 14th year
of Silla’s King Beopheung (528), that Buddhism was finally recog-
nized after the martyrdom of Ichadon.
In Goguryeo, from its reception Buddhism was closely tied to the
royal family, and therefore state Buddhism became prominent. This
tendency towards a state Buddhism was even more pronounced in
Silla. King Jinheung considered himself a so-called Wheel-Turning Great Gilt-bronze incense burner of Baekje and musician Buyeo National Museum
The musician atop the guilt-bronze incense burner of Baekje holds a type of lute, giving us insight into
Sage King (jeollyun seongwang, or a cakravartī king) who would the types of instruments played during the Three Kingdoms period.
60 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 61

suppressing Buddhism and promoting Daoism. In Baekje as well, oath among youths to dedicate themselves diligently to the reading
Daoist ideas based on the idea of “eternal youth and long life” (bullo and study of the Classics and Confucian ethics, all of which reveals
jangsaeng) were prevalent, and the gilt bronze incense burner exca- that Confucianism had made significant inroads into Silla society
vated at a former temple site in Buyeo (the former Baekje capital of before that state unified the peninsula in the mid-7th century.
Sabi), which is replete with Daoist symbolism, reveals how Daoist Each of the Three States undertook the compilation of official
ideas were accepted alongside Buddhism. Daoism of the Three histories based on Confucian governing principles. Goguryeo com-
Kingdoms period was a fusion of notions on the worship of rivers piled the Yugi in the late 4th century during the reign of its King
and mountains and Daoist immortals and found widest acceptance Sosurim, while in the year 600 (11th year of King Yeongyang) Yi
among the ruling class. Munjin published a condensed version of this as the Sinjip in five
volumes. In Baekje, the scholar Goheung compiled a work titled
Seogi during the reign of King Geunchogo in the late 4th century.
Acceptance of Confucianism and the compilation of
And in Silla during the reign of King Jinheung, Geochilbu gathered
official histories
a team of literary scholars to compile the Guksa (National History)
The Three Kingdoms embraced Confucianism as a governing ide- in 545.
ology based on the Chinese written language (hanja). In 372 (the Isabu, a 6th-century general and politician of Silla, is said to have
second year of King Sosurim), Goguryeo established a National commented, “A country’s history is a record of the good and evil
Confucian Academy (Taehak), which taught Confucianism to the deeds of its king and his ministers for the benefit of later generations
sons of the nobility, and also set up private schools (gyeongdang) through the ages,” demonstrating that history-writing in the Three
in the provinces where the sons of commoners read the Confucian Kingdoms period was based on a ruling ideology of Confucianism.
classics and practiced archery. In Baekje, from early on that state All of these historical works apparently sought to both augment the
designated erudites of Chinese learning (hanhak) as “savants of authority of the given state’s royal family and boast of that state’s
the Five Classics” (ogyeong baksa), and had them instruct the sons preeminence. However, no histories compiled during the Three
of the ruling nobility at that state’s own Confucian Academy. The Kingdoms period have come down to us.
text of the memorial stele of King Jinheung of Silla (r. 540–576)
cites passages from the Book of Documents (Seogyeong, or Shujing
in Chinese) and the Analects of Confucius (Noneo, or Lunyu in
Chinese), while the Oath Stone of the Imsin Year (613) records an
62 A History of Korea Chapter 2 The Foundation and Development of the Three Kingdoms 63

Active cultural exchange

The culture of the Three Kingdoms developed through active ex-
changes with China and other foreign countries. On Goguryeo
tomb murals can be found many gods and animals deriving from
Chinese mythology, revealing Goguryeo’s early embrace of Chinese
culture. Around the early Baekje royal capital of Pungnap-toseong
(in today’s Seoul), have been found large quantities of earthenware
from the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties of China, and the brick
Glass cup from Cheonmachong burial site in Gyeongju Gyeongju National Museum
tombs found in Baekje after the transfer of the capital to Ungjin This glass cup was found in Cheonmachong, a Silla burial site dating to the 5th or 6th century. It shows
(modern Gongju) owe much to the influence of the Liang state of that Silla traded with countries to the west.

China’s Southern Dynasties.

Besides just elements of Chinese culture, following the introduc- Such items as glass bowls found in Silla wooden chamber tombs
tion of Buddhism to the peninsula other cultural elements from of the 5th and 6th centuries reveal that kingdom’s active exchanges
what was called the “Western Regions” (seoyeok)—what we would with the Western Regions. Further, among the 12 extant songs for
refer to today as Xinjiang province in China or Central Asia—also the gayageum (a Korean musical instrument like a zither) composed
became widely disseminated in the Three Kingdoms. The song by Ureuk (a man of Gaya and inventor of the gayageum), is the “Lion
and dance native to these Western Regions became popular in Dance” (sajagi), which seems to be a lion dance originating from the
Goguryeo, and musical instruments from that region, such as the aforementioned Western Regions.
mandolin and pipe, came to be part of the musical repertoire of
the Three Kingdoms. Goguryeo in particular accepted musical ele-
ments of both China and the Western Regions and created a unique
Goguryeo-style music that it then passed back to China and on to
Japan. In Sui and Tang China, various so-called “arts of Goryeo”
(Gaoli ji) were performed. And in Japan, the music of Goguryeo,
called “Kōrai gaku”, or Goryeo music, became a mainstay of ancient
music alongside Chinese-style music, termed “Tōgaku”, or Tang
music.
612~756
612
Goguryeo repulses Sui China’s invasion
Chapter 3
645
Goguryeo repulses Tang China’s invasion
648
Alliance is formed between Silla and Tang China
660
Baekje is toppled by the Silla-Tang allied forces
668
Goguryeo is toppled by the Silla-Tang allied forces
676
Silla unifies the Three Kingdoms and wins the war
against Tang China
698
Balhae is founded by Dae Joyeong, a former general
of Goguryeo THE WARS OF KOREAN
732
Balhae attacks Dengzhou in Tang China
UNIFICATION AND
755 THE ERA OF NORTHERN AND
Balhae transfers its capital to Sanggyeong
SOUTHERN STATES

Lim Ki-hwan
translated by Daniel Kane
66 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 67

Goguryeo’s Wars with Sui and Tang China mainland. This change became especially clear when Sui adopted
an expansionist foreign policy by first overthrowing the northern
Göktürks.
From the 5th century, a balance of power was maintained between
Since the fifth century, Goguryeo had maintained diplo-
the Northern Wei, the Southern Dynasties of China, the nomadic
matic relations with the Northern Wei and Southern Dynasties
Rouran Khagante in the north, and Goguryeo in Manchuria and
of China as well as the Rouran Khaganate in the north, and in
the Korean Peninsula. As a result, during this time the interna-
so doing both maintained the regional balance of power and
tional order of East Asia remained relatively stable without any
preserved its own sovereignty in Northeast Asia. However, the
major geopolitical shifts.
Sui dynasty, the unifying force on the Chinese mainland, now
However, at the beginning of the 6th century, internal turmoil
endeavored to establish a new international order centered on
in the Northern Wei fractured that state into the Eastern Wei
China. In 590, Sui’s Emperor Wendi sent diplomatic missives to
and Western Wei, which became in turn the Northern Zhou
Goguryeo demanding the king of Goguryeo submit as a vassal,
and Northern Qi. The Northern Zhou went on to unify all of the
but Goguryeo refused to yield.
northern dynasties before being overthrown by the newly estab-
Tensions between Goguryeo and the Sui then increased. In
lished Sui dynasty. In 589, the Sui emperor Wendi conquered the
598, King Yeongyang of Goguryeo, at the head of some ten thou-
state of Chen of the Southern Dynasties to reunify China. Thus,
sand Mohe (K. Malgal) troops, attacked China’s Liaoxi region in
the balance of power in East Asia, so long maintained by the
an effort to keep the Sui in check by seizing the initiative over
strongest among the Chinese states, divided into Northern and
the Khitan and Mohe inhabitants of the Liao River (Liaohe) area.
Southern Dynasties, began to shift as the Sui unified the Chinese
An incensed Sui Wendi responded by mobilizing some 300,000
troops to conquer Goguryeo, but the imperial force was hit hard
by floods and storms, and returned to China in defeat.
Soon upon his ascension in 604, the Sui emperor Yangdi
made an external display of his power by defeating the Eastern
Göktürks in the north and exerting control over the Tuyuhun
of the Western Regions. Sui Yangdi commenced the invasion of
Goguryeo in the first month of 612. The mobilization of more
than one million Chinese troops for the conquest of Goguryeo
Mountain fortress of Goguryeo ⓒ Northeast Asian History Foundation was unprecedented in history.
Goguryeo effectively withstood invasions from the Sui and Tang Dynasties by building mountain In the face of Goguryeo resistance, the immense Sui army
fortresses. This picture shows the Seokdaeja Mountain Fortress in Simyang (Ch. Shenyang).
68 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 69

crossed the Liao River and laid siege to Liaodong (K. Yodong) Tang, the sinocentric East Asian international order, briefly rees-
Fortress, the lynchpin of Goguryeo rule in Liaodong, but it took tablished during the Sui dynasty, fell again into eclipse. The Tang
three months before it capitulated. Meanwhile, Sui naval forces dynasty founded by Li Yuan, struggled for dominance with rival
launched a unilateral attack on Pyeongyang Fortress only to forces in all parts of China proper, and found itself under military
meet with resounding defeat. An anxious Yangdi gave his com- threat from the northern Göktürks. Therefore, in the early days
mander Yu Zhongwen a detachment of 305,000 men with orders of its foundation, Tang took a conservative attitude to Goguryeo,
to launch a direct attack on Pyeongyang Fortress, but the force in contrast to the Sui's aggressive policies, and acknowledged
allowed itself to be lured deeper into Goguryeo territory through Goguryeo’s status as a sovereign power. Since Goguryeo was also
the inducements of the Goguryeo general Eulji Mundeok. When taking a moderate stance vis à vis Tang, both countries were able
the Sui army attempted to retreat from Pyeongyang Fortress it to coexist peacefully.
was routed by the Goguryeo army at the Salsu River (today’s However, when Tang succeeded in reunifying China in 628, the
Cheongcheon River). Sui Yangdi had mobilized over one million international order of East Asia entered a new phase. At this time,
soldiers for this campaign against Goguryeo, but returned to the Göktürks had descended into internal strife, and Tang, fully
China without success. cognizant of this, seized the opportunity to defeat the Eastern
Sui Yangdi refused to abandon his mission of chastising Göktürks in 629. Following this, various Göktürks military com-
Goguryeo and launched two more invasions against it, but all manders swore allegiance to Tang Taizong, even giving Taizong
failed. During its existence, the Sui dynasty instituted large-scale the title, “Tengrik Khan” (Khan of Heaven), that is, the supreme
civil engineering projects, such as the digging of canals, along ruler of the Göktürks. Tang Taizong styled himself the “Imperial
with forcing mobilizations for foreign conquests that involved Khan of Heaven,” a way of claiming to be both the emperor of the
hundreds of thousands of people. The people found their liveli- central plains (that is, China) and the supreme ruler of nomadic
hoods threatened due to the collapse of their bases of production, world beyond.
which led to popular uprisings across the country. In response to Having defeated the Göktürks, its primary northern threat,
this state of affairs, many powerful families and elites also began Tang turned west to conquer the Tuyuhun kingdom in 635
to abandon the Sui cause. The authority of the Sui dynasty deteri- and then Gaochang in 640. Having reunified the Chinese con-
orated rapidly, and in 617 Sui Yangdi was killed in a military coup. tinent, subjugated the nomadic world to the north and subdued
After having healed the division of the Northern and Southern the powers to its west, Tang now endeavored to incorporate
Dynasties and reunified China, the Sui dynasty collapsed in less Goguryeo to its east into the Tang orbit. It was the same foreign
than forty years. policy the Sui dynasty had adopted. Goguryeo broke off diplo-
From the end of the Sui until the reunification of China by the matic relations with Tang and began constructing the so-called
70 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 71

Cheolli jangseong (“thousand-ri great wall”) along the Liao River the Goguryeo line. Soon thereafter, Tang forces attacked Ansi
in anticipation of a Tang invasion. Fortress. For three months Ansi Fortress withstood the major
Even as the external threat from Tang grew, in Goguryeo in Tang offensive. There can be no better evidence of Goguryeo
642 the official Yeon Gaesomun seized power through a coup. abilities than their capacity to hold fast to even far-distant Ansi
Profiting from these events, Tang Taizong claimed the necessity Fortress. Thus, Tang Taizong, who had gained renown for reuni-
of punishing the power hungry Yeon Gaesomun for having killed fying China and winning a succession of punitive expeditions,
the Goguryeo king. In 645, Tang Taizong personally led a large turned his armies homeward from Goguryeo without having
force across the Liao River and attacked Goguryeo. achieved victory.
The vanguard of the invading Tang army advanced along mul- Tang, having tasted the bitterness of defeat in its first round of
tiple lines of attack. One force crossed the Liao River to attack engagement with Goguryeo, now changed its offensive strategy.
Sinseong Fortress, situated in central Liaodong in Goguryeo’s It adopted a long-term strategy that eschewed the mobilization of
northwest, while another army struck at Geonan Fortress on the large-scale armies in preference for the deployment of small-scale
Liaodong Peninsula. The naval forces of Tang did not move di- forces to harass Goguryeo. And in this strategic reassessment,
rectly on Pyeongyang, but instead attacked Bisa Fortress, located Tang could not help but take into consideration the presence on
at the southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula. This was a carefully the Korean Peninsula of a friendly Silla kingdom just south of
crafted strategy that took into account the failures of the earlier Goguryeo.
campaign of Sui Yangdi. When Sui Yangdi had invaded, he had
focused on Liaodong Fortress, and failed in his attack because
the Liaodong Fortress benefited from the assistance of several The Silla Wars of Unification
surrounding fortresses. Thus, Tang forces attacked first other
fortresses at the front of the Goguryeo defensive line, moving on Even as the conflict between Goguryeo and Tang lingered on,
Liaodong Fortress only after eliminating these other potential the Korean Peninsula witnessed the intensification of rivalries
threats. among the Three Kingdoms. After the ascension of its King Uija
Despite surprise attacks by Tang forces, Goguryeo held on to (r. 641–660), Baekje adopted a conciliatory attitude toward its
Sinseong and Geonan Fortresses in central Liaodong. In the fifth former rival Goguryeo while also launching a massive offensive
month, however, Goguryeo’s Liaodong Fortress, unable to with- into Silla territory. However, this entente between Goguryeo and
stand the fierce Tang onslaught, finally capitulated. Though the Baekje did not develop into an active military alliance, rather,
fall of Liaodong Fortress seriously compromised Goguryeo’s de- Baekje, which bordered Goguryeo territory, attacked Silla unilat-
fenses, Ansi, Sinseong, and Geonan Fortresses were still holding erally. In Silla, a sense of immanent crisis was growing stronger.
72 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 73

the Tang court (essentially a hostage). Further, by abandoning

its indigenous year designator and adopting the Tang year name,
Silla signaled its increasingly pro-Tang foreign policy.
The new Silla-Tang coalition opted to make Baekje its first
priority, and launched a vigorous attack on that state in 660. In
the latter half of the reign of its King Uija (r. 641–660) Baekje
had become embroiled in internal conflict among its nobility and
thus was politically divided at the time of the Silla-Tang attack.
Mustering little resistance, it easily succumbed to the surprise
offensive of the Silla-Tang coalition.
Tomb of King Munmu of Silla ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration Though the Baekje dynasty was destroyed, a Baekje revival
King Munmu united the Three Kingdoms. After his death and according to his wishes, his body was
cremated and his ashes interred on a large rock by the East Sea. movement led by remnants of that state continued the struggle
in various locales. Tang now revealed its intentions to seize the
From early on Silla, who often found itself on the receiving end
of aggression by Goguryeo and Baekje, made diplomatic over-
tures to Tang as a potential ally. During Tang Taizong’s military
expedition to Goguryeo in 645, Silla acceded to the Tang request
to launch an attack on Goguryeo’s southern flank with 30,000
troops, but Baekje counterattacked against Silla and was able to
drive back their offensive. As a result, Tang chose Silla instead of
Baekje as its ally on the Korean Peninsula.
In 648, the influential Silla official Kim Chunchu undertook
a mission to Tang where he actively solicited Tang military as-
sistance to punish Baekje. Tang Taizong, recognizing Silla’s stra-
tegic position to the rear of Goguryeo, concluded a military alli-
ance with Silla to punish both Goguryeo and Baekje. To solidify
this new alliance, Silla now actively pursued a pro-Tang policy.
Five-story stone pagoda at Jeongnimsa Temple site ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration
Kim Chunchu requested Tang official uniforms (for use in Silla) This pagoda was located in Sabi [today’s Buyeo], the capital of late Baekje. It is one of a very small
number of extant Buddhist artifacts from Baekje due to the destruction of that kingdom by the
and even left his own son to join the “Royal guards” (sukwi) at combined forces of Silla and Tang China.
74 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 75

former Baekje territories for itself, breaking its earlier promise that the area south of the Daedong River was to be Silla territory,
with Silla. Over the former Baekje domains, Tang installed the but Tang disregarded this and attempted to occupy the former
Ungjin Commandery (Ch. Xiongjin dudufu), and even moved Baekje territories (which were well south of the Daedong River).
to subjugate Silla territory by formally reconstituting that state’s This led to the outbreak of war between Silla and Tang around
area as the Great Gyerim Commandery (Ch. Jilin dadudufu). the seventh month of 670. In 671, Silla scored decisive victories
Silla was unable to suppress the Baekje revival movement and was in its war with Tang and Baekje restoration elements, and seized
challenged in maintaining control over the Baekje region—the control of the former Baekje territory in its entirety. The main
original objective of its campaign. The Tang intention to now battleground in Silla’s struggle with Tang now shifted to the
seize that territory for itself only worsened the predicament. northern part of the peninsula. Silla now endeavored to check
However, as long as Goguryeo survived, so too did the Tang-Silla Tang power by supporting the revivalist movement of the defunct
alliance. Goguryeo. After smashing the Goguryeo remnants in Liaodong
The Silla-Tang coalition, which had destroyed Baekje, now and securing its control there in 671, Tang forces advanced into
commenced its attack on Goguryeo. Although Goguryeo had the Korean Peninsula to attack the Goguryeo restoration forces.
consistently fended off the massive invasions of Tang armies The Goguryeo elements that had lost their base of operations
coming from both the north and south, the military situation was after their defeats in the war with Tang eventually moved south
now turning against Goguryeo. When the Goguryeo ruler Yeon to Silla, and Silla now came face to face with the Tang forces for
Gaesomun died in 666, a power struggle ensued among his sons. the final showdown.
Yeon’s eldest son, Namsaeng, driven out by his younger siblings, The development of the Silla-Tang war was also closely related
surrendered to Tang, while the country’s nobility and local forces, to the changes on China’s western frontier. As Tang concen-
dissatisfied with the Yeon Gaesomun regime, gradually began to trated its military strength on the Korean Peninsula from 660,
defect. Tang, seizing upon the opportunity such internal conflict the Western Regions gradually drifted from the Tang orbit, with
presented, once more launched a massive attack on Goguryeo the center of this new power being the Tibetan kingdom of Tubo.
in 667. The disintegration of its ruling authority was a fatal blow In the seventh month of 670, the military situation in the west
to Goguryeo, and with the fall of Pyeongyang in 668 Goguryeo became acute when the Tubo army dealt a serious defeat to Tang
perished. forces, and the Tang army now found itself at war in both the east
It is not surprising that Silla and Tang, who cooperated in their and west. The Tubo alliance with the Western Turkic Khaganate
coalition to conquer Baekje and Goguryeo, came into conflict (Ch. Xi tujue) and the new urgency of affairs in the western area
once the common enemy disappeared with the fall of Goguryeo. had a major influence on Tang’s managing of its war with Silla.
Originally, Silla and Tang had come to a secret understanding After Silla defeated the Tang forces in a series of battles in 675 and
76 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 77

676 the war finally ended with Silla securing the peninsula to the maintained its sovereignty in Northeast Asia until the last, var-
south of Pyeongyang. ious dynasties and states of Northeast Asia were incorporated
From the end of the 6th century, Sui-Tang emerged as a unified into a unified international order centered on China. This was not
Chinese state, and with this East Asia began to be reorganized into merely a political realm, but a comprehensive socio-cultural one
a new sinocentric international order. In this process, the power of shared intellectual and literary traditions.
of a unified Chinese empire was felt on the Korean Peninsula. As In the process of establishing a military alliance with Tang,
a backdrop to this were the fierce and persistent wars of rivalry Silla also accepted elements of Tang culture, a process distinct
between the Three Kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. As from its diplomatic efforts. Such receptivity was the result of
inter-Korean relations developed on the Korean Peninsula they Silla’s will to reform its administrative system through the adop-
became caught up in the larger international reordering of East tion of new cultural norms and practices. During the Unified
Asia by the rise of the Tang and its unified empire, with the final Silla era the adoption of Chinese cultural standards accelerated.
result being the Silla-Tang military alliance and the destruction With the fall of Baekje, peninsular influences on Japan weakened,
of Baekje and Goguryeo. and Japan began instead to adopt cultural elements directly
The war between Goguryeo and Sui-Tang may be character- from Tang, which influenced such things as the establishment
ized as a clash between Goguryeo as a centrifugal force and the of the Ryōseikoku administrative structure in Japan. The state of
centripetal force of a powerful unified Chinese empire seeking Balhae, which was founded by Malgal tribes and elements from
to subjugate the states of its periphery. The Silla-Tang war was the defunct Goguryeo who had escaped Tang dominance, was
also a conflict between Chinese forces and those of the Korean no exception; that state’s acceptance of Tang cultural elements
Peninsula, and in this sense may be viewed as an extension of helped establish its administrative system and led to a cultural
the wars between Goguryeo and Sui-Tang. However, the conse- efflorescence.
quences of the Silla-Tang war were not simply Silla driving the
Tang forces from the Korean Peninsula. It was a war that gave lie
to Tang’s perception of itself as the “Center of All Under Heaven” The Flourishing of Unified Silla
by frustrating its ambitions for world domination. In this, the war
forced Tang to recognize that the surrounding world was a place From the beginning of Tang’s wars with Goguryeo in 645 until the
with which it needed to coexist rather than conquer. In fact, the conclusion of its war with Silla in 676, the Korean Peninsula and
founding of Balhae in Manchuria was made possible only after Manchuria were a theater of war. The appearance in the Three
Silla had won its war with Tang.
Kingdoms region of such a mammoth external force not only
However, following the destruction of Goguryeo, which had
changed the destiny of those Three Kingdoms but also had a con-
78 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 79

siderable impact on the outward perceptions of the people of those more than doubled, Silla implemented a system of nine provinces (ju)
kingdoms. The war that brought together Silla and Tang in an effort and five lesser capitals (sogyeong). Of the nine provinces, 3 comprised
to conquer Baekje and Goguryeo began as an extension of the pre- former Goguryeo territory, 3 former Baekje territory, and 3 original
vious punitive wars by Sui and Tang towards the kingdoms of the Silla territory (to include Gaya). This may be seen as a symbolic ex-
peninsula. However, in the course of its subsequent war with Tang, pression of the integration of the three kingdoms. Administratively,
Silla, with the aim of bringing Baekje and Goguryeo loyalists to its each province was subdivided into gun (counties) and hyeon (prefec-
side in the struggle, implemented policies that served somewhat to tures), with the total number of gun-hyeon reaching 450.
incorporate the three separate peoples, profoundly altering percep- In Confucian ideology, the notion of “nine provinces” is synony-
tions of the history of the Three Kingdoms and their unification. mous with the entire world (All Under Heaven). The institution by
After Silla completely incorporated the former Baekje territory Silla of this nine-province system was indicative of how that state
and annexed portions of the former Goguryeo lands and its pop- and its peoples had adopted the concept of Confucianism and its All
ulation, it promulgated a new system, and the transformation af- Under Heaven concept, with Silla at its core. The concept of “iltong
fected was tantamount to having a whole new dynasty. Its primary samhan” (“three Han under one rule”), was an expression of pride
emphasis became the institutionalization of a new administrative
system that would bind together the disparate territories and peo-
ples of the former Three Kingdoms.
First, the ruling classes of Baekje and Goguryeo were granted Silla
official ranks and absorbed into the ruling stratum of Silla society.
Naturally, they became middling nobility, with their ranks lower
than those of native Silla aristocracy, but it was nevertheless an
effort to incorporate the foundations of Goguryeo and Baekje so-
cieties into the now unified state. As a central military organization,
nine Oath Bannermen (seodang) divisions were organized, whose
members derived not only from Silla but from Silla’s newly con-
quered territories. Thus, there were 3 Oath Bannermen divisions of
Silla soldiers, 3 of Goguryeo, 2 of Baekje, and 1 of Malgal tribesmen.
In order to efficiently administer a population and area that had
Seokgatap and Dabotap pagodas in front of Bulguksa temple ⓒ Yonhap News
80 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 81

in the integration of the former three kingdoms into a unified state.

Since Gyeongju, the capital of Silla, was located in the south-
eastern corner of the Korean Peninsula, Silla also set up a system
of five lesser capitals. They chose to establish these five in the
former territories of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Gaya. To these lesser
capitals, members of the central Silla aristocracy, along with Baekje,
Goguryeo, and Gaya nobility that had been integrated into the Silla
state, were transferred in order to serve both administrative and cul-
tural roles in the respective regions.
Under the jipsabu (Chancellery Office), the Silla central govern-
ment organized 13 ministries, such as the Wihwabu, to share in ad-
Bell of King Seongdeok of Silla ⓒ Gyeongju National Museum
ministrative tasks. The National Confucian Academy (Gukhak) was This bronze bell was cast in 771 and hung in Bongdeoksa temple. Bronze bells cast in Korea have
many differences from bells cast in China or Japan. This bell is a marvel of metalwork based on
established with a special emphasis on Confucian political ideology. remarkable casting technology.
In addition, the “three-grades reading examination” was instituted as
a personnel selection system. Though the bureaucratic apparatus was flourishing as the international standard in East Asia, and created a
set up in this way, in actuality Silla’s was a socially stratified system golden age of resplendent cultural achievement on the peninsula.
wherein status was determined by so-called “bone rank” (golpum). In In particular, Buddhism and Buddhist temples flourished under the
this system, those from the “head ranks” (dupum) had ceilings placed patronage of both the Silla royal house and aristocratic families.
on the rank they might attain, while only those from the “true-bone” The extant Buddhist cultural heritage of Unified Silla reveals the
(jingol) ranks were eligible for the kingship. As a political structure in cultural achievements attained by that state. The varied examples
which a small nobility monopolized state power, this system eventu- of this heritage include Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple,
ally became a constraint on the development of Unified Silla society. as well as Buddhist statuary, pagodas, and paintings. In addition,
Unifying the immense territories and populations of the former Buddhist teachings were also developed during this period, with
three kingdoms, Unified Silla amassed much economic wealth. At the Buddhist monk Wonhyo (617–686) formulating his unique
the same time, in incorporating the cultural traditions of Baekje doctrinal system of hwajaeng (“harmonizing of doctrinal dis-
and Goguryeo, Silla also expanded its own cultural base. Silla also putes”), and Buddhist belief also became popularized. The Silla
wholeheartedly embraced cultural elements from Tang China, then monk Uisang (625–702), who studied in Tang China, returned to
82 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 83

Silla and established the Hwaeom school (Hwaeomjong; or Flower province. From the time of its foundation Balhae promoted itself
Garland school), nurtured many Buddhist scholars, and helped externally as the successor state to Goguryeo.
spread Buddhism into the hinterland. In the latter days of Unified King Mu (r. 719–737), crowned king of Balhae in 719, adopted
Silla, Seon (or Zen) Buddhism was also introduced and flourished. his own reign period called inan (“humane peace”) and actively
expanded Balhae territory, occupying some of the former domains
of Goguryeo and Buyeo. But he came into conflict with Tang over
Founding and Development of Balhae the issue of the Heishui Mohe in the north, and in 732, the Balhae
general Jang Munhyu attacked Dengzhou on the Shandong
Peninsula. Tang in turn enticed Silla to attack Balhae, indicating
After 660, Tang began to achieve some of its key strategic objec-
that at long last diplomatic relations between Silla and Tang had
tives in Northeast Asia, such as the destruction of Goguryeo and
recovered, and done so in earnest.
subjugation of the various tribes of the Liaohai region, including
During the reign of King Mun (r. 737–793), which succeeded
the Khitan and Malgal. However, the cost of such long-term mili-
that of King Mu, Balhae’s administrative system was reorganized
tary campaigns in the region was that its control over areas to the
while its territory expanded north as far as the Songhua River. King
north and west began to slacken. The result was that upheavals
Mun set up a system of centralized administration, establishing
in the north and west began to once more influence events in
3 chancelleries (seong)—namely Jeongdangseong, Seonjoseong,
Northeast Asia.
Jungdaeseong—and six ministries (bu): Chungbu (personnel),
After Tang had destroyed Goguryeo, it forced some of that state’s
Inbu (finance), Uibu (rites), Jibu (military affairs), Yebu (pun-
ruling groups to become refugees (samin) and resettle in China.
ishments), and Sinbu (works). This was modeled upon Tang’s
Some of these Goguryeo remnants migrated to Yingzhou (corre-
own 3 sheng (K. seong), 6 bu government organization, though
sponding to the current city of Chaoyang in Liaoning province,
adapted to Balhae’s own exigencies. The Balhae kings embraced
China) in Liaoxi. The Khitan and Malgal, who had been under the
Confucian political ideology and strengthened central kingship.
control of Goguryeo, also moved to Yingzhou. However, in the fifth
The National Academy (Jujagam), a national university based on
month of 696 the Khitan leader Li Jinzhong rebelled against Tang
Tang’s National Imperial Academy (Guozijian), was established
control, an uprising soon joined by Goguryeo refugees as well as
to strengthen training in the Confucian canon and to foster men
Malgal tribesmen. Escaping Yingzhou, the rebel elements crossed
of talent. The provinces were organized into a system of 5 gyeong
the Liao River and into the region of Liaodong. They defeated the
(capitals), 15 bu (major towns), and 62 ju (prefectures), with the ju
pursuing Tang army and continued eastward, and in 698 the figure
further divided administratively into hyeon (districts).
Dae Joyeong proclaimed the state of Balhae at Mt. Dongmo (Ch.
King Mun also built a new capital. In Balhae’s network of five
Dongmou), at what is today the city of Dunhua in China’s Jilin
84 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 85

capitals, Junggyeong (lit., “central capital”), located in the state’s on four sides was 16 kilometers in circumference. In its sheer scale
Hyeondeok-bu (present-day Helong city in China’s Jilin prov- it was second in its time only to Tang’s Chang’an.
ince), was the state’s first administrative capital. In 755, it was Balhae also developed a road network centered on Sanggyeong
transferred to Sanggyeong (lit. “upper or primary capital”) at that linked its five capitals. Further, looking outward, it con-
Yongcheon-bu (presently Yongyuan city in China’s Heilongjiang structed a system of five major roadways that reveal its active
province) and then again in 785 to the Donggyeong (“lit. eastern engagement in foreign exchange and trade. These roads were the
capital”) in Yongwon-bu (present-day Hunchun city in China’s Silla Road (Silla-do), Yeongju (Ch. Yingzhou) Road (Yeongju-do),
Jilin province). After King Mun’s death, in 794, the capital was
moved back to Sanggyeong in Yongcheon-bu, where it remained
until the fall of Balhae in 926. The process of transferring the cap- Tungusic Tribe
ital between Junggyeong, Sanggyeong, Donggyeong, then back
to Sanggyeong, helped to bind the ties between the Balhae state’s
central administration and its provinces, and in this regard served Sanggyeong
Khitan
to strengthen central authority. Balhae
Sanggyeong, Balhae’s primary capital, was that state’s true po-
litical, economic, and cultural center. In its plan and layout the Tang
walled city of Sanggyeong was modeled after the Tang capital of
Chang’an (present-day Xi’an). The wall that surrounded the city

Gaegyeong
(Gaeseong) East Sea

Dengzhou
Goryeo
Silla

Yellow Sea
Geumseong
(Gyeongju)

Lotus-shaped roof tile from Goguryeo(Left) National Museum of Korea

Lotus-shaped roof tile from Balhae(Right) National Museum of Korea
Balhae rose to power after the fall of Goguryeo. The two states shared similar cultures. Map of the Northern Southern States period
86 A History of Korea Chapter 3 The Wars of Korean Unification and the Era of Northern and Southern States 87

Tribute Road (Jogong-do), Khitan Road (Georan-do), and Japan when the two kingdoms of Balhae and Unified Silla controlled a
Road (Ilbon-do). It was at this time that the people of Tang began combined territory that covered the entire Korean Peninsula and
to refer to Balhae as the “prosperous country east of the sea”. into Manchuria, is referred to today as the “Era of Northern and
Balhae’s founders included a mixture of former Goguryeo peo- Southern States.”
ples and Malgal tribes, among other elements, combined with that
state’s international contacts and exchanges with a variety of other
states and ethnic groups, meant that Balhae culture was cosmo-
politan in nature and exhibited complex and multi-cultural fea-
tures. The structure, tiling patterns, and ondol (traditional heated
flooring) features found in illustrations from the tomb of the
Balhae Princess Jeongnye are an inheritance of earlier Goguryeo
culture, but also reveal the embrace and development of various
regional cultural influences, such as that of Tang China, the
Malgal, and even distant Central Asia. The accolade “prosperous
country east of the sea” is a reflection of Balhae’s diverse and col-
orful culture with an international character.
Baekje and Goguryeo fell in the mid-7th century, upon which
Silla unified the peninsula south of the Daedong River. Afterward,
in 698, the new state of Balhae was established in the former
Goguryeo territory, claiming to be the successor to that fallen
kingdom. Silla and Balhae were engaged in fierce rivalry for some
220 years. Balhae declared itself the successor state to Goguryeo,
and the people of Silla recognized it as such. Naturally, Balhae
and Silla maintained no economic, or even cordial diplomatic,
relations with one another. However, Goryeo, which would unify
the Later Three Kingdoms in 918, regarded Balhae as a country
of a common ancestry and took an active role in welcoming the
ruling classes as well as its refugee population after the fall of
Balhae in the early 10th century. This period of some 220 years,
828~1145
828
Jang Bogo establishes Cheonghaejin, the center of
maritime trade in East Asia Chapter 4
900
Later Baekje is founded
901
Later Goguryeo is founded
918
Goryeo is founded by Wang Geon
926
Balhae is toppled by the Khitans
936
Goryeo unifies Later Three Kingdoms
993~1019
Invasion from the Khitans (Liao) is repulsed
1107 GORYEO AND EAST ASIA
The Jurchen are conquered and nine fortresses are
built
1145
History of the Three Kingdoms (Samguk sagi) is
published

Kim In-ho
translated by Daniel Kane
90 A History of Korea Chapter 4 Goryeo and East Asia 91

Emergence of the Later Three Kingdoms the Silla throne.

In the 9th century, Jang Bogo, after amassing a private fortune
through profits in trade, joined in the struggle for the throne. Jang
The situation on the Korean Peninsula was influenced by both
had commoner origins and as a young man went to China where
domestic factors and the shifting international order of East Asia.
he joined the ranks of the Tang military. Jang then returned to Silla
Behind the emergence of the Later Three Kingdoms were growing
to establish a maritime trading base on the island of Wando, in
contradictions within Silla society and the disintegration of Tang
Jeolla-do province, and strengthening his private military power, he
and division of China into the so-called Five Dynasties and Ten
subdued the pirates operating in the neighboring seas. He accumu-
Kingdoms. The Later Three Kingdoms emerged in the process of
lated wealth as a middleman in trade with China and Japan, and in
conflict and collaboration between the local military strongmen in
the Silla internecine struggle helped King Sinmu (r. 839) attain the
each region of the Korean Peninsula.
throne. Though Jang Bogo was assassinated shortly thereafter, the
From the 9th century, the Silla state began a descent into crisis.
age of local strongmen like Jang had arrived.
Since the murder of King Hyegong (r. 765–780) in the mid-8th cen-
Meanwhile, Silla was also experiencing social change. As already
tury, disputes over succession to the Silla throne intensified. Over
noted, Silla society had a sort of caste system based on bloodline
the subsequent 150 years, there were twenty Silla monarchs, with
called the bone-rank system (golpumje). In this, those of the mid-
the average reign period but seven to eight years. These internecine
dle-tier, the so-called head-rank six or below, were limited in the of-
struggles resulted in discord and infighting among the Silla nobility
ficial grade they might attain. These “head-rank sixers” were mainly
and various independent powers and had the cumulative effect of
officials of middling rank, monks, and intellectuals, and they were
weakening Silla administrative authority. This discord and rivalry
becoming increasingly critical of such systemic constraints and of
among the Silla aristocracy became increasingly severe.
the other problems they perceived as plaguing Silla society. However,
In order to prevail in this political struggle, aristocrats required
with the failure of the central government to address and solve these
power, something based in both economic means and personal
criticisms and complaints, demands for reform increased.
connections. Naturally, such economic clout was derived from land-
The weakening of administrative power in particular made it dif-
holdings, whether that be agricultural land or salary land (sigeup),
ficult for the Silla state to undertake the necessary functions of tax
but also from the profits of trade and commerce. Possessing such
collecting, maintenance of public order, administration of justice,
an economic power base, aristocrats could train their own adminis-
and public welfare. Inequalities arose between villages in terms of
trators and raise private armies. Private armies in particular became
taxation and various other burdens, and middlemen officials began
the most important means of exerting one’s power in struggles for
92 A History of Korea Chapter 4 Goryeo and East Asia 93

to arbitrarily levy taxes. Thus, the economic hardships of the peas-

ants accumulated, and the country’s dispossessed population took Balhae

to vagabondage, sometimes turning to brigandage. With Silla state

finances slowly cut off from their tax and corvée labor base, such
Pyeongyang
sources of revenue devolved to the nobles and local strongmen.
East Sea
In the end, the acute crisis created by financial shortfall forced the Cheorwon
Songak
central government to demand the payment of taxes, and the response
Later Goguryeo
among many of the country’s peasants was rebellion. Rebellious
peasants wearing red pants swept across many areas, and security Yellow Sea

became yet more tenuous. The situation became so grave that even Geumseong
Jeongju (Gyeongju)
the Silla capital of Gyeongju came under threat by the mobs. Silla
Later Baekje
Under such conditions, local strongmen built their own castles
to defend themselves and their property against brigands and other
Cheonghaejin
threats. They styled themselves “castle lords” (seongju) or “generals”
(janggun), and ruled over the population within their territories. In
addition, these local strongmen were also in competition with rival Map of the Later Three Kingdoms
strongmen to amass power.
These local strongmen came from a variety of backgrounds: a commander charged with guarding the southwest coast in the
noble banished from central politics, a village headman (chonju) country’s Jeolla-do region. With Silla state authority paralyzed by
responsible for a local administrative area, a military commander in peasant uprisings, Gyeon Hwon championed a Baekje revival move-
charge of regional defense, a merchant who had accumulated wealth ment in the region of Jeolla-do. In 900, Gyeon Hwon proclaimed
through trade and other activities, and even a Buddhist monk. But the establishment of Later Baekje, with its capital at Jeonju. Later
among these, two figures in particular played central roles in the Baekje then pressed in upon Silla, seizing control of Jeolla-do and
unfolding Later Three Kingdoms era: Gyeon Hwon, the army com- Chungcheong-do provinces, the area to the west of Gyeongsang-do
mander who founded Later Baekje, and the Buddhist monk Gung province, the Silla heartland.
Ye, who established Later Goguryeo. Meanwhile, Gung Ye, who lived briefly as a Buddhist monk,
Gyeon Hwon, a native of Gyeongsang-do province, was a Silla emerged claiming to be a scion of the Silla royal house. Gung Ye
94 A History of Korea Chapter 4 Goryeo and East Asia 95

became a follower and retainer of Yang Gil, a bandit operating

out of Wonju, in Gangwon-do province. The ambitious Gung Ye Liao
Jurchen
(Khitan)
soon broke away from Yang Gil to become an even more pow-
erful regional strongman. He championed the Goguryeo revival
movement and in 901 established the state of Later Goguryeo
based at Songak (Gaeseong, in today’s North Korea). Thus was in-
augurated the period of the Later Three Kingdoms, with Gung Ye Gaegyeong
(Gaeseong) East Sea
and his Later Goguryeo in control of Gangwon-do, Gyeonggi-do, Byeongnando

Chungcheong-do, and Hwanghae-do provinces, Silla retaining Goryeo

Song
control of Gyeongsang-do province, and Later Baekje controlling Yellow Sea
Jeolla-do province.

Goryeo Reunification and the Nature of Goryeo

Society Map of Goryeo in the 11th century

Founding of the Goryeo dynasty and its reunification of whom he viewed as suspicious or of questionable loyalty. When
the peninsula
Gung Ye went so far as to kill his own queen and children, opposi-
Wang Geon (877–943) emerged from a clan based at Songak that tion to him began to coalesce. At this time Gung Ye dismissed any
had grown wealthy and powerful through trade. Legendary stories politics of recognizing the reality of local power in order to consoli-
related the ancestors of Wang Geon as descendants of the Chinese date their support and thereby stabilize central authority. As a result,
Tang emperor or Dragon King of the Yellow Sea, reflecting the Gung Ye’s opponents overthrew him and established Wang Geon as
families ties with the sea and the China trade. Wang Geon joined king. In 918, Wang Geon declared the establishment of the state of
the movement of Gung Ye and through his military exploits rose “Goryeo,” the choice of name reflecting his promotion of it as the
to become his top military commander. But Gung Ye soon began successor state to Goguryeo.
promoting himself as a divine authority, a self-professed Maitreya It was Wang Geon’s superior ability to coordinate political stake-
Buddha. In his pursuit of absolute power, he began to purge all holders that allowed him to maneuver into the kingship. After be-
96 A History of Korea Chapter 4 Goryeo and East Asia 97

Baekje became embroiled in a succession struggle for the throne.

When Gyeon Hwon attempted to pass the throne on to his youngest
son, the eldest son, Shin Geom, confined his father Gyeon Hwon to
Geumsansa Temple. Gyeon Hwon managed to escape his captivity
and thereafter surrendered to Goryeo. Subsequently, Silla’s King
Gyeongsun (r. 927–935) abdicated the throne and submitted to
Goryeo.
The final military showdown in this drawn out struggle came be-
tween Goryeo’s Wang Geon and Later Baekje’s Shin Geom. However,
Mireukjeon Hall and Geumsansa Temple ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration
as Shin Geom’s father, Gyeon Hwon, had earlier surrendered to
The Later Baekje king Gyeon Hwon was imprisoned in Geumsansa Temple by his son. Goryeo, the struggle was effectively already over. Wang Geon finally
succeeded in reunifying the Later Three Kingdoms in 936.
coming king, his first move was to attract local forces to his side. In
addition, he won over Buddhist monks and Confucian intellectuals
while at the same time reducing the people’s tax burden. This last Tasks facing Wang Geon and the problem of local
strongmen
policy maneuver of Wang Geon was welcomed by many.
Further, with Silla, Wang Geon maintained cordial diplomatic The primary political tasks facing Wang Geon were the stabilization
relations, a cordiality that benefited both dynasties. Goryeo’s goal of the infant dynasty and the integration of local strongmen into
of establishing its hegemony over the Korean Peninsula, and Silla’s his dynastic project. At the time of the founding of Goryeo, every
grudge with Later Baekje for that state’s attack into Silla territory as region of the country had autonomous local rulers with their own
far as its capital of Gyeongju, brought Goryeo and Silla together in administrative and defensive organizations. Wang Geon faced the
common cause against Later Baekje. Later Baekje’s Gyeon Hwon imperative of absorbing these into the new centralized administra-
then sacked Gyeongju, murdering the Silla king. Wang Geon mobi- tive system. One way he did this was by marrying daughters of the
lized to counter the Later Baekje forces, but his close generals met various local rulers, in this manner taking some 29 wives.
with defeat and death on the battlefield. Another strategy by Wang Geon was to grant office, land, and
However, Wang Geon later won a great military victory in the family names to local rulers who came over to his side, and to es-
Andong region of Gyeongsang-do province. Soon afterward Later pecially powerful figures he granted his own surname of “Wang.”
98 A History of Korea Chapter 4 Goryeo and East Asia 99

temporary, and it would by necessity evolve with the systematiza-

tion of Goryeo administration and law. Nevertheless, one defining
characteristic of the new Goryeo dynasty was this aspect of local
autonomy and independence.

Wang Geon's successors and the nature of Goryeo society

As the founder of the Goryeo dynasty, Wang Geon was revered, and
his personal charisma enabled him to bring together in common
cause the interests of various local forces. But Wang Geon’s succes-
sors lacked this charisma. Among the powerful local leaders, even
those brought into the central administration continued to wield
power in their local areas. Moreover, armed men continued to roam
Statue of Wang Geon(Left) ⓒ Yonhap News the country. Due to Wang Geon’s marriage practices, the number of
Statue of Huirangdaesa, a supporter of Wang Geon(Right) ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration
This statue of Wang Geon, the founder of Goryeo, was respected by later generations. He also received
Goryeo queens was large, most of them the daughters of powerful
support from monks because he favored Buddhism. local hegemons. As queens, they were eager to demonstrate their
abilities and to see their grandchildren ascend the throne.
In addition, through the so-called “hostage system” (giin jedo) he After Wang Geon, a struggle for succession was inevitable. The
summoned the offspring of powerful local leaders to come serve competition between half-siblings was fierce, but in contrast to such
in the capital, in so doing also building up the central bureaucracy. struggles in Unified Silla, here the rivalry was confined to the imme-
Wang Geon also empowered officials called sasimgwan (inspector diate lineage of King Taejo (the reigning title of Wang Geon). Kings
general), who were dispatched to regional areas with semi-indepen- Hyejong and Jeongjong, who succeeded Wang Geon, died at young
dent authority over the local populace and intelligence gathering. ages due to the accumulated stresses of such conflicts and machina-
For example, Kim Bu (King Gyeongsun), the last king of Silla, was tions. Their reigns were also very short.
after his abdication to Goryeo named the sasimgwan of Gyeongju. Goryeo’s fourth king, Gwangjong (r. 949–975), did his utmost
Wang Geon acknowledged the strength of local forces and to strengthen royal authority during his long reign, one particu-
worked to incorporate them into the new institutional framework larly effective strategy being the undertaking of drastic purges of
of Goryeo. However, this accommodation of local authority was
100 A History of Korea Chapter 4 Goryeo and East Asia 101

the dynasty’s meritorious subjects (nobles whom Wang Geon had during the struggles of the Later Three Kingdoms period. The
rewarded for assisting him in reunifying the Three Kingdoms and Goryeo dynasty, which prided itself as the successor to Goguryeo,
establishing the Goryeo). The latter half of his reign saw the state’s could not simply leave the city to its fate. King Taejo (Wang Geon)
prisons overflowing with those whose political loyalty was suspect. took efforts to rebuild Pyeongyang into a new city worthy of the new
Following the death of King Gwangjong, the Goryeo dynasty en- dynasty. Thus, with the opening of the Goryeo dynasty Pyeongyang
tered a new stage in the formulation of state institutions and adminis- saw a resurgence.
trative systems. The sixth king, Seongjong (r. 981–997), established To the south of the designated border region, with some passage
several new administrative systems to revamp the governing of the of time, were established five circuits (do), and these were the first
Goryeo state. In the name of social order, he decided to promote to have local magistrates. Administratively, the area below the cir-
Confucian ideology, while also making efforts to overhaul and im- cuit level was divided into counties (gun) and districts (hyeon).
prove the state bureaucracy. The Goryeo central administrative was However, in the Goryeo period, not all gun and hyeon had local
effectively composed of six “Boards” (bu) and two “Departments” administrators, the reason being a shortage of personnel to cover
(seong), the Jungseomunhaseong (or Chancellery for State Affairs, all regions. What the young Goryeo desperately needed to secure
responsible for formulating policy) and the Sangseoseong (or was the state’s financial capacity, sufficient bureaucrats to manage
Secretariat for State Affairs, responsible for executing policy). There it, and above all, the cooperation of autonomous local communities
were also other agencies, charged with such things as communi- and forces. Sufficient financial resources could be achieved by iden-
cating royal orders, supervising bureaucrats, and finance. tifying and organizing tax sources in all regions. The bureaucracy
The biggest task facing King Seongjong was the creation of an could not be increased unless a tax source for finance, manpower,
administrative system that would bind the local regions to the cen- and commodities were secured. However, the strength of regional
tral government. The result was an administrative organization that forces remained formidable, and the state had to largely acknowl-
divided the country into a northern border region and administra- edge their autonomy. Thus, a defining characteristic of Goryeo
tive regions to the south. The northern border region in turn was society at this stage is its social order that rested on both state and
split into two regions, creating an autonomous defense system. The local authorities.
center of these defenses was the Western Capital (Pyeongyang) and As a result, there were numerous administrative regions lacking
Anbyeon in Gangwon-do province. in government officials. In these regions, the positions were filled
Among these two, the Western Capital of Pyeongyang was dis- by selecting someone from among the local powers. And in cases
tinct. Originally the capital of Goguryeo, the city was almost ruined where these administrators refused to cooperate with the central
102 A History of Korea Chapter 4 Goryeo and East Asia 103

administration, the central government could not effectively admin- ally they came to form the aristocratic element of the Goryeo state.
ister them. Of these families, the Goryeo royal family was the most prominent.
Further, when administrative tax collection came into conflict The Goryeo dynasty was more complex and pluralistic than the
with local interests, the result was often rebellion. And although re- Joseon dynasty that would succeed it. Goryeo society was not a
gional self-defense forces had been absorbed into the Goryeo army, Confucian-centered one like Joseon. In addition, various beliefs and
the mobilization system and local defenses were autonomously ad- ideologies, to include Buddhism, Daoism and pungsu (feng shui)
ministered in their local regions. In the case of external invasion, the geomancy, were widespread. These diverse features are reflective
local soldiers would retreat behind the local castle walls and defend of the complex nature of Goryeo society and its system of local
the position, while central units would arrive to attack the invaders. forces. Each region enjoyed its independence and autonomy, yet
Thus, it was easy for local forces to either surrender to the enemy or each region was still directly connected to the central government
to revolt against central authority. For example, at the time of the despite its indigenous administrative system. However, toward the
Mongol invasion in the 13th century, Jo Hwi and Tak Cheong in end of the dynasty, the autonomy of the local regions gradually
Goryeo’s northeastern region rebelled against central authority and disappeared as they were subsumed into a unified administrative
submitted to the Mongols, allowing the Mongols to rule this area network. The Joseon dynasty was able to develop into a centralized
directly. state based on this.
On the other hand, the Goryeo government administered directly
those regions that produced essential and specialty products. It was
due to the scarcity of goods available in the marketplace that the The Goryeo Dynasty and the States of East Asia
government moved directly to control and centralize the products
of such areas. Throughout its existence Goryeo came into repeated conflict,
But over time, the power of the central government grew. In terms went to war and reconciled, and enjoyed peaceful exchanges with
of economic clout, powerful central bureaucrats in the capital slowly a number of states of East Asia, prime among them being the Liao
gained an edge over the powerful families who remained in the prov- (Khitan), Jin ( Jurchen), Song, and Japan. Among these, Goryeo’s
inces. Several families in particular gained renown for producing relationship with the Khitan and Jurchen to its north was the one
generations of senior officials, and these families united their for- that most easily deteriorated into conflict and war. By contrast,
tunes through inter-marriage. These families also rationalized their with the Song dynasty, Goryeo enjoyed its most cordial diplomatic
prosperity through the creation of mythological stories and eventu- relationship. Japan was not a country that regularly dispatched em-
104 A History of Korea Chapter 4 Goryeo and East Asia 105

issaries to or traded with Goryeo. at Gaegyeong (Gaeseong) to Naju in the southwestern province of
At the time of the establishment of the Goryeo dynasty, China was Jeolla. The Liao eventually withdrew from Goryeo territory, fearing
still divided. Taejo Wang Geon was averse to the Khitan destruction the overextension of their lines of supply. But Liao was not finished.
of the Balhae kingdom established to his rear in the Manchuria region It now mobilized 100,000 troops and returned to the offensive in
in the wake of Goguryeo’s fall. This hostility was of a political nature. 1018. But this time as well it failed to subdue Goryeo. Indeed, Liao
Many of Balhae refugees that poured into Goryeo territories following advanced to the vicinity of the Goryeo capital of Gaeseong before
Balhae’s fall helped to reunite the Three Kingdoms under Goryeo. The retreating, in the process suffering heavy losses at the hands of the
Khitan was the most threatening force on Goryeo’s northern frontier. Goryeo army led by General Gang Gamchan. From that point,
The Jurchen tribes, on the other hand, had not yet been consolidated relations between the two states became more cordial, and they
and thus did not constitute a major threat to Goryeo. engaged not only in trade but the exchange of cultural items, such as
The Khitan established the Liao dynasty and in 993 launched its the Buddhist Tripitaka (Daejanggyeong).
first war with Goryeo. Faced with such a crisis, at a Goryeo court Goryeo was ever on guard against the Jurchen. To manage them,
assembly it was proposed that all the territories to the north of the Goryeo employed a method used by China in dealing with periph-
Western Capital (Pyeongyang) be ceded to the Liao. However, eral states, that is, separating the Jurchen tribes and holding each in
through negotiations with the Liao, Goryeo found that the reason check. Though Goryeo considered these tribes as barbarians, some
for Liao’s invasion of Goryeo was its desire to sever Goryeo’s dip- were granted material goods or even government office as part of
lomatic ties with Song. Thereafter, in order to maintain intercourse an appeasement policy. However, in the latter 11th century, the
with the Liao, after careful negotiations, the Goryeo government Jurchen tribe of Wanyan extended its power, giving rise to tensions
was able to secure the so-called Six Garrison Settlements East of the with Goryeo. In 1104, in response to aggressive movements by
Amnok (Ch. Yalu) River (Gangdong yukju), in the northern part of Jurchen hardliners, the Goryeo government mobilized troops for an
the Korean Peninsula. attack on the Jurchen area, but failed in its objectives.
Taking full advantage of the political turbulence caused by the The Goryeo government regarded the lack of cavalry in its
coup d’état of Gang Jo, Liao once more went to war with Goryeo. armed forces as the cause of its failures. As a result, Goryeo made
Gang Jo had deposed Goryeo’s King Mokjong but then refused to preparations for total mobilization, from the training of cavalry to
recognize his successor King Hyeonjong (r. 1009–1031). Again, the recruitment of monk-soldiers. A special military mobilization
with a clear view of severing Goryeo-Song connections, Liao in- organization was created called the Byeolmuban (Extraordinary
vaded. As a result, Goryeo’s Hyeonjong was forced to flee the capital Military Corps), and in 1107 an expeditionary force commanded
106 A History of Korea Chapter 4 Goryeo and East Asia 107

by Yun Gwan launched an offensive towards Jurchen territory. Once eventually returned the nine fortresses to the Jurchen, and in 1115
there, Yun Gwan built a system of nine fortresses to be used as a the Jurchen founded the Jin dynasty. The now unified Jurchen
defensive base. kingdom first attacked the Liao. Seizing the opportunity this at-
However, these nine fortresses, arranged as they were in a straight tack presented, Goryeo secured its hold over the Uiju region in
line, were difficult to defend against Jurchen attacks. The Goryeo Pyeongan-do province, but did not interfere with the conflict be-
tween the Liao and Jin.
Following this, the Jin approached Goryeo to establish formal
relations, first as between equals but then hierarchical in nature, be-
tween lord and subject. Within Goryeo many officials opposed the
establishment of bilateral relations with the Jin on these latter terms.
However, the realpolitik of the political powerhouse Yi Jagyeom and
the military figure Cheok Jungyeong, who had participated in mili-
tary campaigns against the Jurchen, won out and a sadae (lit. “serve
the great,” essentially a suzerain-subject hierarchy) relationship with
Jin was adopted. This decision later contributed to uprisings in the
region of the Western Capital (Pyeongyang).
Goryeo paid the most attention to its diplomatic relations with
the Song. The Song was established in 960, and it opened formal
relations with Goryeo in 962 (13th year of King Gwangjong). After
this, the two states exchanged emissaries and maintained cordial
relations. Goryeo needed Song’s advanced cultural products, and
Song in turn relied on Goryeo to keep the Liao and Jin in check.
However, bilateral relations between the Song and Goryeo were
officially suspended after Liao’s invasion of the Song. Liao did not
wish Goryeo to maintain cordial relations with the Song, and so the
Song and Goryeo only maintained informal exchanges and trade.
Bukgwanyujeok Portrait Album-Cheokgyeongipbido Korea University Museum
This is a picture which shows the establishment of Yun Gwan’s nine fortresses.
With the rise of the Jurchen Jin dynasty after the 12th century,
108 A History of Korea Chapter 4 Goryeo and East Asia 109

the Yeseong River not far from the Goryeo capital of Gaegyeong
(Gaeseong). Up until the fall of the Southern Song, some 5,000
Song merchants visited the port. For example, the Song merchant
He Tougang, who was very skilled at the game of Go (baduk in
Korean), attempted to use his skills to win a married Goryeo
woman, though his schemes ultimately failed.
At that time, the trade route extended from the Yeseong River,
passing the island near the outlet of the Daedong River, then
crossed the Yellow Sea to China’s Shandong peninsula, or else from
Goryeo Dogyeong Kyujanggak Institute For Korean Studies
the Yeseong River one continued to Heuksando Island off Korea’s
This is a record of a visit to Goryeo by a Song Dynasty envoy named Seogeung in 1123. southwest coast and then across the sea to China’s Mingzhou
(present-day Ningbo). From the Song, Goryeo mainly imported
Song made common cause with this dynasty in order to attack the silk, herbs, ceramics, books, and musical instruments. These items
Khitan Liao. At this time, Song asked Goryeo to join in assisting were luxury or cultural goods needed by Goryeo’s ruling class. In
Jin, but Goryeo spurned this request. Later, Song sought to engage addition, books such as the Buddhist canon were imported. On the
the assistance of Goryeo to contain Jin arms and keep that state in other hand, to Song, Goryeo exported such luxury products as gold,
check. In particular, immediately after the Song’s destruction at the silver, copper, ginseng, pine nuts, and lacquerware.
hands of a Jin invasion, the newly established Southern Song re- In the 11th century, Goryeo even saw the arrival on three occa-
quested Goryeo to intercede on its behalf against the Jin, beseeching sions of Arab merchants from what was called the country of the
Goryeo to rescue the Song Emperors Huizong and Qinzong, then Daesik (or Dashi in Chinese). They seem to have arrived in Goryeo
held as captives by the Jin. The Southern Song also proposed an in pursuit of new trading opportunities. However, after the 11th
alliance with Goryeo to counter the Jin. But to all of these requests, century no more such visits are recorded.
Goryeo demurred, and the relationship between the two countries Even as the Goryeo continued its pattern of confrontation, ac-
gradually soured. However, neither Goryeo nor Song severed their commodation, and exchange with the Song, Liao, Jin, and Japan
mutual diplomatic relations. in East Asia, new trials were looming for the dynasty. The Mongols
On the other hand, Goryeo maintained a brisk trade with foreign were growing into a global empire, and the Goryeo was destined
countries from the port of Byeongnando, located at the estuary of soon to be incorporated into a new international order.
1170~1377
1170
Military officials of Goryeo stage a coup and take over
the government Chapter 5
1231
The Mongols begin invaing Goryeo, which fights
against the invaders for nearly 30 years
1234
Sangjeong gogeum yemun, world's first book printed
with metal movable type, is published
1251
The Tripitaka Koreana, the grand collection of
Buddhist scriptures carved on over eighty thousand
printing woodblocks, is completed
1270
A ceasefire is established between Goryeo and the
Mongols
1377 GORYEO AND
Anthology of Great Buddhist Priests’ Zen Teachings
(Jikjisimcheyojeol), the world's oldest extant book THE MONGOL EMPIRE
printed with metal movable type, is published

Lee Kang-hahn
translated by Daniel Kane
112 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 113

Goryeo’s Resistance to the Mongol Invasion government fled to Ganghwa Island, off the country’s western coast,
(1231-1259) to escape the Mongol onslaught.
In response to Goryeo’s determination to resist, the Mongols
launched another invasion in the eighth month of 1232. Though the
In the eighth month of 1231, the Mongols launched their first inva-
Mongol troops withdrew on the heels of a Goryeo victory at Cheoin
sion of Goryeo, advancing in their offensive to the middle region of
Fortress, the invasion’s damage was significant, including many
the peninsula before withdrawing in the first month of 1232. The
deaths and cultural losses, such as the burning of the First Edition
Goryeo people were greatly shocked by the power of the Mongol
of the Tripitaka Koreana (the complete Buddhist canon). In 1233,
forces that were able in such a short time to lay siege to the capital
turmoil broke out in the Western Capital (Pyeongyang) region,
of Gaegyeong. The Goryeo military regime, which had failed to ade-
which had found the hardships of the Mongol invasion intolerable.
quately prepare the country’s defenses, soon found itself at wit’s end
Hong Bogwon, who led the uprising, eventually betrayed Goryeo
as forts on the northern frontier began to go over to the Mongols,
and fled to the Mongols, and his descendants later became heads
and just half a year later, in the seventh month of 1232, the Goryeo
of the Mongol Yuan Empire’s Liaoning province administration, a
source of vexation to the Goryeo government.
Following the destruction of the Jurchen Jin (1234), Mongol
forces once more entered Goryeo in 1235. Within two months they
Khanate of
the Golden Horde(Kipchak)
had reached parts of Gyeongsang-do province, including Andong,
Mongolia Sangju, and Gyeongju. In the sixth month of 1236, they entered the
Khanate of Jagadai
Jeolla-do province, sacking Jeonju and Buan. Goryeo civilians, along
Goryeo with the government’s Defense Command Patrol (byeolchogun)
Il-Khanate
of Persia The Great Khanate in various local regions, resisted at the cost of heavy casualties and
damage to the country’s cultural heritage, including the total de-
struction in 1238 of the nine-story pagoda of Hwangnyong Temple.
However, when Goryeo promised to pay tribute, the Mongol forces
summarily withdrew in the fourth month of 1239, and thereafter
diplomatic missions between the two commenced. The Goryeo
The Mongol Empire and Goryeo
began to carve a new Tripitaka, yet in the fourth month of 1241,
114 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 115

Goryeogung Palace ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration

Wooden printing blocks of the Tripitaka Koreana ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration
Restoration of a small palatial structure which is believed to have been part of the Goryeo-gung
palace, when the dynasty's capital was on the Ganghwa Island.

1255, Mongol naval forces and warships even commenced attacks

members of the Goryeo royal family were sent as hostages to the on various islands off the west coast. This came as a shock to the
Mongol court. Goryeo government, which had come to believe in the safety of
Some years later, in 1246, Guyuk was crowned emperor of the Ganghwa Island’s seclusion.
Mongols, and the invasion of Goryeo was resumed in the seventh Around 1257, earnest voices began to be heard in the Goryeo gov-
month of the following year, 1247. While troops of the govern- ernment for accommodation with the Mongols, despite opposition
ment’s Defense Command Patrol fought off the invaders inland, the from the country’s military regime. And when Choi Ui, the last
government maintained its established policy of transporting civil- leader of the powerful Choi house (which led the military regime
ians to islands for their own protection. In 1251, the new Mongol for the past half decade), was killed such voice grew even bigger.
emperor Monke demanded the Goryeo court return to its capital So, when the Mongol invasion resumed in the sixth month of 1258,
of Gaegyeong from its refuge on Ganghwa Island and then invaded the Goryeo government began contemplating even further on sur-
Goryeo in his turn in the seventh month of 1253. This time, the rendering, and in April 1259, Goryeo’s Prince (who later became
Mongol army descended along the eastern coast of the peninsula, Wonjong) embarked on a journey to China to end the Mongol inva-
attacking various locations in Gangwon-do province, and once sion once and for all. It was at this point when Wonjong “accidently”
more invaded the peninsula’s southern region in 1254. By the end of met with Kublai Khan, presumably during Winter 1259, who later
116 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 117

seized the Mongol Yuan throne after the succession struggle which lizing a rural landscape made barren by the loss of countless human
followed the death of Monke in Summer ( July) 1259. After the lives, Wonjong also faced the task of reestablishing order and regu-
Goryeo government made its assent clear to the Mongol’s long-held larity to a government administration decimated by both military
demand that it return to the capital of Gaegyeong, by destroying usurpation and war, and to securing the needed financial revenues
the inner and outer walls surrounding the temporary capital at for the operation of that government.
Ganghwa, an agreement for a cease fire was reached in August 1259. However, the situation remained unsuited for these tasks facing
And later Wonjong ascended the Goryeo throne, upon his return King Wonjong. Pressure from Kublai Khan continued up until the
from China in April 1260. Peace at last, albeit a shaky one, after 30 Goryeo government returned to Gaegyeong in 1270, and the threat
years of Mongol invasions, sometimes sporadic, sometimes steady, of reinvasion lingered. Meanwhile, territorial losses continued. In
yet horrific overall. 1269, when military officers in the northwest revolted and surren-
During this period countless Koreans were slaughtered at the hands dered their posts to the Mongols, the Yuan took this opportunity to
of the Mongols, while some others surrendered to the Mongol army seize the territory under revolt and annex it to their empire. In this
and then served as guides for the invaders. However, most Goryeo manner, the area north of the Jabi-ryeong mountain range (including
people stood fast against the Mongol interlopers. Heroic resistance Pyeongyang) was severed from Goryeo territory, and became the
in various places, such as Cheolju Fortress and Gwiju Fortress, and Yuan administrative unit called the Dongnyeong Administration
the resistance of the Goryeo people, regardless of their status, were (Dongnyeongbu).
the responses to the crisis that struck the Korean Peninsula in the Meanwhile, when the return of the capital to Gaegyeong was com-
first half of the 13th century. pleted, thus signaling the Goryeo’s government accommodation of
the Mongols, the forces of the Three Elite Patrols (Sambyeolcho),
the mainstay of the former military regime, rose in revolt. In the sixth
Diplomacy with the Mongols, and Management month of 1270, they selected and put forward a scion of the royal
of Domestic Affairs(1260-1307) family as their king, and abducting government officials and their
families as well as commoners, the rebels fled south to the island of
When Goryeo’s King Gojong died in the sixth month of 1259, just Jindo and then Jeju. The Sambyeolcho forces attacked the Goryeo
two months after Goryeo surrendered to the Mongols, the heavy government’s “tax boats” (segongseon, which carried tax revenues to
responsibility of tending to a devastated Goryeo society fell upon the capital) and shipbuilding facilities, set up to aid the Mongol au-
his son and successor Wonjong(r. 1260–1274). In addition to stabi- thorities’ preparations for the upcoming Japanese campaign. And in
118 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 119

a desperate effort to survive, they also eventually made contact with In the end, the greatest achievement of Goryeo’s King Wonjong
the Yuan Empire and Japan. However, in the fourth month of 1273, was his overthrow of the military regime and restoration of the mon-
after three years the military uprising was subdued. archy and his ending the threat of any future Mongol invasion once
Immediately following this, ships’ construction and troops mo- peace was restored. Remaining flexible in his responses to the various
bilization for the planned Mongol conquest of Japan entered its demands of the Yuan Empire proved an effective means of buying
final phase. Numerous Goryeo engineers and workers were mobi- time. In response to the requests of the Yuan, while King Wonjong
lized, while timber and ships were requisitioned to form the fleet pursued an astute strategy of acceding to those requests he could
of warships. The first Mongol invasion of Japan was launched in the meet, such as the dispatch of hostages to the Yuan capital, repair
tenth month of 1274, with a second launched in the fifth month of of post roads (yeongno), military procurement, and tribute of grain
1281. Both ended in failure, inflicting severe damages upon Goryeo. crops, he consistently delayed on those demands he felt untenable.
At the time of the first conquest, the invasion force consisted of Also noteworthy is the marriage between King Wonjong’s son
about 8,000 Goryeo soldiers accompanying approximately 25,000 and successor, later King Chungnyeol, to the daughter of the Yuan
Mongol and Chinese troops, on board total of 900 vessels (among emperor Kublai Khan, which effectively laid the foundations for a
which Goryeo provided 300). In the course of preparations for the stable administration for the new king. From his accession in the
second invasion, Goryeo faced the additional hardship of preparing eighth month of 1274, King Chungnyeol ruled Goryeo for nearly 34
or mobilizing 900 more troop vessels, some 15,000 sailors, 10,000 years, until his death in the seventh month of 1308.
soldiers, and 110,000 seok (a traditional measurement of grain) of Not surprisingly, immediately after King Chungnyeol assumed
provisions. the throne under this new accommodation with the Mongol Yuan,
Under such circumstances, internal reforms were difficult. In the changes Goryeo had been eluding came about in various fields
1269, a large-scale land survey (yangjeon) was carried out to re- in the late 1270s. Upon orders from the Yuan to reorganize its gov-
pair the country’s ravaged tax system, but in the 1270s, the Yuan ernment administration, Goryeo made fundamental and distorted
establishment of military colonies (in this case, dunjeon) in some changes to its government’s traditional structure. The imperial
regions across the Goryeo territory inflicted further hardship on the government intervened broadly in Goryeo affairs, criticizing for in-
country. In the second month of 1271, rather than reforming the stance the custom of inter-clan marriage by the Goryeo royal family
official salary system, the Goryeo government boosted officialdom or pointing out that the Goryeo government had too many ministers.
by distributing the lands of the Gyeonggi region to them as their The Yuan also demanded from Goryeo the tribute of large numbers
salary base. of maidens, while at times forbidding the possession of weapons
120 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 121

by the Goryeo people. The Mongols used Jeju Island as a place of that had controlled personnel matters during the period of the
banishment for members of the Mongol imperial family, and also as military regime, still remained despite the downfall of the military
pasturage for horses which were to be sent to Yuan. In various places government.
throughout Goryeo the Mongols also established camps for toman On the other hand, King Chungnyeol’s diplomatic achievements
(a traditional division of ten-thousand troops in the Mongol army, were in no way insignificant. In 1278, he journeyed to the Yuan
also called a myriarchy, or manhobu in Korean). The dunjeon(gar- court and held negotiations with Kublai Khan over the withdrawal
rison farms) established in places by the Yuan Empire were also of the following elements: Mongol troops occupying territory on
adapted for use as temporary dwelling places for military troops of the peninsula, Mongol and Chinese soldiers being stationed at
the conquered Song dynasty, which put considerable strain on the the dunjeon lands, and the Mongol darughachi officials constantly
adjacent areas. The authority assumed by King Chungnyeol’s royal monitoring Goryeo. He even received a formal concession from
consort, Princess Jeguk (daughter of Kublai Khan), also proved vex- Yuan on the Empire’s initial demand that Goryeo should submit its
atious to the Goryeo people. But in one more affront, the Goryeo household registries to Yuan. At the same time, facets of Mongol
king was named leader—with the title of minister—of the Eastern culture continued to be imported by Goryeo, so that Goryeo could
Expedition Field Headquarters ( Jeongdong haengseong), a rather maintain its cordial relationship with the Yuan Empire. Already by
‘provincial’ government established to organize the Mongol con- the end of 1272, some two years before assuming the throne, King
quest of Japan but which continued in operation even after the Yuan Chungnyeol was already wearing the Mongol queue and dress. In
had abandoned such plans, thus in effect making the king a regional the tenth month of 1274, shortly after his accession, he compelled
government official of the Yuan empire. the Goryeo officials to do the same, and in 1278 a proclamation was
King Chungnyeol endeavored to stabilize Goryeo society even as issued throughout the kingdom mandating this new style of dress.
he responded to these various contingencies. The contents of both Also embraced by Goryeo were the Yuan system of weights and
native court music (hyangak), such as the ballad “Ssanghwajeom” measures, standards for the amnesty of vicious criminals, and the
(“Dumpling Shop”), and Chinese court music (dangak), such as formalities of official documentation. As a result, the status of King
“Taepyeonggok” (“Aria of Peace”), played during Chungnyeol’s Chungnyeol gradually stabilized, such that immediately after the
reign would imply that he tried to pacify the people and help them king’s accession in 1274, upon the visit of a Mongol darughachi,
maintain hope for the future. However, efforts at reform has been the king went out to meet him, whereas by 1279, a few years after
generally lackluster, with several domestic land surveys having Chungnyeol’s accession, the Mongol emissary to Goryeo bowed to
failed and the Personnel Authority ( Jeongbang), a powerful office the king at the bottom of the steps of the royal palace. And in the
122 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 123

early 1280s the traditional practices between the Mongol emissaries erations of the Yuan court. This new status also strengthened the
and the Goryeo monarchy, greeting each other on equal standing Goryeo king’s hand in negotiations with the Yuan, as evidenced
east and west, ended as well. Due to the existence of such duly by the diplomatic performance of 1278 detailed above. What’s
recognized leadership at last, by the late 13th century Goryeo too more, with the exception of Princess Jeguk, the political influence
finally began to find stability. of the Yuan princesses that married into the Goryeo royal family
As these were eventful times, and also the opening of a new era was negligible and did not impede the leadership of the Goryeo
for the Goryeo people, there have been some persistent misconcep- king. Although the jealousy of King Chungseon’s consort Princess
tions regarding it. Prominent among these concern Goryeo-Mongol Gyeguk contributed to King Chungseon’s temporary retirement
marriage practices, the aforementioned Eastern Expedition Field from the throne in 1298, the status of all three of the Yuan women
Headquarters ( Jeongdong haengseong), and Mongol economic married by King Chungsuk remained rather insignificant. And al-
levies on Goryeo. though King Chunghye’s consort Princess Deongnyeong continued
The practice of marriage between the royal houses of Goryeo and to interfere in court affairs after the death of her husband, the con-
the Mongol Yuan was not something forced by Kublai Khan, but was sort of King Gongmin, Princess Noguk, was her husband’s most
in fact first proposed by Goryeo’s King Wonjong. Historical records steadfast political supporter.
show that such intermarriages, first consummated in the fifth month The Eastern Expedition Field Headquarters (Jeongdong haengseong)
of 1274 with King Chungnyeol’s marriage to a daughter of Kublai, was one of 11 such Field Headquarters, or Branch Secretariats
were in fact already under public discussion in 1269. The marriage (haengseong, which could also be regarded as Provincial authori-
that earned King Chungnyeol the title of “imperial son-in-law” was ties or governments), established by the Yuan Empire and mostly
the confluence of the Goryeo monarchy’s interest in strengthening on China. This Jeongdong haengseong, which was installed on the
ties with the Mongols in order to stabilize their kingship, and Kublai’s Korean Peninsula to organize the Mongol invasion of Japan, came
interest in preventing the expansion of the power of the “three kings to be known for its interference in Goryeo affairs. During the period
of the east” (the descendants of Ghengis Khan’s three brothers) in of the Mongol campaigns against Japan (1274–1281), it naturally
the Liaodong region towards the Korean Peninsula. enjoyed considerable influence. Then in early 1282 it was abolished,
The result of all this was that the king of Goryeo was transformed and in 1283 a new version of it was installed. Later in 1299, when a
from the “head of an independent Goryeo court” to “a member of Mongolian official was appointed the second-grade assistant chan-
the Yuan imperial family.” The status of the Goryeo king naturally cellor (pyeongjang jeongsa) of the Jeongdong haengseong, its ability
changed as a result, and now he also had a voice in the inner delib- to check the internal affairs of Goryeo became temporarily stronger.
124 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 125

However, in general the influence of the Jeongdong haengseong the Mongols, to include silver, ramie, rice, minerals, handicrafts,
waned from the mid-1280s, after the Mongol had abandoned its paper, Insam(ginseng), falcons, and horses. This situation later led
plans for a conquest of Japan, and it remained so in the early half of to the misconception that Goryeo’s economy became so depleted
the 14th century, under the leadership of the Goryeo king, whom that normal exchange of goods with the Yuan was impossible.
the Mongol Yuan appointed to lead it. Eventually, it became more However, after the Yuan Empire conquered the Southern Song in
of a vehicle for official communications between the Goryeo and the late 1270s, securing vast resources in China’s Jiangnan region in
the Yuan. the 1280s, Yuan economic levies on Goryeo declined significantly
In the first half of the 14th century, the nephew of King in the 1290s. Taking advantage of the resultant economic boon, the
Chungseon, Wang Go (alternately Wang Ho), inherited from his Goryeo people began once more to trade with the outside world.
uncle the position of “Prince of Shenyang” (or Sim wang, derived In particular, this period saw the establishment of the Goryeo royal
from a combination of “prince” [K. jewang] and Shenyang[K. house’s own trade policy. To take one case of this, King Chungnyeol
Simyang]). The machinations by combined forces of Mongol and met with Muslim merchants in an attempt to sell in overseas mar-
Goryeo personnel supporting Wang Go weakened the status of the kets the silver and ramie that had been requisitioned from the pri-
Jeongdong Haengseong almost to the point of it being eliminated vate houses of Goryeo by various falcon-rearing institutions (called
and replaced with another Haengseong that could more strongly eungbang) installed in Goryeo by the Mongols to extract supplies
interfere in Goryeo affairs. In response to that, the kings of Goryeo of falcons. Also as evidence of this active trade, one should note at-
insisted on retaining hold over the fragile Jeongdong haengseong tempts by Goryeo to negotiate reductions in tariffs on goods carried
and wished to guarantee the maximum autonomy in their admin- by Goryeo trading vessels in the ports of China’s Jiangnan region.
istration of it. In time, however, the Jeongdong haengseong became
a hotbed of anti-monarchical Goryeo forces, and Goryeo’s King
Gongmin abolished the Judicial Proceedings Office (Imunso), a A New Era for Goryeo: Mixed-blood Monarchy
den of the pro-Yuan forces surrounding a Goryeo official named Gi (14th Century)
Cheol(brother of Yuan emperor Shundi’s wife) inside Jeongdong
Haengseong, in 1356. The Goryeo kings who reigned in this period—King Chungseon(r.
Finally, let us examine the issue of Mongol economic levies on 1298; 1308–1313), King Chungsuk(r. 1313–1330; 1332–1339), King
Goryeo. Early levies between approximately 1260 and 1280 were Chunghye(r. 1330–1332; 1339–1343), and King Chungmok(r.
indeed harsh, with a large variety of items forcibly requisitioned by 1344–1348)—share a trait: they were all the issue of Goryeo-
126 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 127

Mongol unions. Though in this they were clearly different from of the Goryeo kings and the royal family.
previous Goryeo monarchs in that they were not of pure Goryeo Economically, the Goryeo now worked to eliminate the past
blood, in the final analysis, the Goryeo monarch remained head of government misdeeds that had effectively plundered the capital
the Goryeo government, ultimately responsible for the administra- city markets, while also enforcing a salt monopoly to bolster gov-
tion of the state, conducted negotiations with the Yuan Empire, and ernment revenue, and creating a new tax base (sean) that it called
managed the domestic affairs of Goryeo, with the best intentions of the “gabin juan” (or tax ledger of the gabin year [1314]) through
protecting Goryeo interests. an extensive cadastral and household survey. In addition, Goryeo
King Chungseon tackled the political reforms at which kings was even visited by a former high-ranking official of the Mabaar
Wonjong and Chungnyeol had failed. He restored those areas of the region on the Coromandel coastline of India in 1298, a hub of
government organization distorted under Mongol influence to their trade linking East and West, which indirectly contributed a few
configuration in the era of King Munjong (r. 1046–1083), consoli- years later to Goryeo’s establishment of the government Weaving
dated various government offices to enhance the effectiveness and and Dying Bureau ( Jigyeomguk, 1308) that oversaw for instance
efficiency of their operations, reduced the number of government the production of so-called jikmun jeopo(a type of patterned ramie
councilors (jaesang), and streamlined the decision-making process cloth). Jikmun jeopo, which incorporated gold and silver embroidery
while inducing financial austerity as well. The Investigatory Office techniques (jikgeum) originating in Central Asia, gained fame as
(Gamchalsa) was upgraded to enhance the overall integrity of the a type of specialty ramie cloth (or jeopo) produced on the Korean
government. A more systematic local administration was created by Peninsula, and Goryeo maximized its commercial value such that it
first establishing ‘additional’ senior administrative centers (mok) to became one of its important exports.
strengthen the connection between the capital city (Gaeseong) and In the case of King Chungseon, however, who resided primarily
prefectures (ju, gun) and counties (hyeon), and then reorganizing at the Yuan court, handling state affairs remotely gave rise to certain
these recently designated new mok units into bu, right below the problems. In particular, it was a major mistake for Chungseon to
original mok centers and above the prefectures and counties. And in pass the Goryeo throne to his son Chungsuk while passing his title
the frontier areas, a renovated rotational system was applied to the and position as Prince of Sim (Sim wang, i.e.,, Prince of Shenyang)
defensive troops, while the livelihoods of military households were to his nephew Wang Go. This is because the various forces backing
improved by the provision of personnel to assist with domestic du- the Prince of Shenyang, whose status had grown increasingly ele-
ties. The Great Ancestral Shrine (Taemyo), the most symbolic space vated, were sufficient to undermine the power of King Chungsuk.
of the Goryeo royal family, was also renovated to promote the image King Chungsuk, who enjoyed a long reign, earned a negative rep-
128 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 129

utation for having failed to effectively manage the chaotic personnel of Confucius and the ancient three emperors (Ch. gusanhwang)
matters of his reign. And for five years from 1321, Chungsuk was among its populace through efforts at renovating codes of sacrificial
even detained at the Yuan court. During this time he faced a grave rites (sajeon). As soon as he returned to Goryeo, following what he
crisis due to the political attacks on him by the Prince of Shenyang, had witnessed in Yuan China, Chungsuk proclaimed a “change in
his cousin Wang Go. existing customs and habits” (ipung yeoksok). Noteworthy here is
Despite such poor conditions, King Chungsuk made various the resumption of rituals surrounding the monumental figure of
efforts to reform and improve Goryeo affairs, a representative ex- Gija, symbol of the eternal excellence of Korean civilization, rather
ample being the reorganization of the state’s civil service examina- than rites to Confucius and the mythical ancient three emperors,
tion and education system. Chungsuk’s father, King Chungseon, symbols respectively of the Confucian civilization and long history
had seriously eroded the traditional elements of Goryeo’s civil exam of China.
system by such acts as abolishing the traditional entrance exam to the In terms of economic policy, King Chungsuk established the tem-
state’s National Confucian Academy (Gukjagam), the gukjagamsi, as porary government office called the Challi byeonwi dogam(Direc-
well as abolishing the preparatory exam given to students leaving the torate for the Re-examination of facts and Rectification of faults) to
National Confucian Academy, the goyesi, and renaming the original focus on the “resolution of land disputes among the commoners,”
yebusi(the Goryeo higher civil service examination) as the “eunggeosi”, or jeonmin byeonjeong(i.e., returning illegally plundered land to its
and turning it into a preparatory exam for the jegwa (Ch. zhike), the original owner and freeing those commoners detained by powerful
Yuan civil service recruitment exam. Reacting to these changes, King houses or beings without just cause). In addition, domestic mer-
Chungsuk revived the previous National Confucian Academy exam, chants were appointed as close advisors to the king, while efforts
now under the name “geojasi”, and also revived the benefits (such as were made to induce foreign merchants to Goryeo through the
exemption from certain exams) that goyesi qualifiers had previously provision of offices and titles, and the civil service exam was even
enjoyed. Chungsuk also launched a new exam called the “gujaesaksi” used to attract some merchants, with a Chinese merchant named
(seasonal exam for the “Private school[‘gujae’]” students) as a way Liang Zai and a Goryeo finance expert Chae Hongcheol overseeing
of encouraging students from private academies to sit for the higher it. One can assume that this group came to be utilized as sort of
civil service examination as well. “government agents” by the Goryeo administration or royal house
In addition, various cultural and economic policies were pursued. in the active pursuit of foreign trade.
During his period of captivity in China, Chungsuk was impressed Goryeo’s King Chunghye was crowned in 1330, but was forced to
by the Yuan’s willingness to enforce and strengthen the position abdicate a short time later after being implicated in rebellious acts
130 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 131

within the Yuan, and due to attacks by powerful Yuan officials and Shundi who was in political conflict with his own consort Empress
the Prince of Shenyang he barely won reinstatement following the Gi. Though the Directorate was eventually abolished after only a few
death of his father, King Chungsuk in 1339. Following this, he fo- years, its historical significance lies in its having provided a foothold
cused on improving state finances by imposing new tax and tribute for the coming reforms of Goryeo’s King Gongmin in 1356.
duties on government offices, ships, and distribution networks. King Chumgmok’s successor King Chungjeong (r. 1348–1351)
Following a visit by the Ilkhanate’s Sultan Abu Said, Chunghye be- acceded to the throne at an equally young age, and the resulting
came deeply interested in the dynamics of the silk trade between rise in powerful officials, compounded by a series of invasions by
China and the West. He even had built a palatial weaving factory for Wokou (Waegu in Korean) pirates (originating from the Japanese
the production of specialty fabrics for sale to Chinese and Muslim archipelago), brought Goryeo affairs to a point of extreme disorder.
merchants. One can surmise this fabric to be the jikmun jeopo devel- It was against this background that King Gongmin assumed the
oped by his grandfather King Chungseon. throne in 1351.
King Chungmok (r. 1344–1348) who succeeded the throne was Academia is still replete with misconceptions in its consideration
in his minority and unable to properly take the reins of governance. of the “mixed-blood monarchy” of Goryeo and its rule in the early
Instead, state affairs were managed by a newly established office 14th century, positions in need of rethinking. Examples of such
called the Directorate of Enhancing Governance ( Jeongchi dogam). misconceptions include the views that politically, Goryeo kings were
This Directorate was first established under Yuan orders in reaction completely subordinated to the Yuan empire, either by dint of birth
to what Yuan Emperor Shundi condemned as the “despotism” of (i.e., with blood ties to the Mongol Yuan) or by political orientation;
Goryeo’s King Chunghye. Meanwhile, anti-monarchical (that is, that economically, the Korean Peninsula was bound to the monetary
against the Goryeo monarch) forces working within the Eastern and trading networks of the Yuan empire; and that legalistically, the
Expedition Field Headquarters ( Jeongdong haengseong), such as Korean Peninsula was integrated into the Yuan system of laws, with
the faction of powerful Gi Cheol(a Goryeo figure with close ties the example of the Jeongdong haengseong generalized to represent
by marriage to the Yuan emperor through the Yuan Empress Gi, Goryeo. Such received notions have led to the view that the Korean
his sister) who was also serving inside the Jeongdong haengseong, Peninsula was a “part” of the Yuan Empire, that there was no “border”
began to emerge as real threats to the Goryeo king. When Gi Cheol’s between the Goryeo and the Yuan. As a result, many foreign maps
relative Gi Samman was killed in Goryeo in the course of an interro- even depict the Korean Peninsula and the Yuan Empire in the same
gation by Goryeo authorities, the Jeongchi dogam faced a crisis. Yet color, thus presenting them as a single geopolitical entity. The result
it continued at first to have the political support of Yuan’s Emperor of all this has been a misunderstanding of historical reality.
132 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 133

Of course, from a political perspective, it is certainly true that administrative elements borrowed from Yuan imperial institutions
Goryeo kingly authority, the fulcrum of political administration, on indigenous Goryeo systems. In the context at that time wherein
was changed from that of an independent entity to one subordinate those who wielded power could easily control and block efforts by
to the authority of the Yuan emperor. Members of the Goryeo bu- Goryeo kings, in order to strengthen the reforms and stymie any
reaucracy were also subsumed, either willingly or by coercion, into attempts by vested interests to repulse them, not only a new method
the central order of the Yuan, to include the receipt of offices and of- but a new form of authority was needed. The Goryeo reforms uti-
ficial ranks (gwangye) from the Yuan emperor. Nevertheless, during lizing elements of the Yuan model met both of these requirements,
this period, the Goryeo kings were not administering “Imperial and thus paradoxically in order
citizens of the Yuan Empire living on the Korean peninsula,” but for the Goryeo reforms to suc-
the “Goryeo citizens residing on the Korean Peninsula ruled by ceed, their contents and thrust
the Goryeo court (which happened to be a member of the Yuan- needed to align -at least par-
centered world order).” And the Goryeo officials of course served tially- with those of the Yuan.
only in Goryeo, and not in China. Although the Goryeo sovereign To that end, the Goryeo
and people were under more intense influence from China than government tried to incorpo-
during any previous period of Korea-China relations, this never rate Yuan-style reforms while
amounted to the dissolution of the Goryeo government, or collapse adapting them to the realities
of its independent, autonomous administration. of Goryeo, and in this way took
This situation is different yet similar from a policy perspective, to “appending” Chinese and
because in the area of individual policies and institutions the tra- Mongolian elements to its na-
ditional “border” between the Goryeo and China (in this case, the tive systems. The paradoxical
Yuan Empire) was somewhat weakened as several Goryeo kings, result was that the traditional
such as King Chungseon, in order to tackle domestic problems of system of Goryeo, which had
Goryeo, resorted to borrowing various methods of the Yuan. King been in decline, was actually
Chungseon’s political reforms, measures to increase fiscal revenue buttressed. Relative to the
[salt monopoly policy], improvements in the systems of local and weakening Yuan, Goryeo actu-
military administration, and renovation of the Taemyo, or Goryeo’s
Portrait of Yi Jehyeon National Museum of Korea
Great Shrine, were all examples of this selective grafting of particular Yi Jehyeon was a renowned scholar, historian and reformer of the 14th century. He served many kings
in his career as a bureaucrat.
134 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 135

ally laid the foundations for the maintenance of its dynasty for some was also similar. It is a common misconception that the Yuan imposed
time. its own system of laws upon Goryeo, as in fact Goryeo did not tol-
Thus, while both politically and in terms of state policies it is diffi- erate changes to its traditional status system as encoded in its laws and
cult to view Goryeo as simply a part of the central order of the Yuan even opposed the Mongol figure Gorgis (Ch. Giwargis), then serving
empire, this is even more clearly the case in the economic realm. as the assistant chancellor (Pyeongjang jeongsa) of the Jeongdong
As evidenced by the tariff negotiations of King Chungnyeol (r. haengseong, for his attempts at legal reform to the point that he was
1274–1308), tariffs were applied to Goryeo trade goods when they recalled. A dialogue that took place decades later between an imperial
entered Yuan territory. Thus, Goryeo goods were considered foreign official in charge of laws within the Jeongdong haengseong and Yi Gok,
goods in the ports of Yuan China. In addition, Goryeo was not liable a prominent Confucian scholar and diplomat of Goryeo, also reveals
for any Yuan official tax, further implying its status as outside of the how the laws of the Yuan empire were not as widely and universally
Yuan administration. Goryeo was also not burdened with new taxes applied or used within Goryeo as they were intended to be. In other
for the operation of Jeongdong haengseong, unlike other Branch words, Yuan imperial law did not supplant the native laws of Goryeo,
Secretariats (Ch. xingsheng, K. haengseong) elsewhere in the Yuan and in that sense, Goryeo did not fall under the same legal jurisdiction
empire were. Further, initial levies were informal, and, as seen in the as the rest of the Yuan empire from the mid-13th to late-14th century
case of King Gongmin, later ones could even be stopped if a request
was made for their suspension. The Yuan paper note (currency,
called the Yuan baochao) was also introduced into Goryeo, but in
actuality only found use as travel expenses by bureaucrats within
the empire or for payments to merchants operating within the Yuan
empire, rather than being used on the Korean Peninsula. In the first
half of the 14th century, more Yuan paper notes were introduced,
but with their depreciation the notes’ impact on the economy
of Goryeo was minimal and they later disappeared entirely from
Goryeo following the currency’s collapse in the Yuan. In short, the
Yuan empire and the Korean Peninsula were clearly separated from
each other in terms of trade and fiscal matters. Jijeongjogyeok AKS Jangseogak Archives
Though the realms of law and culture were different their situation This was the Yuan Empire’s final law code. Its contents were frequently consulted and studied during
the late Goryeo and early Joseon periods.
136 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 137

(though it is interesting to note that in the modifications of laws that were the phenomena of the Goryeo officials using their [junior]
took place at the end of the Goryeo and dawn of the Joseon eras, such Yuan ranks for their nicknames instead of their [higher] Goryeo
works as the Jijeong jogyeok [Legal Standards of the Zhizheng Era] are ranks, while also (sometimes) using titles from the era of Goryeo’s
often mentioned as legal references, and in this sense the institutional King Munjong for description of all the government posts they
influence of Yuan law began to be felt in Korea only after the decline assumed in their lives (which had different names since the days
of the Yuan empire). of King Chungnyeol, due to Yuan urges) in tomb epitaphs. These
There was in Goryeo so- two seemingly conflicting tendencies can even be discerned si-
ciety a simultaneous interest multaneously in the same individual, Choe Hae, who on the one
in novel things and drive hand praised the reforms of Gorgis, who had been so vilified by the
to preserve what was tradi- Goryeo government at the end of the 13th century, as a milestone in
tional. During this period, the reform of the Goryeo system, even as he lamented the Chinese
various aspects of Mongol ignorance of the famous Goryeo literary works of the past, and au-
culture were transmitted to thoring the Dongin ji mun (Writings of the Eastern People) to make
Goryeo, and as a result, the these better known. In other words, the inflow of Yuan cultural
daily lives of the Goryeo elements led to an increase in interest in rather than weakening of
people were greatly altered Goryeo traditions. With the advent of the Yuan Empire, the culture
in the areas of food, clothing, of the Korean Peninsula was forced to change, but it was a process of
and language, yet at the same finding a new balance between the external and internal, foreign and
time a renewed awareness native, and never amounted to a case of cultural homogenization
of Goryeo’s traditional ways and cultural subjugation.
of doing things (guje) was
stronger than ever. Manifest
of the nature of the times Changes in the Goryeo-Yuan Relationship
(1350s and ’60s)
Ten-story stone pagoda which was originally at the Gyeongcheonsa temple
National Museum of Korea
This is a pagoda actually made out of marble and modeled after the style of the Yuan Empire. This
pagoda was originally built in Gaeseong but was stolen by the Japanese in 1907. It was returned to
King Gongmin (1351–1374), the younger brother of King
Korea and erected in Seoul’s Gyeongbokgung Palace in 1960. Since 2005, it has been on display in Chunghye, finally acceded to the Goryeo throne after two attempts.
the National Museum of Korea.
138 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 139

He is known for his various reform efforts, most notably those of first (1356) and third (1369) reforms concerned reestablishing gov-
1356. At that time, King Gongmin succeeded in purging the faction ernment order and reviving traditional Goryeo systems, which had
around Gi Cheol and eradicating the anti-monarchical forces within weakened or been suspended with the advent of the Mongol Yuan,
the Goryeo government; received Yuan approval to his suggestion through a focus on the cultural elements and institutions of the early
that the authority which had been invested by Qublai in the Goryeo Goryeo. The 2nd (1362) and 4th (1372) reshufflings concerned
kings to recommend officials for the Jeongdong haengseong be fully improving relations with the Yuan and later displaying Goryeo’s
restored and his request that the myriachical system of Mongol amity with the rising Ming.
troops stationing on the peninsula be abolished; and while insisting Academic evaluations of King Gongmin’s reforms have been
of the Yuan government that some imperial departments cease largely favorable, but not without their misconceptions. By some,
their requisitions of Goryeo good, he dispatched troops to the the king’s 1356 reforms have been misunderstood as being aimed di-
Ssangseong Commandery (Ssangseong chonggwan bu; a Mongol rectly at Yuan with hostile intentions, but examining these reforms,
administrative unit established over the far northeastern portion of there are not a few odd facets to them insofar as their objectives,
the peninsula to control northeast Goryeo), successfully restoring processes, and outcomes. In making the aforementioned requests to
Goryeo sovereignty to this northeastern border region after some the Yuan, King Gongmin sought to facilitate their success by making
hundred years of Mongol control. appeal to the final injunctions and legacy of the Yuan emperor
In terms of fiscal and economic reforms, through such efforts as (Shizu) Kublai Khan (1215–1294), which would be rather unfath-
dispatching Supervisors of Salt and Iron Production (Yeomcheol omable if his intentions had been to repudiate Goryeo’s relationship
byeolgam) to various regions to strengthen the monopoly on high- with the Yuan. The response of the Yuan government to Goryeo’s
value materials, and promoting the monk-official Sin Don(1322– attack on the Ssangseong Commandery -Northeast Goryeo, bor-
1371) to head the newly established Directorate for Reclassification dering Liaodung- also seems immoderately subdued, especially in
of Farmland and Farming Population, Gongmin increased state light of the Yuan’s very sensitive response to any activities by the
revenues while also protecting the tax base. Large-scale land surveys Goryeo army in just the Yalu River -Northwest Goryeo, bordering
and census during his reign, which complemented the tax measures Northern China- area. In other words, the Yuan seems to have har-
of 1314, were very helpful in facilitating future government oper- bored not that much resentment over the fall of the Ssangseong to
ations. King Gongmin, on the other hand, is also known for four Goryeo. Further, when one considers that King Gongmin had ex-
rounds of restructuring the Goryeo government during his reign, ecuted the general who did cross the Amnok (Ch. Yalu) River, it
which were frequently driven by internal and diplomatic needs. The is highly possible that King Gongmin’s military actions regarding
140 A History of Korea Chapter 5 Goryeo and the Mongol Empire 141

the Ssangseong Commandery Shifting Northeast Asian Order: Goryeo,

were not intended to provoke Northern Yuan and Ming (1370s, ’80s and ’90s)
the Yuan.
With the defeat of the faction
In 1367, the Yuan court abandoned Beijing and moved north. Its
of Gi Cheol, King Gongmin
military forces in China were unable to prevail against the combi-
faced the urgent necessity of
nation of anti-Yuan riots, the attacks from the Red Turbans, and the
laying the foundations and
conflict with the emerging Ming dynasty. Earlier, in 1356, Goryeo’s
authority for greater internal
King Gongmin had ceased using the Yuan imperial reign code, and
reforms. To this end, he had
shortly afterwards, in 1369, Goryeo finally stopped using it, and in
to strengthen his control over
the 7th month of 1370 began using the Hongmu (Ch. Hongwu)
the Jeongdong haengseong
Portrait of King Gongmin of Goryeo and reign code of the Ming. That same year, the Goryeo ban on Mongol
Queen Noguk of Mongol and abolish the Yuan military
National Palace Museum of Korea dress, which had been suspended in 1356, came to be definitively
myriarchies that were estab-
enforced.
lished on the peninsula in the
Of course, Goryeo’s relationship with Yuan was not completely
1280-1290s, as both of which had since become dens of powerful
severed. The relationship with Ming, which had been gradually
Goryeo figures that were bringing disorder to these regions. And in
strengthening, was threatened by the death of a Ming emissary at
order to carry out these two tasks, Yuan confirmation and approval
the hands of Goryeo officials in 1374. After the assassination of
of Goryeo plans were needed, so they were couched in language
King Gongmin that same year, the Ming delayed its approval of
referencing the final injunctions of Kublai Khan while the targets of
the king’s successor, King U (r. 1374–1388) and delayed its cus-
the Goryeo offensive were limited to the Gi Cheol faction and the
tomary bestowal of a posthumous epithet for Gongmin, even de-
Yuan Empress Gi, who held sway over the Jeongdong haengseong.
manding tribute from Goryeo at a level exceeding that of the past.
This is not an observation made to denounce or blame Gongmin
Amidst all of this, the Northern Yuan had sent a letter to Goryeo
for ‘not being hostile enough’ toward Yuan. On the contrary, he was
in 1373 clarifying that the court had established itself in the north,
a Goryeo king who was smart enough to know what button he had
and away of Beijing. Then in the ninth month of 1374 (after King
to push in Yuan to get what he wanted, and brave enough to do so
Gongmin’s murder the same month) it attempted to invest the
when he did.
Prince of Shenyang’s grandson as the new king of Goryeo. Goryeo
then reported to the Northern Yuan the major internal change
142 A History of Korea

that had occurred (that is, King Gongmin’s assassination). Visits

by Northern Yuan emissaries to Goryeo continued steadily until
the early 1380s. In 1377, Goryeo again began to use the Northern
Yuan year designator and expressed its appreciation to the Northern
Yuan for its approval of the ascension of King U. However, when the
Northern Yuan proposed to Goryeo a joint attack on the Liaodong
region (then held by the Ming), King U rejected it, and in 1378 it
was noted that a Northern Yuan emissary arrived in Goryeo seeking
to change this decision, but that King U would not meet with him.
Finally, in the summer of 1379, it was discussed that the Northern
Yuan emissary to Goryeo should be seized and transferred as pris-
oner to the Ming. After the second month of 1380, Northern Yuan
embassies of investiture to Goryeo ceased and with that so did all
contact between Goryeo and the Yuan.
1392~1543
1392
Joseon is founded
Chapter 6
1446
“Hunminjeongeum”, the Korean alphabet, is promul-
gated by King Sejong the Great
1543
The first private Confucian academy (seowon) in
Korea is constructed

THE FOUNDING OF JOSEON

AND THE FORMULATION
OF ITS STATE SYSTEM

Choi E-don
translated by Daniel Kane
146 A History of Korea Chapter 6 The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 147

Founding of Joseon the result of which was the Mongol Yuan dynasty’s interference in
Goryeo affairs. Afterward, with the pro-Yuan faction of aristocrats
Upheavals of the Late Goryeo in Goryeo taking over state affairs, policies at variance with the in-
terests of the Goryeo people began to be pursued and the life of the
The founding of Joseon unfolded against the political turmoil and
people sometimes became more difficult as a result.
peasant resistance that characterized the late Goryeo. The political
turmoil of late Goryeo really finds its origins in the 12th-century
uprising by military officials. The ruling aristocracy of Goryeo had Peasant unrest of the Late Goryeo
established a system centered on civil officials, with the marginal-
Even as the political turmoil caused by the revolt of the military
ization of military officials. With the growing power of the civilian
officials continued, epidemic and famine brought on by natural
officialdom in the middle period of Goryeo, the country’s military
disasters were frequent and the common people found themselves
officials and soldiers found their status even further debased. In
unable to sustain their normal livelihoods. To overcome such a situ-
1170, the military officer Jeong Jungbu and others revolted, slaugh-
ation, the people began to rise up in rebellion.
tering the civil officials and eunuchs who formed the royal entou-
In 1176, in the low-born villages of the country’s Myeonghak dis-
rage. The military revolt was brought to a successful conclusion with
trict, the Mangi uprising erupted, and after seizing the city of Gongju
the exiling of the king and crown prince.
the mobs advanced northward towards the capital of Gaegyeong
Though the military officials had succeeded in their uprising, it was
(Gaeseong). In 1182, an uprising of soldiers and government slaves
no easy task to manage the new regime. Power struggles among the
erupted in Jeonju, taking over that city. By this time uprisings large
military officials were fierce, but eventually power devolved into the
and small had begun to appear with increasing frequency and in-
hands of Choe Chungheon after his elimination of Yi Uimin. With
volving the participation of tens of thousands of commoners.
Choe Chungheon’s rise to power the situation stabilized, but this
The objectives of these different uprisings varied. But as evidenced
did not last long. The Mongols now invaded Goryeo. In response,
by the rousing words of the low-born figure, Manjeok—who incited
Goryeo transferred its capital to the island of Ganghwa and offered
the people by asking, “Are generals and ministers born into their
spirited resistance to the invaders. Though Goryeo could boast
status?”—the goals of these uprisings could range from the seizure
some regional victories in its struggle with the Mongols, decades of
of political power to the eradication of hierarchies of status.
war inflicted major damage that devastated the entire country.
From 1258, Goryeo pursued accommodation with the Mongols,
148 A History of Korea Chapter 6 The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 149

Improvements in productivity and the rise in population Formation and reform of the emerging scholar-official
class (sadaebu )
Even amidst all the uncertainty of the late Goryeo, the people
resisted the government on the one hand while making efforts to With the improved economic conditions of the people, politics en-
improve their economic conditions on the other. This manifested it- tered a new phase. As the upper classes of the people began to be
self in an improvement in agricultural productivity. Goryeo farming able to afford education they developed through schooling into a
tended to rely on the fallow rotation system. Many farming fields in private intellectual class. Such intellectuals looked at the state of late
Goryeo were cultivated for one year and then remained fallow for Goryeo and recognized the need for reform.
the next one or two years. Lacking the resources to keep all the fields Upon these reforms the Zhu Xi school of thought had a driving
free of weeds and also with insufficient manure, the fallow rotation theoretical influence. The Zhu Xi school was a reformist learning
system was unavoidable in Goryeo. that emerged in the context the economic development of the
The population of Goryeo developed a type of plowshare that Southern Song. Understandably, the intellectuals of Goryeo, who
made easier the weeding of fields. Namely, it was the addition of the were advocating for reform under conditions of economic develop-
moldboard to the plow that really allowed for the easier turning of ment similar to those of the Southern Song, accepted the teachings
the soil and weeding. The removal of weeds in turn made it easier of Zhu Xi (or Zhuzi, Master Zhu) as ideological guide for the reform
to apply manure to the fields, and with the development of various of Goryeo state and society. These private intellectuals entered the
new types of fertilizers the fallow rotation farming method was realm of state politics via the civil service exam and coalesced into
eventually abandoned. a new political force. They pushed for reform in confrontation with
As commerce and economic productivity increased so did the Goryeo’s powerful families (gwonmun sejok) who had seized power
population. Increasing economic power improved both the nutri- and plundered the wealth of the people.
tional state of the people as well as the medical skills for managing The rising class of scholar-officials pursued reforms and to this
disease. With the growing interest in the development of medicines, end supported the efforts of King Chungseon and King Gongmin.
more research began to be done in particular on “indigenous medi- The Directorate for Reclassification of Farmland and the Farming
cine” (hyangyak) based on local wild herbs and other plants. As a re- Population ( Jeonmin byeonjeong dogam) was established to return
sult, the country’s population of around 3 million during the Goryeo, those agricultural fields plundered by the nobility and powerful
increased rapidly to about 5 million by the beginning of the Joseon families to their original owners, and to reinstate the status of those
dynasty. Of course, as the population increased, so did the develop- commoners pressed into slavery by the powerful nobility. With the
ment of arable land, further improving the economic situation. Yuan dynasty shaken by the uprising of the Red Turban bandits,
150 A History of Korea Chapter 6 The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 151

these scholar-officials endeavored to eliminate the pro-Yuan forces Radical reformers such as Yi Seonggye and Jeong Dojeon laid firm
from the Goryeo government and to correct the distortions to the ground for reform by first successfully overhauling the country’s
government brought about by Yuan interference. In particular, land system through the implementation of the Rank-Land Law
when Zhu Yuanchang (later the Hongwu emperor) threatened (Gwajeonbeop). Finally, with the removal of moderate reformers
the Yuan by establishing the Ming, Goryeo initiated relations with such as Jeong Mongju, a new state system could be established. In
Ming, taking advantage of the rapidly changing East Asian situation the seventh month of 1392, asserting that Goryeo’s King Gongyang
to escape Yuan interference. (r. 1389–1392) had lost the heavenly mandate, Jeong Dojeon and
others drove Gongyang from the throne. The new Joseon dynasty
was then declared with Yi Seonggye as its first king, and with this the
Founding of Joseon
reform measures began in earnest.
Though these emerging scholar-officials agreed on the need for re-
forms to tackle the problems
plaguing the late Goryeo, they Political Structure and Conditions of
disagreed on whether a new the Commoners
state system would be needed
to realize them. While the Emergence of the political doctrine of "Heaven's people"
moderates sought to maintain (cheonmin )
the Goryeo system, the more In establishing the Joseon state, scholar-officials worked to overhaul
radical elements felt an en- the country’s political, economic, and social systems. First, schol-
tirely new country needed to ar-officials promoted political reform. The literati recognized that
be established if such reforms the most fundamental problem of the Goryeo dynasty had been
were to be realized. the “private rule” practiced by Goryeo king and powerful officials. It
Those advocates of radical was thought that the kings and officials of the Goryeo had ruled the
reform gained the upper people arbitrarily, pursuing private interests, deepening social con-
hand with the successful tradictions, and eventually driving Goryeo to its ruin. The literati
military coup of Yi Seonggye therefore thought that in order to limit the arbitrary domination of
Yi Seonggye, the founder of Joseon (later King Taejo of Joseon). kings and officials, the people should be granted a certain status, and
Royal Portrait Museum
152 A History of Korea Chapter 6 The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 153

the powers of kings and officials should be limited to proper levels, Maintenance of centralized authority
with the aim being public order and rule of law.
In order to prevent the exercise of arbitrary authority by either
Scholar-officials considered the common people as cheonmin, or
the king or officials, Joseon strengthened the centralized system
“Heaven’s people,” therefore the status of all the people was that of
of authority. The political center of Goryeo had been the Supreme
being the people of Heaven. In line with this ideology of “Heaven’s
Council of State (Dopyeong uisasa), a collective leadership system
people,” the scholar-officials sought to grant to the people their
operated by a consensus of some 70 to 80 high-grade officials.
proper status. This cheonmin theory had similarities to the Western
Scholar-officials of Joseon reformed this to create an all-encom-
notion of “natural human rights.”
passing bureaucratic administrative system composed of the
To this end, the king’s position was first restricted. Because the
Council of State (Uijeongbu), Six Ministries (Yukjo), and Amun, or
king had received his throne from Heaven in order to govern the
middle and junior offices within the central government.
people, the people were not in this sense “royal subjects” belonging
The personnel system was also reformed to reinforce its bureau-
to the king, but rather the people of Heaven, belonging to Heaven.
cratic character. The practice of hiring officials by civil service ex-
The king, therefore, should not rule arbitrarily for personal gain, but
aminations and evaluating the performance of those government
should rule in accordance with the will of Heaven.
officials twice a year was implemented. A so-called law of avoidance
In this new outlook, officials too were understood to hold “heav-
(sangpi jedo) was instituted that barred the assignment of close rel-
enly office” (cheonjik), bequeathed by Heaven, and as such they
atives to the same department or to service in their home regions.
were not to be understood as “royal ministers” (wangsin) belonging
By managing government offices in this way, the appointment and
to the king, but as administering, alongside the king, “public rule”
promotion of officials attained a rational and transparent character.
(gongchi) on behalf of the people. Thus, offices were not granted
To head the administration of counties (gun) and prefectures
by the king, but by Heaven. Along these same lines, the territory of
(hyeon), the Joseon government now dispatched local magistrates
the state was understood not as “royal land” (wangto), but as “com-
(suryeong), supplanting the system of rule by local clerks (hyangni)
munal land All Under Heaven” (gongcheonha). Therefore, Joseon
that had characterized the Goryeo, and established a unified system
politics had no choice but to pursue “public rule,” that is, governing
of local administration and governance. The local clerks of Goryeo
the people according to the will of Heaven on the principle that the
constituted a local indigenous force enjoying status as lesser nobility
people were “Heaven’s people.”
and whose positions were hereditary. They had a formidable voice
in local administration from generation to generation. Now, instead
of the hyangni (local clerks), it was the centrally appointed suryeong
154 A History of Korea Chapter 6 The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 155

(local magistrates) who exercised legislative, judicial, and adminis- commoners to have their grievances informally heard before the
trative authority at the local level, but they were usually rotated out king. For instance, there was the system of the petitioner’s drum
every three years, making this an administrative system where it was (sinmungo) established by the state, the right to “petition the King
very difficult for officials to cultivate a local base. before his sedan chair” (gajeon sangeon), or by striking a special
gong that was set up next to the royal palace. In other words, though
the people were administered by their local magistrate, they had the
Political status and jurisdiction of the people right to appeal to higher judicial organs if they had been the victims
What was the position of the common people within the political of any illegal actions undertaken by that magistrate.
framework of Joseon? The status of the people during the early The various opportunities for judicial redress granted to the
Joseon period can be assessed people made it easy for them to defend themselves against arbitrary
through a look at the judicial and illegal acts perpetrated against them. The status of the early
system and their right to self-de- Joseon people was qualitatively different from that of the medieval
fense within it. The government peasantry in West, which had access only to the feudal lord’s trial
of Joseon established various and thus to that lord’s economic compulsion. The commoners of
levels of judicial proceedings Joseon were governed within a national administrative system that
in its implementation of public provided them with legal protection against the arbitrary actions of
rule. The people were given the powerful individuals.
right to a judicial hearing and
trial at three levels: a trial before
Push for enfranchisement and the politics of public opinion
the local magistrate (suryeong),
a trial before the provincial gov- The people found protection within Joseon’s system of public gover-
ernor (gamsa), and a trial before nance, though the laws that framed that governance were still being
the Office of the Inspector- made through a consensus among ruling elites. That is, the people
General (Saheonbu). Of course, had not yet grown into lawmakers themselves. Therefore, while
there were other avenues for the people had secured their right to self-defense through Joseon’s
trial system, they still endeavored to improve their status within
Kim Hongdo, “Nosangsongsa” National Folk Museum of Korea
A legal suit brought before a local government office during the Joseon period.
the system. These efforts were led by the sarim (local scholars and
156 A History of Korea Chapter 6 The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 157

literati), who hailed from the upper strata of the common people.
The sarim group was composed of intellectuals who studied Neo-
Confucian metaphysics (seongnihak, lit. study of nature and prin-
ciple) and mid- or lower-level officials serving as senior bureaucrats.
But even when serving in these mid- and lower-tiered positions, they
lacked the privileges that came with pedigree, and once out of office,
they no longer wielded the authority that came with their formal
bureaucratic rank and so never attained the status of a ruling class.
With the aim of securing political status, the sarim began to be
politically active from the time of King Seongjong (r. 1469–1494)
and endeavored to create a power structure that could reflect their
views and political outlook. That is, they aimed to create a political
Sosu Seowon Lecture Hall ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration
system of public opinion reflective of the views of the sarim group. Seowon led public opinion in the countryside.

However, the sarim found their efforts frustrated by the opposition

of members of the so-called Old Meritorious Elites (hungu) and of the people as “Heaven’s people”—aimed for “public governance”
campaigns of political persecution and purges. Despite several founded upon laws. After an extended struggle, this public gov-
rounds of literati purges (sahwa), the sarim struggled to muster their ernance was finally established in the era of King Seonjo, and the
collective strength, and after about a generation of effort, finally suc- people began to approach a position where they might be political
ceeded in establishing a politics of public opinion during the era of actors rather than just objects of external economic coercion.
King Seonjo (r. 1567–1608). A defining aspect of the politics of the medieval West is the recog-
This politics of public opinion has its origins in the general opinion nized dominance of the private arbitrary rule of the feudal lords and
or will of the local people (hyangnon). Local intellectuals and offi- the economic compulsion such a system allowed. In comparison,
cials formed a notion of general local opinion, or hyangnon, based the politics of Joseon, and the political doctrines that informed
on the views of rural communities. This hyangnon then formed the them, were already well beyond the political development of me-
basis of sarim views, the expression of which influenced central state dieval Europe.
politics and policies.
Therefore, Joseon politics—based on a change in the perception
158 A History of Korea Chapter 6 The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 159

Economic Structure and Status of the Common along the paths of rivers and streams, and with this new irrigation
People method, wet paddy fields began to proliferate.

Improvements in agricultural productivity

Reductions in the distribution area of sujogwon
The economic foundation of Joseon was agriculture. Therefore, any
As agricultural output and economic productivity increased, Joseon
economic development hinged upon improvements in agricultural
made the people, with their increased self-reliance, the foundation
productivity. As already noted, from some time during the Goryeo
of national management.
period the fallow rotation farming method had been overcome with
As productivity increased, the people were able to develop into in-
the development of new agricultural techniques, a trend that began
dependent farmers upon whom taxies might be levied, even though
in the three southern provinces of Jeolla-do, Gyeongsang-do, and
they worked only small fields. Thus, the Joseon state sought to use
Chungcheong-do and gradually expanded northward. The era of
the people as the foundation of a centralized system of state admin-
King Sejong (r. 1418–1450) saw the compilation of Straight Talk on
istration. To this end, the state distributed a limited number of sujo-
Farming (Nongsa jikseol), which effectively distributed knowledge
gwon rights (that is, not the ownership of the land but the right to
of these new farming techniques throughout the country. Through
collect rent on it in lieu of official salary) to government officials. The
such efforts, from the end of the reign of King Seongjong (r. 1469–
officials wielded personal control over the people by means of the su-
1494) these new farming techniques came to be implemented as
jogwon. But the people’s economic situation was made more difficult
far as Hamgyeong-do, in the northern extremity of the country.
not only by the legal requirement that they supply the officials with
Buoyed by such invigoration, the country’s agricultural output in-
rent (sujo), but by the various other demands the officials holding
creased three- or four-fold.
such sujogwon might make upon the people. Scholar-officials of the
The early Joseon period also witnessed the invigoration of pad-
capital, aware of this danger, limited the distribution of sujogwon
dy-field farming. Goryeo-period agriculture centered on dry-field
fields to the region of Gyeonggi (the province surrounding the cap-
farming in hilly regions. But in Joseon, the plains fronting villages
ital of Seoul). For the remainder of the country, Joseon established a
were cleared for cultivation. On low-lying plains, waterways were al-
system directly controlled by the central government, reducing the
ways needed to prevent flooding, but only once the waterways were
room for officials to dominate the people.
linked to agricultural facilities was paddy farming activated. By the
However, this was also an act of discrimination against the people
period of King Munjong, irrigation reservoirs (bo) were being cut
of Gyeonggi, which were still subject to the distribution of sujo-
160 A History of Korea Chapter 6 The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 161

gwon. The people of Gyeonggi raised the issue of discrimination as yangin class was obliged to perform various duties for the state, at the
a problem, and by the reign of King Taejong (r. 1400–1418) the same time they were also, as members of the state’s communal system,
government was faced with the need to solve this problem. As a eligible to receive education and to benefit from the state’s welfare pol-
result, all the people were integrated into a centralized system of icies, thus further augmenting their status relative to the past.
tax collection through the promulgation of the Tribute Tax Law
(gongbeop). Thus, the economic status of the people improved as
Operations of a centralized system of state finance
the domination of the sujogwon system was eliminated.
As the people’s economic status improved, the state’s financial
structure also transformed. As the state began to administer the
Reduction in taxation rates people directly from a centralized administration, scholar-officials
The Joseon state also lowered taxes on fields so that the people also promoted the centralized administration of state financial mat-
might become self-reliant farmers. During the Goryeo, some 25 ters, in order to entrust it with the public nature of state finances.
percent of agricultural production found its way into central coffers Accordingly, the Joseon state strengthened the functions of the
in the form of land taxes (jeonse), but with the advent of Joseon, Board of Taxation (Hojo), the government department most in-
this was reduced to 10 percent. Naturally, such a policy was made volved in financial affairs, and in the fifth year of King Taejong
possible by the increase in agricultural productivity and thus the (1405), reorganized the government structure to make the Board of
greater volume of product on which to levy a tax. But also, these Taxation the overarching office in charge of financial matters.
tax cuts were calculated based on the idea that any increase in the The royal household was no exception to reforms in state finan-
self-reliance of farmers would serve to actually increase the amount cial management. From the end of the Goryeo period, the emerging
of overall tax revenue received directly by the state. class of scholar-officials had also pushed for the appointment of an
A notable increase in production capacity occurred during the pe- official to oversee the finances of the royal household, seeing this as
riod of King Sejong (r. 1418–1450), allowing the state to lower the a matter of public concern, but had made little headway. However,
land tax to only 5 percent of agricultural production. Through such these efforts saw major advances in the era of King Taejong (r.
government measures, the commoners developed into self-reliant 1400–1418) when the so-called Five Warehouses and Seven Palatial
farmers able to bear the duties placed upon them. Thus, the state felt Offices, charged with overseeing royal finances, were absorbed into
comfortable to impose upon the yangin population (freeborn com- the newly created public government organs, the Office of Palace
moners) of the people labor obligations in state projects. Though the Supplies (Naeseomsi) and Office of Palace Procurement (Naejasi).
162 A History of Korea Chapter 6 The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 163

Later, in 1445, King Sejong integrated the various sujoji (or pre- connected, small-scale trading networks developed. These grew into
bends; land given temporarily to officials, with size varying by of- a nationwide trading network connecting regional urban centers
ficial rank, in lieu of salary, from which they could procure revenue with Seoul via commercial activities that used the country’s river
through taxes on its produce) belonging to each government office networks. Of course, this trade network was not limited to domestic
to create a unified system of land management. As a result, the man- markets but was connected to international trade networks through
agement of state land was integrated into the financial management commercial exchanges with China and Japan.
operations of the Board of Taxation, and the state’s fiscal operations Considering such changes, the Joseon government could no
became more transparent, streamlined, and publicly accountable. longer pursue policies that unilaterally suppressed commerce.
Rather, in response to the reality of developments in commerce, the
government endeavored to establish a new commercial order, im-
Development of a commercial economy
plementing policy changes to use this commerce for state finances.
Agriculture was at the center of the economy of early Joseon. Thus,
scholar-officials focused their energies on agriculture, which was the
foundation of the economy, while displaying a reserved attitude to- Structure of and Changes in the Status System
ward commerce. In circumstances where agricultural development
was lagging, it was felt commerce would only impair the stability Scholar-gentry (sajok )
of public welfare by creating social upheaval in the countryside and With the founding of Joseon, the stock of the common people rose
inequalities among the common people who worked the land. Thus, both politically and economically, a change that also affected their
the government managed the rapid changes overtaking rural society status. In terms of the status groups of Joseon, the majority was
while controlling and regulating commercial activity. composed of the yangin (free-born commoner) class, above which
However, with the augmentation of agricultural productivity, were the ruling scholar-gentry (sajok), and below which the base or
surplus production also increased, raising the need for the revital- low-born people (cheonin).
ization of commerce. In Seoul, licensed shops (sijeon)—market In Joseon, it was the scholar-gentry that constituted the ruling
venues established and sanctioned by the state—expanded while stratum. This stratum consisted of those high ministers holding
private merchants, that is, merchants whose shops were not gov- the second rank, their immediate families and close relations. This
ernment-established, were also increasing. In the provinces, local group enjoyed a monopoly on high-ranking offices and the eco-
markets (jangsi) emerged, and as several of these markets became nomic prerogative.
164 A History of Korea Chapter 6 The Founding of Joseon and the Formulation of its State System 165

Yangin status was not far from that of the freeborn commoners, the yangin.
From an economic perspective, the levies imposed upon the cheonin
The majority of the population of Joseon were of the yangin (free-
were not much different from those of the yangin.
born commoner) class. The yangin fulfilled their duties and enjoyed
Private slaves (sacheon) were the property of individual owners
their rights in a direct relationship with the state. The yangin were
and could be bought and sold and in this sense their circumstances
obligated to pay taxes on the product of their fields and as well as
were difficult. However, even in the case of sacheon, they were par-
to pay various other state levies. That said, the yangin were also the
ticipants and subjects in the public enterprise of governance, and it
recipients of a state welfare policy, benefiting from relief aid during
was understood that they could receive the protection of the state.
difficult times such as drought. Depending on his abilities, a yangin
When an owner severely punished a private slave or seized that
male was also able to study at a local Confucian school (or hyanggyo)
slave’s property, the state would intervene to protect that slave and
at no cost. After his period of study there, he had the opportunity
punish the owner. Though privately owned, the sacheon remained
to augment his status by taking and passing the state’s civil service
a subject of the state, and when the interests of the two sides came
exam (gwageo).
into opposition, it was the interests of the state that took precedence.
The male yangin were also obligated to serve as soldiers for a
period of time. But this was more than a simple obligation, it also
carried advantages; once becoming soldiers a commoner could then Social mobility
be armed, and further, the soldier would receive rank based upon
In Joseon, the barriers between the social classes were firm and
the time spent in military service.
established by law. But the possibility of social mobility always ex-
isted. It was not easy for a yangin commoner to rise to join the ranks
Cheonin of the scholar-gentry (sajok), yet it was possible via the civil service
examination (or gwageo).
Occupying the bottommost stratum of Joseon society were the
Of course, passing the civil service exam was extremely difficult.
cheonin (base people or low-born), whose status was hereditary.
The gwageo allowed for 33 passers over three years, meaning only
The cheonin could be divided into two groups: government slaves
about ten passers were selected annually. Since the population of
(gongcheon), who were property of the state, and private slaves (sa-
Joseon in the 16th century is estimated at about 10 million, the
cheon), who were privately owned. As property of the state and thus
chances of success were slim indeed. Further, even if one received
the state’s subjects, government slaves enjoyed the protection of
an official post, the possibility of ever becoming a high government
the state and had property and rights to legal redress, so their basic
166 A History of Korea

official or minister remained very narrow. Nevertheless, a lawful

route through which one could improve one’s social status did exist.
Even the low-born cheonin could improve their social status.
Accumulating merit through such things as participation in a war
or playing an important role in a state policy could result in the el-
evation of a cheonin to that of yangin. Of course, this route was also
very narrow, but there were cases where the state officially moved
to augment the status of a cheonin, and so such a way was possible.
Therefore, though the status structure of Joseon was extremely
rigid, it was singular in that it still allowed some room for upward
mobility. The status system of Joseon operated primarily based on
“bloodline,” but it respected “ability” as a channel for improving
one’s social status. Therefore, Joseon’s status system was unique in
the coexistence within it of both a rigid social hierarchy and oppor-
tunities for upward mobility, a combination of elements of pedigree
and talent. This unique status structure was fitting to meet the
growing desire for social mobility among the country’s yangin with
their increasing economic and political importance.
1592~1860
1592
Japan invades Korea, Korea’s ceramics are
disseminated to Japan Chapter 7
1610
Dongui Bogam (Exemplar of Eastern Medicine)
1636
The Manchus invade Joseon
1670
Bangye surok (Occasional Writings of Bangye) is
completed by Yu Hyeong-won, the founder of the
Silhak school of Confucianism
1678
Sangpyeong-tongbo coins are minted
1708
Uniform Land Tax Law (Daedongbeop) is enforced
nationwide
1725
CHANGES OF
Tangpyeong (“Magnificent Harmony”) Policy is THE LATE JOSEON
implemented
1784
The first Korean is baptized as a Catholic
1860
Donghak (Eastern Learning) is founded

Chung Yeon-sik
translated by Daniel Kane
170 A History of Korea Chapter 7 Changes of the Late Joseon 171

The Japanese and Manchu Invasions: Trial and movement by Joseon that might pose a rear threat to the Manchus
Resurgence in their planned conquest of Ming China. Thus, these two Manchu
invasions, unlike the Japanese ones, did not make a battlefield of the
entire country, and were brief in duration. As a result, there was no
The Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), known in Korean
catastrophic damage as in the war with Japan. That said, Joseon was
as the imjin waeran ( Japanese invasions that began in the imjin
again faced with various military pressures and fiscal difficulties due
year) brought much change to East Asia. Ming China took part in
to the vast expenditures of resolving diplomatic issues with China.
the conflict and suffered great financial loss, which led to peasant
Joseon’s sense of cultural superiority and dismissal of the Qing as
uprisings in various parts of the country. The Ming dynasty fell in
barbarian made of its surrender before the Qing armed forces a hu-
1644 to the Manchu Nurhaci, who had seized the opportunity of
miliating ordeal. This rejection of the Manchu Qing’s culture later
the Ming’s weakness to rise to dominance in the north. In Japan,
worked to hinder the influx of advanced cultural products from that
that state’s warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi died in the course of the
state.
Korean invasions, resulting in the rise to power there of Tokugawa
However, even with the end of the second Manchu invasion of
Ieyasu, the conclusion to the civil wars that had wracked Japan, and
1636 (referred to as the byeongja horan), Joseon faced further trials.
the ushering in of a prolonged period of peace.
Famine and epidemic broke out on unprecedented scales. This
The Joseon dynasty did not perish as a result of these changes, as
was also a period of severe climatic conditions, with a “little ice
had its counterpart the Ming in China, but the entire country was
age” having global repercussions. As average annual temperatures
impacted by the war, which inflicted terrible damage. Untold num-
dropped globally by 2 degrees, the consequences were severe. In
bers of Koreans died, reducing the population, devastating crop-
England, the cold was enough to freeze the River Thames, ruin
lands across the country, and seriously damaging the state’s ability
crops, and cause famine. Joseon faced similar conditions. At a time
to effectively administer.
when cotton use was still uncommon, many perished from expo-
Meanwhile, in the wake of this came aggression by the Qing.
sure to the severe cold. When crops are poor and nutritional intake
The Later Jin (later to become the Qing dynasty) invaded Joseon
falls, immunity also weakens and epidemic disease results. The
twice, in 1627 and 1636. Joseon, still reeling from the economic and
state’s census registers record a population of Joseon of about 7 mil-
military costs of the Japanese invasions, was unable to fend off this
lion people prior to the great famine of 1670-1671(gyeongsin dae-
new foreign invasion and so capitulated to the Manchu Qing. But
gigeun), after which famine and epidemic reduced the population
the real objective of Qing’s attack on Joseon was to eliminate any
by nearly 500,000. In the reign of King Sukjong, the great famine
172 A History of Korea Chapter 7 Changes of the Late Joseon 173

of 1695-1696(eulbyeong daegigeun) and its aftermath reduced the

population by another 1.4 million over the course of five years.
There were several movements to meet and respond to these
national crises. Already from the 16th century there had been in-
dications of a movement away from using expensive medicines im-
ported from China in favor of native medicines (hyangyak) acquired
from the fields and mountains of the Korean Peninsula. And rather
than treating ailments with a concoction of various medicines, a
tendency emerged to treat disease with simple medicines composed
of only a few ingredients. This in turn led to the production of the
Korean reference work on medicine, Dongui bogam (Exemplar of
Dongui bogam AKS Jangseogak Archives
Eastern Medicine), which sought to address the immediate issue of The first edition of the Dongui bogam was added to the UNESCO World Heritage registry in 2009.

treating people’s ailments rather than following the dangerous trend

of limited-ingredient medicines. the tribute tax system to make it payable only in rice was advanced.
Another response was tax reform. As the country’s production Eventually, in order to lessen the ill effects of the tribute tax, after
capacity had not increased while its population fell drastically, it much deliberation the Uniform Land Tax Law (Daedongbeop)
was impossible to collect taxes as in the past, and the now unreason- was implemented. Instead of imposing tax in the form of specialty
able tax system had to be reformed. In the past, when the common tribute products, this new law allowed it to be paid in rice, lumber,
people were required to make payment of tribute tax (a tax payable or cash, and instead of imposing the tax based upon the household
in local specialty products) directly to the government, they would unit, it did so based upon land. The Uniform Land Tax Law, which
often prevaricate, finding any excuse to avoid payment. As a result, began in the period of rule by King Gwanghaegun (r. 1608–1623),
powerful figures voluntarily took on the responsibility of making the gradually expanded in scope. The persistent efforts of the official
payment of tribute goods to the government, and they in turn would Kim Yuk served to expand its application greatly during the reign
then levy the cost of these tribute goods on the ordinary farmers, of King Hyojong (r. 1649–1659), and the law’s implementation was
and at a high price. This was called “indirect payment” (bangnap), complete by the time King Sukjong (r. 1674–1720).
and the dealers in such payments pushed the people to the point of On the other hand, the massive decrease in population inevi-
destitution. Therefore, to alleviate such sufferings, a plan to unify tably led to a reduction in the number of men able to meet military
174 A History of Korea Chapter 7 Changes of the Late Joseon 175

service obligations (gunyeok). equal service system (gyunyeokbeop) that reduced the military cloth
However, after the enthronement tax (gunpo; a tax imposed on commoners to pay for the upkeep of
of King Injo in 1623 (Injo ban- soldiers) on the yangin(freeborn commoners) from 2 rolls annually
jeong), which toppled the rule to 1, which was followed up in 1752 with new modifications. About
of the Gwanghaegun, the newly half of the tax obligations had now been transferred from individual
empowered Westerners faction heads to land. This was one step in the process of transforming the
(seoin), in order to expand their pre-modern system in which taxes were imposed on human beings.
power base, increased the system In addition to tax reform, efforts continued to be made to increase
of military garrisons. Thus, even productivity. In the realm of agriculture, the use of seed beds spread,
as the population decreased, the a technique wherein seedlings were grown to a point in beds prior
army size was increasing. This had to being transplanted to paddy fields. This change brought about an
a very negative effect in regards increase in productivity, but more importantly, it greatly reduced
to the military service obligation the labor involved in weeding and so crops could be cultivated with
(gunyeok). When an excessive fewer hands. Such crops as raw cotton—used for the manufacture
number of military obligations of clothing and socks—and tobacco began to be produced. Higher
Kim Yuk (1580–1658)
The Museum of Silhak were levied upon a village relative productivity also made possible large-scale agricultural production.
to its number of inhabitants, resi- But on the other hand, these developments also brought negative
dents would flee, unable to bear the additional burden, thus only in- repercussions, as some tenant farmers were pushed out of their
creasing the service burdens of those left behind, who would have to holdings.
pick up the slack. Neighbors and relatives of the deserters, who were In commerce, there was a surge throughout the country in the
now burdened with the military obligations of others, fled in their appearance of local markets (jangsi), which generally circulated
turn and so the vicious cycle was repeated. Government efforts to within a given region, appearing in each county of that region every
solve this difficult problem began in the 17th century, but they were five days. In the country’s major cities large-scale merchant guilds
repeatedly frustrated by vested interests, including those exempt (sangdan) developed. The activities of the so-called Gyeonggang
from military service. Then, in 1750, when the country was revisited merchants—those merchants centered on Seoul—included the
by large-scale famine and heavy death tolls, the central government establishment of networks for grain transport linking Seoul with the
was compelled to action. In 1750, King Yeongjo promulgated the provinces.
176 A History of Korea Chapter 7 Changes of the Late Joseon 177

The merchants of Uiju (called mansang) and those of Gaeseong eventually led to the promulgation of the commercial equalization
(called songsang) were also active in creating their own guilds. In enactment (sinhae tonggong) at the end of the reign of King Jeongjo
many parts of the country, peddlers and itinerant merchants car- (r. 1776–1800), which resulted in the disbanding of many of the
ried and traded in small items. The merchants of Seoul enjoyed a private merchants and thus the victory of the nanjeon.
privileged monopoly under the aegis of the government, but as In the area of foreign trade, though from early on some small-
commerce flourished, the number of new privileged positions scale trade in specialty products was effected via the translators that
(nanjeon) also increased, making it increasingly difficult for these accompanied the official embassies to China, it was later through
privileged merchants to maintain their monopolies in reality. Also, officially sanctioned markets with China (the so-called junggang
the conflict between privileged merchants and private merchants gaesi near Uiju and the chaengmun husi in Manchuria) and the black

Gyeonggangbu Imjindo Kyujanggak Institute For Korean Studies / Seoul National University Library
The Han River was the center of Joseon’s economic growth, and Seoul was the center of the Joseon economy.
178 A History of Korea Chapter 7 Changes of the Late Joseon 179

market activities of private traders that goods found their way into Through various publications, a great variety of ideas were put forth
and out of Joseon. At this time, major items of trade included silver, regarding political, military, educational, and status-system reforms.
widely used as a payment method, and ginseng, a particular spe- There was also an increased interest in the exploration of new
cialty of Joseon. fields of study, such as paleontology. In the field of production and
On the other hand, artisans too, who were semi-bound to state consumption, a number of arguments were also made, including
institutions in the production of handicrafts, were occasionally able the idea that saving was not a virtue, but that consumption would
to steal a day between periods of their corvée labor to work for their promote industry and commerce through monetary circulation.
own profit. Craftsmen were growing by gradually expanding the The subject of farming in particular saw some singular proposals,
private manufacturing sector in response to private demand. This including putting a cap on land holdings, introducing communal
growth was discernible in areas such as ceramics and papermaking. labor and distribution, and even introducing the so-called well-field
But this growth in craftsmen had its limits. In some cases, merchants system (jeongjeonje) of ancient China.
with large-scale capital at their disposal built their own factories and But these ideas were rarely manifested in actual policy. Though
hired craftsmen to produce goods. some scholars of the period dreamed up a variety of idealistic sys-
tems, they were pie-in-the-sky, as unfeasible and extremely difficult
to implement in Joseon as in any country. Thus, these new ideas
A New Society presented by the silhak scholars often remained just that, ideas.
Though the reform of the Joseon social system made little headway,
The development of the late-Joseon industry gave rise to new life- progress was made in the exploration of new disciplines. New
styles and ways of thinking. In pre-modern society, the importance trends appeared in the fields of agriculture, geography, astronomy,
of agriculture far surpassed that of other industries, and one side and medicine, and several encyclopedias were also compiled. Also
effect of changes in agricultural productivity was a growing gap be- during this time, as the economy grew, writings on cuisine began to
tween rich and poor. Of particular importance in this regard were occasionally appear.
issues of land ownership, disparities in arable land holdings, and in- Unfortunately, this period saw no major scientific developments,
equalities in taxation. To solve such problems, various intellectuals an essential component of technological advancement. A major leap
offered a variety of proposals. In this process, free and innovative in the natural sciences occurred in the West in the 17th century—
thinking emerged that was not bound by traditional ideas. This new the Scientific Revolution—which led directly to the Industrial
thinking is called silhak, sometimes translated as “practical learning.” Revolution of the 18th century. This also brought great changes
180 A History of Korea Chapter 7 Changes of the Late Joseon 181

to China, and especially to Japan. Joseon, however, had much less but spherical and that it rotated at a tremendous speed. Although
contact with the West than did China or Japan, so it received fewer the geodetic theory transmitted to Joseon was not the Copernican
external stimuli and the introduction of new scholarship was more doctrine of a heliocentric solar system, but rather the new model of
difficult. the universe proposed by Tyco Brahe with the earth at the center
But over the years, people’s thinking did begin to shift. The and the sun rotating around the earth and the planets around the
scholar-official class of Joseon largely dismissed the Manchu Qing sun, a new model of the universe had nevertheless been passed to
as savage barbarians and as such were unreceptive to writings and Joseon.
scholarship from the Qing. Yet there were some Joseon literati who In the realm of painting, realism in landscape painting (jingyeong
traveled in official embassies to China, and so encountered the ad- sansu) appeared. Even as late as the 17th century, the natural land-
vanced writings that had already made an impact in that country. scapes depicted in Joseon paintings were the landscapes of China,
In particular, Hong Daeyong, Bak Jega, and Bak Jiwon argued that and the human subjects of the paintings were likewise Chinese. In
Joseon could learn sound systems and culture from these “Northern other words, the subjects of Korean landscape paintings and por-
barabarians” (that is, the Manchu Qing). Thus they came to be traiture came only from the imagination of the artist. Then, after the
called the “School of Northern Learning” (Bukhakpa).
Little by little Joseon was opening to the outside world. Through
encounters with Western Jesuit missionaries in China, men of Joseon
heard news of the outside world. After the map Kunyu wanguo
quantu (Map of the Myriad Countries of the World; 1602), with
its cartographic representation of the entire world, made its way to
Joseon, it was realized the world was not China-centric. Although
such new knowledge was not transmitted to everyone, it did gradu-
ally alter the thinking of the Korean people. In the construction of
Suwon Fortress (Suwon Hwaseong) in the last decade of the 18th
century, new contraptions were designed and used to move heavy
objects, contraptions that were modeled after similar—albeit anti-
quated—Western machinery. From Western missionaries encoun-
Apgujeong ⓒ Kansong Art and Culture Foundation
tered in Beijing the Joseon envoys learned the earth was not square A view of Apgujeong along the Han River by the artist Jeong Seon
182 A History of Korea Chapter 7 Changes of the Late Joseon 183

fall of the Ming and the perceived destruction of Chinese civiliza- In the private sector, novels called banggakbon, printed by private
tion at the hands of the barbarian Manchu, the Koreans began to publishers for sale to the common people, began to appear. The
turn inward. As a result, the mountains of Korea began to appear interesting stories contained in these books included pansori narra-
as the artist’s subjects. It was the painter Jeong Seon (penname tives as well as new types of stories. In addition, in large cities there
Gyeomjae; 1676–1759) who took the first steps in this direction. emerged a new kind of professional storyteller, called a jeongisu, who
Rather than relying purely on his imagination to paint traditional would narrate these stories to an audience.
subjects such as natural Arcadias or the “eight views of Xiaoxiang” Changes in the larger world were felt at the local level. By long
(Sosang palgyeong) along China’s Yangtze River, he began to paint tradition, the people were segregated by class, with each class having
the landscapes of Korea’s Mt. Geumgang and Han River. its appropriate dwellings, clothing, and diet, in some instances even
Meanwhile, genre paintings also became popular. These took regulated by law. But as these social barriers began to weaken, the
as their subject the vulgar customs and practices of the common law could be compliant. It was commonplace for the offspring of
people, including farming, fishing, drinking, and gambling, and petty officials (ajeon) to ride about in sedan chairs and to see the
sometimes even the furtive lovemaking between men and women. use samogwandae (the traditional outfit for the scholar-official class)
During the reign of King Jeonjo in the 18th century, when the even in marriages among the common people. Changes in the
government appointed official artists (hwawon), one criteria of country’s economic conditions also changed the social positions
selection was the ability to paint depictions of everyday customs of individuals. Even as fallen yangban (another name for the schol-
of the common people. This change is what allowed literati figures ar-official class) had to endure the shame of their reduced status,
like Kim Hongdo (1745–ca. 1814), active as official government wealthy yangin were seeking ways to raise their own social status.
artists in the Royal Academy of Painting (Dohwaseo), to bequeath However, this was not such an easy thing to do. In the family reg-
us so many depictions of folk customs and everyday activities of the isters (hojeok), there was a huge increase in the numbers of those
people. claiming to be Confucian scholars (yuhak) and members of the
There were also changes in the realms of music and literature. yangban status group, though not all of them were accepted as such.
During this period there emerged a new type of music called pan- Often it was only to be exempted from military service that this de-
sori. This new art form, which relayed long stories before large audi- ception regarding social status was perpetrated in a family register.
ences through a combination of storytelling, ballads, and gestures, But even exemption from military service alone was considered a
proved well suited as a method for directly relaying emotions to an great advantage to the people of that time.
audience. Such extended storytelling was not exclusive to pansori. However, challenges to the established order were also occurring
184 A History of Korea Chapter 7 Changes of the Late Joseon 185

in rural villages. In this new order of things, where communal com- A New Crisis
pacts (hyangyak), village aid societies (donggye), and local gentry
associations (hyangcheong)—conceived and created by the yangban
The early 19th century was a turning point for Joseon. With the
in the mid-Joseon period in order to maintain their dominance over
death of King Jeongjo and accession of the young King Sunjo in
rural society—were no longer acceptable, it became increasingly
1800, a new system of government emerged. The period of so-called
difficult to obtain village consensus when the insistence was solely
“in-law politics” (sedo jeongchi) commenced, in which a handful of
on the rights of yangban. There were even changes to the status
clans commandeered the running of state. With Sunjo in his mi-
of servants and indentured labor. In the early Joseon dynasty, ac-
nority, the regency of the queen dowager (called “ruling from be-
cording to the law titled Cheonjasumobeop, even if only one parent
hind the bamboo curtain,” or suryeom cheongjeong) began, and the
were a nobi (slave), all of the offspring had to live as nobi. But at the
houses of the king’s mother and queen consort rose to dominance.
outset of the reign of King Hyeonjong (r. 1659–1674), through the
In this, the highest-ranking offices (dangsanggwan), meaning those
promulgation of the law called the Jongmojongnyangbeop (Law of
officials who could participate in royal discussions and formulate
Matrilineal Inheritance), if the mother were a yangin (or freeborn
state policy, numbered only about ten, almost all controlled by the
commoner), the offspring were also yangin. This act was one attempt
Andong Kim and Pungyang Cho clans.
to address the stubborn and strict system of hereditary nobi status
Amidst these political changes, the country’s productivity also
that was a major hindrance to national life. Indeed, a considerable
began to fall. The slackening of public authority and order meant
number of nobi became fugitives, causing a great deal of frustration,
an increase in unequal and unreasonable taxation and other arbi-
and even in the case of government slaves, flight and disappearance
trary burdens being placed on the people. Traditionally, the taxes of
was a common occurrence, with the only trace of the fugitive being
Joseon Korea had been considerably lighter relative to those of the
their name in the census registry. Eventually, in the early 19th cen-
surrounding countries, and so were not a rallying point for social
tury, the paperwork of slaves of the palace treasury (naenobi) and
unrest. But as conditions worsened, a backlash against the state’s
government office slaves (sinobi) were burned. Further, the amount
tax administration emerged. In the 19th century, Joseon Korea—as
of slave tribute (nobigong), which nobi were obligated to pay in kind
neighboring Japan and China—experienced various disturbances
every year, was gradually reduced, such that by the early 18th cen-
and struggles that flared up intermittently but frequently. In 1811,
tury it was approximately 1 roll of hemp cloth per year, or about the
the uprising of Hong Gyeongrae caused upheaval in Pyeongan-do
equivalent levied upon a servant or able-bodied yangin.
province, leading to a prolonged struggle before it was finally sup-
pressed. In 1862, starting with one in Jinju in Gyeongsang-do prov-
186 A History of Korea Chapter 7 Changes of the Late Joseon 187

ince, various uprisings flared, spreading widely through the three Pope sent monks to the Mongols, Goryeo was facing the Mongol
provinces of Jeolla-do, Gyeongsang-do, and Chungcheong-do. As invasions, and in 1271, when a combined Mongol-Goryeo army de-
the unprecedented crisis spread, the central government sought feated the revolt of the Sambyeolcho (Three Elite Patrols) at Jindo,
and promulgated various measures in attempts to placate public Marco Polo’s Travels was published in Europe. Europeans sent Jesuit
sentiment, and although this seemed to quell the troubles for the missionaries to China to focus on proselytizing and the develop-
moment, it was not enough. ment of commercial relations, and it was in the course of such voy-
Meanwhile, the active, independent, and creative atmosphere of ages to China that storms blew some to the shores of Japan. But this
the recent past seemed to peter out. The middle ranks of society did not happen with Joseon. As a result, Korea had no knowledge
sought to join the new era, while still trying to imitate the authority of Europe and Europe knew very little about Korea. Many rumors
and lifestyle of the old yangban class. The activities of the country’s and fantastic stories regarding Korea circulated, such as it being a
mid-ranking professionals (jungin), such as in forming poetry soci- land abundant in gold but also a realm of cannibals. In 1549, the
eties (sisa) or publishing books that championed traditional values, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier entered Japan and began his mis-
can hardly be characterized as progressive. In the realm of art, in the sion work there, and in 1601, shortly after the Imjin Wars in Joseon,
19th century, the genre of literati paintings (muninhwa) prevailed,
which followed the artistic tastes of the literati aristocracy, while
realism in landscape painting (jingyeong sansu) and genre painting,
two groundbreaking movements of the 18th century, were devalued.
The work of Kim Jeonghui (1786–1856), whose artistic creations
rose beyond Joseon to compete with that of China, was certainly
a great accomplishment in the world of Korean art, yet one can say
that one side effect was its arresting the development of Joseon’s
indigenous and independent cultural impetus.
Amidst these new trials facing Joseon, Catholicism made its ap-
pearance. During the period of Western expansionism, European
interest in missionary work and trade in East Asia increased. Yet
despite this, Western countries never developed any meaningful Doejae Cathedral in Wanju ⓒ Choi Woo Young
Constructed in 1895, this was the first cathedral in Korea built in the traditional Korean style. This one-
contact with Korea. In the middle of the 13th century, when the story building contains all the aspects of a basilica, but is built from wood following the Korean style.
188 A History of Korea Chapter 7 Changes of the Late Joseon 189

the Jesuit missionary and scientist Matteo Ricci built a cathedral

in Beijing. But it was not until 1783 that the Korean Yi Seunghun
(1756–1801), while accompanying an official Joseon embassy to
China, was baptized a Catholic before returning to Korea, and the
following year the Korean Catholic Church was established. About
fifty years later, in 1836, foreign Catholic missionaries were first
dispatched to Korea, much later of course than they had first been
sent to China, and even some three centuries after they had first
appeared in Japan. But before the dispatch of these missionaries,
men of Joseon had been traveling to China, becoming baptized into
Catholicism, and returning to Joseon bearing Catholic texts.
However, the Catholic missionaries arriving in Joseon in the early Chojijin Fort on Ganghwa Island ⓒ Cultural Heritage Administration
Joseon built fortresses like this on Ganghwa Island to stop French and American warships from
19th century were not of the Jesuit denomination, which had a approaching Seoul by water. However, these measures proved inadequate.

sound knowledge of Eastern culture and customs, but from the Paris
Foreign Missions Society (Missions étrangères de Paris), whose sole begin with, to enter the country.
objective was to spread the Gospel. These missionaries generally In response to Western learning (Seohak), symbolized by
perceived East Asians as lazy, untrustworthy, vulgar people caught Catholicism, in the mid-19th century Eastern Learning (Donghak)
up in superstitions, but who could be reborn as new human beings emerged in Joseon. The Donghak movement, whose doctrines were
through the Christian Gospel. The Joseon yangban, with their ob- established by an impoverished yangban from Gyeongju named
durate doctrinalism, and the Paris Foreign Missions Society, with Choe Jeu (1824–1864), combined traditional Eastern beliefs with
its sense of racial superiority, inevitably came into conflict. In 1791, notions of universal equality. But Donghak did not remain merely
incidents of yangban Catholic converts actually burning the ances- a movement of faith, but took on an increasingly social reformist
tral tablets (wipae; used in ancestor worship) of their parents came and anti-foreign agenda. As the Donghak faithful continued to grow,
as a shock to the Joseon authorities. Ultimately, the French priests the Joseon government sensed a crisis and arrested its leader Choe
as well as the Korean Catholic converts in Joseon were rounded up Jeu, executing him on the grounds of spreading heterodoxy and de-
and executed. As a result, it became even more difficult for books ceiving the people.
of Western learning, which had only been trickling into Joseon to The execution of Western missionaries and Donghak believers
190 A History of Korea

could not go unnoticed. Strangely shaped Western ships began to

appear at various locales along the Korean coast. Then some of them
made landfall, coming into contact with Koreans. Finally, in 1866,
French gunboats appeared off the shores of Ganghwa Island and
commenced shelling. Five years later, American warships appeared
in the same place. These were the so-called foreign disturbances of
the byeongin year (1866) (byeongin yangyo) and sinmi year (1871)
(sinmi yangyo). But the overwhelming size of the foreign warships,
with their powerful guns and cannon, was not enough to prevent
acts of patriotism, valor, and military preparation on the part of
Joseon and the Korean people. Nevertheless, the writing was on the
wall. The opening of Joseon to the outside world was imminent.
1876~1905
1876
Ports are opened formally and diplomatic relations
with Japan are established Chapter 8
1879
Protestantism is introduced to Korea
1882
Diplomatic relations with the United States of
America are established
1884
Gapsin Coup is staged
1894
Donghak Peasant Revolution, Sino-Japanese War,
and Gabo Reforms take place
1896
The Independence Club is formed
1897
The Korean Empire is founded
THE MODERN WORLD
1904 AND THE KOREAN EMPIRE
The Russo-Japanese War breaks out
(DAEHAN JEGUK)
1905
The Japan-Korean Treaty (eulsa neugyak) is signed

Suh Young-hee
translated by Jong-Chol An
194 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 195

Opening of Ports and the Enlightenment Policy also directly approaching the Joseon dynasty with their requests
for opening the country. Around this time, in the wake of the Meiji
Restoration (1868), Japan first attempted to formulate a new re-
In the late 19th century, Western ships began to appear in various
lationship with Korea by demanding Joseon’s recognition of the
places on the Korean Peninsula demanding Joseon Korea adopt
new Japanese regime. When Japanese forces provoked the Joseon
an open policy toward the outside world. The Western capitalist
dynasty (“Un’yō Incident”), the latter finally decided to adopt an
powers, having already forced opening policies upon China and
open-door policy, and with Japan concluded its first modern amity
Japan, were eager to seek out new Asian markets beyond their own
and commerce treaty in February 1876. However, this treaty was
saturated ones. The Korean ruling class, fixated with a traditional
unequal because it established such things as tariff-free trade and
Sino-centric worldview, opposed diplomatic relations and commer-
extraterritorial rights. The ensuing treaties with the United States,
cial intercourse with Western powers, to say nothing of the prop-
Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Italy, France, and Austria-Hungary
agation of Christianity. The Joseon government prepared to fend
were generally unequal ones.
off Western infiltration, establishing fortifications along the entire
Having adopted an open-door policy by concluding new treaties,
coastline of the peninsula and developing new military weaponry.
the Joseon dynasty now began to push forward modernization
At this time, there were some cases in Joseon of upper-class yangban
policies based upon Western models. Korea’s King Gojong (r.
converting to Catholicism, resulting in their branding as heretics.
1864–1907), who learned from Bak Gyusu, a teacher of the re-
The Catholic idea of the equality of all people posed a great challenge
formist party, realized that an enlightenment policy was inevitable,
to the yangban elites, who had adhered to a strict hierarchical and
and now pursued a reformist policy with the objective of creating
feudalistic system of social status. Added to this, there was growing
a “prosperous country and strong military” (buguk gangbyeong).
concern in Joseon over the southward advance of Russia (Korea’s
However, the country’s conservative ruling class objected to the
only Western neighbor) and two skirmishes between Joseon and
enlightenment policy while military elements of the lower-class
a Western power occurred, with France and the United States (re-
instigated a mutiny against King Gojong’s rule (the Immo Mutiny
ferred to in Korean as the byeongin yangyo and sinmi yangyo, respec-
of 1882). The enormous expenditures of the enlightenment policy,
tively). Thus, antipathy towards Western powers and objections to
and consequent rise in taxation and prices, had heightened the suf-
an opening policy towards them were strengthened.
ferings of the lower classes.
Western powers continuously requested the mediation of the
On the other hand, the Qing government, which suppressed the
Qing dynasty in the negotiation of treaties with Joseon Korea while
Immo Mutiny on behalf of the Joseon government, now stationed
196 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 197

its military troops in Korea, putting further pressure on the country supply cheap rice to the laborers in its new industrial undertakings.
and endeavoring to rule Joseon as a vassal state. In opposition to this Among Korea’s impoverished peasants, the Donghak (Eastern
Qing policy, a reformist group instigated a coup (called the gapsin Learning) Movement, founded by Choe Jeu, spread like wild-
jeongbyeon, or coup of the gapsin year [1884]) to topple the pro- fire. Although Donghak was a religion, standing in opposition
Qing government with the assistance of Japan, and to spearhead a to Catholicism (also referred to by Korean as Seohak, “Western
reformist enlightenment policy. But it was a political upheaval that learning” or Seogyo, “Western religion”), both teachings—Donghak
was suppressed in only three days. The reformist group behind the and Catholicism—were labeled and repressed as heresies by the
coup attempt had ambitions to establish a Western-style modern Korean ruling class, the yangban. One of the fundamental tenets
nation-state based upon the Japanese model by severing traditional of Donghak was that human beings were manifestations of heaven
ties with China. However, the coup failed due to insufficient prepa- or god, so that the people should be treated as such, an idea that
ration and blundering execution. constituted a revolutionary rejection of Korea’s traditional feudal
Following this, King Gojong who himself dreamed of being class order. The idea of hucheon gaebyeok (renewal of the world since
an enlightened monarch, pushed forward with enlightenment Heaven’s opening), which was to inaugurate a new world where
policies. Despite the Qing government’s objections, the king sent all would be treated as equal, gave new hope to the down-trodden
Korean diplomatic officials to the United States in 1887 while ac- Korean peasantry. Donghak faithful, who dreamed of a world where
tively accepting facets of Western civilization and technology, from the rich and poor, the noble and base would be as one, were instru-
electricity to military advisors. Against this backdrop, Protestant mental in eventually triggering a national peasant uprising in 1894.
missionaries and foreign advisors initiated modernization projects In addition to their anti-feudal catchphrases in opposition to the
in the realms of education, technology, industry, and the military. old order, participants in this peasant war also demanded an anti-for-
However, with the unprepared opening of Korean ports under the eigner policy, criticizing the damages inflicted by the foreign mer-
unequal treaties, there followed an unchecked rise in Korean rice chants who had newly appeared in Korea after the opening of ports.
exports to Japan and a consequent rise in prices, which added more The Joseon government, frightened by the rise of this peasant army,
suffering to the lives of the peasants. While landlords, rich peasants, asked the Qing government for assistance in quelling the peasant
and merchants grew rich on rice exports, the outflow of rice to Japan rebellions. In response to the dispatch of military troops by Qing
resulted in domestic rice shortages and the rise in prices to poor to the Korean Peninsula, Japan also decided to mobilize large-scale
peasants and the urban poor. This is because Japan, in the full swing military forces to Korea. The Korean peasant army, worried by the
of industrial revolution, was importing rice from Joseon in order to prospect of Japanese intervention in Korean politics, made peace
198 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 199

with the Joseon government. However, after refusing to withdraw its Min (an incident referred to as the eulmi sabyeon, or incident of
troops from the Korean Peninsula even after the peace convention the eulmi year [1895]), who was seeking Russian aid to fend off
between the Joseon government and the peasant army, Japan sud- Japanese influence. This act of brutality worsened international
denly attacked the Korean royal palace, Gyeongbokgung, effecting public opinion regarding Japan. Therefore, following this, Japan
a coup d’état that established a pro-Japanese, reformist regime in decided to withdraw from the Korean Peninsula.
Korea. Japan simultaneously launched a surprise attack on Qing
naval vessels, triggering the first Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895).
Evicting Qing from the Korean Peninsula with a great victory in The Empire of Korea and Movement to
arms, Japan then subdued a resurgent Korean peasant army. The Establish a Modern State
new pro-Japanese Korean cabinet move ahead with the so-called
Gabo Reforms (gabo gaehyeok, or reforms of the gabo year [1894]), After the inhumane slaughter of the queen, King Gojong retreated
which included eradicating the traditional government civil service to the refuge of the Russian Legation in Seoul, returning to a new
examination and the country’s feudalistic status system, curtailing palace, Gyeongungung a year later to proclaim the Empire of Korea
royal power, establishing a cabinet system and modern bureaucratic (Daehan jeguk) in October 1897, a proclamation that made him an
apparatus, and reforming the revenue system and local administra- emperor.
tion. However, these reform policies were buttressed by Japanese Traditionally, the Joseon dynasty referred to its own leader as a
military power, rather than the reformists’ own capability, so that king, that is, one step lower than the Chinese emperor. But with
these policies did not win over the support of the peasantry. Rather, the defeat of Qing in the Sino-Japanese War, the Joseon dynasty
the modern currency system and laissez-faire commercial policies realized that the country would be on par with Qing in having an
that resulted from the reforms only expedited Japanese economic emperor. This proclamation was an expression of the Korean will to
aggression in Korea. leave the traditional Sino-centric world order and enter the modern
In April 1895, however, the Triple Intervention of Russia, international order of sovereign states, with an association with the
France, and Germany forced Japan to retrocede the newly acquired Western powers. The new royal palace was located in the Jeongdong
Liaodong Peninsula, seized from Qing following Japan’s victory in area of Seoul, the location of churches built by missionaries, modern
the Sino-Japanese War, and with this the political situation around schools, hotels, as well as the legations of Russia, the United States,
the Korean Peninsula once more changed dramatically. In the wake Great Britain, and France.
of this, in October 1895 Japan heinously slaughtered Korea’s Queen Emperor Gojong drove this modernization policy from above,
200 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 201

US legation in Korea ⓒ kt-collection/booknfoto UK legation in Korea National Palace Museum of Korea

German legation in Korea National Palace Museum of Korea Russian legation in Korea National Palace Museum of Korea
202 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 203

creating hybrid institutions out of the old ones and those created
from the Gabo Reforms, and by supporting a policy of boosting pro-
duction and promoting national industries. Around 1898, citizen
activists, whose main organ was the Independence Club (Dongnip
hyeophoe), held anti-government demonstrations protesting
Russian intervention in Korean affairs, official corruption, and the
unilateral actions of the emperor and his entourage. Mass protest
meetings (Manmin gongdonghoe), attracting diverse groups who
had been emancipated from Korea’s old feudal status system, were
a part of this civil rights movement that aimed at greater political
participation by the people. However, Emperor Gojong suppressed
this movement and disbanded the Independence Club. A Joseon delegation sent to the US in 1883 Korea University Museum
After the dissolution of the Independence Club, the “Korean
Empire’s dynastic system” (Daehanguk gukje) made the state’s upstarts who not only did not hail from yangban families but orig-
power structure clear, and with the Emperor at its center. Gojong ran inated from the base peoples, even lower than the middle people.
the state primarily with the government officials of the Department Emperor Gojong did not depend on high officials who incessantly
of the Royal Household (Gungnaebu). This Department had challenged his power, but instead trusted this royalist group who
originally been instituted during the Gabo Reforms to check royal were faithful to him. They did not criticize or challenge the emperor
power. However, following the establishment of the Korean Empire based upon Confucian political ideas, but rather actively executed
in 1897, it was transformed into a government office that monopo- policies as the emperor’s right-hand men.
lized statecraft through its officials. Yi Yongik, an innermost aide to During the 1880s, with the inauguration of a reformist policy,
the emperor, in particular established various new modernization Gojong adopted a personnel policy to employ and promote per-
enterprises within the Department, and tried to evade the checks sonnel who were good at adapting themselves to concrete tasks
of the State Council (Uijeongbu), where government ministers for- regardless of their social background. In accepting Western technol-
mally convened. ogies and civilization, the group below the middle echelon, rather
Among the royalist power groups during the Korean Empire than yangban elites, showed themselves best able to adapt to the new
period who had the favor of the emperor, were many successful exigencies. Despite the yangban officials’ dismissal and mocking of
204 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 205

Empire became politically conservative with the expansion of impe-

rial power, it no doubt aimed at creating a modern society. It invited
many Western advisors to introduce Western civilization to Korea,
with the result that Seoul actually preceded Tokyo in the installa-
tion of electricity, trams, and the construction of modern roads. For
modern mining management, the Korean government imported
mining machinery and invited French technicians.
Following the Gabo Reforms, public opinion increasingly de-
manded yet more drastic modernization efforts, while voices urging
adherence to the old ways weakened further. One editorial in the
Hwangseong sinmun (Imperial Gazette) asserted that amid the
Gyeongungung Palace (today’s Deoksugung Palace) National Palace Museum of Korea mixture of new and old systems, people could not follow new ways
without demolishing old ones. Conservative government officials
this middle group, the latter arose as a power block. Some officials such as Yi Dojae and Shin Giseon did tearfully cut off their tradi-
in the Department of the Royal Household, who had received a tional topknot (a symbol of the old ways), as did military soldiers
modern education, supported the reform policy with their practical and police officers. Thus, even Yi Dojae, who had once actually par-
knowledge. The officials of the middle and lower echelons of gov- ticipated in a reformist government but who opposed a government
ernment were intelligent men equipped with modern education, ordinance requiring the removal of men’s topknots, acquiesced
rather than the passers of the traditional government civil service with resignation, unable to deny the changed times. In Confucian
exams. Graduates from various foreign language schools, medical ideology, to cut one’s hair was equal to denying tradition and em-
schools, commercial and technical schools, mining schools, and bracing Western civilization.
overseas schools, secured government positions. Exemplary silk- The Korean Empire was eager to accept new ideas while aban-
worm houses and industrial training institutions also produced doning old ones, save for the preservation of the emperor’s power. It
practical-minded mid-ranking officials. started surveying lands for the establishment of a modern economic
In 1896, Emperor Gojong and his officials proceeded with the system based upon the idea of a prosperous country and strong
“Gwangmu Reforms” (Gwangmu gaehyeok) as a project of modern military. For the exact appraisal of taxable lands, the government
state-building with the emperor at the center. Though the Korean established the Bureau of Land Survey (Yangji amun), and hired
206 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 207

Western surveyors to undertake a modern evaluation of the national

territory. Further, in order to issue a land title document to each
landowner, the Bureau of Land Ownership ( Jigye amun) was set
up. The accurate estimation of lands was to be the basis of a modern
revenue administration, which was to secure the finances for mod-
ernization projects. It also set the foundations for the establishment
of a capitalist economic system based upon modern ownership.
Thus, many modern companies and factories were established.
The Korean government set up government-owned companies, and
government officials invested in these new firms and banks. There
was one case of craftsman introducing machinery and expanding
his facility into a modern production plant. Rich merchants such
Namdaemun before trams were introduced National Palace Museum of Korea as market brokers (gaekju) or port merchants (yeogak with lodging
facilities) provided the capital to handicraft technicians to produce
commercial items. In the realm of agricultural tools and everyday
life, larger-scale manufacturing plants for such things as iron prod-
ucts, pottery, brassware, and paper were established to supplant
cottage industries. Some cotton or silk manufacturing plants intro-
duced modern weaving machines. The Jongno Weaving Company
( Jongno jikjosa), founded in 1899 by Seoul merchants who con-
trolled large capital, being one such example. In addition, factories
producing consumer goods, such as rice, beer, tobacco, and matches,
popped up. Several economic organs in which mostly high officials
invested were also established: Hanseong Bank (1897), Daehan
Cheonil Bank (1899), Daehan Railroad Co., Ltd (1899), and Inhan
Namdaemun after trams were introduced Myongji-LG Korean Studies Library
Steamship Co., Ltd (1900). Further, a government corporation,
Samjeongsa, funded by the imperial household as well as the Office
208 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 209

of Royal Property (Naejangwon) of the Department of the Royal most modernization policies in Korea came to a halt. Japan, which
Household (Gungnaebu), was also founded for the monopolization defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), now
of the insam (ginseng) industry. dispatched its advisors to Korea, and dissolved most organizations
However, for the establishment of modern enterprises, large concerned with modernization projects along with their personnel,
sums of capital, technology, and professional human resources particularly in the Department of the Royal Household. Most en-
were necessary, with the result that Western encroachment on the terprises controlled by Yi Yongik in particular, undertakings to re-
Korean economy also expanded. Yi Yongik pushed forward a plan form finances and reorganize royal property, were halted. Thus, the
to found a Central Bank and modern monetary system for the es- Gwangmu Reforms were aborted without substantial results, and in-
tablishment of the capitalistic order in Korea. Korea was not able to stead colonial modernization under Japanese control commenced.
issue a standard currency, though a law on new currency issuance Colonial modernization hitched itself to the modernization projects
(Sinsik hwapye jangjeong) was adopted in July 1894 in response to commenced by the Korean Empire, robbing the royal court and
Japanese encroachment upon the Korean monetary system since the Korean public of their property in the process. Japan began to
the opening of Korean ports to the Western powers. However, the circulate Japanese bank notes under the guise of financial reforms
situation was only exacerbated by government over-issuance of the from June 1905, a step that created a colonial finance and monetary
baekdonghwa, a copper coin. In order to secure money for the royal system. With the exchange of old Korean coins for Japanese silver
court, Yi Yongik, chief of the Bureau of Mintage, issued too much coins, Japan robbed Korea of its monetary capital overnight.
currency. However, despite Japanese objections, the Korean Empire
pushed forward with monetary reforms by issuing the Ordinance
on Currency (Hwapye jorye) in February 1901, Ordinance on Diplomacy of the Korean Empire and the Road
the Central Bank ( Jungang eunhaeng jorye) in March 1903, and to Colonization
Ordinance on the Convertible Note with Gold (Taehwan ge-
umgwon jorye) in March 1903. In the end, however, the Korean Amidst the fierce rivalry between Russia and Japan for dominance
Empire was unable to standardize the currency and secure the enor- on the Korean Peninsula, the Korean Empire left the traditional
mous sums required for the establishment of a Central Bank, but Chinese world order, strengthened its diplomatic ties with Western
only managed to lay the initial groundwork before the outbreak of powers, and sent its diplomats to foreign countries. With the Qing
the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. dynasty—with which Korea had formerly maintained a traditional
With the rise of tensions between Russia and Japan in 1903, tributary relationship—the Korean Empire concluded a modern
210 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 211

treaty of commerce in 1899, establishing a Korean legation in neutral country, in 1901 and invited Belgian diplomatic advisors to
Peking, thus demonstrating a now equal relationship between Korea, shows the Korean Empire’s preference for a non-militarized
Korea and China. At the time, it was the hope of the Korean Empire neutrality to the Swiss type of armed neutrality. Considering the
to become a sovereign member of an international family of nations Korean Empire’s weak military power, the Belgian type of neutrality
founded upon international law (Manguk gongbeop). based upon agreements with neighboring states, was more realistic.
However, in reality, the Korean Empire became a diplomatic bar- In order to strengthen national defenses, the Korean Emperor had
gaining chip between two fiercely rival nations—Russia and Japan. himself taken command of the army and navy, established a military
Thus, the utmost diplomatic concern of the Korean Empire be- academy and a Supreme Military Council (Wonsubu), and spent
came how best to secure its independence as a neutral state caught more than 40 percent of the government budget on modern military
between two rival powers. Though there had been a discourse on weaponry. However, even though the military draft was instituted in
neutrality going back to the 1880s, the Korean Empire now sought 1903, it was never executed.
a concrete policy of neutrality. The fact that the Korean Empire In the 1880s King Gojong had tried to conclude a secret Korean-
secured a peace and commerce treaty with Belgium, an eternally Russian compact in order to fend off Qing incursions into Korea, had
escaped the Japanese grip on Korea following the Triple Intervention
of 1895, and in 1896 had found refuge in the Russian Legation in
Seoul with the collusion of Russia. Consequently, Gojong came to
believe that if Korea could not be a neutral power, it had best depend
on Russia rather than Japan, whose ambition was to establish com-
plete control over Korea. Russo-Japanese rivalries intensified over
the issue of Manchuria. When Russia did not withdraw its military
forces from Manchuria (they had been deployed there to help in the
suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900), Japan criticized Russia
and worried about the possibility of Russia extending its power on
to the Korean Peninsula. Thus, Japan and Russia had concluded the
Korean legation in the US
Left: 1893 ⓒ The Independence Hall of Korea Nishi-Rosen Agreement in 1898 to maintain a balance of power,
Right: 2019 ⓒ SEONA SHIN
In 1887, Joseon dispatched Bak Jeongyang as its first diplomat to the US, and purchased a legation
while Japan continued discussions with Russia over the idea of di-
building in Washington, DC in 1889. This building was sold by the Japanese in 1910, but following its viding the Korean Peninsula along the thirty-ninth parallel, or the
repurchase by Korea in 2012, it became a museum.
212 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 213

idea of an exchange of Manchuria for Korea. Japan secured a firm won official American recognition of its control over Korea. Japan
ally with the signing of the First Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902, concluded the Second Anglo-Japanese Alliance and the Portsmouth
while in 1903 Russia suddenly took a more hardline stance in its Peace Treaty through the mediation of America President
policy toward both Manchuria and the Korean Empire. Russian de- Theodore Roosevelt, in August and September 1905, respectively.
mands from Korea for the right to construct a railroad between Uiju Consequently, Japan obtained the right to a protectorship over
(on the Korea-Manchuria border) and Seoul, its moves to secure a Korea. On November 10, 1905, Japan dispatched Itō Hirobumi
lease on the port of Masan and logging rights along the Amnok (Ch. as envoy plenipotentiary from the Japanese emperor to conclude
Yalu) River, and to illegally construct military bases at Yongampo, the Japan-Korea Protectorate Treaty. Emperor Gojong resisted the
on the lower reaches of the Amnok River, all contributed to creating conclusion of this treaty to the end, but Japan coerced Korean high
an explosive situation around Korea. officials into signing the treaty on November 17, 1905, resulting in
Though the Korean Empire proclaimed its neutrality on January what Koreans came to call the eulsa neugyak (Forced Treaty of the
21, 1904, Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at eulsa year [1905]), that is, the Japan-Korean Protectorate Treaty.
Lüshun (Port Arthur) on February 8, 1904, thus triggering the However, Emperor Gojong argued that the treaty was concluded
Russo-Japanese War. Simultaneously, Japan deployed a large mil- without his consent and ratified under duress, making it null and
itary force to the Korean Peninsula. On February 23, 1904, Japan void under international law. In its wake, Japan quickly established
forced the Korean Empire to sign the Korea-Japan Agreement the Tonggambu, or Japanese Residency-General for Korea, and
(Han-Il uijeongseo), ensuring Korea was under Japan’s firm military nominated Itō Hirobumi as the first Resident-General.
control. Further, on August 22, 1904, under clauses regarding “civic Emperor Gojong and his entourage sent personal missives and
improvement”, Japan also secured an agreement for the dispatch of envoys to several powers with the assertion that the Protectorate
advisors (gomun hyeopyak) to the Korean Empire. Following this Treaty was null and void, and thus international society should
agreement, finance advisor Megata Tanetarō and American diplo- intervene in Korean issues, but to no avail. Of particular note was
matic advisor Durham W. Stevens were dispatched to the Korean the Korean emperor’s personally written appeal delivered by the
Peninsula. American Homer B. Hulbert to nine heads of state, including that of
Having defeated Russia at Lüshun in January 1905, at the Battle the United States, Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austro-
of Fengtian (Mukden) in March 1905, and at sea in the Battle of Hungary, Italy, Belgium, and China. Furthermore, an appeal to
Tsushima Strait in May 1905, in July 1905, Japan secretly concluded raise the Korean issue before the Hague International Arbitration
the “Taft-Katsura Agreement” with the United States, and with it Tribunal was also not realized. Although the Korean special envoys
214 A History of Korea Chapter 8 The Modern World and the Korean Empire (Daehan jeguk) 215

to the Second Hague Peace Conference of 1907, Yi Sangseol, Yi Jun, gendarmerie. Those who raised their voices in opposition were
and Yi Wijong, did not participate in the formal meetings, they pub- imprisoned without exception. Thus, Korean resistance was totally
lished on the Korean national cause in Courrier de la Conférence de la suppressed, and the Korean Empire became a Japanese colony.
paix published by William Stead, and criticized Japan’s violation of
international law in Korea.
However, on July 20, 1907, Japan dethroned Emperor Gojong
through a ceremony of abdication, one day after securing a surro-
gate proclamation from the Korean crown prince on July 19. Shortly
afterwards, on July 31, Japan also forced the last Emperor, Sunjong
to proclaim a Royal Edict disbanding the Korean army, thus be-
ginning to dissolve the sovereignty of the Korean Empire. The
disbanded soldiers fiercely resisted this policy, and joined national
anti-Japanese civil armies called uibyeong (righteous armies). At this
crisis of national sovereignty, Confucian yangban, commoners, and
disbanded soldiers proceeded to join the anti-Japanese movement.
With the aim of restoring national rights, enlightenment intellec-
tuals participated in a self-strengthening movement by establishing
schools and publishing newspapers or magazines, rather than taking
up military resistance.
In spite of this resistance movement, the Japanese government
decided to annex the Korean Peninsula on July 6, 1909 and began
to prepare concrete plans to this end. Having secured Russian and
British agreement to the Japanese annexation of Korea in April and
May 1910, respectively, Japan dispatched Terauchi Masatake to
Korea, and concluded the Annexation Treaty on August 22, 1910.
When the treaty was proclaimed on August 29, 1910, political asso-
ciation or campaign meetings were strictly banned by the Japanese
1910~1941
1910
Korea is forcibly annexed by Imperial Japan
Chapter 9
1919
March First Independence Movement takes place,
Korea Provisional Government is established
1941
The Pacific Ocean theater of WWII begins as war
against Japan is declared

JAPANESE COLONIAL RULE

AND THE KOREAN
INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENT

Chun Woo-yong
translated by Jong-Chol An
218 A History of Korea Chapter 9 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement 219

Japanese Aggression in Korea and the Korean righteous army soldiers, unable to withstand the overwhelming
National Movement after the Russo-Japanese War Japanese firepower, were killed or imprisoned while some remnants
crossed the country’s northern border into Northeastern China
(Manchuria). Other righteous army members or sympathizers
Having competed with Russia over the Korean Peninsula and
continued to resist the Japanese invasion at the individual level. For
Manchuria from the late 19th century, Japan initiated the Russo-
example, in 1908, Jeon Myeongun and Jang Inhwan, staying in San
Japanese War in February 1904, with the result being its occupation
Francisco, assassinated Durham W. Stevens, who as a diplomatic ad-
of Korea. After achieving victory in this war, Japan also threatened
visor to Korea had supported Japanese aggression in Korea. In 1909,
Korea with stationing of the Japanese army in Korea and robbed
An Junggeun, leader of a uibyeong unit, assassinated Itō Hirobumi,
Korea of its sovereign diplomatic rights. The Korean Emperor sent
the first Resident-General of Korea, at the Harbin Railway Station
secret envoys to the Hague Peace Conference in 1907, and turned
in Manchuria. That same year, the laborer Yi Jaemyeong stabbed
to the international community with claims of the injustice of
and severely wounded Korean Prime Minister Yi Wanyong, who
Japanese policy towards Korea. In response to this, Japan dethroned
had collaborated with the Japanese aggressors.
the Korean Emperor and disbanded the Korean army. In addition,
Some intellectuals who believed that in order to regain sover-
Japan named Japanese vice-ministers to every government depart-
eignty national power should be cultivated, participated in enlight-
ment. The Residency-General that was installed in 1905 as a pretext
enment movements to expand modern industry and educational
for handling Korean diplomacy actually became the supreme ad-
institutions. In Seoul, many societies (hakhoe) were founded that
ministrative organ, preparing the foundations for the colonization
served as the intellectual association of a given region. In addition,
of Korea in the realms of finance, local administration, and the land
many schools were also established. Merchants also set up incorpo-
system.
rated companies to counter Japanese capital. Further, in 1908, the
When Japan robbed Korea of its diplomatic rights, Korean intel-
National Debt Redemption Movement (Gukchae bosang undong)
lectuals and peasants organized righteous armies, or uibyeong, to
was launched by Koreans with money saved by personal abstinence
resist Japan. And in 1907, when the Korean army was formally dis-
from alcohol and tobacco in order to pay back Korea’s foreign debt
solved, some of its disbanded soldiers joined these righteous armies.
to Japan. In 1907, a secret society, the Sinminhoe (New People’s
These uibyeong, with the assistance of peasants, waged guerrilla war-
Association) was also active in bringing together righteous army
fare against Japan. In response, Japanese forces burned some villages
elements abroad and domestic enlightenment groups.
where righteous army units operated, killing their inhabitants. Most
220 A History of Korea Chapter 9 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement 221

Japanese Annexation of Korea and the March

First Movement

Japan coerced the Korean emperor to agree to the Annexation

Treaty on August 22, 1910, and it was proclaimed a week later.
The name of Korea changed to Chōsen ( Joseon), and the Korean
emperor was demoted to king while the Japanese emperor became
the sovereign leader of Korea. The Japanese colonizer adopted
brutal colonial rules based solely upon military power. The Japanese
Governor-General of Korea, answerable only to the Japanese em-
peror, exerted plenary powers in the executive, legislative, and
judicial realms. Only Japanese army generals were able to become
Governor-General, and military police handled general police ad-
ministration. Government-General officials, even down to elemen-
tary school teachers, worked with swords at their waists. Colonial
military police and civil policemen had summary judgment power,
able to summarily punish misdemeanor offenders without any due
process. The Government-General strictly prohibited all Korean
associations and assemblies, while using the fabricated pretext of an
abortive assassination attempt on the Governor-General to arrest
and imprison many of the intellectuals who had the potential to lead
independence initiatives. All Korean newspapers and magazines
were discontinued, and books critical of Japan ceased publication.
As it subdued Korean resistance with military force, Japan was
Seodaemun Prison ⓒ Seodaemun Prison History Hall
busy reorganizing Korea into a supply base for food and resources Seodaemun Prison was opened in 1908 with the name “Gyeongseong gamok” as a place to imprison
for the Japanese economy. Japanese political and military leaders Korean liberation activists.
222 A History of Korea Chapter 9 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement 223

and scholars of colonial policies estimated that in order to perpet- The Government-General in Korea suppressed private capital,
uate the colonial rule of Korea, many Japanese had to be moved preventing it from going to non-agricultural sectors in order to pre-
to the Korean Peninsula. They believed Koreans were incapable of serve Korea as a migrant settlement and agricultural colony. With
utilizing the land due to their backward agricultural technologies, the enactment of the Ordinance on Companies (Hoesaryeong) in
while tax collection remained shaky with details on land owner- 1911, the Government-General established control over the forma-
ship uncertain. In 1909, the Residency-General had set up the tion of Korean companies. By this law, the location of a company’s
Land Survey Bureau (Toji josaguk) in association with the Korean headquarters and branches, changes to its board of trustees, and
government�but which after annexation came under control of any change in a company’s purpose all required government per-
the Government-General�and began a comprehensive cadastral mission. Consequently, most pre-colonial Korean companies were
survey of all Korean land. The purpose of the land survey was to de- unable to obtain the necessary permissions and so shut down. Only
termine land owners and taxpayers, but also to convert such things a few companies, such as banks which lent money to landlords to
as royal land, military land, pasturage, and non-public communal purchase land, companies processing natural sources destined for
land into government-owned land. The Oriental Development Japan, and companies concerned with infrastructure, were now es-
Company (Tōyō Takushoku Kabushiki Gaisha) and other Japanese tablished, while Korean commerce and industry became generally
companies obtained these newly created government lands, and in stagnant and shrank.
turn sold them to Japanese migrants to Korea. The Government- World War I, which broke out in 1914, fractured the imperialist
General originally planned to train these migrants as independent world system, with the conflict’s horrible casualties surpassing those
farmers, but most Japanese became absentee landlords who leased of all previous wars. More than 8.5 million were killed by new weap-
their land to Korean tenants at high rates. The Government-General onry created by state-of-the-art sciences�the machine gun, tank,
transformed communal land into state land and moved Japanese mi- submarine, airplane, and poison gas. Several millions more suffered
grant farmers to Korea, with the result that many Korean peasants irreparable harm. Within European countries that experienced the
lost their farmland. Thus, competition among peasants to lease land ravages of war, some movements emerged to reflect on the former
was fierce. With the steep rise in lease fees, most Korean tenants imperialistic expansion. Shattered was the belief that history pro-
became impoverished even as the rates of commercialization of rice gressed in a unilinear fashion amidst continuous competition, and
grew with the increase in rich landlords. Landlords and tenants con- a spirit of humanitarianism, human dignity, and self-determination,
cluded seemingly modern contracts, but the real status of tenants became widespread. Justice and humanitarianism became a new
was as serfs to landlords due to the extremely high lease rates. spirit of the times, while the idea of self-determinism in the interna-
224 A History of Korea Chapter 9 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement 225

tional arena found wide consensus. victorious nations following World War I under the banner of jus-
On March 1, 1919, Korean representatives composed of intel- tice, humanity, and national self-determination.
lectuals and religious leaders held a ceremony for Korean inde- National independence activists judged that because of the
pendence, and presented a written declaration of independence in Korean declaration of independence, they had to establish a gov-
Seoul. To shouts of “Hurrah!” and “manse!” the citizens of Seoul ernment as soon as possible. Thus, there arose several provisional
and Pyeongyang marched through the streets, revealing their ar- governments both inside and outside Korea. From April 1919,
dent desire for independence. The movement spread throughout coalition movements emerged. Korean activists inside and outside
the Korean Peninsula, attracting several million participants, trans- Korea decided to recognize a provisional government proclaimed in
forming it into a national movement. Japanese military and civil Seoul, and to place a unified government and national assembly in
police brutally suppressed bands of marching Koreans with guns Shanghai, China. On September 11, 1919, the Korean Provisional
and sabers. At the village of Jeam-ri near Suwon, they killed all the Constitution was proclaimed, and the Korean Provisional
residents, but the demonstrations continued for several months. Government (Daehan minguk imsi jeongbu, KPG) and Provisional
Between March and May 1919, some 2,023,089 people throughout Assembly were also established. Considering that the newly pro-
the Korean Peninsula participated in 1,542 meetings. Among these,
7,509 were killed, 15,961 wounded, and 46,948 arrested. Overseas
Koreans in Northeast China, on the west coast of the United States
and in Hawaiʻi, in Russia’s
Maritime Province, even
in Havana, Cuba, joined in
this manse movement. The
March First Movement
was the first large-scale na-
tional movement to occur
within the colonies of the

Dilkusha ⓒ Yonhap News

Dilkusha in Seoul was the home of American Albert Taylor (1875–1948). News of the March 1st
Proclamation of Korean Independence and the Jeam-ri massacre were first reported to the world from
this house. It is now a museum. Members of the Korean Provisional Government The Independence Hall of Korea
226 A History of Korea Chapter 9 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement 227

claimed Korean state was a republic, the March First Movement However, the main purpose of the policy change was to divide and
may also be considered a popular revolution. rule Koreans. The Government-General provided limited rights of
speech to a small number of wealthy Koreans who were cooperative
with the colonial rulers, a right that divided people into those with
Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean political rights and those without. Therefore, this new cultural rule
Independence Movement in the 1920s was fundamentally deceptive. Although some council-type organi-
zations were instituted, these had no decision-making authority over
The March First Movement, which offered peaceful resistance to policies or budgets, but only produced advisory opinions. Suffrage
the brutal rule of an imperial power, had a substantial impact upon was only granted to large taxpayers, leading to the formation of local
the liberation movements of oppressed peoples around the world. councils with Japanese majorities. Furthermore, the general police
It also laid bare Japanese colonial savagery and brutality. Thus, the force was largely composed of those released from the military po-
Japanese government, which propagated the notion that Koreans lice, such that it retained its military character.
were happy under the civilized rule of Japan, had to change its own The Government-General actively pursued its policy of boosting
methods of rule in order to assuage Korean resistance and fend off rice production in Korea with the pretext of improving the lives of
world criticism. Saito Makoto, a navy admiral and the new Japanese Korean farmers. But the fundamental purpose was to ease rice short-
Governor-General in the wake of the March First Movement, de- ages in Japan. During World War I, when European capital retreated
clared that the military rule, or mudan tongchi, that had character- back into Europe, Japanese capital moved in to occupy the vacuum.
ized Japanese colonial rule thus far, would be changed to cultural The Japanese economy enjoyed unprecedented prosperity with
rule, or munhwa tongchi. the rise of investment and production. For a short time, the young
The Government-General now permitted the publication of people of Japan’s rural farming communities migrated into urban
newspapers and magazines in vernacular Korean, partially allowed centers as laborers. This meant that former rice producers were now
Korean gatherings and associations, stopped the carrying of swords commercial consumers. The drop in population of farming villages
by civil officials and teachers, and excluded military police from and the rapid rise in urban population produced an imbalance
general police tasks. Governor-General Saito gave public assurance between rice production and consumption, triggering rice riots.
that he would implement a system of local self-government and In 1918 rice riots erupted in major Japanese cities. Consequently,
increase the number of educational institutions, so that Koreans the Japanese government judged that for the stability of rice prices,
could enjoy autonomy and the opportunity to enjoy their culture. the importation of Korean rice at low prices was inevitable. The
228 A History of Korea Chapter 9 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement 229

Government-General accepted this demand, and planned and im- During the period of the policy to boost rice production, land-
plemented its policy of boosting Korean rice production from 1920. holdings became more concentrated in the hands of large landlords.
The Government-General proposed two methods for realizing this Due to new reservoir construction and the related fees, many me-
policy’s aim. One was to convert dry fields into paddy with enlarged dium-sized landlords and independent farmers had to sell lands to
water irrigation equipment, which was considered a land improve- cover the construction costs. Large landlords then purchased these
ment project. The other was to increase crop output per area by lands with the financial support of banks. Thus, Korean peasant
teaching “advanced agricultural techniques,” which was considered society became starkly divided between a few large landlords and
an agricultural improvement project. However, the latter did not the large majority of poor tenants. Furthermore, competition
bring meaningful results because Korean farming techniques were among the tenant farmers became fierce with the rise of tenant fees.
not as primitive as the Government-General posited. However, the Consequently, many peasants were unable to secure farmland and
project to create reservoirs with landlord financing produced some had to move to urban centers to become lowly laborers or migrate
meaningful dividends. to China or Japan.
During the period of this policy, rice production increased greatly, The Japanese economy, which had flourished during World War
from 1.9 million tons in 1920 to an average of 2.1 to 2.2 million tons I, entered a depression with the return of European capital to Asian
per year in the 1920s. However, during this same period, Korean markets after that war. The Great Kantō Earthquake that hit the
consumption of rice as well as other grains decreased. The volume of Tokyo region in 1923 pushed Japan into earthquake panic mode,
Korean rice exported to Japan surpassed the increase in production. leading to financial depression. The Government-General now
Rice exports to Japan increased dramatically, from 260,000 tons in abolished the Ordinance on Companies (Hoesaryeong) in order to
1920 to 820,000 tons in 1930. Thus, approximately three times the create an investment haven for Japanese capitalists that had made
increase in production went to Japan. Around the time of Japan’s superfluous investments in industrial equipment. Thus, with the in-
annexation of Korea, Koreans and Japanese were similar in terms flux of Japanese medium-sized capital and Korean landlords’ capital,
of rice consumption per capita. However, in 1928, for example, native Korean industries grew, as did the urban labor pool, through
Japanese consumed on average 170kg of rice per capita a year, while the 1920s.
Koreans only consumed 81kg. Moreover, because a considerable With the March First Movement and changes in Japanese colonial
number of dry fields were converted into rice paddy, production of rule, advancements in Korean industrialization and urbanization,
other grains also decreased. Thus, with this rice production boosting the mode of independence movement changed. Despite the at-
project, Koreans suffered chronic hunger. mosphere of heightened humanitarianism and self-determination,
230 A History of Korea Chapter 9 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement 231

Korean nationalists judged that the core nature of the imperialistic party’s organization, and most of its members were imprisoned.
world system had not changed, and returned to Social Darwinian Nevertheless, they remained tireless in their efforts to reestablish a
ideas. They saw the world as a stage for national competition, so communist party.
that in order to survive in this competition, they had to engage in In 1926, Japan enacted the Peace Preservation Law (Chian yu-
self-strengthening. Immediately after the March First Movement, jibeop) to imprison those espousing communist or anarchist ide-
domestic nationalists launched campaigns to establish a university ologies, though these people had committed no criminal acts. On
and to produce and consume Korean indigenous items because they the one hand, the Government-General cracked down intensively
estimated that buttressed by intellectual and economic self-reliance, on socialists, while on the other it endeavored to divide the nation-
political independence might then be achieved. This movement ob- alist group by appeasing some among them. The COMINTERN
tained nation-wide support in its early stages, but lost momentum adopted a policy of prioritizing support for national liberation
after several years. This was mainly due to the Government-General’s movements. In this situation, Korean socialists endeavored to create
suppression and hindrance, but the criticism of socialist elements a coalition with hardline Korean nationalists. Those intransigent na-
also played a role. tionalists also agreed to this movement, and they formed the New
The Russian Revolution of 1917 triggered a global spread Trunk Society (Singanhoe) as a part of this coalition movement.
of Marxist-Leninism. In Asia, Koreans were the first to accept The New Trunk Society set up branches throughout Korea, and led
Marxist-Leninism due to the fact that Korea bordered Siberia, a the nationalist and socialist movements.
place of Russian exile, and that a considerable number of Koreans The Korean overseas independence movement after the March
had moved to the Russian Far East starting from the 1860s. Some First Movement was for some time led by the Korean Provisional
Korean socialists directly associated with the COMINTERN and Government (KPG). The KPG set up a secret liaison mechanism
the Russian Communist Party, while other Korean socialists studied (yeontongje), sent laws and government documents to Korea, gath-
Marxism in Japan and returned to Korea. First of all, they dismissed ered domestic intelligence, and also secured funds for the indepen-
the movement to establish a university and to produce or consume dence movement. It also issued patriotic bonds to Koreans both
Korean indigenous items, labeling this a “bourgeois reformist move- within and outside of Korea while also publishing a newspaper, the
ment.” Many Korean youth sympathized with socialism, so they en- Dongnip sinmun (The Independent) for the propagation of news on
deavored to organize Korean laborers and peasants to form national independence activities. In Northeast China near the border with
organizations. Furthermore, they were successful in establishing a Korea the KPG also established the General Headquarters of the
Korean communist party. But the Japanese police learned of the Restoration Army (Gwangbokgun chongyeong). Young Koreans
232 A History of Korea Chapter 9 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement 233

who had fled Korea after the March First Movement flocked to join dence movement lost its centripetal force and splintered. Armed
units of an Independence Army (Dongnipgun), while Korean so- Korean independence forces in China’s northeast endeavored to
ciety in China and the now Soviet Union also lent its support to this retain unity, but to no avail. In 1929 they also splintered between the
armed force. It was not so difficult to obtain weapons because due Single Party Promotion Council of Manchuria ( Jaeman yuildang
to the large amount of surplus weaponry and materiel circulating chaekjinhoe) and the National People’s Goverment (Gungminbu).
after World War I and the Russian Revolution. The Gwangbokgun,
having secured military personnel and weapons, launched several
surprise attacks against Japanese military units, and achieved a great Japanese Invasion of Mainland China and the
victory over a pursuing Japanese force in the vicinity of Mt. Baekdu Korean Independence Movement
(Mt. Changbai) in October 1920. Meanwhile, a heroic group calling
itself the Uiyeoldan (Righteous Patriots Corps), formed in China in The Great Depression that commenced in the United States in 1929
1919, became active in assassinating Japanese government officials soon spread worldwide. Japan tried to overcome the economic
of the Government-General and bombing key Japanese facilities. depression through military and colonial expansion, provoking
The KPG dispatched delegates to several international confer- war in Manchuria in 1931 and then occupying Northeast China
ences in the name of Korean independence. However, the major with the installment of the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. In
powers paid little heed to the Korean independence cause. With 1933, the League of Nations demanded the immediate Japanese
the meager results of diplomatic overtures, criticism of the KPG be- withdrawal, but Japan spurned this, instead withdrawing from the
came more vocal among independence movement activists. Thus, League of Nations. In 1937, Japan invaded China proper, occupying
in January 1923, the Convention of the National Representative urban areas, an invasion that met with stern resistance on the part of
Council (Gungmin daepyo hoeui) was convened to review the Chinese guerilla units in agricultural areas. Japan now plunged into
independence movement’s course. The convention ended without the Second Sino-Japanese War, and with the sanctions of the League
any conclusions or resolutions because there were two contending of Nations found itself lacking in military materials. Thus, Japan
opinions at the meeting: one was to dissolve the KPG and establish now advanced into the South Pacific area, ultimately attacking Pearl
a new government, and the other to change the KPG’s organization Harbor in Hawai‘i and triggering the Asia-Pacific War, or World War
and overall strategy. II in the Pacific.
As KPG leadership weakened, and with growing ideological With the Great Depression, wages dropped significantly while
cleavages between nationalists and socialists, the Korean indepen- rice prices also fell. Thus, the lives of laborers and farmers became
234 A History of Korea Chapter 9 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement 235

grimmer. In many places, socialists initiated strikes, demonstrations, drafted, so that Japan tried to fill the labor shortage with Korean
and riots. Korean socialists argued that the bourgeois nationalists workers. The Government-General moved Korean men into the
were preventing the working masses from advancing to the revolu- northern industrial zone, Japanese mines, and military plants, while
tionary front, and decided to cut their coalition with the nationalists it forced Korean women and even children to work as well. Thought
and to dissolve the New Trunk Society (Singanhoe). control was also strengthened to stifle Korean labor unrest or an-
As the Great Depression caused rice prices to plummet in Japan, ti-Japanese agitation. In addition, Korean language and history edu-
the Government-General ended its policy of boosting Korean cation was abolished in schools while related research associations
rice production. Instead, in order to appease Korean peasants and were also dissolved and researchers sentenced to prison terms. With
weaken the influence of the socialists, the Government-General the outbreak of the Asia-Pacific War in 1941, Korean language ed-
pushed ahead with a Rural Revitalization Campaign (Nongchon ucation was completely prohibited, Korean names were changed to
jinheung undong). It encouraged farmers to take on side jobs during the Japanese style, and Korean newspapers and magazines discon-
the winter, arguing that Koreans were poor because they were lazy. tinued. Whenever there was a government or company ceremony,
Furthermore, it granted loans for land purchases to cooperative Koreans had to bow towards the east—the direction of the Japanese
tenant farmers. In addition, the Government-General moved ten- emperor—and read an oath of loyalty to him, and occasionally at-
ants in southern Korea to Manchuria and the peninsula’s northern tended Shinto shrines ( Japanese religious temples). In 1938, Japan
industrial zone in order to ease competition among tenant farmers. enacted the National Mobilization Law (Gukga chong dongwon-
On the other hand, colonial police arrested and imprisoned social- beop), with the aim of mobilizing not only the colonial labor force
ists who were active in farming villages. but also vital commodities. Based on this law, from 1939, Japan con-
The Government-General vehemently pushed forward a policy scripted Korean males and deployed them to military plants, coal
to make the northern part of the peninsula bordering China a lo- mines, and military construction sites. In 1938, Japan also began
gistical base. Large Japanese capitalists constructed hydro-electric to draft Korean women as sex slaves. The Government-General
power plants, chemical fertilizer, gunpowder, and metal factories in pushed Koreans into a state of extreme penury by instituting such
the northern Korean Peninsula. Japan also expanded many roads things as grain offerings, compulsory savings, a distribution system
and railroads to connect south-central Korea and the northern re- for necessary daily commodities, and the requisition of metal items
gions. The ratio of industry in the colonial economy grew, while the for weaponry production.
number of laborers soared. After the New Trunk Society (Singanhoe) was dissolved in 1931,
With the expansion of the warfront, most Japanese youth were domestic nationalists and socialists continued their independence
236 A History of Korea Chapter 9 Japanese Colonial Rule and the Korean Independence Movement 237

activities, though now divided into separate camps. Korean nation-

alists put their energies into research and dissemination activities
to preserve the Korean language, history, and culture. Intellectual
youths participated in the rural enlightenment movement to erad-
icate illiteracy. Socialists led labor strikes and peasant movements
while secretly working to reestablish the socialist party in Korea.
However, the Government-General even drastically suppressed ac-
ademic activities meant to preserve Korean culture. Consequently,
it became impossible to publicly criticize Japanese colonial rule
within Korea.
After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Chinese
anti-Japanese movement kicked into high gear. The Korean military
units fighting for liberation operated in conjunction with Chinese
Korean Flag signed by members of the Korean Restoration Army
forces in operations against the Japanese army. Some peasant groups The Independence Hall of Korea
who rioted after the Great Depression also joined this anti-Japanese
struggle. With the rise of fascism in Germany, Italy, Spain, and and government figures in Hongkou Park, Shanghai, killing several
Japan, the COMINTERN adopted an anti-imperialist, anti-fascist high officials. Thus, after these events, the Chinese government de-
strategy, and urged socialists in oppressed countries to cooperate cided to support the KPG, and the KPG recovered its leadership
with nationalists there. In Northeast China, Koreans and Chinese, status with the Korean independence movement outside Korea.
nationalists and socialists, formed several unified military groups to In May 1940, the Korean Independence Party (Hanguk dongnip-
resist the Japanese army. dang) was founded, a party which gathered diverse organizations
The Korean Provisional Government established the Korean within China, and led the KPG. In September of the same year,
Patriotic Corps (Hanin aegukdan) under its auspices, and also ex- the formal army within the KPG, the Korean Restoration Army
erted a heroic fight. In January 1932, one of the Corps members, (Hanguk gwangbokgun) was established (not to be confused with
Yi Bongchang, tossed a grenade towards the Japanese emperor’s the Gwangbokgun chongyeong established immediately following
carriage in Tokyo, though causing no significant damage. In April the March First Movement). With the coalition of scattered military
of the same year, Yun Bonggil also threw bombs at Japanese military bands, the Korean Restoration Army prepared for a full-scale an-
238 A History of Korea

ti-Japanese struggle. Soon after Japan provoked war with the United
States, the KPG declared war against Japan, participating in some
battles and also preparing for advance operations on the Korean
Peninsula. Some Korean military members moved to China’s Yan’an
region, then under control of the Chinese Communist Party, and
participated alongside Chinese communist forces in battles against
the Japanese.
With the Allied victory at the Battle of Midway in 1942, and with
growing signs of Japan’s imminent defeat, Korean independence
activists on the Korean Peninsula also secretly prepared for the
Japanese capitulation and Korea’s liberation. In schools and compa-
nies, they instigated propaganda campaigns against cooperating with
the Japanese wartime effort. In 1945, on the eve of the Japanese sur-
render, independence activists organized the National Foundation
League (Geonguk dongmaeng) for establishing the future indepen-
dent Korea. At this time, international society now took notice of
the Korean independence movement which had fought alongside
the Allies against Japan. Thus, at the Cairo Conference in 1943 and
Potsdam Conference in 1945, the Allied leaders agreed that Korea
should be freed from the Japanese yoke at the end of World War
II. Japan submitted its unconditional surrender to the Allied powers
on August 15, 1945. Simultaneously, Koreans were liberated from
Japanese colonial rule.
1945~1953
1945
Korea gains independence from Japan
Chapter 10
1948
The two governments are established (Republic of
Korea, The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea)
1950
The Korean War breaks out
1953
The Korean Armistice Agreement is signed

NATIONAL DIVISION
AND THE KOREAN WAR

Hahn Monica
translated by Keith Seidel
242 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 243

Liberation and Division American military officials declaring the US military government
to be “the only actual government” in the area south of the 38th
Liberation and the Soviet and American Occupation parallel and refusing to recognize any Korean political force. The
US military government disbanded the locally administered local
The Korean Peninsula was liberated from Japanese colonial control
People’s Committees ( Jibang inmin wiwonhoe) and the People’s
on August 15, 1945, with the declaration of defeat by the Japanese
Republic of Korea ( Joseon inmin gonghwaguk), government en-
emperor Hirohito. While Korean liberation was a result of the Allied
tities created directly after liberation by Koreans. They also denied
victory, it was only made possible by the continued efforts of the
the right of governance to the Korean Provisional Government
independence movement amongst the Koreans themselves. Not
(Daehan minguk imsi jeongbu). On the other hand, the US military
only did Koreans want to restore the basic rights denied them under
government implemented status quo policies in regards to the bu-
Japanese colonial rule, they also strove to establish an independent
reaucracy and police organizations established during the Japanese
country with a democratic system of government.
colonial period. The US military government was passive in elim-
However, because liberation was not achieved by their own force,
inating vestiges of Japanese imperialism and showed unfriendly
Koreans were limited in their power to establish an independent
attitudes towards the efforts of Koreans to do so.
country. Upon its liberation, the Korean Peninsula was immedi-
Meanwhile, the Soviet 25th Army Command was dispatched
ately occupied by foreign forces. The US made a proposal to the
to the area north of the 38th parallel. Soviet forces chose a more
Soviet Union to split the peninsula along the 38th parallel into two
indirect form of governance, organizing civilian governing bodies
occupation zones, to which the USSR agreed. The occupation of
and using them to support or regulate Koreans’ political activities.
US and Soviet armed forces south and north of the 38th parallel,
This is in contrast to the Soviet military’s actions in East Germany.
respectively, was justified by the need to disarm the Japanese mili-
The Soviet army transferred executive power to the local People’s
tary forces. However, it was also a reflection of the confrontations
Committees and recognized the Provisional People’s Committee of
and compromises between US and Soviet interests on the Korean
North Korea (Bukjoseon imsi inmin wiwonhoe) and the People’s
Peninsula.
Committee of North Korea (Bukjoseon inmin wiwonhoe) as the
The 24th Corps of US Army Forces in the Pacific was dispatched
official governing bodies. Nevertheless, the Soviet military strove
to the area south of the 38th parallel and assumed all authority from
to control the main policies and establish a government that was
the Japanese Government-General of Korea. US forces established
friendly towards the Soviet Union.
a military government to establish direct control over the area, with
244 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 245

The Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers and the hotly than the problem of establishing a provisional government.
trusteeship crisis Exacerbated by incorrect reporting in the Donga Ilbo of “Soviets for
In December 1945, the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet trusteeship, US for immediate independence,” the political world
Union held a trilateral foreign ministers conference. The purpose in South Korea became divided between those who opposed trust-
of this conference was to address issues arising from the end of eeship and those who supported the acceptance of all tenants of
World War II, including how to handle Korea’s independence. The the Moscow Conference. Right-wing forces led by such figures as
conference’s agreed upon resolution on the Korea problem included Syngman Rhee and Kim Gu led the anti-trusteeship movement, but
the following. First, a provisional democratic government would their purposes in doing so were different. Rhee wanted to establish
be established to help rebuild an independent country. Second, a an independent government as quickly as possible, even if it meant
US-Soviet Joint Commission would be established to form the pro- doing so in just the southern half of the peninsula. Kim, on the other
visional government. Third, a four-power trusteeship of up to five hand, aimed to establish a unified government for both the North
years would be established by the US, Soviet Union, Great Britain, and South using elements of the Korean Provisional Government.
and China, to advise the provisional government. This resolution Left-wing forces, such as the Communist Party of Korea ( Joseon
was a compromise between the US position, which sought a trust- gongsandang), also opposed the trusteeship initially. However,
eeship of Korea, and that of the Soviet Union, which sought to im- they came to see the establishment of a provisional government as
mediately establish a free, independent Korean government. the core of the Moscow Conference resolutions and changed their
The Moscow Conference resolutions were very disappointing attitude to fully support the resolutions. In this process, left-wing
to Koreans who were seeking immediate independence. However, and right-wing political forces fiercely opposed each other, and the
there was some logic behind them. The resolutions resolved many of anti-trusteeship movement soon became anti-Soviet and anti-com-
the ambiguous elements in international agreements about Korean munist movements. Many anti-nationalists who had cooperated
independence remaining since the Cairo Declaration of 1943, and with the Japanese colonial government used this opportunity to
they laid out a path for the establishment of an autonomous govern- participate in the anti-trusteeship movement and joined the right-
ment on the Korean Peninsula. However, the process of informing wing ranks. Whereas the main values, issues, and powers in Korean
Koreans of these decisions led to division and confrontation be- society immediately after liberation were based on the confronta-
tween all political forces, eventually bringing about the complete tion between nationalists and anti-nationalists, this morphed into a
division amongst political powers in the liberated country. struggle between left-wing and right-wing political forces following
In Korea, the problem of trusteeship was debated much more the upheaval over the trusteeship issue.
246 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 247

In March 1946, the US-Soviet Joint Commission was created to assurances from the Secretary for Political Affairs of the Japanese
establish a provisional government in Korea as agreed upon at the Government-General of Korea, Endō Ryūsaku, for the continua-
Moscow Conference. However, the US and USSR argued about tion of public order, the founding of a new government, the release
which Korean political parties or social organizations to include in of political prisoners, and food security. Lyuh’s CPKI took control
the discussions. The US wanted to include all organizations, but the of security and administrative affairs in Seoul and other regions. By
Soviet Union sought to exclude all organization who had partici- the end of August, 145 local government organizations had been
pated in the anti-trusteeship movements, i.e., the right-wing groups. organized, all of which were spontaneously created by local citizens.
In the end, the first US-Soviet Joint Commission was suspended These organizations included left-wing and right-wing elements.
indefinitely. A second commission was organized in May 1947, Before the US military arrived on the peninsula, the CPKI felt
but the two sides could not reach any consensus. The US recom- the Korean people needed an institution to represent them and so
mended transferring the Korean problem to the United Nations, proclaimed the People’s Republic of Korea on September 6, 1945, in
while the Soviet Union insisted on the immediate withdrawal of all order to present the appearance of a nation. Left-wing groups led the
US and Soviet troops and the establishment of a government by the establishment of the People’s Republic of Korea, while right-wing
Koreans. As a result, the US-Soviet Joint Commission broke down groups showed negative attitudes towards it. Moreover, the People’s
without resolution. Republic of Korea was dismantled because the American military
forces arriving in the southern half of the peninsula declared that
the US military government was the only legitimate authority and
Failure to establish a unified independent country and
would not recognize any other.
the establishment of two governments
Following liberation, Koreans became politically active and began
The first political organization to emerge in the immediate aftermath organizing numerous political and social groups. After learning of
of liberation from Japan was the Committee for the Preparation of the US military’s arrival in Korea, prominent right-wing figures
Korean Independence (Geonguk junbi wiwonhoe, CPKI). This was such as Song Jin, Kim Seongsu, and Jo Byeongok formed the Korea
even before American or Soviet troops had arrived on the penin- Democratic Party (Hanguk minjudang) on September 16, 1945. The
sula. CPKI was organized by members of the Korean Restoration Korea Democratic Party represented the positions of landowners,
Brotherhood ( Joseon geonguk dongmaeng), which had a public capitalists, and pro-Japanese forces, and, therefore, did not amass
base and was led immediately prior to independence by Lyuh strong popular support in its early stages. However, their support
Woon-hyung (Yeo Unhyeong). On August 15, 1945, Lyuh received was expanded thanks to backing from the US military government
248 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 249

and its use of the pro-Japanese forces. People who had participated
in liberation movements abroad during the Japanese colonial pe-
riod also returned to Korea and formed political parties. Syngman
Rhee, who returned to Korea with American backing, formed the
Independence Promotion Central Committee (Dongnip chok-
seong jungang hyeopuihoe). Kim Gu and other members of the
Korean Provisional Government were able to return to Korea
under their own volition. They formed the Korea Independence
Party (Hanguk dongnipdang), which led movements protesting the
Moscow Conference resolution and supporting the continuation
of the provisional government. Bak Heonyong and other left-wing
Members of the Korean Provisional Government returning to Korea following
figures worked under the banner of the Communist Party of Korea. liberation The Independence Hall of Korea
They expanded their organizational power based on the popularity
of the independence movement led by socialist forces during the was weakened by confrontations between leftists and rightists and
colonial period, but that influence was diminished by the trustee- the assassination of Lyuh Woon-hyung in July 1947.
ship crisis and the US military government’s policies to exclude Concerns that the Korean Peninsula could be divided were
leftist forces. The Korea Democratic Party was on the far right of the heightened after the suspension of the US-Soviet Joint Commission
political spectrum, while the Communist Party of Korea was on the in 1946. Political moderates like Kim Kyusik and Lyuh Woon-
far left. The Korea Independence Party can be seen as a right-leaning hyung strove to create a unified, independent country through
party. Additionally, An Jaehong led a center-right party called the cooperation between left-wing and right-wing forces and between
Democratic Party (Gungmindang), and Lyuh Woon-hyung led a the North and South. The US military government supported the
center-left party called the People’s Party of Korea ( Joseon inmin- popular movement to bring together the political left and right.
dang). The Democratic Party and the People’s Party of Korea, both Through this, they gained the support of Koreans and attempted to
of which adopted neo-nationalism and neo-democracy as their reinforce left/right cooperation through the South Korean Interim
political ideologies, wanted to consolidate the leftist and rightist Legislative Assembly (Namjoseon gwado ipbeop uiwon). However,
political forces in Korea. These middle-of-the-road parties received such collaboration ultimately foundered due to far-right politicians
widespread support from the general population, but this support like Syngman Rhee—who called openly for the establishment of
250 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 251

The division of Korea (38th parallel) ⓒ Yonhap News Ceremony announcing the establishment of the Republic of Korea in 1948
ⓒ Yonhap News

a government for just South Korea, extremist policies of far-left election was held in South Korea on May 10, 1948, to establish a
organizations like the Worker’s Party of South Korea (Namjoseon Constitutional Assembly. This first assembly named the country the
nodongdang), the establishment of the South Korean Interim Republic of Korea (Daehan minguk, ROK) and created a constitu-
Legislative Assembly which the US had conceptualized, and efforts tion. The establishment of the government was declared on August
by the US military government to weaken the leftist forces. As the 15, 1948, with Syngman Rhee as president and Yi Siyeong as vice
global Cold War began in 1947, the US withdrew its policy of sup- president.
porting left/right collaboration and brought the issue of Korea to North Korea criticized the UN resolution to hold a general
the United Nations (UN), an organization that was led by the US. election solely in the South and insisted on establishing a unified
On November 14, the UN passed a plan to establish a Korean government. However, the North was also making efforts internally
government through a general election to be held in the North and for the establishment of an independent country, establishing the
South under its own supervision. However, the Soviets opposed this Korean People’s Army ( Joseon inmingun) in February 1948 and
plan, stating that it was unfair to the North because the population the Supreme People’s Assembly (Choego inmin hoeui) by gen-
of the South was much larger. In March 1948, the UN resolved in eral election in September 1948. The founding of the Democratic
committee to hold elections only in the South. In the end, a general People’s Republic of Korea ( Joseon minjujuui inmin gonghwaguk,
252 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 253

DPRK) was announced to the world on September 9, 1948, with bunal convicted and sentenced only twelve of the people indicted.
Kim Il-sung as its first elected prime minister. All of this rendered None of those tried were executed, and most of the sentences were
the movement to create a unified country impossible, and separate either commuted or suspended.
governments were established in the North and South that were This lack of activity by the Special Investigation Committee was
mutually hostile and politically antithetical. due to policies aimed at maintaining the US military government.
This government included pro-Japanese collaborators in the central
administration and at every level. The US military government’s
Dealing with remnants of Japanese colonialism and
main priority had been anti-Soviet and anti-communist poli-
pursuing socioeconomic reform
cies, and they appointed bureaucrats and police officers from the
Following liberation, Koreans were eager to form an independent, Japanese colonial period. Rather than focusing on dealing with the
unified country and to institute democratic reforms rapidly. The pro-Japanese collaborators, the Syngman Rhee government ad-
most urgent measure was to do away with the remnants of Japanese opted these anti-communist policies from the US military govern-
colonialism and create a new social order. Koreans wanted to punish ment, and President Rhee publicly impeded the work of the Special
anti-nationalists who had collaborated with the Japanese colonizers Investigation Committee. The National Assembly members who
and reform the social structure by abolishing systems created during led the Special Investigation Committee were arrested on espionage
and for colonial rule. charges, and police raided the Special Investigation Committee’s
The punishment of anti-nationalist pro-Japanese collaborators offices. Eventually, the Special Act against Pro-Japanese Traitors was
was a key factor in the settlement of other remnants of Japanese revised to cut short its period of enforcement, from June 20, 1950
colonialism and the establishment of a democratic society. The to August 31, 1949, and so the Special Investigation Committee was
prosecution of pro-Japanese collaborators took place after the gov- dismantled only a few months after beginning its work. As a result,
ernment was established. The Constitutional Assembly enacted anti-nationalist pro-Japanese collaborators came to hold positions
the Special Act against Pro-Japanese Traitors and established the of power in all areas of South Korean society, forcing that society to
Special Investigation Committee for the Prosecution of Anti- continue efforts to correct social injustice and expel the remnants of
National Offenders along with a special tribunal to hear such cases. Japanese colonialism even to the present day.
The Special Investigation Committee for the Prosecution of Anti- Land reform was a key issue in solving the problem of public
National Offenders acted enthusiastically in arresting pro-Japanese welfare, dismantling the landowner system used by the Japanese to
collaborators, but only investigated 682 cases. In fact, the special tri- maintain its physical rule, and establishing a new economic system.
254 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 255

Calls to reform the system of landownership went back to before ings while the land reform bill was stalled. As a result, less than half
liberation due to the negative effect that system had on farmers’ of the tenant farmland was redistributed. In addition, land reform
livelihoods. At the time of liberation, tenant farmers accounted for was further complicated because it was interrupted and suspended
half of all farmers, and it was difficult for these farmers to provide during the Korean War. However, land reform was significant in
enough food for their own families. For this reason, land reform that is brought about the disappearance of the landowning class and
was so popular that even members of the landlord-centered Korea many farmers were able to obtain their own land and become inde-
Democratic Party could not oppose it. pendent farmers. This land reform contributed to Korea’s economic
However, the US military government in the South showed very development and was significant in spreading the ideal of equality
little interest in land reform. Only after seeing land reform in North in Korean society.
Korea and the deterioration of public opinion in the South did the In North Korea, the Provisional People’s Committee of North
US military government grant land that had belonged to Japanese Korea implemented land reform in March 1946. The Committee con-
individuals and the Oriental Development Company to farmers. fiscated land and tenant farms owned by Japanese and Japanese col-
Full-scale land reform took place after the establishment of the laborators and distributed it freely to farmers. This type of land reform
South Korean government in 1948. A land reform bill was debated with confiscation and distribution without compensation or payment
in the National Assembly until it was passed in April 1949. It was was a large factor in socialist forces gaining support from farmers.
announced to the public in March 1950. The land reform bill stated In addition to land reform laws, the Provisional People’s
that each family could own up to three jeongbo (about 30,000 square Committee of North Korea implemented so-called “democratic
meters) of land and was based on the principles of reimbursement reforms,” including gender equality laws, the nationalization of im-
and compensation. As a result, the issues of repayment from farmers portant industries, labor laws, judicial reforms, etc. Through these
and compensation for landowners became an important issue. In reforms, North Korea hoped to build a new socioeconomic system.
the bill created by junior assemblymen, farmers would need to reim- By nationalizing enterprises, mines, forests, fisheries, power plants,
burse 125% of the land’s average annual output over five years while railways, transportation, postal services, banking, commerce, and
landowners would be compensated at 150% of an average year’s cultural enterprises previously owned by the Japanese or collab-
output. However, the government proposed that both reimburse- orators while allowing small-scale individually owned industries
ment and compensation should both be paid at 150%, and this was and commerce, North Korea built the economic foundation for a
reflected in the revised bill. people’s democracy. North Korea’s economic foundation was built
Many landowners either sold their land or concealed their hold- in contrast to South Korea’s policies of selling the Japanese-owned
256 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 257

land to the common people. As such, contrasting economic systems South Korea openly expressed their desire to establish a unified
began to be established in North and South Korea. government even if it took military force to do so. As if to prove this,
In the North, many of those who opposed the economic policies small- and large-scale skirmishes broke out along the 38th parallel,
of land reform and nationalization of industries, or those labeled as peaking in the summer of 1949. In South Korea, guerilla warfare
national traitors, landowners, capitalists, or religious people, chose and large-scale civilian massacres to oppress the guerillas were
to migrate to the South rather than oppose the Soviet military or carried out on Jeju Island, and in Jirisan, Odaesan, and Taebaeksan
the Provisional People’s Committee of North Korea. Many farmers Mountains. Meanwhile, the oppression and suppression of political
also fled south due to the difficulty of making a living in the North. dissidents intensified in North Korea.
Workers who had been relocated north during the Japanese colonial The Cold War also intensifying globally. The Soviets successfully
period returned to their hometowns in the South. By the end of tested an atomic bomb in 1949, and that same year a communist
1947, more than 800,000 people had left the North for the South, government was established in China. US Secretary of State Dean
and eventually more than 2 million people (including those that Acheson announced in January 1950 that the US would actively re-
went South during the Korean War) fled to South Korea. People spond to the spread of Communism in East Asia. However, he also
who opposed North Korea’s system actually made the North’s declared that Korea and Taiwan would be excluded from the US Far
reforms easier by leaving North Korea and moving south. On the Eastern defense perimeter.
other hand, this also brought about an intensification of the left- North Korea prepared for a full-scale war with the blessings of
right conflict and anti-communism in South Korean society. the Soviet Union and China. With aid from the Soviet Union, the
North built their military might in the form of weapons and military
advisors. In addition, 50,000 ethnic Korean volunteers who were
The Korean War and Permanent Division part of China’s People’s Volunteer Army (PVA) were sent to fight
with the North’s army. South Korean president Syngman Rhee sup-
Beginnings of the Korean War ported forceful unification with the North, but the South’s military
War between the two Koreas was foreseeable from 1948 and the preparations were inadequate.
establishment of separate governments in the South and North. The Korean War began on June 25, 1950, with a preemptive strike
Concerns of an international or civil war abounded along with from North Korea. North Korea invaded the South all along the 38th
concerns that Koreans would bear the brunt of the damage. These parallel and within three days they had captured the South Korean
concerns became reality. The young governments of North and capital of Seoul. The US called for a meeting of the UN Security
258 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 259

Signing of the armistice agreement and the Korean War's

legacy
Armistice negotiations began when both UN and communist forces
realized that victory could not be guaranteed for either party. The
Soviets officially proposed a ceasefire in the UN in June 1951, and
both the UN and communist sides accepted this proposal. Armistice
Refugees and the Incheon landing operation (September 1950) ⓒ Yonhap News
negotiations began between the UN forces and the North Korean
and PVA forces in July 1951. While the Syngman Rhee government
Council, and the Council declared North Korea the aggressor and was directly involved in the war efforts, it was merely an observer
imposed military sanctions on North Korea. A Unified Command to the ceasefire talks. These
was established on July 7, deploying UN soldiers for the first time in talks struggled over issues
that organization’s history. Within two months, North Korean forces such as the establishment of
were occupying most of the Korean Peninsula, the only exception a military demarcation line,
a small area near the Nakdong River in the southeastern corner of the formation of a neutral
the peninsula. On September 15, 1950, UN forces launched an supervising country, and the
amphibious landing operation at Incheon that reversed the tide of exchange of prisoners. The
battle. UN forces recaptured Seoul on September 28. On October talks were drawn out for two
1, UN troops advanced north of the 38th parallel, and by mid-Oc- years. Even as negotiations
tober, they had taken Pyeongyang and advanced to the Amnok were going on, both sides
(Ch. Yalu) River on the border with China. However, China, which fought fiercely to gain con-
had authorized North Korea’s attack on the South, now deployed a trol over small areas of land
large number of troops, both for their own defense and to aid North to gain leverage in the armi-
Korea. The tide of the war turned once again as the UN and South stice talks.
Korean troops were pushed out of Northern territory and Seoul was The armistice negotiations
recaptured by the North in January 1951. UN forces retook Seoul in continued for more than two
March 1951, but they could not gain much more ground, and battle years before both sides, real-
The Armistice Agreement
lines eventually hardened near what is today’s armistice line. izing they could not continue National Archives of Korea
260 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 261

the war, signed an agreement. North Korea had been devastated by

North Korea
US Air Force bombings. Stalin, who had approved of all-out war,
Northern Limit Line
was now dead, and Eisenhower had been elected president by prom- Pyeongyang
zo
ne Military Demarcation Line
d
ising to end the war in Korea. However, Syngman Rhee pushed for ize Southern Limit Line
ar
ilit the 38th
m
De
the continuation of the war and unification through force even as Panmunjom parallel
(Military Demarcation Line
before the Korean War)
the armistice agreement was signed. In the end, Rhee’s administra-
Seoul
tion secured military and economic aid from the US, including the
South Korea
signing of the ROK-US Mutual Defense Agreement, in exchange for
accepting the ceasefire. The armistice agreement was signed on July Comparison of the 38th parallel and the military demarcation line
27, 1953 by UN Forces Commander Mark W. Clark, North Korean
Commander Kim Il-sung, and PVA Commander Peng Dehuai. without result. In addition, small- and large-scale military clashes
The Korean War created special boundaries and regions in the di- continued to occur along the demilitarized zone, despite it being
vision of the Korean Peninsula. The ceasefire line, established by the demilitarized. Each time a conflict breaks out, the US (representing
outcome of the war (rather than the 38th parallel as from before the UN forces) and North Korea hold meetings at Panmunjeom.
war) became the border between North and South Korea. In order to The Korean War inflicted severe damage on both North and
prevent military clashes, a demilitarized zone was created extending South Korea—in lives, material destruction, and psychological
two kilometers on from both the northern and southern sides of the wellbeing. There were over a million killed, injured, and missing in
ceasefire line. Also, unique areas between the 38th parallel and the each country. Countless families were separated, and many children
DMZ were created. South Korea now gained “reclaimed area” north became war orphans. The entire peninsula was devastated, and al-
of the 38th parallel, while North Korea now claimed “newly liberated most all industrial facilities, housing structures, and schools were
land” south of the 38th parallel. As a result, the history of villages destroyed. The Korean War’s emotional and psychological afteref-
and people who had lived in the demilitarized zone vanished, while fects were even more severe. Many citizens had either supported
those inhabiting areas that now exchanged hands had to switch their or opposed the occupation of either North Korean or UN forces.
identities—from North to South Korean or vice versa. The two governments used this as an excuse to foment conflict and
The armistice agreement was not an end to the war, and it did not slaughter their own citizens. Hostility arose between those who
guarantee peace on the Korean Peninsula. The Geneva Conference, had lived through the war, and resentment and distrust amongst
held in 1954 to discuss peace on the Korean Peninsula, ended the people grew steadily. Anti-communism in South Korea and
262 A History of Korea Chapter 10 National Division and the Korean War 263

anti-Americanism in North Korea became shibboleths, and this socialist economic system that emphasized a planned economy and
became a major factor in preventing reconciliation and unification. collective ownership of production facilities.
Both Koreas used the hostility caused by the war to roll back dem- On the other hand, South Korea strengthened its market economy.
ocratic reforms and strengthen authoritarian rule. The Syngman South Korea revised its constitution in November 1954, and this
Rhee administration established anti-communism as its main cause strengthened the anti-communist, free-market economy aspects of
and suppressed political opponents such as Cho Bongam. In North the government by majorly revising the nationalization of public en-
Korea, Kim Il-sung’s rule became autocratic through the promo- terprises. Firms that bought government property at low prices grew
tion of anti-Americanism and the purging of political foes such as into large conglomerates called chaebol (jaebeol). The US provided
Bak Heonyong. In addition, the military gained unprecedented ongoing assistance to South Korea in order to strengthen it as an
influence over the societies of North and South Korea. The ROK anti-communist base. It provided large amounts of grain, including
army grew to 600,000 troops, which led to about thirty years of mil- wheat and corn, which were overproduced in the US. The amount
itary dictatorship in South Korea starting from 1961. North Korea of aid from the US totaled around 40% of government revenues in
became a “garrison state” in which political, economic, and social the mid- to late-1950s. This helped to relieve food shortages and
sectors operate militarily. to procure the needed defense costs, but it had negative effects on
The two Koreas built completely different systems during their South Korea’s agricultural sector.
postwar recoveries. American airstrikes in North Korea during the The Korean War also influenced the strengthening of the global
war destroyed the North’s production base so thoroughly that many Cold War. The US formed an anti-communist block connecting
people estimated they would be unable to recover for a hundred South Korea and Japan. The US used Japan as a “military base” or
years. North Korea mobilized its citizens to carry out extensive “strategical base for anti-communism” during the Korean War, and
postwar reconstruction. This reconstruction was also backed by the this became a foundation for rapid economic growth in Japan. In
aid and support of fellow communist nations. The economic aid Europe, West Germany began to discuss the reconstruction of its mil-
from these countries amounted to about a quarter of North Korea’s itary after seeing the destruction of the Korean War. Anti-communist
total budget. This not only restored North Korea’s economy to its alliances amongst Western European countries were strengthened,
prewar status by the mid- to late-1950s, but also provided a founda- and Eastern European countries formed a military alliance known
tion for the establishment of its socialist system. By 1958, all farming as the Warsaw Pact. The arms race between the US and the USSR
villages and commercial and industrial companies were reorganized intensified. This global reinforcement of the Cold War in turn influ-
into cooperatives. Through this process, North Korea established a enced the hardening of the division of the Korean Peninsula.
1960-2016
1960
The April 19 Revolution is held
Chapter 11
1961
The May 16 military coup is staged
1962
The five-year economic development plan begins
1970s
Policy prioritizing heavy chemical industry is
implemented, Seoul-Busan Expressway is opened,
New Village Movement begins
1972
South-North Joint Communique is issued, the Yusin
constitution is promulgated
1979
Military coup is staged
1980
The May 18 Gwangju Uprising takes place
TODAY’S KOREA
1987
The June Struggle takes place
1991
South Korea and North Korea join the United
Nations simultaneously
1995
“Correcting History” movement is initiated
1997
The Asian financial crisis is overcome
2000
The inter-Korean summit is held
2016
Candlelight rallies for the resignation of president
Park Geun-hye are held

Chung Chang-hyun
translated by Keith Seidel
266 A History of Korea Chapter 11 Today's Korea 267

The Spread of Industrialization and Popular introduction of foreign capital and the importance of exports. In
Culture particular, the military government collaborated with chaebol to
further promote economic development.
The positive and negative sides of economic growth As a result of the first economic development plan, Korea’s GDP
grew by 7.8% between 1962 and 1966, well surpassing the plan’s
After the Korean War, the Korean government needed to promote
target. By industry, secondary industries led the overall growth with
economic policies that would restore the country’s damaged indus-
14.9% average growth per year; primary industries grew by 5.6%;
trial capacity and stabilize people’s lives. However, the government
and tertiary industries grew by 7.7%. Exports increased rapidly at an
had to resort to relying on foreign aid due to the severe economic
average rate of 43.7% each year, exceeding $100 million in 1964 and
collapse caused by the Korean War. In particular, the US provided
$250 million in 1966—nearly doubling the plan’s goal.
$3.1 billion in aid over the seventeen years from Korea’s liberation in
Based on the success of the first economic development plan, the
1945 through 1961. This huge amount of aid represented 12% of the
Park Chunghee regime established and promoted its second eco-
average GDP and 73% of average imports to Korea.
nomic development plan in 1967. The aims of the second plan were
American economic aid was the basis for economic growth in
to modernize Korea’s industrial structure and to establish a self-sup-
Korea and became the foundation for the development of Korean
porting economy. In particular, emphasis was placed on developing
capitalism. However, economic aid, which accounted for a large
the agricultural sector, expanding employment, building the heavy
portion of the national economy, centered on consumer goods.
chemical industry, and promoting science and technology.
This had the side effect of weakening the independence of Korea’s
The Korean economy grew by 17.9% during the second economic
economy, making Korea dependent on outside forces.
development plan period due to the rapid growth of basic and ex-
Full-fledged economic development began after the Park
port industries such as fertilizer, cement, and oil refining. At the
Chunghee regime came to power in 1961 through a military coup.
same time, the mining industry gained importance in the economy,
These measures were aimed at solidifying the military government
and industrial advancements were pursued.
and promoting modernization. The basic goals of the first economic
The Park regime chose a strategy of building the heavy chemical
development plan (1962–1966) established by the military govern-
industry during the third economic development plan (1972–1976).
ment were to achieve industrialization and to become a self-sup-
The first two economic development plans were extremely successful
porting economy. However, in response to US recommendations,
in building up light industry, but heavy industry in Korea remained
the economic development plan was revised to focus more on the
weak. Deciding it could no longer rely solely on light industry, the
268 A History of Korea Chapter 11 Today's Korea 269

Park regime changed its economic policies to focus on building

the heavy chemical industry. The government aggressively pursued
heavy industrialization to achieve the goals of $10 billion in exports,
per capita GNP of $1,000, and 60% heavy industrialization by 1981.
Accordingly, the Korean economy took on the form of a devel-
oped nation’s industrial model when the share of secondary in-
dustry overtook that of primary industry. Due to the rapid recovery
of the global economy starting in the second half of 1975, Korea’s
GNP per capita actually exceeded $1,000 by 1977 while the coun-
try’s exports surpassed $10 billion. The amount of exports reflected Automobile factory ⓒ Yonhap News
the industrial changes in Korea, and by 1984, the amount of exports
from heavy industry exceeded those of light industry. to power in 1998 and overcame the financial crisis by establishing
The Korean economy faced a crisis around 1980 due to over- neoliberal policies, instituting intense structural reforms, pursuing
investment in the heavy chemical industry, the second oil crisis a foreign policy of opening, and appealing to the South Korean citi-
(1979), and domestic political strife. However, due to the boom zenry to share in the suffering.
of the mid-1980s caused by low oil prices, low interest rates, and Since that time, Korea has continued to enjoy rapid growth cen-
the weak US dollar, the Korean economy again showed quick gains. tered on its semiconductor industry. According to standards set by
Technology-intensive industries, such as semiconductors, automo- the World Bank, in 2016, Korea became the 11th largest economy
biles, and industrial electronics, began to lead growth. in the world with a GDP of $1.41 trillion.
In the 1990s, the Kim Young-sam administration pursued a New However, the rapid growth of Korea’s economy also exposed
Five-Year Economic Plan, and Korea joined the Organization for some side effects. First, the average living standard of Koreans is
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1996. relatively low in comparison to the size of the Korean economy due
However, Korea faced the 1997 financial crisis due to continued to high housing costs and inflation. Korea’s gross national income
trade deficits, the collapse of financial institutions, the lax man- (GNI) per capita, an indicator of standard of living, is 45th in the
agement of chaebol, and the exodus of foreign investment. Korea world at $27,600.
received emergency financial support from the International As Korea pursued economic development through foreign in-
Monetary Fund (IMF). The Kim Dae-jung administration came vestment, the economy faced serious foreign debt problems starting
270 A History of Korea Chapter 11 Today's Korea 271

contributing to the growth of periurban slums.

While some large corporations and chaebol were able to sustain
rapid growth due to unilateral distribution of foreign loans intro-
duced to the development economy, financial preferences, and
tax benefits, small and medium-sized businesses were negatively
affected by the inequitable economic structure because they were
not recipients of any of these benefits. Korea’s economy was fully
focused on the chaebol, and corruption between corporations and
the government increased dramatically.
Semiconductor factory ⓒ Yonhap News Although Korea is among the world’s top ten economies in terms
of trade volume, these are some problems that Korea has yet to
in the 1970s. Eventually, the repayment of foreign liabilities soared resolve.
to over 10%. Even though exports rose by more than 20%, imports
also increased until the trade deficit exceeded one billion dollars by
1971. This exacerbated the foreign debt crisis. Import dependency
The spread of popular culture and Hallyu
also rose significantly, establishing an economic structure depen- Industrialization brought many significant changes to the daily
dent on foreign powers. life and culture of the Korean people. First, industrialization led to
High inflation accompanied the rapid economic growth. This is of rapid urbanization. Large-scale migration from rural to urban areas
course a global phenomenon, but inflation in Korea was especially resulted in housing shortages, traffic problems, pollution, unem-
severe because the economy relied so heavily on foreign capital. ployment, and a rise in the number of poor.
This inflation resulted in lowering buying power and increased the In 1974, 90% of all household were supplied with electricity. The
hardships of workers and other average citizens in the cities. It also rate of water supply also gradually increased, so that by 1980 54.6%
widened the gap between rich and poor due to rising real estate of households had a water supply. This increased access to electricity
prices for land and houses. throughout Korea caused a dramatic rise in the use of household
In addition, rapid economic growth led to a decline in agricul- electric appliances. This increase of home appliances changed life-
tural production and a bloat of the consumer goods industry. It also styles, leading to a decrease in domestic working hours and the
encouraged many people to leave agricultural areas for the cities, growth of leisure time.
272 A History of Korea Chapter 11 Today's Korea 273

Industrialization led to the global emergence of mass media, such of information and communication technology, the media industry,
as television, newspapers, radio, and cinema. This supplied the which produced and distributed elements of popular culture,
public with knowledge and information which, in turn, led to the demonstrated speedy growth, and the size of the cultural industry
development of popular culture. As the public’s education level rose developed quickly. Teen culture emerged as the main component of
along with opportunities to enjoy culture through mass media, the the pop culture market starting in the 1990s. With the development
gap between high culture and general culture narrowed. of computers and the internet, digital, online, and mobile cultures
The enrollment rate in middle and high school in Korea increased have emerged as important areas of pop culture. The structure of
sharply in the 1970s and 1980s, and the college enrollment rate the culture industry changed from selling physical copies of cultural
increased in the 1990s. There was also a quantitative expansion products, such as videos or records, to the distribution of cultural
of mass media during this period. The number of newspapers and products through communications networks, such as the internet
magazines steadily increased, and there was an expansion in the and mobile networks. This also brought about changes in the way
spread of television and radio. Radio and movies led popular culture people consume culture. Pop culture changed into an industry that
in the 1960s. The 1970s saw the beginning of the television era, and forms and gives high added value to individuals’ lifestyles.
TV came to play an important role in the public’s leisure life. The Hallyu, or the “Korean Wave,” is symbolic of this change. The
number of televisions in Korea exceeded 4 million by 1977. Color term Hallyu originated in Taiwan, China, and Korea as Korean pop
broadcasts began in 1980, and marketing strategies called the 1990s
“the age when each household should have two color TVs.”
In the 1970s and 1980s, the authoritarian government established
cultural policies in an endeavor to gain popular support through
popular culture. The Park Chunghee and Chun Doohwan regimes
not only censored news outlets, they also intervened and controlled
the contents of movies and television shows. This is reflected in the
many banned songs and books produced during this time.
As Korea rapidly democratized after the June 1987 Democratization
Movement, the environment surrounding popular culture in Korea
also changed rapidly. The power of markets and capital grew with
the weakening of political censorship. With the rapid development The Hallyu (Korean Wave) celebrities, BTS ⓒ Yonhap News
274 A History of Korea Chapter 11 Today's Korea 275

culture gained popularity. The term was first used by Chinese media Democratization movements refer to all the activities undertaken
in February 2000 to describe the phenomenon of a wave of Korean to achieve democracy by resisting non-democratic political systems
pop culture sweeping through China. such as military dictatorships. The development of a democratic
In 1996, Korean television dramas were exported to China, and political system in Korea after the establishment of the government
K-pop followed two years later. This led to the popularization of may be likened to a war between authoritarian dictatorships and the
Korean pop culture in Asia. Following this, the wave of Korean pop people who sought democratization.
culture expanded to reach Southeast Asian countries like Taiwan, The First Republic (1948–1960), led by Syngman Rhee, used the
Hong Kong, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines. issue of Korean division as a way of emphasizing anti-communism,
Especially after 2000, the scope of the Korean Wave expanded from utilizing this to rule the country through his authoritarian Liberal
just pop culture such as dramas, K-pop, and movies; people began Party ( Jayudang). Rhee oversaw two revisions of the constitution in
to prefer Korean products such as kimchi, gochujang (red pepper order to extend his regime and participated in widespread election
paste), ramyeon (ramen), and electronic devices. fraud in 1960. Students and other citizens rose up against these in-
In fact, many young people go beyond merely consuming Korean justices in protests, leading to Rhee’s resignation and the end of the
pop culture. Because they feel such an affinity for Korean singers, First Republic (the April 19 Revolution).
actors, Korean people, or Korea itself, many go on to learn Korean The April 19 Revolution was the first time since the establishment
or buy Korean products. of the South Korean government that a democratization movement
had brought down an authoritarian regime. However, just over
year later democracy was once again undermined when a military
The Expansion of the Democratization regime was established following the May 16 Coup of 1961. The
Movement and Establishment of a Democratic Park Chunghee regime, which took power through this military
System coup, established an authoritarian regime using the logic of eco-
nomic growth and anti-communism. In particular, in 1972, the Park
After the establishment of the Republic of Korea in 1948, the regime suppressed democratization movements and revised the
Syngman Rhee, Park Chunghee, and Chun Doohwan regimes Constitution under the name of “Yusin” (Renewal). The purpose of
were all authoritarian ones that pursued long-term power. In re- these measures was to ensure long-term power and to restrict basic
sponse, opposition parties and the South Korean citizenry contin- human rights, such as the right to protest and freedom of assembly.
uously engaged in anti-authoritarian, democratization movements. In response, the opposition party and the citizens continued their
276 A History of Korea Chapter 11 Today's Korea 277

anti-Yusin democratization movements. In the end, President Park citizens demanding Chun’s resignation, democratic constitutional
was assassinated on October 26, 1979, bringing about the end of the reforms, and direct presidential elections. Citizens from all walks of
Yusin authoritarian system. life participated in the June Struggle, and the Chun regime had no
However, the military under General Chun Doohwan took choice but to accept the people’s demand for constitutional reform
advantage of the ensuing political chaos and in-fighting amongst through the June 29 Declaration.
the opposition parties and regained power through a coup d’état As a result, bipartisan constitutional reforms were accomplished
on December 12, 1979. After seizing power, Chun Doohwan sup- for the first time. However, Roh Taewoo, another military strongman
pressed the people’s drive for democratization. This led to the May and leader of the 1979 coup, was elected president in the first di-
18 Gwangju Uprising in which hundreds of citizens were killed. rect president election since 1971 because the opposition camp
Chun became president through a military coup and indirect elec- had failed to agree on a single candidate. Nevertheless, democratic
tions by an electoral college. He faced demands for democratization changes and reforms continued. In December 1992, long-time op-
from very early in his presidency. By 1987, these demands spread position leader Kim Young-sam became the first civilian president
to a national resistance demanding constitutional change to allow in a generation. Peaceful transfer of power has been accomplished
for direct elections. The June Struggle of 1987 was an uprising of continuously ever since. This is testament to democracy’s strong
roots in South Korean politics.
As political democracy became solidified after the June Struggle,
the people’s demands for political democracy changed to demands
for political democracy in everyday life. Democratic politics in
everyday life appeared in various ways, including monitoring cor-
ruption in the government, improving citizens’ welfare through
increasing social justice, striving to improve the human rights of
women, and protecting the rights of disadvantaged workers and
farmers.

The June Struggle, 1987 ⓒ Yonhap News

278 A History of Korea Chapter 11 Today's Korea 279

Policies for the Unification of North and South theory of peaceful unification. Rather than attacking the North, the
Korea and Striving Towards Unification new Chang Myeon administration that emerged after the April 19
Revolution suggested a “UN-led North and South general election”
as its main unification policy. The students, revolutionary parties,
Korea was liberated after 36 years of Japanese colonial rule by
and progressive social groups that led the revolution supported ex-
Japan’s unconditional surrender after its defeat by the Allied Powers
change and negotiations with the North, and the first inter-Korean
in World War II. However, the cooperative spirit between the US
student conference was held in May 1961.
and USSR formed during that war soon disintegrated, and the Cold
This era’s unification talks were not continued due to the military
War between the two countries began. The global Cold War was
coup of May 16, 1961, but they were important for introducing
reflected in the situation on the Korean Peninsula, and the division
various unification plans, including inter-Korean exchange, neutral-
of Korea into North and South was fixed at the 38th parallel. The
ization, and a proposal for building a federation.
movement to establish an independent and unified nation by doing
With the establishment of a military regime in South Korea,
away with the border at the 38th parallel and autonomously building
the relationship between North and South Korea quickly spoiled.
a unified nation-state was unsuccessful due to Cold War politics. As
Military tensions between the two countries rose. The Park regime’s
a result, the Republic of Korea was established on August 15, 1948,
unification theory may be summarized as “reconstruction first,
south of the 38th parallel, and the Democratic People’s Republic of
unification second.” This was revealed in the so-called “Revolution
Korea was established on September 9 to the north. Two different
Pledge” announced on May 16: “We will concentrate on cultivating
governments were set up and the official history of division on the
capacities to confront communism and achieve unification, the
Korean Peninsula began.
hope of the people.”
Neither of the regimes in the North and South recognized the
However, the period of “confrontation without dialogue” began to
legitimacy or political reality of its counterpart. While the desire
change in the 1970s as the international situation changed rapidly.
for unification was strong, the reality remained that no progress was
An international release of tensions and era of peaceful coexistence
made towards unification, and only confrontation remained.
was fostered by the 1969 announcement of the Nixon Doctrine,
A possible opportunity for North-South reconciliation emerged
US-China and Japan-China reconciliation, and the formation of a
when Syngman Rhee’s authoritarian regime was overthrown during
new balance of power between the US, USSR, China, and Japan.
the April 19 Revolution. The theory of reunification through force
This affected the atmosphere on the Korean Peninsula as well,
disappeared with the fall of the Rhee regime, bringing about the
fostering more dialogue instead of confrontation. This led to the
280 A History of Korea Chapter 11 Today's Korea 281

North-South Red Cross Talks of 1971 and the July 4 North-South “Korean People Reunification Plan.” The Roh administration’s re-
Korea Joint Statement announced simultaneously in Seoul and unification plan differed from previous plans in that it defined North
Pyongyang in 1972. Korea as “a partner and not an enemy.”
The July 4 North-South Korea Joint Statement was a historic dec- In December 1991, both North and South Korea signed the
laration that signified a new stage in the North-South relationship. Inter-Korean Basic Agreement, which comprehensively defined the
In particular, agreements from the Statement on the three main North-South relationship for the first time since division. Through
principles of national reunification are still accepted today. These are the agreement, the two Koreas reaffirmed the three main principles
the principles of independence, peace, and national unity. of reunification as defined in the July 4 North-South Korea Joint
While the impetus shifted towards dialogue for a short time after Statement. The agreement also acknowledged that the relation-
the Statement, confrontation and conflicts between the two Koreas ship between North and South Korea was not one between two
continued, as witnessed by Park Chunghee’s policy of “North-South countries, but a temporary relationship formed in the process of
confrontation through dialogue.” unification.
Amidst stalemate, inter-Korean dialogue took a dramatic turn for Based on these achievements, in June 2000, a South Korean
the better in the 1980s with international and domestic changes. In president, Kim Daejung, visited North Korea for the first time
terms of international affairs in the late 1980s, post-Cold War ten- since division and participated in an inter-Korean summit. This
dencies arose, socialist countries implemented reforms, and the so- summit released the June 15 North-South Joint Declaration. Seven
cialist bloc started to crumble. These were clear signs that the Cold years later, in October 2007, President Roh Moohyun crossed the
War, which had dominated the global stage since the end of World military demarcation line and announced the “2007 North-South
War II, was approaching its end in the late 1980s. Summit Declaration” (October 4 Declaration). These dialogues re-
In addition, after the June Struggle in 1987, demands for reuni- sulted in the South and North agreeing to open a new era of national
fication increased along with the demands for democratization. prosperity and independent unification.
Reunification movements arose centered on students. There were all historic and meaningful agreements between
In response to the domestic and international situations, the Roh North and South Korea. However, none of them were properly im-
Taewoo administration announced the “Special Declaration for plemented due to several complex issues, such as the North Korean
National Independence and Prosperous Reunification” on July 7, nuclear issue, hostile North Korea-US relations, and changes in
1988 and initiated North-South dialogue. On September 11, 1989, administrations in South Korea.
Roh recognized North Korea as a dialogue partner through the The inter-Korean relationship up until 2007, which had made
282 A History of Korea Chapter 11 Today's Korea 283

definite progress as both sides came to agree on “a real reunification were instigated with the “April 27 Panmunjeom Declaration” and the
process,” reverted during the presidencies of Lee Myung-bak and “June 12 Joint Declaration of the US and North Korea.” When this
Park Geun-hye to the point these have come to be known as “the transformation leads to denuclearization and peace on the Korean
eleven lost years.” The relationship reverted to its pre-1980s state Peninsula and normalized relations between North Korea-US
with the advent of theories of imminent North Korean collapse. and North Korea-Japan, a “great historical global transformation”
New breakthroughs in the North-South relationship began to will occur and the 20th-century Cold War system will come to a
occur with the emergence of the Moon Jaein administration in 2017. definitive end. Of course, such a transformation will not come to
North Korea’s top leader Kim Jeongeun stepped over to the South’s the Korean Peninsula all at once. Rather, the three processes of de-
side of Panmunjeom on April 27, 2018. A month later, on May 26, nuclearization, establishing peace, and unification must be pursued
South Korea’s top leader visited the North’s side of Panmunjeom and simultaneously over time.
occasional talks were held between the North and South. The first
US-North Korea summit since the division of the Korean Peninsula
was held in Singapore on June 12. In September, President Moon
visited Pyongyang.
The three inter-Korean summits and the first US-North Korea
summit in 2017 signify a “great transition” in the North-South re-
lationship in two ways. First, the inter-Korean summits stabilized
the relationship and opened the door to reunification. This opened
the door for the two countries to enter the second stage of reuni-
fication as described in the National Community Reunification
Plan (Reconciliation and cooperation  → North-South federa-
tion → Unified country).
Second, North Korea and the US took the first steps towards set-
tling the oldest antagonistic relationship in the world. This means
that the last vestiges of the global Cold War on the Korean Peninsula
would end.
Major transformations of the situation on the Korean Peninsula
284 285

About the Authors Choi E-don

Professor, Department of History Education, Hannam University. Professor Choi
Song Ho-jung received Master and Doctoral degrees from Seoul National University’s
Department of History. Publications include Confucian Political Structure of the
Professor, Department of History, Korea National University of Education.
mid-Joseon Period, Privileged Status in the Joseon Period, and Public Governance in
Professor Song received Master and Doctoral degrees from Seoul National
the Joseon Period.
University’s Department of Korean History. Publications include The History of
Gojoseon in Ancient Korean History, Dangun: A Created Myth, and A History of
Chung Yeon-sik
Buyeo.
Professor, Department of History, Seoul Women’s University. Professor Chung
Jeon Deog-jae received Master and Doctoral degrees from Seoul National University’s
Department of Korean History. He has also served as president of the Korean
Professor, Department of History, Dankook University. Professor Jeon received
Historical Association. Publications include Everyday Life in the Joseon Period 1, 2
Master and Doctoral degrees from Seoul National University’s Department of
and Tax Reform in Yangyeok Policies and Gyunyeokbeop during the Reign of
Korean History. Publications include Silla’s Six-bu System, Social and Economic
Yeongjo.
History of Ancient Korea, and A History of Silla’s Royal Palace.

Lim Ki-hwan Suh Young-hee

Professor, Department of Social Studies Education, National University of Professor, Department of Liberal Arts (Korean Modern History), Korea
Education. Professor Lim received Master and Doctoral degrees from Seoul Polytechnic University. Professor Suh received Master and Doctoral degrees
National University’s Department of Korean History and Kyung Hee University. from Seoul National University’s Department of Korean History. Publications
Publications include A Political History of Goguryeo and Goguryeo Ruins Yesterday include Political History of the Korean Empire and Peace In The East: An
and Today (co-authored). Chunggun`s Vision For Asia In The Age Of Japanese Imperialism (co-authored).

Kim In-ho Chun Woo-yong

Professor, Ingenium College of Liberal Arts, KwangWoon University. Professor Kim Visiting Professor, Academy of Korean Studies. Professor Chun received Master
received Master and Doctoral degrees from Yonsei University’s Department of and Doctoral degrees from Seoul National University’s Department of Korean
Korean History. Publications include Statecraft of the Nobility of Late Goguryeo and History. Publications include The Birth of Korean Corporations and History in
Private Ownership and Collective Mentality amongst People of Goguryeo. Myself.

Lee Kang-hahn Hahn Monica

Professor, Division of Humanities, Graduate School of Korean Studies, Academy Humanities Korea Professor, Seoul National University Institute for Peace and
of Korean Studies. Professor Lee received Master and Doctoral degrees from Unification Studies. Professor Hahn received Master and Doctoral degrees from
Seoul National University’s Department of Korean History. Publications include the Catholic University of Korea’s Department of Korean History. Publications
History of Trade between Goryeo and the Yuan Empire and Goryeo Ceramics and the include The Korean War and Reclaimed Areas and North/South Occupation Policies
Yuan Empire. and War Legacies of the Korean War.
286

Chung Chang-hyun
Director, Modern History Research Center. Director Chung received Master and
Doctoral degrees from Seoul National University’s Department of Korean
History. Publications include A Human Look at North Korea’s Modern History and
Issues and Perspectives from North and South Korean Modern History.

Translators

Daniel Kane
Daniel Kane is currently an editor with the journal Pacific Affairs out of the
University of British Columbia. He received his MA in Korean history from the
University of Hawaii. He translates from the Korean and French. Some of his
translations include the Koguryo Annals of the Samguk sagi (AKS, 2012) and Au
Japon: The Memoirs of a Foreign Correspondent in Japan, Korea, and China, 1892-
1894 (Parlor Press, 2009).

Jong-Chol An
Jong-Chol An is an Assistant Professor in Department of Asian and North African
Studies at Ca’ Foscari University of Venezia. He obtained his Ph.D. from Seoul
National University with a dissertation on American missionaries and US-Korean
relations in the mid-20 th century, and Juris Doctor at the University of Hawai’i.

Keith Seidel
Keith Seidel holds a MA in East Asian Languages and Literatures from the
University of Hawai’i at Manoa. He was a winner of the 2018 GKL Translation
Award for his translation of Bukchon by Lee Hye-kyung. He is currently assistant
director of the Institute for Korean Studies at Indiana University.
Photographs
Imagetoday
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