AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LANGUAGE OF

MATHEMATICS

Any page of a mathematical text usually consists of a compactly written text which is inter-
dispersed with Greek letters, symbols, formulae, definitions, signs, numbers, and strange-
looking conventions – a convention is a recognized way of doing something, or writing
something.

An important point to realize is that any mathematical formula, equation or expression

found in this course can be expanded, and should be expanded, into a full English phrase or
sentence to conceptualize (make meaning of) the material.

1.1 Some of the basic mathematical symbols, and signs,

used in this course
Name
Symbol Explanation Examples
Read as
Equality
x = y means x and y represent the same thing or
= is equal to; value.
1+1=2
equals

inequation
≠ is not equal to; x ≠ y means that x and y do not represent the
does not equal same thing or value. 1≠2

“/” means "not"

equivalent

a  b means that a has the same 3 9



is equivalent to
value or meaning as b 4 12
congruent

means that the two triangles

is congruent to
ABC and PQR are the same in all respects

Strict inequality
x < y means x is less than y.
is less than, 3<4
< is greater
x > y means x is greater than y.
5>4

> than

inequality 3 ≤ 4 and 5 ≤ 5
≤
 is less than or x ≤ y means x is less than or equal to y.
equal to,
x ≥ y means x is greater than or equal to y. 5 ≥ 4 and 5 ≥ 5
≥ is greater than
or equal to
proportionality

is proportional y x means that y = kx for some constant k. if y = 2x, then y x

to

addition
+ plus
4 + 6 means the sum of 4 and 6. 2+7=9

subtraction
9 − 4 means the subtraction of 4 from 9. 8−3=5
minus
− Negative sign
−3 means the negative of the number 3. −(−5) = 5
negative; minus
multiplication
× times
3 × 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 × 8 = 56

multiplication
· times
3 · 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 · 8 = 56

division
÷ 2 ÷ 4 = .5
6 ÷ 3 or 6 ⁄ 3 means the division of 6 by 3.
divided by 12 ⁄ 4 = 3
⁄
plus-minus The equation x = 5 ± √4,
has two solutions,
6 ± 3 means both 6 + 3 and 6 - 3.
plus or minus
x = 7 and x = 3.
minus-plus cos (x ± y) = cos x. cos y
6 ± (3 5) means both 6 + (3 - 5) and 6 - (3 + 5).
minus or plus sin x .sin y.

Square root
the principal x means the positive number whose square
4 =2
square root of; is x.
square root
Absolute value |3| = 3
or modulus
|x| means the distance along the real line
|…| absolute value (number line) between x and zero.
|–5| = |5|

(modulus) of

| divides A single vertical bar is used to denote Since 15 = 3×5, it is true

 divisibility. that 3|15 and 5|15.
divides
a b means a divides b.
approximately
equal π ≈ 3.14159
x ≈ y means x is approximately equal to y; i.e. x
≈ is approximately is “almost” equal to y
equal to


material
A  B means if A is true then B is also true; if A
implication
is false then nothing is said about B.
x = 2  x2 = 4 is true,
but x2 = 4  x = 2 is in
→ may mean the same as  , or it may have
implies; if … general false (since x
→ then
the meaning for functions given below.
could be −2).


material
equivalence
A  B means A is true if B is true and A is false x + 5 = y +2  x + 3 =
if B is false. y
if and only if; iff
↔
set brackets

{,} {a,b,c} means the set consisting of a, b, and c. ℕ = ,1, 2, 3, …-.

the set of …

set-builder
{:} notation {x: P(x)} means the set of all elements x for
which P(x) is true. P indicates a mathematical {n  ℕ : n2 < 20} = { 1,
the set of all property which determines the nature of the 2, 3, 4}
elements … members x. {x | P(x)} is the same as {x: P(x)}.
{|} such that

empty set
∅ ∅ means the set with no elements. { } means
the same.
{n  ℕ : 1 < n2 < 4} = ∅
{} the empty set

 set membership
(1/2)−1  ℕ
a  S means a is an element of the set S; a ∉ S
is an element means a is not an element of S.
2−1 ∉ ℕ
∉ of; is not an
element of
natural
ℕ numbers
ℕ means { 1, 2, 3, …- ℕ = {|a| : a  ℤ, a ≠ 0-
ℤ
integers
ℤ means ,..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...- and ℤ+ ℤ = {p, -p : p 
means {1, 2, 3, ...} = ℕ. ℕ}  {0}

rational
numbers 3.14000...  ℚ
ℚ ℚ means {p/q : p  ℤ, q  ℕ}.
π∉ℚ

ℚ‫׳‬
irrational
numbers
ℚ‫ ׳‬means the set of all numbers that cannot be
ℚ prime, or the expressed in the ratio p/q : p  ℤ, q  ℕ π ∉ ℚ‫׳‬
complement of
ℚ

ℝ real numbers πℝ

ℝ means the set of real numbers.
√(−1) ∉ ℝ

complex
numbers ℂ means {a + b i : a,b  ℝ}.

ℂ arbitrary
constant c can be any number, most likely unknown; if f(x) = 6x² + 4x, then
usually occurs when calculating antiderivatives F(x) = 2x³ + 2x² +c, where
c as illustrated below. F'(x) = f(x)

 subset
Subset: A  B means every element of A is
(A - B)  A
also an element of B.
 ℕ ℚ
is a subset of Proper subset: A  B means A  B but A ≠ B. ℚ  ℝ

set-theoretic
union A  B means the set that contains all the {1, 2, 3}  {3, 4, 5}
elements from A, or all the elements from B, or
 the union of … all the elements from both A and B.  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
and … "A or B or both".
union
set-theoretic
intersection A  B means the set that contains all those {x  ℝ : x2 = 1}  ℕ =
 intersected elements that A and B have in common. {1}
with; intersect

() function f(x) means the value of the function f at the If f(x) = x2, then
 application element x. f(3) = 32 = 9.
of
precedence Perform the operations inside the parentheses
grouping first.
(8/4)/2 = 2/2 = 1, but
8/(4/2) = 8/2 = 4.
parentheses [NOTE: Read more about brackets in paragraph
1.2 ]
function arrow
f: f: X → Y means the function f maps the set X Let f: ℤ → ℕ be defined
X→Y from … to into the set Y. by f(x) := x2.

function
if f(x) = 2x, and
composition
fog is a composite function, such that g(x) = x + 3,
o (fog)(x) = f(g(x)).
composed with then (fog)(x) = 2(x + 3).

infinity ∞ is an element of the extended number line

∞ infinity
that is greater than all real numbers; it often
occurs in limits.
summation 3
k 2 = 12 + 22 +
k 1
∑ 32
sum over …
means a1 + a2 + … + an. =1 + 4 + 9
from … to … of
= 14
derivative
f ‘(x) is the derivative of the function f at the
… prime If f(x) = x2, then
‘ point x, i.e., the slope of the tangent line to f at
f ‘(x) = 2x
x.
derivative of

integral from …
to … of … with
x  y means x is perpendicular to y; or more If l  m and m n
 respect to
generally x is orthogonal to y. then l n.
perpendicular
is perpendicular
to If l || m and m  n
x || y means x is parallel to y.
|| parallel then l  n.
is parallel to
1.2 More mathematical notations
Mathematical notation includes letters from various alphabets, as well as special
mathematical symbols. Usage of subscripts ( xn ) and superscripts ( f n ) is also an important
convention. In the early days of computers with limited graphical capabilities for text, sub-
and superscripts were represented with the help of additional notation. In particular, n2
could be written as n^2

It is standard to use italic type for all letters representing variables (*read more about
variables in Chapter 2) except uppercase Greek letters, which are in upright type (for
example  ). Upright type is also standard for digits (e.g. 6, 7. 100) and punctuation (. , ;) .
The names of well-known functions, such as sin x (the trigonometric function sine) and
log a x are written in lowercase upright letters (and often, as shown here, without
parentheses around the argument). [*Do not lose heart! We will learn more about all these
concepts later]

Certain important constructs are written in blackboard-bold letters. Some examples are the
natural numbers , the integers , the rational numbers , the real numbers , etc.

1.3 Letters of the Greek Alphabet and their names

You are not expected to memorize the Greek Alphabet, but since we are going to use some
of these letters, the following table will serve as a reference.
Letter Name
A  Alpha

B  Beta

X  Chi

  Delta

  Epsilon

  Phi

  Gamma

  Eta

  Iota

  Kappa
   Lambda

  Mu

  Nu

  Omicron

  Pi

  Theta

  Rho

  Tau

  Upsilon

  Psi

  Zeta

  Xi

  Sigma

  Omega

1.4 More about bracket pairs in mathematical language

Brackets have a great many specialized meanings in mathematics. A few of these are
described below:

1. Brackets are used to group mathematical

terms, especially when mathematical Read more
operations are to be performed on about
mathematical expressions. algebraic
expressions in
Chapter 2
For example,
(a) When we have to subtract x2  2 x  5
from 2 x2  x  5 we may write (2 x2  x  5)  ( x2  2 x  5) .
(b) Two or more pairs of brackets written next to each other implies that the
expressions grouped within the adjoining brackets should be multiplied For
example,
 ( 2)2 (3)( x  2)( x  3)  2  2  3  ( x  2)  ( x  3)
 12  ( x  2 )  ( x  3)
 12  ( x 2  3x  2 x  6) The order of
2 operations:
 12  ( x  x  6 ) ........... Adding the like terms  3 x and 2 x
 Brackets
2
 12  x  12   x  12  6  Of
2  Division
 12( x )  12(  x )  12( 6)  Multiplicatio
 12 x 2 12 x  72 n
 Addition and
 Subtraction
2. Parentheses (round brackets) are used in
mathematical expressions to denote modifications (changes) to normal order of
operations (precedence rules). In an expression like (3  5)  4 , the part of the
expression within the parentheses (3  5)  8 is evaluated first, and then this
result is used in the rest of the expression.
NOTE: The mnemonic BODMAS can help one to remember the order in which
an expression should be evaluated.

3. Brackets may be nested, for example, ,4+2*20−(7+3)+-, in which case the

expression 7+3 within the innermost pair of brackets is evaluated first, the result
subtracted from 20, since this expression is grouped within the square bracket.
The result is now multiplied by 2 and this product added to 4. To denote
grouping of all these mathematical terms, usually as the outermost pair of
brackets, we find braces or curly brackets.

4. Brackets are also used to contain the argument of a function. For example, f ( x)
which indicates that values of the function f are dependent on the values of x.
NOTE: (The function concept is discussed in detail in Chapter 3.

5. A parenthesis can be used to denote an open end of an interval. For example,

[0,5) denotes the half-open interval which includes all real numbers from 0 to 5
except 5 itself.

6. A square bracket at one end of an interval indicates that the interval is closed at
that end, that is, it includes the number at that end.

7. Parentheses around a set of two or more numbers, as in (a, b, c) , denote an n-

tuple (ordered lists of n terms) of numbers that are linked in some special way.

NOTE: Though the common notation for an ordered pair with first
coordinate x and second coordinate y is (x, y), we will use the notation (x; y)
for the ordered pair so as not to confuse it with the open interval (x, y).

8. Pointed brackets around two or more numbers, as in a, b, c , indicate that the

numbers are the ordered components of a vector.
 NOTE: We will NOT be studying vectors in this course.

9. Braces or curly brackets are used to delineate a set, as in {a1, a2 ,..., an } .

10. Using a left brace only, to denote different cases for an expression, such as
2n if n is odd
f ( n)  
3n if n is even

Exercises 1.4

1) Replace each * in the following statements by one of the arithmetical

operations , to make the value on the left side of the statement equal to the
value on the right side (that is, to make the statement true).

a) 5 3 3 14
b) 5 3 3 18
c) 5 3 3 12
d) 5 3 3 6

2) Insert bracket pairs, if necessary, in appropriate places to make the following

statements true.
For example: is NOT true, but is true.
a)
b)
c)
d)
 Chapter 2
SETS

A set is a collection of things. Absolutely anything can be considered a set. Below you'll see
just a sampling of items that could be considered as sets:

 Your favorite clothes

 The English alphabet
 Positive even numbers
 An interval [1,2] which contains all real numbers between (and including) 1 and 2.

A set could have as many entries as you would like. It could have 10, 15 or even an infinite
number of entries. For example, in the above list the English alphabet would have 26
entries, while the set of even numbers and the set [1,2] would have an infinite number of
entries. Each entry in a set is known as an element.

Sets are written using curly brackets (“, - and ”), with their elements listed between them.
For example, the English alphabet could be written as

{a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,I,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z}.

The order does not matter. This way of writing a set is called Roster Notation.

Note that {a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z} = {

g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z, a,b,c,d,e,f,}.

Positive even numbers could be {2,4,6,8,10,...} (Note: the dots at the end indicating that the
set goes on infinitely).

There are special symbols to learn so we don’t have to write it out every time. “3 is an
element of the set C” is written while we write when “3 is not an element of
the set C”.

The following are operations used on sets.

2.1 Operations on sets
2.1.1 Union of sets

A union of two or more sets is another set that contains everything contained in the
previous sets.

Union is designated by the symbol .

If A and B are sets then represents the union of A and B

Example 1:

A={1,2,3,4,5}
B={5,7,9,11,13}

Notice that when we write out the united set we do not write "5" twice. We simply list all of
the elements of the new set.

Example 2:

A={all the books written by Charles Dickens}

B={all the books written by Mark Twain}
A B = {all books written by either Charles Dickens or Mark Twain}

2.1.2 Intersection of sets

The intersection of two (or more) sets is those elements that they have in common.
Intersection is designated by the symbol . So if A and B are sets then the intersection (the
elements they both have in common) is denoted by A B.

Example 1:

A={1,3,5,7,9}
B={2,3,4,5,6}
The elements they have in common are 3 and 5.

Example 2:

A={The English alphabet}

B={vowels}
So = {vowels}

Example 3:
A={1,2,3,4,5} B={6,7,8,9,10}
In this case A and B have nothing in common.
As usual, we have a symbol for this phenomenon: .
This is called the “empty set.”
Notice that this symbol has no set brackets around it. That is because literally means a set
with nothing in it. .
In this example .

These sets that we have been looking at are all finite sets. They only have a finite number of
elements.

2.1.3 B without A

This is written B-A or B\A It is the set of elements that are in B but are not in A.
Example: A={1,3,5,7,9} B={2,3,4,5,6} 3 and 5 are in the intersection of A and B. So for B-A we
have to throw out 3 and 5 from B.
B-A={2,4,6}

2.1.4 Universal Set

The Universal Set U is a set which contains all the elements or objects involved in the
problem under consideration.

2.1.5 Complement of a set

The complement of A is just U-A. It is written A' It is the set of elements that are in U but are
not in A.

2.1.6 Set –Builder Notation

A=  x  R 2  x  4 means A consists of all the real numbers between 2 and 4 and including
2 and 4 . The vertical line is read as “such that”. Note that A can also be written in interval
notation as [ 2 , 4 ]. A has infinitely many elements .
Suppose B = ( 1,3)

Then and . Note that the union or intersection of intervals is

an interval, and the union or intersection of finite sets is a finite set.

C=  x  R x 2  25  0 is a set with only 2 elements. What are they? Since the equation
has solutions , the set can be written as | .
Exercises 2.1

1)

Find the following:

2)

What is ?

3) Draw the line segments

Find
2.2 Subsets
Let A be the set of objects that you own in your home and let B be the set of objects that
you own which are kept on the ground floor of your home. Let C be the set of objects that
you own which are kept in your bedroom [Note your bedroom is on the ground floor] and
let D be the set of objects that you own which are kept under your bed

Now we could say D is contained within C, which in turn is contained within B, which in turn
is contained within A.

This is the idea of a subset. D is said to be a subset of C since it is completely contained

within C (another way to think of this is every element of set D is also an element of set C). C
is said to be a subset of B since it is completely contained within B (another way to think of
this is every element of set C is also an element of set A). B is said to be a subset of A since it
is completely contained within A (another way to think of this is every element of set D is
also an element of set C).

The symbol for subset is .

So and and . This is an example of nested sets.

However if even one element of one set is not contained within the other then they are not
subsets.

If A were defined as {1,2,3,4,5} and B as {3,4,5,6} then B would not be a subset of A since
but .
The symbol for “not a subset” is .
We would write B A.

The notion of subsets is graphically illustrated below

In this first illustration B is entirely within A so .

In this second illustration A and B have nothing in common ( ) so we could write
and .

In the case of B being a subset of A, but with A and B not being equal, we write and
say that B is a proper subset of A.

Example 1:

A={1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
B={2,3,4}
B is entirely within A (i.e. every element of B is also an element of A) so we can write
.
Also, since and A and B are not equal, B is a proper subset of A and we can write
.

Example 2:

A={1,2,3,4,5} B={1,2,3,4,5}
Here and but A and B are not proper subsets as they are equal. That is we
could write and .

Exercises 2.2

Answer True or False for the following.

1) For and
a)
b)
c)
d)

2)
3) For and
 a)
b)
c)
d) and

4) For , and
a)
b)
c)
d)

2.3 Sets of numbers

The sets that we will be concentrating on are sets of numbers. Below you will graphically see
the most common sets of numbers, along with brief descriptions of each major set.
Whole numbers Integers are the
are positive The Real Numbers positive and
counting negative counting
numbers. numbers.
Whole numbers Whole Integers do not
do not have any Numbers contain decimals
decimals and and
they cannot be Integers they cannot be
fractions. fractions
The whole Rational Numbers Irrational Numbers {Whole numbers}
numbers are {Integers}
{0,1,2,3,4,5,...} The Integers are
{...-5,-4,-3,-2,-
1,0,1,2,3,4,5,...}
Rational numbers are any The Irrational numbers are any The Real numbers
number that can be number that cannot be expressed as encompass everything
expressed as a ratio of two a ratio of two integers {Real numbers}={Rational
integers (a ratio being one The Greek constant pi, (π) which is numbers} {Irrational
number placed over used in calculating the area and numbers}.
another with a "/" in circumference of a circle, is one
between-we will examine example of an Irrational number. π
this more thoroughly in is approximately equal to 3.14
the unit on fractions) Square roots of numbers that are
{integers} {Rational not square are also irrational
numbers} numbers
The Rational numbers
include decimals, and
fractions.
Just as an example of some
Rational numbers, {1/3,
5/1 (=5), -2/3, -2/1 (=-2),
0.56, -0.02} {Rational
numbers}

2.4 Venn Diagrams

A Venn diagram is a picture which shows how sets relate to each other. The universal set U
is represented by the interior of a rectangle and the other sets are represented by circles or
ellipses or small rectangles (or some curved figures!) lying within the rectangle. Here is an
example where every element of A is also in B.

Laws of sets
Union or intersection with itself

Identity

Commutative

Associative

i. A  B  C    A  B   C
ii. A  B  C    A  B   C
Distributive

i. A  B  C    A  B    A  C 
ii. A  B  C    A  B    A  C 

Venn Diagrams
A helpful way to visualise unions and intersections of sets is by means of a Venn Diagram. This is a
graphical representation of two or more sets. Let’s illustrate using C=,1, 2, 3, 4, 5- and D={2,-2}.
The left-hand circle below represents C and the right-hand one represents D.
The shaded portion is C  D .
It shows all those points that are in either C or D or both.

CD

Venn diagrams also can illustrate the intersection of two sets. The left-hand circle again represents C
and the right hand circle is D.
The shaded portion is C  D , those points which belong to both C and D

CD

Exercises 2.4

1) , and .

Draw Venn Diagrams for

 a)
b)
c) ‫׳‬
d) ‫׳‬
e)
f)

2) Repeat Q1 for , and

.