Enhanced Oil Recovery

Fourth Stage

Lec2/ WaterFlooding P2

1
RECOVERY FACTOR
* Aa i B a s i c Oil Recovery Equation

Displacement Efficiency (Ed ) ■ Microscopic dis

Wp FvF o*o-,J V
E 4 : Pore VQlurTNji pf pH mobilized by EOB age nt ------------------------------------- vC
n
voivwwrrpt +frkei£rtiy
A * t t,
PCre volurri* of oil contacted by LOR agent -S , — ri<. “ CuniulrvtLva ojI r a c a v a r y
J10opon3s ijn- ■ AttiHW+tp tflFItHNiiy
Size of pores ____________— — _____ E. ■ Vortlcil a-wa-cp attifllBn-cy
Heterogeneity
3 r “ Irtlhil iMdfMbfrft
Volumetric S eep Efficiency (Ev)- Macroscopic dtepl effect Vp. ■ Po-ra waLu-m*

Ev = F?eMTydc.YpJu(TiS.«!f oN.co(it?cte<l by dJgfllfl&Bfl gftgQt

Rosflnroir rohtme of oil originally I n place

E b = E„. Evi = (Arcs Sweep efficiency/* (Vertical swoop efficiency} irtir c;rQ«

Arpai SwftOP Fff icncy fE?)

E B .Area contacted by d laplacing a#etit

____________-T&U1- arel ____________
ft depends on
Mobility Ratio
Pattern
Areal Heterogeneity
WGOUCER
Vertical foayp Effleiwtadfcdl
EVI, Length contacted by displacing agent
_____________________Total length ______
Lt depends on
-Degree of gravity segregation
Mobility Ratio Ev, VERTfCAI SWEEP FFFlCiENCV
La, AREAL SWEEP EFFICIENCY
-Vortical heterogeneity
2
i RECOVERY FACTOR
I
Improvement of displacement efficiency
* Decreasing Residual oil Saturation Mobiiih __
• Miscible or near miscible gas injection Mobility
* Chemical flood-surfactants
* Taking advantage of gravity forces
• Oil vaporization
Improvement of volumetric sweep efficiency
• Lowering mobility ratio by increasing viscosity of displacing agent
High M Low M
Water and oil move equally
M = 1 Neutral Oil
well -

Q-!
M < 1 Favorable Oil will move easier than water
M > 1 Unfavorable Water will move easier than oil P irCff PfOtfiktt

3 BAI) GOOD
<frincipl □f Waterflood Injected water wil I try to sweep the oil towa rds the
producer well,
oil lilh hhI drojilEls This increases the Volumetric Sweep Efficiency thus
PC.'lmkI Irapjxil
increasing the Recovery of oil.
At the end of waterflood, oil droplets will he trapped in
the pores whicEr can be removed hy EOR.

S W i / f i T / fibJf-

water
water
Wndw

u.-d r
Adrfjtiono/ flecovery because of
fiAttfYZ? Water-FLooding
FJi

3t|n I I l':otfd:Ucn

W
inkpot I
oil at
M * a hira Htb

Primary Secondary U JIM

production Production

4
 Microscopic Areal Sweep Vertical Sweep
Displacement Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
De As Vs

Water-Swept Zone
Bypassed
Oil
EOR can be applied at any stage depending upon the reservoir characteristics and recovery.
If primary recovery is low due to adverse mobility ratio or viscosity is very high then LOR is the last resorL
The main aim of Ji OR is to overcome the capillary forces and reduce the Residual Oil saturation (Sor).
5
AREAL sweep efficiency
Definition-Ratio of the swept area to the total area lying between the injection well and the producers.
Factors lnfiuencing AREAL Sweep
1) Mobility Ratio: with un-favourablc mobility ratio, fingering occurs, and at break through time, tin-swept area is
quite high. The smaller the mobility ratio ,the higher the sweep efficiency at a given time [ora given fraction of water in
the producing effluent ]
2) The pattern: The pattern does not influence in a drastic way the areal sweep efficiency.
3) Areal Heterogeneity

AREAL SWEEP EFFICIENCY

Water and oil move equally
M =1 Neutral
well UNSWEPT
Favorable Oil will move easierta water
M>1 Unfavorable Water will move easier than oil
Law M HighM

6
tioou
VERTICAL SWEEP EFFICIENCY
DEFINITION: Vertical sweep efficiency is the ratio of the swept area to the total vertical area in all the layers
connecting the injection and production wells.
As a consequence of the non-uniform permeabilities in the vertical dimension ,any injected fluid wiil move as an
ir regular front. Water will travel more rapidly in the more permeable layers of the reservoir

Factors Influencing Vertical Sweep Efficiency

1J Mobility ratio: More favorable the mobility ratio (M less than 1), less VERTICAL SWEEP EFFICIENCY
water will be injected for the same oil production and the lesser the
water injectivity index will be.
2] Gravity lories (Gravity Segregation); The fact that water is denser UNSWfpf
than oil leads to a preferential water flow in the bottom of the layer.
Thus, gravity effect influences vertical sweep efficiency , however high SWEPT ZONE UNSWEPT
lllrl!!:l:!|q2l|.lEn2£2P
viscou s forces r th at is high i n jedi on ra te d i m i nish th is i n fl u ence
3) Vertical heterogeneity
iEInnH!
luXini

SWEPT ZONE UNSWEPT

7
DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY
Fraction of oil which gets displaced by water when it conies i n contact with oil in the pote channels,
factors I nfluencing Di splacement Efficiency

1 ] Viscosities : The less the oil viscosity ,or the more thn waler the less fingering will exist.
1
2 ) Densities : Their respective values will influence gravity tonguing
, respect
of the
to the
heavier
lighterfluid
[oil](water] wit]
3} interracial tension: 11 is responsible of l be fact that the oil is trapped after water flood;
4) Wettability: The lart that most of the iosorvoir rocks ah: water- wet is a n advantage for water injection since water drops will
invade first Ute smallest pores, thus decreasing its rel alive permeability
5) Rate of displacement: The higher the water velocity iti the reservoir and I he better its displacement, efficiency.
6) Capillary number: Obviously the smaller the repulsion in between oil and water (or rather water with additives in it] the higher the
attraction and the lower the residual oil saturation.

■MuH

■ZH
DIM Oil Wet vs Water Wet
hft I

I'i

fcFfrPLKilaifkritf

For water wet rock, residual al is trapped

Hltin miwIuc I Itauta ™
01 Is Irasoio by pwa P™" Uirau 9h l»« in a pore ii the capiHery laces are greater Vteor Wilier
Lriroai throat wrtMofi Ban the force of driving fluid Water wet` Oil wet
8
 The rise or depression of fluids in fine boro tubes is a result of the surface
DRAINAGE AND IMBIBITION CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVES tension and wetting preference and is called capillarity Capillary pressure
DFARAfiE
exists whenever two immiscible phases are present, for example, in a fine
■ F luId few preens In which the saturation of the bore tube and is defined as the pressure drop across die curved liquid
interface.
2*4S] 1
* MaUIiIy erf MhWfrtlnf fluid ahHkF iWi* *1 Capifhty pre.wwre is the difference in pressure acmss an interface across
nomwttlnfiph™ nJuratwi incrt+f+5 two bnjnisdbfo phases in a capiliary tube
iMMUICKf Capillary pressure -(pressnre of the nonwetting phase) ■ (pressure of the
Draimju
wetting phase
■ Fluid few pw?5s In which Ik w uratkn of Ik
WAtlirtg phijd IriLhwk w

■ MoMicy fit witting phast inertaw w witHg

phM#i urril>crilrkMlf4

rohf
irrwU-felC INK JifphaK WtlXjfcfl
5 = 1 tesi: jo. nun-'A'-Ettiriji p n « t saturation
Imbibition
= di mrnt prew?. ttir pnesw? rrquirnd
(j force rtwr-wrtl g fluid ira larpa dores

10 a = pore ilii diitribirtidn irdr detfirrhiritt fihipe

DRAINAGE PROCESS
Examples:

1) Hydracarbon [oil or gas) filling The pore space and displacing the original
IMBIBITION
Examples;
water of deposition in water wet rack
1] Accumulation of oil in an oil wet reservoir
2) Water flooding an oil reservoir I n which the reservoir is oil wet,
2] Water flooding an oil reservoir in which the reservoir is wafer wet
3) Gas injection io an oil or water wet oil reservoir

4) pressure maintenance or gas cycling by gas injection in a retrograde 3 ) Accumulation of condensate as pressure decreases in a dew point
condensate reservoir reservoir

S] Evolution of a secondary gas cap as reservoir pressure decreases

 I44P
■ 32,2tWwW\J
v£rVCIr

UitO2Pjin SM

CJtOh oil'
IMP.
OV/C= —
Ad
Tup t'qrsitor. ior<
i44P
OWC - E-WL - - Pore throat sotting {PTS] basically provides a measure of pore
geometry acid the sorting of pore-throats within a rock sample.

TraiiiUtn Krt* pre „

V hl Quwtik pKSsDire
■tilfl; weier-oil
hflhwfisn zMt First and tim'd quartile pressures represent die capillaiy pressures at
hot m *egior bolwctn
/'li and /!?% saturation, respectively. Thus, a value of PTS close t o I
■nfelbe wafer sqliKdteH
l.ffHtc tauten indicates that die porous medium is well sorted, that is; capillary
snd 'QO% wdlGr Edt Jraf n
lor nt
pressures do jjoi change significantly (a plateau), However, a value of
PTS much greater than 1 indicates chat the sample is poorly sorted,
evidenced hy the rapid jump in the capillary pressure rnrve after
ObservM Owe crossing die 25?£ saturation.

fror
Worted
.IcrfUPe-Ol *:<r4

10
11
 Displacement Efficiency as Function of Water Saturation

hn = —b...— B„ r. - Volume of Oil at Start of Flood - Remaining Oil Volume

Volume of Oil at Start of Flood
S ]“S
R = -21—2 f Dis fraction of initially present oil produce!/

(in swep! region,

:, is assumed
S to be
o = zero
1 - SJ=> S
(if Sg, is zero)

Ed will increase as average water saturation in the swept area keeps on increasing. But how can
be calculate average water saturation at different times or as function of injected water ?

Buckley and leveret) 119421 Frontal Advancement Theory

12
13
BUCKLEY AND LEVERETT FRONTAL ADVANCEMENT THEORY

Buckley and Leverett (1942) developed a well-established theory; called thej5wta/

which provides the basis for estabShmg such a relationship?
7
This classic theory consists of two equations:
□ Fractional flow equation
□ Frontal advance equation
FRACTIONAL FLOW EQUATION
_ _?

i war displflcmtnl in fl hlhd

■J ■

(*6 111 T

14
 • When water saturation is at irreducible
level, water flow will be zero, hence q w and
will be zero and q0 will be maximum.
• At irreducible oil saturation, oil flow will be
zero, hence, q0 will be zero, q w will be
maximum, and f,„ = 100%

15
 rm.fl cjii.uxiiMn < OMtARIwA OF FRaCTNHaI. FI4M CIRVES EFFECT OF tNCREASIMG
W FR<TIWW.FUro' OF WATER
tWUtilLWtl AMI ft Uk'.lfAVLI RIM IUUIK.S EFFECT OF DEP VJ5COCITV OF DISPLACING
FLUID

_.■ ■
J
I M 4=
b U-cp
/ /
I
(LS tUcp mri z iu-'-
/ *
s
thlWfl
I 1
! rj
Oi I.J jh |ufi
r Di’itdf ')HtPl
J
1
w.HTWfl
■jm
J
0,1 t I
r |
I y s
iflj ■
«2 Hi2
/ / t!
f / z
J 7
J
r _ Xwf ->■•
(i/J ■12 y as Qi
ll.ll
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
20 40 60 80 100 LWJ
water saturation present
water saturation present

hfarancas:
M increases f nTicfcas&i. Jf. decreases
M decreases [.decreases increases

Effect of Wafer Injection Rafe

1) For updip. K$ep
A i. to tew $matf
S gFar cfownrfjp. keep high to have small
17
Frontal Advancement Theory
The Buckley Leverett theory ettimates the rate at which an injected water bank mows through a porous medium. The approach uses fractional flow
theory and is based uji lhe following assmtipliuiL!;:.

■ Flow is IInwr and h ori zontal

-
' Waler is injer led in Lnan oil reseivui]

■ Oil and water are both incomipressihie

' Oil and waler are immiscible

■ Gravity and capillary presslire effects are negligible

Vofiime entering the element - IfoJunit? leaving the element. = change in fluid volume

Volume of water entering the element - qt fwdt 1

f iflurt 14-17. Wi*f It* trttajh t IraX dffk-
' i -hi- 1

Volume of water leaving the element - q. (f,_ - di:..} di

Subtracting the above two expressions gives the accumulation of the water volume within the element in terms of the differential changes of the
saturation dfw

Ml f ff d, - Li] <f„ - df, : di = dx 1 1JS„ V/.635

Simplifying:
q, di b dt - A (tfa
71 11d S .1/5.615

Stpararing the wiahlits ’* M <11 )s ,

i»-= waiex injection rate, bbl'tlay
W saimulaljveft-siefiijKtetl. bbl
water I.V)frv - dirtily Of any spec 11fed \ al ue of S«. ft/day
i = time,
A = dUhs-<ctioji:d area, fl-
u - uxal l lo rile l o i l + *uler). bbl/duy ills* =di!Mt ffttni lhe injection to any gkn snMiNi fi
1 i d r dSwiyT = Nlojrt tid'ilfcvs.
u f S. c l i n e nl
 0 H

Grapli indicates that both derivatives are identical i.e, (dfw/dSw)A - (dfw/dSw)B,
which implies that multiple water saturations can coexist at the same position
but this is physically impossible. Buckley and Leverett (1942) recognized the
physical impossibility of such a condition. They pointed out that this apparent
problem is due to the neglect of the capillary pressure gradient term in the
fractional flow equation. This capillary term is given by:
_ , fowHSMVdPj
Capilraw tern - p - dK 1 ■-
I P.A 5
Including I he above capillary lenri when cnnsl c u r i n g I he :"rarl icin;il How c u m
would produce a graphical relationship that is characterized by the following two
segmerils of lines
■ A straight line segment with a constant r Sv to
slope
r /dSiJ .from (dff
ofS.„
• A co 11trav i rig t:urve wil 11 rleCreasi ng si opes f:ro rn I u ( 1 S,,. j
WELGE THEORY
A more elegant method of achieving the same result was presented by Welge i n 1952.
This consists of integrating rhe saturation distribution over the distance from the
in j ection point to the Front, thus obtaining the average water saturation behind the
front
The situation depicted is at a fixed time, before water breakthrough corresponding to an
amount of water injection. At this time the maximum .water-U 1 - risaturation,
. has5
moved a distance XI, its velocity being proportional to the slope of the fractional flow
curve evaluated for the maximum saturation which, as shown in Figure, is small but
finite. The floor! front saturation
f is located
S , at position x- measured from the injection
Wifer Mtuntifln dlstribulitoi fwictfon di Mncc. priw to b klhiougt
point. Applying the simple material balance:
Irrfhi prafajclno will nt ivfrais.nin'i nF J*

Ul

= fir’pflWflrnugh time,
q TttGlmjertQRruti,
L - .tyftfrum length

- (PVL

Water saturation

the time of breakthrovgh is given by material

20
Time of Breakthrough S Cumulative Water Injected

OA

where QiBT = cumulative pore volumes of water injected at

breakthrough
PV = total FLood pattern pore volume, bbl

where Ijj; = lime 10 breakthrough. day

PV = total tlixxi pattern pore volume, bbl
-S = = -

21
DETERMINATION OF WATER SATURATION AT THE
FRONT FROM THE FRACTIONAL FLOW

rrfihCTIQM
w Q* WATER FlCrIHG-

II
WjftT StlhLTrflilWL puxiii

22
Calculation of Areal Sweep Efficiency
M o b i l i t y Ratio > 1
Mobility Ratio < 1

Oil and water mobilities

im

i- *

nl

Important factors determining Areal Sweep Efficiency are: TO

1. Mobility Ratio, M ffl

2.Flood pattern
3 .Cumulative Water Inj ected
1nf W
4. Directional Permeability
Mubins RAni
23
 — —- Breakthrovgh
Mobility ratio

r
1
Phase 1 ; Areal Sweep Efficiency Before Breakthrough
Time E _

Mobility ratio wersus time relationship.

where W inj = cumulative water injected. bb I
( P V ) = flood pattern pore volume, bbl
Phase 2; Areal Sweep Efficiency at Breakthrough Fhaje 3: Areal Sweep Efficiency After Breakthrough
( w \
W
iB7 /
0 03170817 0.30222997
nrtnenn „„ Xf
i AHj - a 54602036 * -----—----- + ------«-------
M 0. 00509693 M Where Ea = areal sweep jJI Idflpcji aftef totakilirough
M e
w l9 = cumtihii *;iier inKwil
24 W.wT" Cm mil 1lx c wulcr jnjiYled id hrertklhixjiiilh
AFTER BREAKTHROUGH

$ = ctiittulative pore volumes of water injected

iiS I

OW
or equivalently as:

Wi„ =(PVXS,--S
i w ,)E„E v

l Where: Winj =cumulative water injected.bbl

( P V ) = pattern pore volume . bbl
Ea =areal sweep efficiency
Ev = vertical sweep efficiency
The total time t to inject Wby barrels of water is given by

CT injctUir pnk!uc<t

u iHnn aftew I j-iTtr-jkthrrj-ijgh.

25
 WaterFlood Performance Study
- INJECTIVITY INDEX
WELLBORE
» HALL PLOT ANALYSIS

H WATERFLOOD
PERFORMANCE WATERFLOOD SURVEILLANCE
RESERVOIR
STUDY (VRR AND CVC )

■ WATER QUALITY
SUrtMCF - INJECTION CRITERIA FULFILLMENT
MC/tmes

26