CHAPTER – 8

WIND ENERGY
8.1 Introduction :-( (check spacing and font size)

Wind presents a vast source of renewable energy. The kinetic energy of the wind can be changed into
other forms of energy, either mechanical energy or electrical energy. When a boat lifts a sail, it is using
wind energy to push it through the water. This is one form of work. Farmers have been using wind
energy for many years to pump water from wells using windmills like the one on the right. In Holland,
windmills have been used for centuries to pump water from low-lying areas. Today, the windmills are
also used to make electricity.
The discovery of the internal combustion engine and the development of electrical grids
caused many windmills to disappear in the early part of this century. However, in recent years there
has been a revival of interest in wind energy and attempts are underway all over the world to introduce
cost-effective wind energy conversion systems for this renewable and environmentally benign energy
source. The energy available in the world over the earth surface is estimated to be 1.6 * 107, which is
of the magnitude of present energy consumption on the earth.

Wind energy is in fact an indirect form of solar energy. Winds are generated due to heating of air
by solar radiations during the day, at variable rates in different parts of the hemisphere and rotation of
the earth. Heated air rises up and cooler air replaces it resulting in wind. Wind movement on the earth
surface is influenced by the terrain, water reserves, deserts, forests, vegetation and habitat
developments. Wind or air in motion contains the "kinetic energy" which is converted into mechanical
power by means of a wind turbine. The wind turbine is connected to a generator for producing
electricity. Wind turbines are installed on high level of more than 30 metres above the ground or a
tower to capture the most energy and to take advantage of faster and less turbulent wind.

8.2 The nature and causes of atmospheric Wind

Wind is the horizontal movement of air. All wind is caused by the uneven heating of Earth’s surface,
which sets convection currents in motion. Convection currents on a large scale cause global winds;
convection currents on a small scale cause local winds.
(1) Global Winds
Earth’s curved surface causes some parts of Earth to receive the Sun’s rays more directly than other
parts. For example, the Sun shines more directly on the surface at the equator than at the poles. As the
warmer air over the equator rises, colder air from the poles rushes toward the equator to take its
place. This steady exchange of warm and cold air that occurs between the equator and the poles
produces global wind belts. Earth’s rotation causes the direction of the winds to bend slightly: toward
the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere as shown in
figure 8.1. Global winds push air masses around Earth and bring changes in the weather.
 Figure 8.1 Direction of air towards the hemisphere

(2) Local Winds

Small-scale convection currents arise from uneven heating on a smaller scale. This kind of
heating occurs along a coast and in the mountains. Small-scale convection currents cause local
winds. Local winds blow over a much smaller area and change direction and speed over a shorter
period of time than global winds.
1. During day time:-On a hot summer day at the beach, the land heats up faster than the water. The
warmer air over land rises, while the cooler air over the ocean rushes in to take its place. This
wind is called a sea, or onshore, breeze.

Figure 8.2 Nature of air (a) During day time, (b) After sunset

2. During night time: - After sunset (see figure 8.2b), the land cools down faster than the water.
The warmer air over the ocean rises, while the cooler air over land rushes in to take its place. This
wind is called a land, or offshore, breeze.

8.3 Wind Turbines:-A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy in wind
into mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as a pump
or grinding stones, the machine is usually called a windmill. Like old-fashioned windmills,
today’s wind turbines use blades to capture the wind’s kinetic energy. Wind turbines work
because they slow down the speed of the wind. When the wind blows, it pushes against the
blades of the wind turbine, making them spin. It powers a generator to produce electricity.
Most wind turbines have the same basic parts: blades, shafts, gears, a generator, and a cable. (As shown in
figure 8.3)
These parts work together to convert the wind’s energy into electricity.
1. The nacelle contains the key components of the wind turbine, including the gearbox, and the electrical
generator.
2. The wind blows and pushes against the blades on top of the tower, making them spin.
3. The turbine blades are connected to a low-speed drive shaft. When the blades spin, the shaft turns. The
shaft is connected to a gearbox. The gears in the gearbox increase the speed of the spinning motion on a
high-speed drive shaft.
4. The high-speed drive shaft is connected to a generator. As the shaft turns inside the generator, it produces
electricity.
5. The electricity is sent through a cable down the turbine tower to a transmission line. The amount of
electricity that a turbine produces depends on its size and the speed of the wind. Wind turbines come in
many different sizes. A small turbine may power one home. Large wind turbines can produce enough
electricity to power up to 1,000 homes.

Figure 8.3: Wind turbine diagram

Large turbines are sometimes grouped together to provide power to the electricity grid. The grid is the
network of power lines connected together across the entire country.

8.4 Principle of wind energy conversion:- ( what is this ???)

Wind turbines work by turning the kinetic energy of the wind into torque (a force) that causes the wind
turbine to turn and drives an electrical generator. The wind is made up of real matter with mass, when mass is
moving it has kinetic energy. As the wind causes the wind turbine to turn, we are reducing the energy in the
wind. The energy that is removed from the wind is converted into mechanical energy that is used to drive an
electrical generator and then converted into electrical energy.
 Basic principle:
There are two primary physical principles by which energy can be extracted from the wind; these are
through the creation of either drag or lift force (or through a combination of the two). The difference between
drag and lift is illustrated (see Figure 8.4). Drag forces provide the most obvious means of propulsion, these
being the forces felt by a person (or object) exposed to the wind. Lift forces are the most efficient means of
propulsion but being more subtle than drag forces are not so well understood. The basic features that
characterise lift and drag are:
• Drag is in the direction of airflow.
• Lift is perpendicular to the direction of airflow.
• Generation of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be developed.
• With a good aerofoil, the lift produced can be more than thirty times greater than the drag.
• Lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices.

Figure 8.4: Aerodynamics of wind turbine

8.4.1 The magnus effect:- (lot of spelling mistake )

The Magnus effect is the phenomenon whereby a spinning object flying in a fluid creates a
whirlpool of fluid around itself, and experiences a force perpendicular to the line of motion and
away from the direction of spin. The overall behaviour is similar to that around an aerofoil with a
circulation which is generated by the mechanical rotation, rather than by aerofoil action.
Spiral Magnus is the world’s first wind turbine system that rotates with cylinders which
have spiral-shaped fins coiled around instead of common propeller-type blades. When the spiral
cylinders catch the wind, rotating force is generated due to the aerodynamic properties caused by
Magnus Effect. With this principle applied, Spiral Magnus is a product with high power
generation capability and safety. Each of the five blades (cylinders) of Spiral Magnus Wind
Turbine spins driven by the built-in motor and wind blowing through the cylinders rotates the
rotor (Figure 8.5).
 Figure 8.5 Spiral Magnus Wind Turbines.
This system uses a mechanism to generate more lift (lifting force / rotating force) from the wind
power captured by the cylinders by effectively utilizing the aerodynamic properties of Magnus
Effect (Figure 8.6).

Figure 8.6 Aerodynamic lift of Magnus Effect

Each cylinder alone can produce small power, but the five cylinders working together can
generate enough power to rotate the wind turbine that has a heavy generator in it. The
aerodynamic lift force works in the same way on a propeller type wind turbine and an airplane
although the force is created differently.

8.4.2 YAHAN wind power ki theory aegi…hardcopy main hai

8.5 The power extracted by wind turbine (Momentum theory)(what is dis change format
and style)
Wind turbine extracts energy from wind stream by converting the kinetic energy of the wind to rotational
motion required to operate an electric generator.

Aage ka neeche se copy karke `likhna hai...ye figure 8.7 hogi please change kare

ye figure 8.8...8.9 (niche wali) hogi please change kare...and equation number serial se change
hounge...first equation ko 8.6 number de...
• Maximum theoritical efficiency
8.6 Site selection criteria:-

Whether building a small-scale domestic wind turbine or zoning a large-scale wind farm, site selection is a
vital part of installing effective wind power genera9tion. No matter how technically advanced a wind turbine
is, without the proper conditions to deliver wind to the turbine and power to the grid, the installation will not
maximize the turbine's potential. To evaluate the site and confirm whether it is suitable for a wind turbine or
not, following guidelines are to be considered:

1. Wind Conditions

Naturally, the most important condition for a wind turbine site is the presence of regular and
considerable wind current. Wind is an intermittent resource, meaning that wind speeds inevitably
change throughout the day and due to different weather conditions, but a good site should have
fairly reliable conditions of good wind speed and a nearly constant minimum supply of wind
energy. During site selection, wind speeds are usually monitored over long periods of time to
measure consistency and at different altitudes to identify the most favorable altitude for a turbine
in the area. The energy in the wind increases with the cube of the wind speed i.e.

P α v3

and wind speed increases with height. An increase of just 26% in wind speed means twice as
much power available in the wind, and wind turbine will produce almost twice as much. A small
additional investment in tower height may therefore be well worth it, thanks to the increased
energy production. For flat open areas the relation between velocity and height is given by,

v α H1/7

This relationship is applicable for the heights between 50m to 250m.

Figure 8.10 shows the effect of change in tower height on the power in the wind for an un-
obstructed site.
 Figure 8.10: Relation between the height of the tower and power of wind

2. Wind Obstacles

The presence of tall or large obstacles on a site, such as buildings, rock formations or
trees, can disturb currents from the prevailing wind and dissipate wind energy. As a
general rule, an ideal wind site has a significant clearance around it, with few or no
obstacles between the prevailing wind direction and the turbine. The effectiveness of
coastal wind farms, for instance, is largely based on the complete lack of obstacles for the
prevailing wind on the ocean surface. In the case of a site with a few obstacles, the
turbine should be placed as far as possible from the obstacles and at a height well over
the tallest obstacle to avoid disturbed wind currents.

3. Grid Connection

In general, the longer an electrical wire between a power source and its destination, the
more energy is lost moving the current. This phenomenon is known as line loss and is
another factor for consideration when selecting a wind turbine site. A site can have ideal
ground and wind conditions but be so far from the grid or a power load that connecting it
would both be quite expensive and involve the loss of considerable amounts of energy in
the line. Batteries are sometimes used in very remote locations to store the energy created
by turbines for local use, but in cases where local use is negligible, a good site without
easy access to an electrical grid is not a wise choice.
 4. Other Factors

A wind turbine is a large piece of machinery with rapidly moving parts. As such,
installing a wind turbine may not be appropriate for every site, no matter how much clean
renewable energy it could produce on that site. The scenic and functional quality of areas
with historical protection designations or public recreational grounds, for instance, may
be diminished by the presence of wind turbines. Areas with large groups of migratory
birds or man-made objects flying at the elevation of a wind turbine blade may also raise
serious safety concerns. Even in a domestic installation, placing the turbine away from
areas that receive a lot of traffic or contain fragile constructions is always a good safety
measure.

8.7 Classification of wind Turbines

A. According to axis of rotation

1. Horizontal-axis turbines, in which the axis of rotation is horizontal with respect to the ground
(and roughly parallel to the wind stream.)
These are again sub-divided according to the number of blades (See figure 8.11 ):
i. Single bladed:-It reduces the cost and weight of the turbine. These are rarely used due to tower shadow
effects, needs counter weights on the other side of the blade, less stability.
ii. Two bladed:-It requires more complex design due to sustain of wind shocks. It is also less stable. It saves
the cost and weight of one rotor blade.
iii. Three bladed (Normal / present practice):- Modern wind turbines use three blade concepts. Because
this structure have high strength to withstand heavy wind storms, less effect due to tower shadow,
produces high output

(a) Single blade turbine (b) Two blade turbine (c) Three blade turbine
Fig. 8.11

iv. Multi bladed

• Preferably used for windmill water pumping (See figure 8.12)
Si
 Figure 8.12 : Multi-blade Wind machine
2. Vertical-axis wind turbines, in which the axis of rotation is vertical with respect to the ground
(and roughly perpendicular to the wind stream),
The vertical axis wind mill is again sub-divided into two major types:
(i) Savonius or ‘S’ type rotor mill (low velocity wind),
(ii) Darrieus type rotor mill (high velocity wind), based on the working speed of the machine.

B. According to Size

Wind turbines vary not only with their designs but also with their sizes. Smaller turbines are usually lower
than 100 kilowatts and they are most often found in homes. They are associated with simple diesel generators
and water pumping needs. There are also the utility-scale wind turbines. They start at 100 kilowatts and reach
up to even a few megawatts. There are also the really large turbines seen in wind farms. These turbines serve
as the primary source of electricity in the electrical grid.

C. According to types of rotors

Type of No. of Axis of Rotor Position Rotor power

Rotors blades Rotation w.r.t. tower speed

Propeller 2 or 3 Horizontal Upwind or Fast Electrical

Machine downwind

Multi-bladed 6 to 24 Horizontal Upwind Slow Mechanical

machine
Savonius machine 2 or 3 Vertical - Slow Mechanical

Darrieus 2 or 3 Vertical - Fast Electrical

Machine
8.8 Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT)

A wind turbine, in which the axis of the rotor's rotation is parallel to the wind stream and the
ground. All grid-connected commercial wind turbines today are built with a propeller-type rotor
on a horizontal axis (i.e. a horizontal main shaft). Most horizontal axis turbines built today are
two- or three-bladed, although some have fewer or more blades. The purpose of the rotor is to
convert the linear motion of the wind into rotational energy that can be used to drive a generator.
The same basic principle is used in a modern water turbine, where the flow of water is parallel to
the rotational axis of the turbine blades.

The wind passes over both surfaces of the airfoil shaped blade but passes more rapidly
over the longer (upper) side of the airfoil, thus creating a lower-pressure area above the airfoil.
The pressure differential between top and bottom surfaces results in aerodynamic lift. In an
aircraft wing, this force causes the airfoil to rise, lifting the aircraft off the ground. Since the
blades of a wind turbine are constrained to move in a plane with the hub as its center, the lift
force causes rotation about the hub. In addition to the lift force, a drag force perpendicular to the
lift force impedes rotor rotation (fig. 8.13). A prime objective in wind turbine design is for the
blade to have a relatively high lift-to-drag ratio. This ratio can be varied along the length of the
blade to optimize the turbine's energy output at various wind speeds.

Figure 8.13: A 2-blade propeller type Horizontal axis wind turbine

Depending upon the orientation of the blades with respect to wind direction these may be
classified as up-wind and down-wind type.
8.8.1 Upwind wind turbines:-
A type of wind turbine in which the rotor faces the wind. The basic advantage of upwind designs is that one
avoids the wind shade behind the tower. The basic drawback of upwind designs is that the rotor needs to be
made rather inflexible, and placed at some distance from the tower (as some manufacturers have found out to
their cost). In addition an upwind machine needs a yaw mechanism to keep the rotor facing the wind as shown
in figure 8.14 (a).
 (a) (b)
Figure 8.14: (a) Upwind turbine, (b) Downwind turbine
8.8.2 Downwind turbines:
A horizontal-axis wind turbine in which the rotor is downwind (i.e. on the lee side) of the tower. Downwind
machines have the theoretical advantage that they may be built without a yaw mechanism. A more important
advantage is that the rotor may be made more flexible. This is an advantage both in regard to weight and the
structural dynamics of the machine, i.e., the blades will bend at high wind speeds, thus taking part of the load
off the tower. The basic drawback is the fluctuation in the wind power due to the rotor passing through the
wind shade of the tower. This may give more fatigue loads on the turbine than with an upwind design as shown
in figure 8.14 (b).

8.8.3 HAWT advantages( what is grey background in this)????

• The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind shear
sites, every ten meters up the wind speed can increase by 20% and the power output by 34%.
• High efficiency, since the blades always moves perpendicularly to the wind, receiving power
through the whole rotation.
8.8.4 HAWT disadvantages
• Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and generator.

• Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very tall and expensive cranes and skilled operators.
• Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the appearance of the
landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
• Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when a blade
passes through the tower's wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of HAWTs use an upwind design).
• HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.
• HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to stop the turbine from
spinning and destroying or damaging itself.
• Tall HAWTs may affect airport radar.

8.9 Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)

This is a type of wind turbine in which the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the wind stream and the ground.
VAWTs work somewhat like a classical water wheel in which water arrives at a right angle (perpendicular) to
the rotational axis (shaft) of the water wheel.
 (a) (b)
Figure 8.15: Vertical axis wind turbine (a) Darrieus type, (b) Savonius type

VAWT subtypes

A. Darrieus wind turbine

Darrieus wind turbines are commonly called "Eggbeater" turbines, because they look like a giant eggbeater as
shown in figure 8.15 (a). They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclic stress on the
tower, which contributes to poor reliability. Also, they generally require some external power source, or an
additional Savonius rotor, to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced
by using three or more blades which results in a higher solidity for the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade
area over the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy-wires but have an external
superstructure connected to the top bearing.
B. Savonius wind turbine
Invented in Finland in the 1922 by Sigurd J. Savonius, the Savonius turbine is S-shaped if
viewed from above, and has two, three, or more scoops to catch the wind as shown in fig. 8.15
(b). Although, unlike the Darrieus turbine (which uses airfoils and aerodynamic lift to turn the
blades), the Savonius turbine can't rotate faster than the speed of the wind, it does yield a high
torque.
It is useful for grinding grain, pumping water, and many other tasks, but its slow rotational
speeds make it unsuitable for generating electricity on a large-scale. Small electricity-producing
Savonius turbines for domestic use, however, such as the one shown here, have been developed.
Advantages
• Having a vertical axis, the Savonius turbine continues to work effectively even if the
wind changes direction.
• Because the Savonius design works well even at low wind speeds, there's no need for a
tower or other expensive structure to hold it in place, greatly reducing the initial setup
cost.
• The device is quiet, easy to build, and relatively small.
 • Because the turbine is close to the ground, maintenance is easy.

Disadvantage

• The scoop system used to capture the wind's energy is half as efficient as a conventional
turbine, resulting in less power generation.

8.9.1 VAWT advantages (spelling errors)

• No massive tower structure is needed.
• As the rotor blades are vertical no yaw mechanism is needed.
• A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving parts.
• VAWTs have a higher airfoil pitch angle, giving improved aerodynamics while decreasing
drag at low and high pressures.
• Straight bladed VAWT designs with a square or rectangular cross section have a larger swept
area for a given diameter than the circular swept area of HAWTs.
• VAWTs have lower wind start up speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they start creating
electricity at 6 M.P.H. (10km/h).
• Withstands extreme weather such as frost, ice, sand, salt, humidity, and very high wind
conditions in excess of 140 mph.
• VAWTs usually have a lower tip speed ratio and so are less likely to break in high winds.
• VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
• VAWTs do not need to turn to face the wind if the wind direction changes.
• VAWT blades are easily seen and avoided by birds.

8.9.2 VAWT disadvantages(grey background)

• Most VAWTs have an average decreased efficiency from a common HAWT, mainly because of
the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind. Versions that reduce drag produce more
energy, especially those that funnel wind into the collector area.
• Having rotors located close to the grounds where wind speeds are lower due and do not take
advantage of higher wind speeds above.
• VAWTs do not take advantage of the stronger wind at higher elevation.
• Most VAWTs have low starting torque, and may require energy to start the turning.
• A VAWT that uses guy wires to hold it in place puts stress on the bottom bearing as all the
weight of the rotor is on the bearing. Guy wires attached to the top bearing increase downward thrust in wind
gusts. Solving this problem requires a superstructure to hold a top bearing in place to eliminate the downward
thrusts of gust events in guy wired models.

8.10 Comparison of HAWT and VAWT:-

Table 8.1 shows the comparative view of horizontal and vertical axis turbines.

Table 8.1: Comparison between HAWT and VAWT

8.11WIND CHARACTERISTICS

There are a number of parameters that are used in the wind industry to characterize the wind resource at a site,
the most important of which are as follows:

1. MEAN WIND SPEED

The key wind parameter is the average (or mean) hub height wind speed. This is the most significant measure
of the quality of the wind resource at the site, and is the main determinant of how productive a particular wind
turbine will be at the site. The distribution of the wind speeds that make up the average is also important, but
typically doesn’t vary as much from site to site as the mean wind speed. The energy contained in the wind
increases with the cube of the wind speed, and the productivity of a wind turbine increases as the average
wind speed increases.

The energy generated by a windmill depends on the power generation as indicated in figure
8.16 .
 Figure 8.16: Wind power density distribution curve

2. Wind speed frequency duration curve

The total energy generated over a year can be calculated by summarizing the power generation
for all velocities (ranging from the actual windmill cut-in speed to the shut-down speed)
multiplied with the no. of hours the wind blows at the actual speeds. The "wind speed frequency
distribution shows how often, or how many hours the wind blows.

A typical wind speed frequency duration curve (as shown in figure 8.17) with energy produced at
the different velocities are indicated below.
 Figure 8.17: Wind speed frequency duration curve

3. CP - λ characteristics for practical wind machines(errors)

The efficiency with which a rotor can extract power from the wind depends on the dynamic
matching between the rotor and wind stream. The CP−λ curve will represent the rotor
performance irrespective of the rotor size and site parameters. CP - λ curves for typical wind
machines are shown in Figure 8.18 . In general, initially the power coefficient of the turbine
increases with the tip speed ratio, reaches a maximum at atypical λ, and then decreases with
further increase in the tip speed ratio. The variations in CP with λ depend on several design
features of the rotor. American multi-bladed rotors show the lowest power coefficient and work
at low speed ratio with the wind. However they have high solidity and hence high starting torque
which make them attractive for water pumping. Two and three blade propeller turbines and the
darrieus design turbine work at higher tip speed ratios. Hence they are suitable for wind electric
generators.
 Figure 8.18: Cp-λ curves for practical wind machines

4. Blade tip height

A key parameter in wind farm capacity is the maximum blade tip height above the ground. Recent wind farm
consent applications have requested a maximum tip height of up to 160m with 150m being most commonly
requested.

5. Turbine rotational speed

Turbine design is based upon limiting the speed of the blade tip to minimise sound emissions. There is an
inverse relationship between turbine rotor diameter and rotational speeds, therefore larger turbines also rotate
at a slower rate.

Figure 8.19 :Tip speed ratio and performance coefficient

 The proportion of the power in the wind that the rotor can extract is termed the coefficient of
performance (or power coefficient or efficiency; symbol Cp) and its variation (as shown in figure
8.19) as a function of tip speed ratio is commonly used to characterise different types of rotor. It
is physically impossible to extract all the energy from the wind, without bringing the air behind
the rotor to a standstill. Consequently there is a maximum value of Cp of 59.3% (known as the Betz
limit), although in practice real wind rotors have maximum Cp values in the range of 25%-45%.
6. Solidity: (errors)
Solidity is usually defined as thepercentage of the circumference of the rotorwhich contains
material rather than air.High-solidity machines carry a lot ofmaterial and have coarse blade
angles.They generate much higher starting torquethan low-solidity machines but areinherently
less efficient than low-soliditymachines as shown in Figure 8.20. The extramaterials also cost
more money. However,low-solidity machines need to be made with more precision which leads
to little difference in costs.

Figure 8.20: Solidity and torque

7. Cut-in Speed
Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will generate usable power.
8. Rated Speed
The rated speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will generate its
designated rated power. At wind speeds between cut-in and rated, the power output from a wind
turbine increases as the wind increases. The output of most machines levels off above the rated
speed.
9. Cut-out Speed
At very high wind speeds, typically between 45 and 80 mph, most wind turbines cease power
generation and shut down. The wind speed at which shut down occurs is called the cut-out speed.

8.12 Methods of overcoming fluctuations of power:-

Wind turbines convert the power from wind to mechanical power. It is important to be ableto
control and limit the converted mechanical power during higher wind speeds.
A. In large scale wind turbines:-
The power limitation may be done either by stall control, active stall, or pitch control whose
power curves are shown in Figure 8.21 .It can be seen that the power may be smoothly limited by
rotating the blades either by pitch control or active stall control while the power from a stall-
controlled turbines show a small overshoot and lower power output for higher wind speed.
 Figure 8.21: Power characteristics of wind turbines. (a) Stall control, (b) active stall control, (c)
pitch control

All of three methods for wind turbine power limitation usually used in large scale wind turbines;
hence the power limitation during higher wind speeds in small scale wind turbines may be done
by furling control or soft-stall control.
B. In small scale wind turbines(furling method):-
Many small wind turbines use an upwind rotor configuration with a tail vane for passive yaw
control. Typically, the tail vane is hinged, allowing the rotor to furl (turn) in high winds,
providing both power regulation and over-speed protection. Most the today's small wind turbines
are operated using a variable speed generator. At higher wind speeds, the generated power of the
wind turbine can go above the limit of the generator or the wind turbine design. When this
occurs, small wind turbines use mechanical control or furling to turn the rotor out of the wind
resulting in shedding the aerodynamic power or a steep drop in the power curve. Often, small
turbine rotors furl abruptly at a wind speed only slightly above their rated wind speed, resulting
in a very "peaky" power curve and poor energy capture at higher wind speeds. This energy loss
is compounded by the furling hysteresis, in which the wind speed must drop considerably below
the rated wind speed before the rotor will unfurl and resume efficient operation.
One way to improve the performance of furling wind turbines is to design the rotor to furl
progressively, causing the power output to remain at or near rated power as the wind speed
increases beyond its rated value. This approach has two drawbacks: wind turbine rotors operating
at high furl angles tend to be very noisy and experience high flap loads. Figure 8.22 is the
free body diagram of the system.

Figure 8.22: Free body diagram of the furling system

It illustrates the simplified description of the furling mechanism. In a normal condition, the
effective wind speed Vn=V is the useful wind directed to the plane of rotation. The thrust is the
force perpendicular to the plane of rotation. It is proportional to the square of the effective wind
speed. Pforce, which is parallel to the plane of rotation, does not exist in the normal condition.
When the wind speed increases, both the thrust and the Pforce on the blade create moments due to
the offset d1 and d2 .As a result, the angle θ increases thus reducing the normal component of the
wind speed Vn. As Vn decreases, the thrust and the wind energy converted to aerodynamic power
also decreases.

8.13 Why large Scale utilization of Wind farms is prohibited?

Large scale wind energy facilities generate a huge amount of electricity that is transmitted from
one location (wind farm) to many users through a transmission system, similar to that of any
other commercial power plant. At large utility scale, a wind farm consists of many large wind
turbines, in some cases hundreds of turbines. The largest wind turbines are capable of producing
more than 4 megawatts (MW) of electricity per turbine (mostly for offshore facilities that can
 accommodate these larger turbines). Most of the typical wind turbines in use today on existing
wind farms are capable of producing 1 to 1.5 MW per turbine. There are many factors that go
into deciding the appropriate turbine size for a particular wind farm site.

Large scale wind farms are not popular with everyone, they are traditionally built on land which
means they take up a lot of space. Not only this, but large scale wind farms are noisy. Getting
approval to build wind farms on land is increasingly difficult, the local residents will probably
object to the project causing problems. Not only are wind farms noisy, they are thought to be
dangerous to birds and bats.

In order to get around this many wind power firms are starting to look at building large scale
wind farms offshore. There are of course problems associated with this; it’s more costly to build
at sea for instance. Offshore wind farms are quickly becoming a very promising potential for
generating a large amount of clean energy. . The first offshore wind farm in the United States,
off the coast of Massachusetts, was approved in April 2011. Construction is expected to begin in
2013.

8.14Advantages and disadvantages of Wind Energy

8.14.1 Advantages:-
1. It is renewable source of energy.
2. Wind energy is friendly to the surrounding environment, as no fossil fuels are burnt to generate
electricity from wind energy.
3. Although wind turbines can be very tall each takes up only a small plot of land. This means that the
land below can still be used. This is especially the case in agricultural areas as farming can still
continue.
4. Newer technologies are making the extraction of wind energy much more efficient. The wind is
free, and we are able to cash in on this free source of energy.
5. Wind turbines are a great resource to generate energy in remote locations, such as mountain
communities and remote countryside. Wind turbines can be a range of different sizes in order to
support varying population levels.
6. When combined with solar electricity, this energy source is great for developed and developing
countries to provide a steady, reliable supply of electricity.
7. Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can use wind turbines to produce
their own supply.
8. In combination with Solar Energy they can be used to provide reliable as well as steady supply of
electricity.
9. Land around wind turbines can be used for other uses, e.g. Farming.

8.14.2 Disadvantagesunidentified spacing

1. The strength of the wind is not constant and it varies from zero to storm force. This means that
wind turbines do not produce the same amount of electricity all the time. There will be times when
they produce no electricity at all.
2. Wind turbines generally produce allot less electricity than the average fossil fuelled power station,
requiring multiple wind turbines to be built in order to make an impact.
3. Wind turbine construction can be very expensive and costly to surrounding wildlife during the
build process.
4. Wind power machines are relatively have high overall weight (110 kg/kw).
5. The noise pollution from commercial wind turbines is sometimes similar to a small jet engine.
6. Many people see large wind turbines as unsightly structures and not pleasant or interesting to look
at. They disfigure the countryside and are generally ugly.
7. When wind turbines are being manufactured some pollution is produced. Therefore wind power
does produce some pollution.
8. There are concerns that the turbines can cause electromagnetic interference. This means that the
turbines could cause interference with communication systems and television signals. While the
levels of interference are reported to be low, this is still a real concern to some communities that are
facing the erection of wind turbines in their locality.
9. There are concerns that wind power can actually harm the environment. One of the greatest
concerns is over the damage that it can cause the bird community. There are fears that birds can fly
into the wind turbine and get killed.

8.15 Applications:-

Our nature is a source of energy in many forms. Wind is one such energy which is in abundance
and is totally environment friendly. Wind energy is one of the most preferred sources of clean
energy. Wind energy has been used by man since time immemorial and is still being used in
various forms. Here is a list of some smart uses of wind energy.

1. Power generating wind mills or wind turbines

Electricity is the major source of energy used world-wide for various devices used by us in home
or commercially. Since the invention of electricity almost every device used by us requires
electricity as the source of energy. Wind turbines are one such power generating machines that
use wind energy as the source of energy to generate power. Many such turbines are being used
worldwide on a large scale and even individual smaller turbines are also used. The principle is to
tap the ever flowing energy of the wind to rotate the propellers that rotates the turbines to
generate electricity. This electricity is then stored in the batteries and/or used to run electric
devices. These days wind turbines are being used to provide green power to various industries
and residential complexes.

2. Wind powered vehicles

Recently it was proved in Australia that wind energy can be used to run vehicles where recently
a car was made to run 3100 miles in Australia with the help of kites harnessing the power of
wind. When in motion the cars batteries were charged and then this stored power was used to run
the car when there was no wind. But it was proved that a car can be run solely on just wind
energy.

3. Wind powered sea ships

One of the most ancient uses of wind power as seen in history is the use of wind energy to power
the motion of sailing ships in the sea. Even today this is one of the most abundant sources of
energy, the one that never veins off. This green source of energy once used to power small boats
 and ships to sail is now recently been used to power a cargo ship too. This was done by attaching
a huge kite. By doing so this dramatically reduced the consumption of fuel and also reduced
carbon dioxide emission, thus conserving the nature.

4. Wind powered sports

Hundreds of sports have used the power of wind to energize our passion for sports. Adventure
lies in speed and there are many sports that use the energy of wind to speed up these sports.
Everything from simple kite flying to sailing in the river/sea, kite surfing, para-sailing, wind-
skiing and many more are being powered by the energy of wind. Hot air balloon sports also use
the power of wind energy to move from one place to another. Being a natural source of energy
that is 100% green and leaves no harmful residue the power of wind is a great way to energize
the sports.

5. Wind powered water pumps

In many countries and communities the power of wind energy has been used to pump water out
of the ground. The process is simple and just used the same wind mill that is used in wind turbine
and this time this mill is not used to rotate the turbine but used to move the water pump, in turn
forcing the water to pump out of the ground. The use of wind energy to pump water is a great
way to help a village or community where a continuous supply of water is needed and the area is
devoid of any river to provide water for daily needs as well as for irrigation purposes for
farming.

Needless to say that wind energy is the green source and the most abundantly available source of
energy, its application are required to be innovated so that we can get an unlimited source of
green energy and at the same time we can connect with the mother nature.

8.16 Status of wind energy in India and world:-

The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly increased in the last
few years. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or the US, India
has the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. In India, states like Tamil Nadu,
Gujarat, Orissa, and Maharashtra are regarded as superior areas for electricity generation using wind
energy. Places that have regular and rapid wind flows are appropriate for this kind of power generation.
Other than windmills, wind farms are there as well. The short gestation periods for installing wind
turbines, and the increasing reliability and performance of wind energy machines has made wind
power a favoured choice for capacity addition in India.

The installed capacity of wind power in India till March 2012 was 17,353 MW, which is about 70% of
the cumulative deployment of the grid interactive Renewable Power, principally distributed throughout:

• Maharashtra - 1837.85 MW
• Tamil Nadu - 4132.72 MW
• Rajasthan - 670.97 MW
• Karnataka - 1184.45 MW
• Andhra Pradesh - 122.45 MW
• Gujarat - 1432.71 MW
• Kerala - 23.00 MW
• Madhya Pradesh - 187.69 MW
• West Bengal - 1.10 MW
• Other states - 3.20 MW

The Ministry has informed that against the 11th Plan target of 9,000 MW wind power,
the achievement is 10,260 MW. Further, the capacity addition target for wind power for
12th Plan (2012-17) is 15,000 MW. Thus the aggregate capacity of 32553 MW is likely
to be harnessed by the end of 12th Plan. Some of major upcoming projects are shown in
Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Major upcoming projects

The top 10 wind power countries are listed in Table 8.3 .

Table 8.3 :Top 10 wind power countries

Total capacity Total capacity Total capacity Total capacity

Country end 2009 June 2010 end 2010 June 2011
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)

China 26,010 33,800 44,733 52,800

 Table 8.3 :Top 10 wind power countries

Total capacity Total capacity Total capacity Total capacity

Country end 2009 June 2010 end 2010 June 2011
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)

United States 35,159 36,300 40,180 42,432

Germany 25,777 26,400 27,215 27,981

Spain 19,149 19,500 20,676 21,150

India 10,925 12,100 13,066 14,550

Italy 4,850 5,300 5,797 6,200

France 4,521 5,000 5,660 6,060

United
4,092 4,600 5,204 5,707
Kingdom

Canada 2,550 3,319 4,008 4,611

Portugal 3,357 3,465 3,734 3,960

Rest of world 21,698 24,500 26,154 29,500

 Table 8.3 :Top 10 wind power countries

Total capacity Total capacity Total capacity Total capacity

Country end 2009 June 2010 end 2010 June 2011
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)

Total 159,213 175,000 196,630 215,000